Hydrogen firing in industrial steam

generators: a look ahead

State-of-the-art industrial applications and boiler designs with various hydrogen
fractions in the fuel stream

Marzio Ferrara, Technical Director

Lorenzo Morandi, Burner Department Manager
Alberto Terruzzi, Thermal Department Coordinator
Luca Barbaglia, Construction and Commissioning Department Coordinator
Macchi - a Division of Sofinter S.p.A.

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H
ydrogen (H2) is the most abundant Properties of Hydrogen as fuel
element in nature and its use in The most common gaseous fuel used in industrial
industrial fired boilers for steam boilers is natural gas. The design criteria for boilers
generation can play an important role using this gas are well consolidated. However, respect
in the decarbonisation process. to natural gas, hydrogen has different characteristics
Hydrogen combustion produces that impacts boiler design. It has a higher energy
only water vapour and hence its use in co-firing with content, wide flammability range and high flame speed
natural gas or standalone firing contributes to reduce (ten times higher than natural gas) Table 1.
carbon dioxide emission.
Hydrogen like fuel is not a new fact; since many years
industrial fired boilers, especially for refineries complex, Macchi industrial boiler types
have been operated with fuels containing quantity of There are two fundamental types of boilers: fire tubes
hydrogen in the range of 20% - 40% volume. In this and water tubes. In this paper, only water tube boilers
paper, state of art of boiler design features with higher are analysed since generally used in Oil & Gas and
quantity of hydrogen is discussed. petrochemical plants. Steam production range for
Many topics of boiler design are affected by its use and above industries are within 50 t/h up to 450 t/h with
specifically focus on burners, combustion chambers steam pressure variable from 10 barg up to 120 barg
and control are considered hereinafter. Finally, an and temperature up to 530 °C. Even if there are many
outlook about the application as standalone firing is type of boilers to respond high degree of customization
evaluated. and flexibility required by End User, the three most
common are shown in the Table 2.

Properties Natural gas Hydrogen (H2) Impact on boiler design

Lower heat calorific value MJ /Nmc 35-36 Approx. 10,8 Different fuel flow to boiler, control system, burners

Normal Density kg/Nmc Approx. 0,72 0,09 Burner design

Theoretical combustion air, kg/Nmc 12,0-13,0 Approx. 3,0 Combustion, furnace and control system

Flammability limit %vol 5-15 4-75 Burner design and furnace

Flame speed cm/s Approx. 40 cm/s Approx. 300 cm/s Burner design

Ignition Energy (mJ) 0.28 0.01 Burner design

Flame temperature K Approx. 2200 Approx. 2400 Furnace design

Table 1- Properties of natural gas and hydrogen

Bi-drum horizontal path boiler with frontal Bi-drum vertical path boiler with frontal Single drum vertical path boiler with frontal
firing. Macchi model TITAN-M firing. Macchi model MVF firing-Macchi Boiler MRD type
Steam production : 10 t/h – 350 t/h Steam production:100 t/h–500 t/h Steam production: 100 t/h–500 t/h
Steam temperature up to 525 °C Steam temperature up to 525 °C Steam temperature up to 540 °C
Pressure up to 130 barg Pressure up to 130 barg Pressure up to 150 barg
Fuels: All gaseous and liquid fuels. Fuels: All gaseous and liquid fuels. Fuels: All gaseous and liquid fuels.

Table 2

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 Macchi burners technology
Burner is a device to feed fuel and combustion air into
the boiler furnace with a suitable velocity pattern,
turbulence and molar ratio to achieve stable flame and
minimizing by-products like NOx and CO.
Essentially, two type of industrial burner families are
available in Macchi production:
• MHM type
• MARS II type

MHM is a conventional burner where fuel injection is

located inside the air stream (see figure 3). Injection
may be designed in different ways (i.e. number and
diameter of spuds, size of orifices) but combustion
principle is based on mixing between fuel and air.
Turbulence plays determinant role.
Boilers are characterized by presence of furnace (also referred as combustion
chamber), super-heater section, evaporator section. Based on required thermal In MARS II burners, fuel injection is located outside the
duty to produce steam, each boiler may be equipped with one or more burners air stream (see figure 5) flow except a minimum
installed in the frontal wall in square or rectangular pattern. Single burner duty is quantity used as stabilizer. The separation of fuel-air
typically in the range of 10 MWth – 60 MWth. injection is achieved through installation of shaped
metal ejector, which overhangs of approximately 500-
Figure 1- Boiler plan view – conceptual

Figure 4 – MARS II front view

Figure 2- MHM burner front view

Figure 3 – MHM burner side view- Mixing zone Figure 5- Mars II front/lateral view

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Figure 6 - Mars II – Natural gas flame – Thermal Duty : 35 Figure 7- Mars II – Natural gas+ H2 (80% volume) flame – Thermal
MWth Duty : 35 MWth

800 mm in the furnace. The air velocity coming out burner ejector since less reactive. Natural gas flame
from inner part of burner generates localized low- result of dark blue colour with some yellows parts
pressure conditions close to fuel injectors, which whilst NG/H2 flame is of pale blue and more transparent
promote the flue gas recirculation inside furnace. (low flame emissivity). In the next pages, NOx emission
Recirculated flue gas will “mix” with fuel creating a lean will be discussed.
fuel mixture. This principle is a driver to reduce NOx
emission of burner.
Respect to MHM, MARS II burner has demonstrated to Boiler furnace design
reduce NOx emission of approximately 50% without A considerable quantity of energy is exchanged, mainly
any external flue gas recirculation or steam injection. by radiation, from flames to boiler inside furnace. In
natural gas units, this value is around 30-40% of total
The principle of internal flue gas recirculation is a key heat input. Using co-firing natural gas – hydrogen,
aspect of hydrogen firing. The formation of lean mixture furnace temperature is higher with lower heat
mitigate high reactivity, promoting sufficient delay of exchanged in combustion chamber.
combustion far from burner. Conversely, without this
mechanism the injection of high amount of hydrogen For the scope of this simplified analysis, the following
inside air path (see figure 3) improves combustion rate equation and assumptions have been applied:
leading to localized high temperatures not tolerable by
burner materials. Flash back is also another potential Q = ϭ * ε * S * (Tf^4 – Tw^4) * fb (heat transfer duty to furnace)
issue present in this type of burner. The use of burner
ε = f (C / H) (flame emissivity)
technology where fuel and air are de-mixed provides
best solution to handle high level of concentration of Q: exchanged duty S: Furnace projected surface
hydrogen ruling out overheating and flash back issues. Ϭ : Stephan Boltzmann constant Tf : Furnace outlet temperature (FEGT)
In the following pictures, flames with natural gas and ε : flame emissivity – as function of ratio C/H Tw : tube wall temperature
natural gas figure 6 and 7 hydrogen are reported. (C,H: Carbon, Hydrogen content in fuel mixture) fb : flames-furnace interaction factor

The principle of internal flue gas

recirculation is a key aspect of Evaluation has been carried out on a bi-drum boiler
hydrogen firing. The formation of with following characteristics:
lean mixture mitigate high reactivity,
promoting sufficient delay of Steam production kg/h 145000 Natural gas emissivity 0,37
combustion far from burner Pressure, barg 47 Hydrogen gas emissivity 0,15
Steam temperature, °C 400 Flame-furnace interaction factor 1.0
Despite of high quantity of hydrogen (80% volume H2)
Furnace volume m^3 336 Air excess % 10
flame is well developed downstream ejector (from
Furnace surface m^2 261 Ambient temperature °C 25
figure 07) and there aren’t signs of over-heating. As
expected, natural gas flame is located further the Number of burners 3 Air humidity % 60

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 Keeping same furnace size, furnace flue gas outlet temperature
increases considerably especially for H2 content greater that 70%.
Higher flue gas temperature require careful evaluation of super-
heater thermal performance and re-evaluation of metallurgy of
tubes. The use of hydrogen, generally, requires more combustion
chamber surface to keep temperatures within typical industrial
limit (around 1400 °C-1450 °C). Nevertheless, in case of high
concentration, the furnaces size incresing may lead to expensive
design of boiler and external flue gas recirculation (EFGR) shall
be an unavoidable option. Principles and effects of EFGR will be
discussed in the next pages.

Figure 8- Effect of Hydrogen on furnace outlet temperature

Combustion control Final scope is to maintain overall air/fuel ratio

If hydrogen concentration in the fuel blend is within burner limits avoiding sub-stoichiometric
constant, combustion control system does not conditions.
require any particular precaution. Very often, its
content in fuel stream is variable and hence fuel Following diagrams show fuel mixture parameter as
mixture properties at boiler entrance changes with function of hydrogen concentration.
the time. For this reason, combustion control logics
shall consider more complex algorithms to evaluate The Figure 12 suggests the principle of combustion
the correct air-flow demand based on flowrate and control for hydrogen firing boiler.
characteristics of fuel. In conclusion on-line densimeter may provide evaluation

Figure 9- Combustion air demand for fuel mixture Figure 10- Fuel gas mixture density

In a fuel blend, specific air demand (required air for unit of

energy of fuel input) is not constant. Therefore, if hydrogen
content changes during boiler operation, air demand need
to be corrected with a factor depending on H2 content.
Since normal density of fuel mixture is linear with hydrogen
content and low calorific value, density value, obtained
through on-line densitometer, may provide signal to
combustion logic to perform required correction.

Figure 11- Low heat calorific value of fuel gas mixture vs density

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 Blocks description:
f1: Pressure, Temperature flow compensation
f2: Density compensation to obtain real fuel flow.
f3: Correction with low calorific value. Output of block represent
the “thermal energy equivalent” natural gas flow
f4: Density – Low heat calorific value curve
f5: Air demand curve based on density
f6: Air demand correction

Figure 12- Typical DCS block diagram for hydrogen

of all correction factors to estimate the correct air It can be noted that consistent reduction of CO2 may
demand to combustion control also in case of natural be obtained for hydrogen content exceeding 50%
gas/hydrogen blend variation. volume due to non-linearity of curve. Moreover, huge
CO2 reduction can be achieved passing from 80% to
100% (approximately 40% of total).
Environmental Aspect From NOx point of view, there are significant
As anticipated, one of the most important reason to impacts on emission. The effect on NOx formation
use hydrogen in boilers is the reduction of CO2 release is briefly described in the following diagram. Effect
to atmosphere. Following diagrams show CO2 of external flue gas recirculation and steam injection
reduction as a function of H2 concentration. are analysed.

Figure 13- CO2 emission for unit of energy Figure 14- Normalized CO2 emission

Curves are a fitting of field data of Macchi burner.

Dotted lines represents extrapolation of NOx prediction, by CFD

calculation, for cases where industrial field data on large scale are not
available.

Figure 15- Effect of gas hydrogen on NOX formation

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 External Flue gas recirculation (EFGR) is a technique
where the combustion products are drawn back into
the burner. Typically, EFGR flow is branched off from
exhaust duct upstream stack, where temperatures are
lower, and are routed back to fan suction. Effect of
flue gas recirculation is primarily to reduce peak flame
temperature.

Figure 16- Principle of external flue gas recirculation

Common NOx reduction technology can be used

to compensate increase of NOx due to hydrogen

FGR effectiveness depends on many factors including

furnace dimension and flame interaction between burners.
Figure 17 shows EFGR trends and effect on NOx. As
example, 10% of FGR may reduce NOx of 50%.
Another way to reduce NOx emission is the steam injection.
It is a technique where steam is introduced in the burner to
reduce flame peak temperature; it is essentially expressed as
quantity of steam for unit of fuel (kg steam/ kg fuel).
Effect of steam injection is complex and shall be evaluated
case by case but NOx reduction could be in the range of
5%-10% for each 0,1 kg of steam/kg of fuel.

Figure 17- NOx reduction effect of flue gas recirculation

Hydrogen disadvantage on NOx formation may be Hydrogen has difficult confining since it is the
solved with well know NOx abatement techniques smallest element in universe, it is odourless and
like flue gas recirculation or steam injection or colourless.
combination of both. Therefore, for example, fuel gas piping components
As an example, considering a flue gas mixture (like shut off valves) shall be carefully designed.
containing 80% H2 volume, the use of approximately Also hazardous area classification and material
10% of recirculation or 0,5 kg/kg steam injection selection shall be duly evaluated during design of
could bring back the NOx emission to same level of boiler components.
natural gas.
The use of EFGR may significantly contribute to the
reduction of flue gas temperature at furnace outlet. Case history
As rule of thumb, 10% of flue gas recirculation could Macchi has been designing boiler firing hydrogen since
reduce furnace temperature of approximately 100 many years.
°C. In some cases, this could avoid furnace size Boilers for petrochemical plants burning refinery gases
increase. are the most common applications.
Refinery gas has typical concentration of H2 of
approximately 20-40 % volume. In the following
Other aspects diagram, hydrogen experience in industrial boiler is
Use of hydrogen shall deal with safety aspect. reported.

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 Approximately 20% of installations are relevant to hydrogen firing greater than 50% concentration in the
fuel blend.

Maximum reported hydrogen content is 85%.

Figue 18 – Macchi Industrial Hydrogen experience

What’s the future? Conclusion

Many analysts predict a growth of hydrogen use in the Environment needs urgent solution to reduce carbon
next future. Similarly to other industrial application (like dioxide to atmosphere. From boiler manufacturer’s
gas turbine), efforts are continuously made to maximize point of view, the combustion of hydrogen in steam
the hydrogen content in fuel stream and adapt boiler generators may give tangible contribution to
design accordingly. decarbonisation. Technology and experience, to
Experiences up to 80% hydrogen content are available achieve co-firing with high fraction of hydrogen, is
but research and firing at maximum capacity is still an
on-going activity.
Even though the gap seems small, fuel blend properties Macchi is researching and studying
substantially change passing from 80% to 100%. In this MILD - flameless combustion where
respect, Macchi is making research and studies on a prototype burner has been tested
MILD - flameless combustion where a prototype burner and patented. The adoption of this
has been tested and already patented. The adoption of combustion technology permits
this combustion technology permits the achievement of the achievement of very low NOx
very low NOx emission levels without use of external emission levels without use of
flue gas recirculation or steam injection. We believe that external flue gas recirculation or
MILD will play important role in achieving 100% H2 steam injection
combustion.
available and supported by applications in large
Experiences of burning hydrogen scale. Burners may not be of conventional type and
concentrations of up to 80% are special fuel injection shall be considered; furnaces
available but research shall be enlarged progressively as hydrogen content
and development to reach increase but use of flue gas recirculation shall be
full firing at maximum evaluated to avoid excessive combustion chamber
capacity is still on-going dimensions and costly design.
NOx can be easily controlled with Ultra-Low NOx
burner and adopting external flue gas recirculation

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 and steam injection. Combustion control needs more fuel, are not very far to be available in the nearest
complex algorithm and use of on-line densitometer future.
may provide all correction factors to maintain air/fuel
ration inside safe limit.
In conclusion, high hydrogen firing in steam
Reference:
generators is technically feasible and commercially API 538 – Industrial fired boiler for general Refinery and
proven; boiler units firing hydrogen, like standalone Petrochemical Service – October 2015.

Marzio Ferrara
Marzio Ferrara is the Technical Director of Macchi, a Milan (Italy). More than 25 years experience in boilers
division of Sofinter, Italy. He has a Master degree in field. Areas of expertise: Boilers technology, Job
Nuclear Engineering (1993) from the Polytechnic of management, People organization.

Alberto Terruzzi
Alberto Terruzzi has been the Thermal Engineering 2006. He holds a MSc in Mechanical Engineering
Coordinator at Macchi. since 2016. Earlier he was a (2006) from the Polytechnic of Milan.
Senior process engineer since joining the company in

Luca Barbaglia
Luca Barbaglia is the Construction and Commissioning and Energy Efficiency (2006), also from the Polytechnic
dept. Coordinator at Macchi. He has a Master degree in of Milan (Italy). More than 10 years of experience in
Environmental Engineering (2005) from the Polytechnic boiler process and commissioning field.
of Milan (Italy) and a Master RIDEF, Renewable Energy

Lorenzo Morandi
Lorenzo Morandi has been the Combustion Dept. He has been with Macchi since 1999, initially as CFD &
Manager at Macchi since 2003. He holds a Master Burner engineer.
Degree in Nuclear Engineering at Polytechnic of Milan.

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