Business Studies Form Four Notes

BUSINESS STUDIES FORM FOUR NOTES
FINANCIAL STATEMENTS
These are prepared at the end of a given trading period to determine the profit and losses of the
business, and also to show the financial position of the business at a given time.
They includes; trading account, profit and loss account, trading profit and loss account and the
balance sheet.
They are also referred to as the final statements.
The trading period is the duration through which the trading activities are carried out in the
business before it decides to determines it performances in terms of profit or loss. It may be one
week, month, six months or even a year depending on what the owner wants.
Most of the business use one year as their trading period. It is also referred to as the accounting
period.
At the end of the accounting period, the following takes place;
 All the accounts are balanced off
 A trial balance is extracted
 Profit or loss is determined
 The balance sheet is prepared
Determining the profit or loss of a business
When a business sells its stock above the buying price/cost of acquiring the stock, it makes a
profit, while if it sells below it makes a loss. The profit realized when the business sell it stock
beyond the cost is what is referred to as the gross profit, while if it is a loss then it is referred to
as a gross loss.
It is referred to as the gross profit /loss because it has not been used to cater for the expenses that
may have been incurred in selling that stock, such as the salary of the salesman, rent for the
premises, water bills, etc. it therefore implies that the businessman cannot take the whole gross
profit for its personal use but must first deduct the total cost of all other expenses that may have
been incurred.
The profit realized after the cost of all the expenses incurred has been deducted is what becomes
the real profit for the owner of the business, and is referred to as Net profit. The net profit can be
determined through calculation or preparation of profit and loss account.
In calculating the gross profit, the following adjustments are put in place
 Return inwards/Sales return: - these are goods that had been sold to the customers, but they
have returned them to the business for one reason or the other. It therefore reduces the value
of sales, and is therefore subtracted from sales to obtain the net sales
Therefore Net sales = Sales – Return inwards
 Return outwards/purchases return: - these are goods that had been bought from the suppliers
to the business and have been returned to them for one reason or the other. It reduces the
purchases and is therefore subtracted from the purchases to obtain the net purchases.
 Drawings: - this refers to goods that the owner of the business has taken from the business
for his own use. It reduces the value of purchases, and is therefore subtracted from purchases
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when determining the net purchases. It is different from the other drawing in that it is purely
goods and not money
 Carriage inwards/Carriage on purchases: - this is the cost incurred by the suppliers in
transporting the goods from his premises to the customers business. It is treated as part of the
purchases, and therefore increases the value of purchases. It is added to purchases to
determine the actual value of purchases/Net purchases.
Therefore Net Purchases = Purchases + Carriage inwards – Return Outwards - Drawings
 Carriage outwards/Carriage on sales: - this is the cost that the business has incurred in
transporting goods from its premises to the customer’s premises. The cost reduces the
business profit that would have been realized as a result of the sale, and is therefore treated as
an expense and is subtracted from the gross profit, before determining the net profit.
 Opening stock is the stock of goods at the beginning of the trading period, while the closing
stock is the stock of the goods at the end of the trading period
Gross profit is therefore calculated as follows;
Gross Profit = Sales – Return inwards – (Opening stock + Purchases + carriage
inwards – Return outwards – Closing stock)
Or
Gross profit = Net sales – Cost of Goods Sold (COGS)
COGS = Opening Stock + Net Purchases – Closing stock
Net Profit = Gross profit – Total expenses
Trading Account
This is prepared by the business to determine the gross profit/loss during that trading period
It takes the following format:
Name of the business
Trading Account
Dr For the period (date) Cr
Shs Shs Shs Shs
Opening stock xxxxxx Sales xxxxxx
add Purchases xxxxx Less Return inwards xxx
add Carriage inwards xxx Net sales xxxxxx
less Return Outwards xxx
less Drawings xx xxxxx
Goods available for sale xxxxxx
Less Closing Stock xxx
Cost Of Goods Sold (COGS) xxxxxx
Gross profit c/d xxxx xxxxxx
xxxxxx Gross profit b/d xxxx
The trading account is completed by the time the gross profit b/d is determined
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For example
The following balances were obtained from the books of Ramera Traders for the year ending
may 31st 2010
Sales 670 000
Purchases 380 000
Return inwards 40 000
Carriage outwards 18 000
Return outwards 20 000
Carriage inwards 10 000
Additional information:
 During the year the owner took goods worth sh 5 000 for his family use
 The stock as at 1st June 2009 was shs 60 000, while the stock as at 31st May 2011 was shs
70 000
Required; Prepare Ramera Traders trading account for the period ending 31st May
2010
Ramera Traders
Trading Account
Dr For the period ending 31/5/2010
Cr
Shs Shs Shs Shs
Opening stock 60 000 Sales 670 000
add Purchases 380 000 Less Return inwards40 000
add Carriage inwards 10 000 Net sales 630 000
less Return Outwards 20 000
less Drawings 5 000 365 000
Goods available for sale 425 000
Less Closing Stock 70 000
Cost Of Goods Sold (COGS)355,000
Gross profit c/d 275,000
630,000 630 000
Gross profit b/d 275 000
NB:Carriage outwards is not an item of Trading account, but profit and loss account as an
expense.
Importance of Trading account
i. It is used to determine the gross profit/loss for a given trading period for appropriate decision
making by the management.
ii. It is used in determining the cost of goods that was sold during that particular accounting
period.
iii. It is used to reveal the volume of turnover i.e net sales
iv. May be used to compare the performance of the business in the current accounting period
and the previous periods. It can also compare its performance with other similar businesses
v. It facilitates the preparation of profit and loss account, since the gross profit is carried
forward to the profit and loss account.
Profit and Loss account
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In preparation of this account, the gross profit is brought down on the credit sides, with all other
revenues/income of the business being credited and the expenses together with the net profit
being debited. Net profit = Total Revenues (including Gross Profit) – Total expenses

Profit and Loss Account
Shs Shs
Expenses Gross profit b/d xxxxxx
Insurance xxx Discount received xxx
Electricity xxx Rent income xxx
Water bills xxx Commission received xxx
Carriage Outwards xxx Any other income received xxx
General expenses xxx
Provision for Depreciation xxxx
Discount allowed xxx
Commission allowed xxxx
Rent paid xxxx
Any other expense xxxx
Net profit c/d xxxx
xxxxxx xxxxxx
Net profit b/d xxxx
The Profit and Loss Account is complete when net profit b/d is obtained. In the trial balance, the
revenues/incomes are always credited, while the expenses are debited, and the same treatment is
found in the Profit and Loss Account. (Any item that is taken to the Profit and Loss Account
with a balance appearing in the Debit (Dr) side of a trial balance is treated as an expense, while
those appearing in the Credit (Cr) side are revenue e.g. discount balance appearing in the Dr Side
is Discount Allowed, while the one on Cr side is Discount Received)
For example
The following information relates to Akinyi’s Traders for the period ending March 28th 2010.
Use it to prepare profit and loss account.
Gross profit 100 000 Discount received 12 000
Salaries and wages 20 000 Power and lighting 10 000
Opening stock 150 000 Rent income 10 000
Commission allowed 15 000 Commission received 16 000
Repairs 10 000 Discount allowed 8 000
Provision for depreciation 6 000 Carriage outwards 4 000
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Akinyi Traders
Profit and Loss Account
Dr For the period ending 28th March 2010 Cr
Shs Shs
Expenses Gross profit b/d 100 000
Power and lighting 10 000 Discount received 12 000
Carriage Outwards 4 000 Rent income 10 000
Salaries and wages 20 000 Commission received 16 000
Provision for Depreciation 6 000
Discount allowed 8 000
Commission allowed 15 000
Repairs 10 000
Net profit c/d 65 000
138 000 138 000
Net profit b/d 65 000
In case the expenses are more than the income, then the business shall have made a net loss, and
the loss will be credited.
Net profit/loss can also be found through calculation as follows;
Net profit/loss = Gross profit + Total other revenues – Total expenses
For the above example;
Total other revenues = 12 000 + 10 000 + 16 000= 38 000
Total expenses = 10 000 + 4 000 + 20 000 + 6 000 + 8 000 + 15 000 + 10 000
= 73 000
Therefore; Net profit = Gross profit + Total other revenues – Total expenses
= 100 000 + 38 000 – 73 000= 65 000
Importance of Profit and Loss account

 It shows the revenue earned, and all the expenses incurred during the accounting period
 It used to determine the net profit/net loss of a given trading period
 It is a requirement by the government for the purpose of taxation
 May be used by the employees to gauge the strength of the business, in terms of its ability to
pay them well
 It is vital for the prospective investor in the business, in terms of determining the viability of
the business
 The creditors or loaners may use it to assess the business ability to pay back their debts
 It is used by the management to make a decision on the future of their business.
Trading, Profit and Loss Account
This is the combination of trading account and trading profit and loss account to form a single
document. It ends when the net profit/loss brought down has been determined. That is;
Shs Shs Shs Shs
Opening stock xxxxxx Sales xxxxxx
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add Purchases xxxxx Less Return inwards xxx
add Carriage inwards xxx Net sales xxxxxx
less Return Outwards xxx
less Drawings xx xxxxx
Goods available for sale xxxxxx
Less Closing Stock xxx
Cost Of Goods Sold (COGS) xxxxxx
Gross profit c/d xxxx xxxxxx
Xxxxxx Gross profit b/d xxxx
Expenses
Insurance xxx Discount received xxx
Electricity xxx Rent income xxx
Water bills xxx Commission received xxx
Carriage Outwards xxx Any other income received xxx
General expenses xxx
Provision for Depreciation xxxx
Discount allowed xxx
Commission allowed xxxx
Rent paid xxxx
Any other expense xxxx
Net profit c/d xxxx
xxxxxx
xxxxxx
Net profit b/d xxxx
End Year Adjustments
The following items may require to be adjusted at the end of the trading period
 Revenues/Income
 Expenses
 Fixed assets
Adjustment on revenues
The revenue may have been paid in advance in part or whole (prepaid revenue) or may be paid
later after the trading period (accrued revenue).
Prepaid revenue is subtracted from the revenue/income to be received and the difference is what
is treated in the profit and loss account or trading profit and loss account as an income, while the
accrued revenue is added to the revenue/income to be received and the sum is what is treated in
the above accounts as the actual revenue.
Only the prepaid amount and the accrued amounts are what are then taken to the balance sheet.
Adjustment on the expenses
The expenses may have been paid for in advance in part or whole (prepaid expenses) or may be
paid for later after the trading period (accrued expenses).
Prepaid expenses is subtracted from the expenses to be paid for and the difference is what is
treated in the profit and loss account or trading profit and loss account as an expense, while the
accrued expenses is added to the expenses to be paid for and the sum is what is treated in the
above accounts as the actual expenses.
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NB: Only the prepaid amount and the accrued amounts are what are then taken to the balance
sheet.
Adjustment on fixed assets
The fixed assets may decrease in value, due to tear and wear. This makes the value to go down
over time, what is referred to as depreciation. The amount of depreciation is always estimated as
a percentage of cost.
The amount that shall have depreciated is treated in the profit and loss account or T,P&L as an
expense, while the value of the asset is recorded in the balance sheet, less depreciation.
For example;
1. 1997 The following Trial balance was prepared from the books of Paka Traders as at 31st
December 1995. Trial balance December 31st 1995
Dr. (shs) Cr. (shs)
Sales 980,000
Purchases 600,000
Returns 80,000 20 000
Carriage in 40,000
Carriage out 3,000
Stock (Jan 1st 1999) 120,000
Rent 60,000 45 000
Discount 15,000 25 000
Motor vehicle 150 000
Machinery 250 000
Debtors 120,000
Salaries 18,000
Commission 7,000 12 000
Capital 178,000
Insurance 15 000
Creditors 240,000
Cash 122 000
1 540 000 1 540 000
Additional information
i. Stock as at 31st December was 100,000
ii. the provision for depreciation was 10% on the cost of Motor vehicle, and 5% on the cost of
Machinery
Required: Prepare trading profit and loss account for the period ending 31st December 1999
Adjustments: Provision for depreciation;
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Machinery = ×250 000 = 7 500
100
(New balance of machinery = 250 000 – 7 500 = 242 500. The 242 500 is taken to the balance as
Machinery (fixed asset), while 7 500 is taken to the trading profit and loss account as expenses)
10
Motor vehicle = ×150 000 = 15 000
100
(New balance of Motor Vehicle = 150 000 – 15 000 = 135 000. The 135 000 is taken to the
balance as Motor Vehicle (fixed asset), while 15 000 is taken to the trading profit and loss
account as expenses)
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Paka Traders
Dr For the period 31/12/1995 Cr
Shs Shs Shs Shs
Opening stock 120 000 Sales 980 000
add Purchases 600 000 Less Return inwards 80 000
add Carriage inwards40 000 Net sales 900 000
less Return Outwards20 000 620 000
Goods available for sale 740 00
Cost Of Goods Sold (COGS)640 000
Gross profit c/d 260 000
900 000 900 000
Insurance 15000 Discount received 25 000
Carriage Outwards 30000 Rent income 45 000
Salaries 18 000 Commission received 12 000
Provision for Depreciation
Machinery 7 500 22500
Discount allowed 15 000
Commission allowed 7 000 342 000
Rent paid 60 000 Net profit b/d 174 500
342 000
The net profit/loss may be taken to the balance sheet.

The items that have been adjusted will be recorded in the balance sheet less the adjustment.
The Balance Sheet
The balance sheet will show the business financial position in relation to assets, capital and
liabilities. The adjustment that can be made will be on Fixed assets and capital only. That is;
Fixed assets are recorded less their depreciation value (should there be provision for
depreciation) as the actual value.
Actual value of assets = Old value – depreciation.
Capital is adjusted with the following; Net capital, Drawings and additional investment. i.e.
Closing Capital/Net capital (C.C) = Opening/initial capital (O.C) + Additional Investment (I) +
Net profit (N.P) or (less Net Loss) – Drawings
CC = OC + I + NP – D
Where:
Opening Capital: - the capital at the beginning of the trading period
Closing capital: - the capital as at the end of the trading period
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Additional Investment: - any amount or asset that the owner adds to the business
during the trading period
Net profit: - the profit obtained from the trading activities during the period. In case of a loss, it
is subtracted.
Types of Capital
The capital in the business can be classified as follows:
 Capital Owned/Owner’s Equity/Capital invested; - this is the capital that the owner of the
business has contributed to the business. It is the Net capital/Closing capital of the business
(C = A – L)
 Borrowed capital: - the resources brought into the business from the outside sources. They
are the long term liabilities of the business.
 Working capital: - these are resources in the business that can be used to meet the immediate
obligation of the business. It is the difference between the total current assets and total
current liabilities
Working Capital = Total Current Assets – Total Current Liabilities
 Capital employed: - these are the resources that has been put in the business for a long term.
i.e.
Capital Employed = Total Fixed assets + Working Capital
Or
Capital employed = Capital Invested + Long term liabilities

Balance Sheet
As at (date)
Shs shs Shs shs
Fixed Assets
Land xxxxx Capital xxxxx
Buildings xxxxx Add Net profit xxxx
Motor Vehicle xxxxx Add additional investt xxx
Any other fixed assets xxxxx xxxxxx Less drawings xxx
Current Assets Net Capital xxxxx
Stock xxxx Long term liabilities
Debtors xxxx Long term loan xxxx
Bank xxxx Any other xxxx xxxx
Cash xxxx Current liabilities
Prepaid Expenses xxxx Creditors xxxx
Accrued revenues xxxx Short term loan xxxx
Any other current assets xxxx xxxxxx Accrued expenses xxxx
Prepaid revenues xxxx
Any other xxxx xxxxx
xxxxxx xxxxxx
Example 00A: The following information were extracted from the trial balance of Mwema
traders on 31st December 2010
Sales 750 000 Furniture 288 000
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Purchases 540 000 Electricity expenses 16 000
Sales return 24 000 Motor vehicle 720 000
Return outwards 30 000 Rent expenses 2 500
General expenses72 000 Capital 842 500
Commission received 24 000 Bank Loan 250 000
Cash 156 000 Creditors 216 000
Debtors 244 000
Additional Information
a) Stock as at 31/12/2010 was ksh 72 000
b) Electricity prepaid was shs 4 000
c) Rent expenses accrued shs 3500
d) Depreciation was provided for as follows
-Motor Vehicle 15% p.a. on cost -Furniture 6% p.a. on cost
Required
(i) Prepare Trading, profit and loss account for the year
(ii) Prepare a balance sheet as at 31st December 2012
(iii) Determine the following:
-Owner’s equity -Borrowed capital -Working capital -Capital employed
Adjustments:
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Motor Vehicle = ×720 000 = 108 000
100
Therefore Motor vehicle = 612 000
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Furniture = ×288 000 = 17 280
100
Therefore furniture = 270 720
Mwema Traders
Dr For the period 31/12/2010 Cr
Shs Shs Shs Shs
Purchases 540 000 Sales 750 000
less Return Outwards30 000 510 000 Less Return inwards 24 000
Goods available for sale 510 000 Net sales 726 000
Cost Of Goods Sold (COGS)438 000
Gross profit c/d 288 000
726 000 726 000
General expenses 72 000 Commission received 24 000
Electricity expenses 16 000
Less Electricity prepaid 4 000 12 000
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Rent expenses 2 500
Accrued rent exp 3 500 6 000
Provision for Depreciation

Furniture 17 280 125 280
312 000 312 000
Net profit b/d 96 720
Mwema Traders
Balance Sheet
As at 31/12/2010
Shs shs Shs shs
Fixed Assets Capital 842 500
Motor Vehicle 612 000 Add Net profit 96 720
Furniture 270 720 882 720 Net Capital 939 220
Current Assets Long term liabilities

Stock 72 000 Bank Loan 250 000
Debtors 244 000
Electricity prepaid 4 000 Current liabilities
Bank 50 000 Creditors 216 000
Cash 156 000 526 000 Accrued rent 3 500 219 500
1 408 720 1 408 720

Basic Financial Ratios
A ratio is an expression of one item in relation to the other. It is used to compare the groups of
related items in the business, for the purpose of assessing the performance of the business. They
include:
a) Mark-up
This is the comparison of gross profit as a percentage of cost of goods sold. i.e.
Gross Profit
Mark-up = × 100
Cost of Goods Sold
G. P
= × 100
COGS
For example: in (example OOA) above, determine the mark-up of the business.
Gross Profit
Mark-up = × 100
Cost of Goods Sold
Gross profit = 288 000
COGS = 438 000
288 000
Mark-up = × 100
438 000
= 65.75%
(This implies that the Gross profit of the business is 65.75% of its cost of goods sold)
b) Margin
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This is the expression of the gross profit as a percentage of net sales. That is:
Gross Profit
Margin = ×100
net sales
G.P
= × 100
sales
For example: in (example OOA) above, determine the margin of the business
Gross Profit
Margin = ×100
net sales
Gross profit = 288 000
Net sales = 726 000
288 000
= × 100
726 000
= 39.67%
(This implies that the gross profit of the business is 39.67% of the net sales)
Relationship between margin and mark-up
Since margin and mark-up are all the expression of Gross profit, it is possible to change one to
the other.
 Changing mark-up to margin
Mark-up can be changed to margin as follows:
(i) Convert the mark-up percentage as a fraction in its simplest form.
(ii) Add the value of the numerator of the fraction to the denominator to come up with the new
fraction (margin fraction) that is
a
If the mark-up fraction =
n
a
Margin fraction =
n+a
(iii) Convert the margin fraction as a percentage to obtain margin
For example: in the above example,
Mark –up = 65.75%
65.75
=
100
263
=
400
263
Margin fraction =
400+263
263
= x 100
663
= 39.67%
 Changing margin to mark-up
(i) Convert the margin percentage as a fraction in its simplest form
(ii) Subtract the value of the numerator of the fraction from the denominator to come up with
the new fraction (mark-up fraction) that is
a
If the margin fraction =
n
a
Mark-up fraction =
n−a
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(iii) Convert the mark-up fraction as a percentage to obtain mark-up
For example: in the above example,
Margin = 39.67%
39.67
=
100
263
=
663
263
Mark-up fraction =
663−263
263
= x 100
400
= 65.75%
c) Current ratio/working capital ratio
This is the ratio of the current assets to current liabilities. It can also be expressed as a
percentage. That is:
current assets
Current ratio =
current liabilities
= current assets: current liabilities
Or
current assets
Current ratio = x 100
current liabilities
For examples: in (example OOA) above, determine the current ratio;
Current assets = 526 000

Current liabilities = 219 500
current assets
Current ratio =
current liabilities
526 000
= = 1052: 439
219 500
Or
526 000
= x 100
219 500
239.64%
d) Rate of stock turnover
This is the rate at which the stock is bought or sold within a given period of time. It is obtained
by;
cost of goods sold
Rate of stock turnover (ROST) =
average stock
op e ning stock +closing stock
Average stock =
2
In (example OOA) above, determine the rate of stock turnover;
The cost of goods sold = 438 000
The closing stock = 72 000
The opening stock = 0
13
Therefore
opening stock+ closing stock
The average stock =
2
0+72 000
= = 36 000
2
cost of goods sold
Rate of stock turnover (ROST) =
average stock
438 000
=
36 000
= 12.17 Times
e) Return on capital
This is the expression of net profit as a percentage of the capital invested. That is;
net profit
Return on capital = x 100
capital invested
It can be given as a ratio or a percentage.
For example: in (example OOA) above, determine the return on capital of the business
Net Profit = 96 720
Capital invested/owner’s equity = 939 220
net profit
Return on capital = x 100
capital invested
96720
= x 100
939220
= 10.33%
f)Acid test ratio/quick ratio
This shows how fast the business can convert its current assets excluding stock to settle its
current liabilities. That is;
current aassets−closing stock
Quick ratio =
current liabilities
It is given in ratio form.
For example: in above (example OOA), determine the quick ratio;
Current assets = 526 000
Stock = 72 000
Current liabilities = 219 500
current aassets−closing stock
Quick ratio =
current liabilities
526 000−72 000
=
219 500
= 2.07 (or 207 : 100)
Importance of Financial Ratios
 Mark up and margin helps in the following; setting the selling price, calculating profit or
losses and determining the sales for a given period of time
 Working capital and acid test ratio help in showing whether the business is in a position
to meet its short term obligations and checking whether the business is utilizing its
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resources properly. That is high working capital ratio shows that most of the resources
are idle
 Return on capital shows the following;
- The performance of the business in relation to other similar businesses
- Comparison of the performance of the business over different periods
- Whether the business finances have been invested or not
- Help the potential investors on the decision on where to invest
 Rate of stock turnover also help in determining how fast or slow the stock is moving. It
also helps in computing the gross profit or loss.
MONEY AND BANKING
Barter trade
This is a form of trade where goods and services are exchanged for other goods and services.
Benefits
1. Satisfaction of wants: And individual is able to get what he or she needs.
2. Surplus disposal: an individual or country is able to dispose off its surpluses.
3. Social relations: it promotes social links since the communities trade together.
4. Specialization: some communities shall specialize in a particular commodity.
5. Improved living standards: this is enhanced by receiving what one is unable to produce.
Limitations of Barter trade
(i) Lack of double coincidence of wants: - it is difficult to find two people with the need for
each other’s product at the same time.
(ii) Lack of store of value/ perishability of some commodities: - some goods are perishable
thus their value cannot be stored for a long time for future purposes e.g. one cannot store
vegetables for exchange purposes in future.
(iii) Indivisibility of some commodities: -it is difficult to divide some products like livestock
into smaller units to be exchanged with other commodities.
(iv)Lack of standard measure of value: - It is not easy to determine how much one commodity
can be exchanged for a given quantity of another commodity.
(v) Transportation problem: It is difficult to transport bulky goods especially when there is no
faster means of transport.
(vi)Lack of a standard deferred payment: - The exchange of goods cannot be postponed since
by the time the payment is made, there could be fluctuation in value, demand for a
commodity may not exist and the nature and quality of a good may not be guaranteed. It may
be therefore difficult what to decide what to accept for future payment.
(vii) Lack of specialization: - Everyone strives to produce all the goods he or she needs due
to the problem of double coincidence of wants.
(viii) Lacks unit of account- it is difficult to assess the value of commodities and keep their
record.
MONEY SYSTEM
Money is anything that is generally accepted and used as a medium of exchange for goods and
services.
Features/ characteristics of Money
For anything to serve as money, it must have the following characteristics:
 Acceptability: The item must be acceptable to everyone.
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 Durability: The material used to make money must be able to last long without getting torn,
defaced or losing its shape or texture.
 Divisibility: Money should be easily divisible into smaller units (denominations) but still
maintains it value.
 Cognizability: The material used to make money should be easily recognized. This helps
reduce chances of forgery. It also helps people to differentiate between various
denominations.
 Homogeneity: Money should be made using a similar material so as to appear identical. This
eliminates any risk of confusion and forgeries.
 Portability: - Money should be easy to carry regardless of its value.
 Stability in value: The value of money should remain fairly stable over a given time period.
 Liquidity: - it should be easily convertible to other forms of wealth (assets).
 Scarcity: - It should be limited in supply. If it is abundantly available its value will reduce.
 Malleability- the material used to make money should be easy to cast into various shapes.
 Not easy to forge- money should not be easy to imitate.
Functions of Money
(i) Medium of exchange: It is generally acceptable by everyone in exchange of goods and
services. It thus eliminates the need for double coincidence of wants.
(ii) Store of value: It is used to keep value of assets e.g. surplus goods can be sold and then
money kept for future transactions.
(iii) Measure of value: Value of goods and services are expressed in money form.
Performance of businesses is measured in terms of money.
(iv) Unit of account: It is a unit by which the value of goods and services are calculated and
records kept.
(v) Standard of deferred payment: it is used to settle credit transactions.
(vi)Transfer of immovable items (assets): Money is used to transfer assets such as land from
one person to another.
DEMAND FOR MONEY
This is the tendency or desire by an individual or general public to hold onto money instead of
spending it. It also refers to as liquidity preference.
Money is held by people in various forms:
 Notes and coins
 Securities and bonds
 Demand deposits such bank current account balances.
 Time deposits such as fixed account balances
REASONS (MOTIVES) FOR HOLDING MONEY
1. Transaction Motive: Money is held with a motive of meeting daily expenses for both the
firms and individuals. The demand for money for transaction purpose by individuals depends
on the following factors:
 Size/level of individual’s income: The higher the income of and individual, the more the
number of transactions thus high demand for transactions.
 Interval between pay days/ receipt of money: if the interval is long, then high amount of
money will be held for transaction reasons.
 Price of commodities: if the prices are high, the value of transactions will also increase thus
more money balances required.
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 Individuals spending habits-people who spend a lot of money on luxuries will hold more
money than those who only spend money on basics.
 Availability of credit-people who have easy access to credit facilities hold little amount of
money for daily transactions than those who do not have easy access to credit.
The transaction motive can further be divided to;
 Income motive i.e. holding money to spend on personal/ family needs.
 Business motive i.e. holding money to meet business recurring needs such as paying
wages, postage, raw materials. Etc
2. Precautionary Motive: Money is held in order to be used during emergencies such as
sicknesses.
The amount of money held for this motive will depend on the factors such as:
 Level of income- the higher the income the higher the amount of money held for
precautionary motive.
 Family status- high class families tend to hold more money for precautionary motive than
low class families.
 Age of the individual- the aged tend to hold more money for precautionary motive than the
young since they have more uncertainties than the young.
 Number of dependant- the more the dependants one has, the more the money they are likely
to hold for precautionary motive.
 Individual’s temperament- pessimists tend to hold more money for precautionary motives
than the optimists because they normally think things will go wrong.
 Duration between incomes- those who earn money after a short time are likely to keep less
money than those who earn money after a long time.
3. Speculative Motive: Money is held to be used in acquiring those assets whose values are
prone to fluctuations such as shares/ money is held anticipating fall in prices of goods and
services. This depends on the following:
 The wealth of an individual
 The rate of interest on government debt instruments
 Interest on money balances held in the bank.
 How optimistic or pessimistic a person is.
SUPPLY OF MONEY
This is the amount of money/ monetary items that are in circulation in the economy at a
particular period of time. They include the following;
1. Total currency i.e. the coins and notes issued by the central bank.
2. Total demand deposits: money held in current accounts in banks and are therefore
withdrawable on demand.
Factors influencing supply of money

 Government policies: If there is more money in the economy, the government will put in
place measures to reduce the supply such as increasing interest rates.
 Policies of commercial banks: The more the loans offered by commercial banks, the more
the amount of money in circulation.
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 Increase in national income: increase in national income means that more people will be
liquid due to increase in economic activities.]
 Increase in foreign exchange: The foreign exchange reserves will increase thus supply
increases.
BANKING
This is the process by which banks accept deposit from the public for safe keeping and lending
out the deposits in form of loans.
A bank is a financial institution that accepts money deposits from the public for safe keeping
and lending out in terms of loans.
COMMERCIAL BANKS
These are financial institutions that offer banking services with a profit motive. Their activities
are regulated by the Central bank.
Functions of commercial banks
i. Accepting deposits: They accept deposit from members of the public inform of current
accounts, savings account and fixed deposit accounts. Such accounts help individuals to keep
money safely.
ii. Provision of safe means of payments: They provide safe and reliable means of payment
such as cheques, bank drafts, credit transfers, electronic funds transfers etc.
iii. Provision of loan facilities: They provide loans to members in form of short term and long
term. These loans are repayable with interests thus income to the banks.
iv. Facilitates foreign exchange payments: They provide foreign exchange that is used in
international trade. They also make payments on behalf of their customers.
v. Provision of safe keeping of valuables: They provide security for valuables to their
customers at a fee
vi. Discounting bills of exchange: This is process by which a bank accepts bills of exchange
and promissory notes from its customers in exchange of cash less than the face value of the
bill or note.
vii. Provision of financial information: - They advice their clients on financial matters affecting
their businesses such as investment option and wise use of loans.
viii. Money transfer:- They provide varied, safe and reliable means of money transfer. Such
means include cheques, standing orders, credit transfers, bank drafts, letters of credit, credit
cards, travelers cheques etc.
ix. Act as guarantors and referees: - They act as guarantors to their customers who want to
acquire credit facilities from other financial institutions.
x. Act as intermediaries: - They act as a link between the savers and borrowers.
xi. Credit creation: - This is the process of creating money from the customer deposits through
lending.
xii. Provision of trusteeship: - They can manage a business on behalf of the client especially if
the client does not have managerial skills. They can also manage the assets of the deceased
client if there was no will.
TYPES OF ACCOUNTS OFFERED BY COMMERCIAL BANKS
1. Current account
This is an account where money deposited can be withdrawn on demand by the customer by
means of a cheque. This means that money can be withdrawn at any time during the official
working hours so long as the account has sufficient funds.
This account is also referred to as demand deposits.
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Features characteristics of current accounts
 Deposits of any amount can be made at any time.
 Balances in this account do not earn any interest.
 The account holder is not required to maintain a minimum cash balance in this account
 Withdrawals can be at any time without giving and advance notice as long as the customer
has sufficient funds.
 Cheque books are issued to the account holder to be used as a means of payment/ cheques are
usually used to withdraw money from the account.
 Monthly bank statements are issued to the account holder.
 Overdraft facilities are offered to the account holders’ i.e the bank can allow customers to
withdraw more money than they have in their accounts.
Advantages of current account
 No minimum balance is maintained hence the account holder can access all his/her money.
 Withdrawals can be made at any time.
 Transactions are made easier by use of cheques for example; one does not have to go to the
bank in order to make payment.
 Overdraft facilities are available..
 It is possible to deposit any amount at any time during the office hours.
 Use of cheques as means of payment serves as evidence of payments made.
 Payments can be done even if there are insufficient funds in the account using post dated
cheques.
 The account holder can withdraw any amount at any time without notice as long as there are
sufficient funds in the account.
Disadvantages of current account
 Lengthy procedures of opening the account.
 The account holder does not earn any income since the balances in the current account does
not earn interest.
 Initial deposit when opening the account is usually high hence discourages prospective
customers.
 Customers are not encouraged to save since they can access their money at any time.
 Ledger fees are charged on the account making the operations of the account expensive.
2. Savings account (deposit account)
This is an account operated by individuals and firms that have money to save.
Features of Savings account
 There is minimum initial deposit that varies from bank to bank.
 A minimum balance is maintained at all times.
 The withdrawals are up to a certain maximum within a given period. Withdrawal above this
maximum will require notice.
 Account holders are issued with a pass book or a debit card (ATM card) for deposits and
withdrawals.
 Overdraft facilities are not allowed.
 Ordinarily, withdrawals across the counter can only be done by the account holder.
 The balance on the account above a certain minimum earns some interest.
Advantages of Savings account
 Customers are encouraged to save because of the restricted withdrawals.
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 There are relatively low banking charges.
 Initial deposit is usually low as compared to other accounts.
 The balances earn interest to account holder hence an incentive to save.
 ATM facilities have made account operations very convenient to customers.
Disadvantages Savings account
 A minimum balance must be maintained at all times and the customer is denied access to that
money.
 For across the counter withdrawals, it is only the account holder who can withdraw cash.
 Withdrawals are restricted and sufficient notice is required before large amounts are
withdrawn.
 The account holders do not enjoy services such as cheque books and overdraft facilities like
the current account holders.
 Easy access to the money through ATM cards encourages overdrawals.
 Anybody who knows the pin of the card (ATM card) can withdraw money from the account.
Requirements for opening an account
The following are some of the requirements for opening either a current account or a savings
account:
i. Photocopies of identification documents such as National Identity Card or Passport.
ii. Passport size photographs (number varies from bank to bank). Some banks are nowadays
taking the photographs instead of the customers providing them.
iii. For current account holders, an introductory letter from an existing customer from the
prospective customer’s employer.
iv. Filling in the application form provided by the bank.
v. Signing of the specimen signature cards. Usually two.
NB: Once these requirements are fulfilled, the bank allocates the customer an account number,
upon payment of an initial deposit.
3. Fixed deposit account
This account is also known as time Deposit account. It is maintained by those who have money
not meant for immediate use.
Once money is deposited, there are no withdrawals until the time expires.
Advantages of Fixed deposit account
 Interest earned is relatively high as compared to savings account.
 There are no bank charges to the account holder.
 Money held in fixed deposit account can be used as security to acquire bank loans.
 Restricted withdrawals encourage savings.
 The account holder has time to plan for the deposited money.
Disadvantages of Fixed deposit account
 Access to money is not allowed until the end of the agreed period.
 Interest is forfeited if there is pre-mature withdrawal.
 The minimum amount of money for this account is high.
 The customer is not allowed to deposit more money in this account.
 A notice is required if the customer wants to terminate the contract before expiry date.
 The customer is denied the use of the deposited funds before the expiry of the period.
REQUIREMENTS TO OPEN AND OPERATE A BANK ACCOUNT
1. Identification documents such as National Identification Card, Passport and Driving License.
2. Reference letter from employer or an existing customer.
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3. Filling an application form giving the information about the customer.
4. Submission of a specimen signature to be held by the bank.
5. An initial deposit is paid and the account becomes operational.
NON- BANK FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS
These are financial institutions that offer finances for development purposes to individuals and
organizations.
These institutions address themselves to the needs of specific sectors in the economy.
They offer the finances inform of either short term or long term loans.
The following are some of the non-bank financial institutions in Kenya
 Development banks
 Building societies
 Finance houses
 Savings and Credit Co-operative Societies
 Micro finance organizations
 Insurance companies
 Pension Funds’ Organizations
 Hire Purchase Firms
 Housing Finance Companies

They are mainly formed to finance housing activities that is they either put up houses and sell to
the individuals or offer mortgage finance to those who wish to put up their own houses. They
includes Housing Finance Corporation of Kenya (HFCK), National Housing Corporation (NHC)
 Development Finance Institutions
These are development banks which are formed mainly to provide medium term and long term
finances, especially to the manufacturing sector. They perform the following functions
 Financing people who wishes to start either commercial of industrial enterprises, as well as
the existing enterprises in the above sectors for expansion
 Offering training services through seminars and workshops to equip the entrepreneurs’ with
the relevant skill in industrial and commercial sectors
 Offer advisory services to those people wanting to start or expand their businesses
 Acting as guarantors to people wishing to take loan from other lending institutions to help
them expand their business
They includes the following Kenya Industrial Estates (KIE), Development Finance Company of
Kenya (DFCK), Industrial Development Bank (IDB), Industrial and Commercial Development
Corporation (ICDC)
 Savings and Credit Co-operative societies
These are co-operative societies that are formed to enable members save and obtain loans at most
conveniently and favorable conditions. They are formed by those engaged in similar activities.
They includes: Mwalimu Savings and Credit Co-operative Societies; Afya Savings and Credit
societies; Harambee Savings and Credit Societies
 Insurance companies
These are companies that assist in creating confidence and sense of security to their clients as
well as offering financial assistance to their clients. Their functions include;
 Enable the policy holders to save through their schemes
 Provide finances to their policy holders in form of loans
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 Offer guarantee services to the policy holders wishing to obtain loans from other non-bank
financial institutions
 Provide advisory services to the policy holders on security matters
 Provide finances to meet the expenses incases of loans
They includes the following: Stallion Insurance Company; Madison insurance company; Blue
shield insurance company
 Micro Finance Companies
These are financial companies formed to provide small scale and medium size enterprises with
finance. They also carry out the following functions
 Offer advisory services to their clients in matters such as business opportunities available and
how to operate them.
 Encourage the clients to carry out business activities by offering loans to them
 They encourage the savings by advancing loans to the individual member of a certain group
 They supervise, monitor and advise those whom they have given loans
They includes the following: Kenya Women finance Trust (KWFT), Faulu Kenya
 Agricultural Finance Houses
These are institutions formed to promote the agricultural sector. They carry out the following
 Giving loans to farmers
 Offering supervisory and training services to the loaned farmer
 Offering technical and professional advice to loaned farmer
 Carry research and come up with better ways and means of agricultural sector
 Coming up with projects that would open up new areas for agriculture
Differences between commercial banks and non-bank financial institutions
Commercial Banks Non-Bank Financial Institutions
(i) Offer all types of accounts (i) Offer only two types of accounts savings
and fixed deposit
(ii) Provide both short term and medium (ii) Mainly provide medium term and long
term finances to their customers term finances
(iii) Their finance is not restricted to any (iii) Their finance is restricted to a
sector particular sector
(iv)May offer foreign exchange services (iv) Do not provide foreign exchange
(v) Their finance is mainly for working services
capital (v) They provide capital for development
(vi)Participate in clearing house as they offer (vi) Do not participate in clearing house
cheque since they don’t offer
(vii) Offer facilities for safe keeping of (vii)Do not offer facilities for safe keeping of
valuable items such as title deeds valuable items
(viii) Always in direct control of the central (viii) Not usually in direct control of the
bank central bank
(ix)May offer overdraft facilities to their (ix) Do not offer overdraft facilities to their
customers customers
THE CENTRAL BANK

This is a bank established by the government through the act of the parliament to manage and
control the monetary matters in the country. It was formed to perform the following functions;
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 Issue currency in the country, which includes both new notes and coins to replace the worn-
out ones
 Banker to the commercial banks, by ensuring that all the commercial banks in the country
operate an account with them
 Being the government ‘s bank, by offering banking services to the government which
enables the government to operate an account with them
 Advisor to the government on financial issues in the economy
 Controller of the commercial banks on how they carry out their functions in the economy to
ensure that their customers are served well
 Provide links with other central banks in other countries, facilitating financial
relationships. It also provide a link between the country and other financial institutions such
as IMF
 Maintain stability in the exchange rates between the local currencies and the foreign ones.
 Act as the lender of the last resort to the commercial banks to enable them meet their
financial obligations when need arise
 Facilitates the clearing of cheques between different commercial banks through its clearing
house (a department in the central bank)
 Administering of the public debt by facilitating the receipt and providing a means through
which the government pays back the borrowed money
 Control of the monetary system in the country in order to regulate the economy. In doing
this they put in place various monetary policies that can either expand the economic
activities in the country or depress them.
Monetary policy refers to the deliberate move by the government through the central bank to
manipulate the supply and cost of money in the economy in order to achieve a desirable
economic outcome. They do this through the use of various tools of monetary policies which
includes the following: Bank rates; Open market Operation (OMO); Cash Liquidity ratio
requirement; Compulsory deposit requirement; Selective credit control; Directives; Request.
 Bank rates
They may increase or decrease the interest rate at which they lend to the commercial banks to
enable them increase or decrease the rate at which they lend money to their customers in the
economy to enable the government achieve the desirable economic development in the country
When they increase their lending interest rate, the commercial banks also raise their lending rates
to the consumers to reduce the number of people obtaining loans, leading to a reduction of
money supplied in the economy.
When they decrease their lending interest rate, the commercial banks also decreases their lending
rates to the consumers, increase the amount of money supplied in the economy
 Open Market Operations (OMO)
This is where they regulate the supply of money in the economy by either selling or buying the
government securities (treasury bills or bonds) in the open market. That is when they want to
increase the supply in the economy, they buying the securities from the members of the public
who had bought them to increase more supply of money in the economy.
When they want to reduce the amount of money in circulation they will sell the government
security to the public in the open market, to mop up/reduce the excess supply in the economy
The payment of the securities takes money from the individuals accounts in the commercial
banks, reducing the amount that the individual can use in the economy, while when buying the
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central bank pays the security holders in their respective accounts in the commercial banks,
increasing the amount that they can use in the economy
 Cash/liquidity ratio requirement
Here the central bank expect the commercial bank to keep a certain proportion of their total
deposits in form of cash to enable them meet their daily needs, while the rest are held in liquid
assets. This proportion can be reduced by the central bank to reduces the amount of money held
by the commercial banks in order to reduce the amount of money spent by the commercial banks
in cash, reducing the amount of money in supply, or they may increase the proportion to be held
by the commercial banks to enable them increase the amount of money they spent in cash,
increasing the amount of money in supply
Cash Held
Cash ratio =
Total Deposits
 Compulsory deposit requirements
The commercial banks are required to maintain a certain amount of deposits with the central
bank which will be held in a special account where the money stays frozen. This reduces the
amount of money that the commercial banks hold and are able to spend in their operation,
influencing the supply of money in the economy.
The deposit may be increase to reduce the amount of money in the commercial banks, or reduced
to increase the amount of money in the commercial banks
 Selective credit control
The central bank may issue a special instruction to the commercial bank and other financial
institution only to lend more in a particular sector to control the amount of money reaching the
economy. The instruction may be removed, if the bank feels that the supply in the economy has
reduced and needs to be increased
 Directives
The central bank may issue a directive to the commercial banks on the interest rate they should
charge on their lending and to increase or reduce the margin requirement for borrowing to make
it harder or easier for the customers to obtain loan.
Margin requirement is the proportion of money expected to be raised by the client to finance the
project he/she wants to obtain the loan for, before being given a loan to complete the project
with.
 Request (Moral suasion)
The central bank may appeal to other financial institutions to exercise restrain in their lending
activities to the public to help in controlling the money supply
Trends in Banking
These are the positive changes that have taken place in the banking sector to improve their
service deliveries to their customers. They include;
1. The use of Automatic Teller Machines (ATMs), which has made it possible for the
customers to access their money any time of the day. The ATM cards that are used for
withdrawals from the ATM machines can also be used as a debit card to make purchases.
2. Networking all their branches, which has enable the customers to carry out their
transactions in any of the branch.
3. E-Banking, which is the banking through the internet. This has made it possible for the
customers to transact their financial businesses on-line.
4. Relaxation of some of the conditions on opening and operating some of the accounts to
make them be more attractive to their customers.
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5. Offering varieties of products which includes easier credit facilities to their customers to
attract more customers.
6. Liberalization of foreign exchange dealings by licensing forex bureaus to offer services to
the customers, improving the accessibility to the service.
7. Improving the customers care services, with some bank setting up a departments known as
the customer care department to offer detailed assistance to their customers.
8. Allowing non bank financial institutions to offer banking services to the members of the
public, for example; KWFT, SACCOs, FOSA, Faulu Kenya, etc
9. Mobile Banking services (M-Banking), which allows the customers to carry out their
financial transactions over their mobile phones. It has brought about several benefits/
advantages to their customers which includes;
Advantages of m-banking
- Easy transfer of funds from one account to the other in the same bank (inter account transfer)
- Easy transfer of money from ones account to his mobile phone for other transactions
- Ability to check ones account balance in the bank with ease
- Easy to monitor your financial transactions by checking your transaction details over the
phone
- Easy payment of the bills such as electricity bill, Dstv bills, etc and other wages
- Ability to transfer money from one mobile number to other in collaboration with the service
providers
- Easy request for new cheque books and bank statements from the banks
- Able to top up air time to your mobile phones in collaboration with the service providers
- Reduced risk of carrying large sums of money in cash or cheques that may be stolen
However this development has also come with its challenges, which includes:
Disadvantages of m-banking
- Registration to enjoy all these services must physically be done in the banking hall, which
subject the customers to stress queues of the bank
- Only the registered mobile number can carry out these transactions which limits the customer
to only using one number
- Users requires a mobile phone with a screen that can display the transaction which a times
some may not a ford
- Mobile phones can easily be lost or stolen from the owner, inconveniencing him from
carrying out the transactions
- Bank transaction information may load slowly, which may makes it expensive for the user
- Possibility of transferring the funds to a wrong account, due to error in typing of the account
number
 Introduction of agency banking, which has made them to make their services to be more
accessible to even areas where they may have not put up a banking hall.
Agency banking is whereby a retail stores, supermarket, or any other commercial businesses are
authorized by the financial institutions to carry out financial transactions on their behalf. They
may offer the following services
- Receiving customer deposits
- Offering withdrawal services
- Transfer of funds for customers
- Pay bills for the customers
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- Balance inquiry services
- Opening new accounts for the customers
- Fill loan application forms for them
Advantages of agency banking
 Reduction of set up and delivery cost to the banks, which in turn passes to the customers in
form of reduced cost of accessing services
 Time saving as the agents are located close to the customer and the customer may carry out
other transactions as he withdraw the money
 More convenient for the customer to bank with their local retailers other than the traditional
banking halls
 Enable the bank to reach far places within the country
REVISION EXERCISES
PAPER 1
1. Give four advantages of barter trade.
2. Highlight four services offered by the central bank of Kenya to the commercial banks.
3. State four methods through which commercial banks can transfer money.
4. State any four current developments that have taken place in the banking sector.
5. Outline four tools of monetary policy used by the central bank to control money supply.
6. Outline four factors that may have led to the downfall of barter trade.
7. Highlight two factors that may influence:
a. Transaction motive.
b. Speculative motive.
8. Mention four functions of commercial banks in an economy.
9. Outline three factors that influence the supply of money.
10. Give four characteristics of money.
11. The following are some of the accounts available to customers in Kenya banking industry:
Current account, Savings account and Fixed deposit account. Give the account that
corresponds to each of the description given below.
Description Type of
account
(a) Account holders required to deposit a specific initial
amount as well as maintaining a minimum balance.
(b Account holders may deposit and withdraw money
) whenever they want without maintaining a minimum
balance.
(c) Banks pay interest on deposit at comparatively higher
rates.
(d Money may be deposited at any time and interest is
) earned if a specific balance is maintained.
12. Outline four benefits that accrue to a customer who uses automated teller machine (ATM)
banking services.
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PAPER 2
1. Explain five functions of the central bank of Kenya.
2. Describe four measures that the government may put in place to reduce the amount of money
in circulation.
3. Explain five services offered by commercial banks to their customers.
4. Explain five ways in which commercial banks facilitate payment on behalf of their
customers.
5. Explain four services that the central bank of Kenya may offer as a banker to commercial
banks.
6. Explain five in which banks contribute to the development of Kenya
7. Outline five reasons why banks currently account is popular with traders
8. Explain service offered to commercial banks by the central bank of Kenya
9. In what ways of the functions of commercial bank differ with those of non- bank
Financial institutions
10. Explain five ways in which central bank of Kenya may control the supply of money in
The country
11. Describe methods which may be used by commercial banks to advance money to customers.
12. A businessman wishes to obtain a loan from a commercial bank. Highlight the
Conditions that he should satisfy before the bank can grant him the loan
13. Explain five services that the central bank of Kenya offers to commercial banks Explain four
disadvantages of using a bank overdraft as a source of finances
14. Describe four ways in which a non- bank financial institutions differ from the commercial banks
15. Discuss five reasons why business people prefer to operate bank current accounts
16. Outline the benefits that bank customer gets from operating a current account Explain the 5
services offered by a commercial banks to their customers
PUBLIC FINANCE
Public finance refers to the activities carried out by the government associated with raising of
finances and the spending of the finances raised (it is the study of how government collects
revenue and how it spends it)
The components of public finance are;
i. Public revenue
ii. Public expenditure
iii. Public debt
i. Public revenue-refers to the revenues (income) and resources received by the
government from different sources.
ii. Public expenditure-refers to the resources spent by the government.
iii. Public debt-refers to the money and resources borrowed by the government.
Purpose of public finance
i. Provision of essential goods and services. The government has a responsibility of
providing its citizens with essential goods and services such as
security,health,schools,drought control, law e.t.c such facilities and services may not be
adequately covered by the private sector because of the high costs involved and risks.
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ii. Encouraging consumption of certain commodities-The government may encourage
consumption of certain commodities e.g. maize by subsidizing on their productions or
lowering their taxes.
iii. Controlling consumption of certain commodities-The government may also encourage
consumption of some commodities e.g. cigarettes and alcohol by imposing heavy taxes
on them.
iv. Promotion of Balanced regional development-This may be done by initiating economic
projects in areas that are under developed/lagging behind.
v. Wealth Redistribution-This is done by heavily taxing the rich and using the money
raised to provide goods and services that benefit the poor
vi. To promote economic stability-Economic instability may be caused by factors such as
unemployment. Such problems can be solved through public expenditure in projects that
generate employment such as ‘kazi kwa vijana’
vii. Creation of a conducive Business Environment-Through public expenditure, the
government may develop infrastructure such as roads, electricity, security e.t.c thereby
creating a conducive environment for businesses to thrive in.
viii. To raise government revenue-Through public finance, the government raises revenue
which it uses in provision of essential goods and services to the public.
ix. Improving balance of payment-This may be done by improving heavy taxes such as
customs duty to discourage importation.
Sources of public finance
There are two major sources of public finance i.e.
i. Public revenue
ii. Public debt (government borrowing)
i. Public revenue-This is the income that the government gets from its citizens. The main
sources of public revenue are:
a. Tax: This is a compulsory payment levied by the government on individuals and firms
without any direct benefit to the payer.
b. Fines and penalties-These are the charges imposed on individuals, firms and corporations
who break the laws of the country.(offenders)
c. Fees; These are the payments charged by the government for the direct services it renders to
its people e.g. road licence fee, marriage certificate fee and import licence fee.
d. Rent and rates: Charged on use of government properties e.g. game parks, forests e.t.c
e. Eschiats: Income obtained from properties of persons who die without legal heirs or proper
wills. Such people’s properties are taken over by the state.
f. Dividends and profits: These are the income received from the government direct
investments e.g. income/surplus from public corporations.
g. Interest from loans-This is the interest on loans advanced by the government to firms and
individuals through its agencies such as ICDc,AFC e.t.c
h. Proceeds from scale of government property.
g.Public debt (Government borrowing)-This is the money that the government borrows when
public revenue is insufficient to meet all its financial obligations.
Government borrowing is also referred to as national debt. It includes all outstanding borrowing
by the central government, local authorities and government corporations.
These are two majorly two sources of public debts:
a. Internal borrowing
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b. External borrowing
a. Internal borrowing
This refers to borrowing by government from firms and individuals within the country. This may
be done through:
Open market operation; the government sells its securities such as treasury bonds and treasury
bills. This however has a disadvantage of causing ‘crowding out effect’ where the government
leaves the private investors with little to borrow from.
b. External borrowing
This refers to government borrowing from external sources. It may either be on a bilateral or
multilateral basis.
Bilateral borrowing is where the government borrows directly from another country.
Multilateral borrowing is where the government borrows from international financial institutions
such as international monetary fund (IMF), World Bank, African Development bank e.t.c.such
bodies get finances from various sources which they lend to their member countries who are in
need of such funds.
Generally, external borrowing has strings attached. The borrowing country is expected to meet
some set conditions, sometimes adversely affecting some sectors of the economy.
The total internal borrowing (internal debt) added to the total external borrowing (external debt)
constitutes the national debt.
Classes of public (National debt)
These are two classes of national debt:
i. Reproductive debt
ii. Dead-weight debt.
i. Reproductive debt
This is borrowed money used to finance project(s) that can generate revenue. Such projects, once
started may become self sustaining and may contribute towards servicing/repaying the debt. E.g.
money used to finance irrigation schemes, electricity production e.t.c.
ii. Dead-weight debt
This is borrowed money that is used to finance activities that do not generate any revenue.
Examples are money used to finance recurrent expenditure e.g. payment of salaries or for famine
relief e.t.c
Dead-weight debt is a burden to members of the public since they are the ones who are expected
to contribute towards its repayment.
Factors to consider before the government decides whether to borrow internally or

externally
This refers to how the government spends the finances it has raised on behalf of its citizens.
Categories of government expenditure
a) Recurrent expenditure
b) Development expenditure
c) Transfer payments.
a. Recurrent expenditure
This refers to government spending that takes place regularly e.g. payments of salaries to civil
servants, fuelling of government vehicles e.g.
Every financial year, the government must allocate funds to meet such expenditure.
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Recurrent expenditure is also known as consumption expenditure.
b. Development expenditure
This is also referred to as capital expenditure .It is government spending on projects that
facilitate economic development. Such projects includes construction of railway lines, roads,
airports, rural electrification e.t.c
Once completed expenditure on such projects ceases and may only require maintenance.
c. Transfer payments
This is expenditure on things/people who do not directly contribute to a country’s national
income. Such expenditure include money spent on famine relief, pension, bursaries e.t.c
PRINCIPLES OF PUBLIC/GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE
These are the considerations that are necessary before any expenditure can be incurred by the
government.
They include:
a) Sanctions: Every public expenditure must be approved by the relevant authority like
parliament.
b) Maximum social benefit: Any public expenditure must be incurred in such a way that
majority of the citizens are able to reap maximum benefit from it e.g. improved living
standards and quality of life.
c) Flexibility /elasticity-The policy on public expenditure should be flexible enough to meet
prevailing economic situations i.e. it should be possible to increase or decrease the
expenditure on projects depending on the prevailing circumstances e.g. during drought, it
should be possible to spend on famine relief.
d) Economy-public expenditure should be planned carefully and prudently to avoid any
possible waste.
e) Proper financial management (Accountability)-public funds should be well managed. This
should be facilitated by maintenance of proper records which should be audited as required.
f) Productivity-The biggest proportion of public expenditure should be spent on development
projects and less on non-development projects.
g) Equity-Government expenditure should be distributed equitably to all sectors of the
economy in order to reduce income and wealth inequalities.
h) Surplus-Surplus revenue collected should be saved for emergencies or for when collection of
revenue is below projections.
TAXATION
Tax: is a compulsory payment by either individuals or organizations to the government without
any direct benefit to the payer.
Taxation-refers to the process through which the government raises revenue by collecting taxes.
Purposes/reasons for taxation
i. Raising revenue for government expenditure. This is the main reason for taxation.
ii. Discouraging /controlling consumption of certain commodities e.g. alcohol and cigarattes
which are considered to be harmful.
iii. Discouraging importation of certain commodities in order to protect local industries. This is
done by imposing heavy taxes on such commodities.
iv. Controlling inflation. Taxation reduces money supply by reducing peoples ‘disposable’
income thereby controlling inflation.
v. Reducing inequality in income distribution; this is done by taxing the rich heavily and using
the finances raised in provision of goods and services that benefit the poor.
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vi. Influencing locations of businesses. This is done by taxing businesses located in urban areas
heavily and those in rural areas lightly hence businesses moving to rural areas.
vii. Correcting unfavorable balance of payments. High taxes are imposed on imported
commodities thereby discouraging their importation leading to an improvement in the
balance of payments.
viii. To protect the key selectors of the economy such as the agricultural sector, by stimulating
their growth.
Factors that determine the amount of money raised through taxation

i. Distribution of incomes
ii. Social and political factors
iii. Honesty and efficiency of tax authorities
iv. Citizens level of real income
v. Economic structure of the country i.e. relative size of the country’s commercial and
subsistence sectors.
Principles of taxation
These are the characteristics that a good tax system should have. They are also referred to as the
cannons of taxation.
A good tax system should be;
j. Equitable/principle of equity-Every subject of the state should pay tax in proportion to their
income. A tax system should therefore have horizontal and vertical equity.
Horizontal equity means that those at the same level of income and circumstances should pay the
same amount of tax.
Vertical equity means that those earning higher incomes should pay proportionately higher
amounts of tax than those earning less.
k. Certain/principle of certainty-The tax that an individual should pay should be clear in terms
of the amount, time and manner in which it should be paid. The government should also be
fairly certain of the amount of tax expected so that planning can be easier.
l. Convenient/principle of convenience-Tax levied ought to be convenient to both the
contributor and collector, it should be levied at a time when the payer has money and mode
of payment should be convenient to both the payer and the payee.
m. Economical/principle of economy-The cost of collecting and administering the tax should be
lower than the tax so collected.
n. Flexible/principle of flexibility-It should be readily adaptable to changing economic times
i.e. when the economic conditions of the people improve it should give raised revenue e.g.
VAT
o. Ability to pay/non-oppressive-A tax system should be designed in a way that the amount
charged is not too high to the extent that the contributors are unable to pay or is discouraged
from working hard.
p. Diversified/principle of diversity-There should be different types of taxes so that the tax
burden is on different groups in the society. This also ensures that the government has money
at all times.
q. Simplicity-A good tax system should be simple enough to be understood by each tax payer.
This will motivate them to pay tax.
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r. Elastic/principle of elasticity-The tax system should be able to generate more revenue for the
government by targeting items of mass consumption.
IMPACT AND INCIDENCE OF TAX
Impact of tax: The burden of tax on the initial person
Incidence of tax: The final resting place of the tax burden.
The person on whom tax is initially imposed may either bear the whole burden or pass part or the
whole burden to someone else. E.g. for manufactured goods, the impact of the tax is on the
manufacturer and the manufacturer may pass the incidence of the tax to the consumer.
If the manufacturer only passes part of the burden to the consumer, then the incidence of the tax
wil be partly on the manufacturer and partly on the consumer.
CLASSIFICATION OF TAXES
Taxes are classified according to;
i. Structure of the tax
ii. Impact of the tax on the tax payer.
a. According to the structure
In this case, taxes are classified according to the relationship between the amount paid on tax and
the income of the tax payer. These are:
i. Progressive tax
ii. Regressive tax
iii. Proportional tax
b. Progressive tax
This is a type of tax where the rate/amount paid increases proportionately with increase in
income.e.g tax may be as follows
Income Rate
0-5000 20%
5001-10000 25%
10001-15000 30% e.t.c
-In progressive tax, those with higher income rates remit a higher proportion of their income as
tax compared to those in lower income brackets.
This type of tax is based on the belief that one only needs a certain amount in order to have a
decent standard of living.
Advantages of progressive tax
 It reduces income inequality as the rich are taxed more
 It encourages people to work harder/more in order to maintain their
standard of living
 The revenue collected is higher
 The unit cost of collecting tax reduces as the tax increases.
Disadvantages of progressive tax
i. It is oppressive-some people are taxed more than the others and punishes people for their
hard work.
ii. It may discourage people from working more as any additional income goes tax
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iii. Investors may be discouraged from venturing into risky but more profitable businesses as
these would attract more tax
iv. It assumes that people earning the same amount of money/income have similar needs and
ability to pay tax-which in reality may not be true.
v. It can lead to tax evasion by taxpayers falsifying their level of income.
c. Regressive tax
This is a type of tax that takes a higher proportion of low income earners as compared to high
income earners. The fax burden falls more heavily on the poor (opposite of progressive)
Example: sales tax where people pay the same amount irrespective of the level of income.
The assumption is based on the understanding that the one who deems it necessary to buy a
certain products considers the utility derived from it to be equal to its price, which includes tax.
d. Proportional Tax
This is a type of tax where the rate of tax remains the same irrespective of the level of income or
value of property to be taxed e.g. if the rate is 20% then a person who earns ksh.5000 will pay
20/100 x5000=ksh.1000
Ksh.10, 000 will pay 20/100x10,000=ksh.2000 e.t.c
Example: corporation tax where companies are expected to pay a fixed proportion of
their profits as tax.
e. Digressive tax
This is a type of tax where the tax rate increases up to a given maximum after which a uniform
tax rate is levied for any further income.
Classification according to impact on the tax-payee
Based on the impact, the tax has on the tax payer; tax may be classified as either:
a. Direct tax
b. Indirect tax
a. Direct tax
These are taxes where the impact and the incidence of the tax are on the same person. It is not
possible to shift/pass any part of the tax burden to anybody else.
This type of tax is based on incomes, profits and property of individuals as well as companies.
They include:
i. Personal income tax
This is a tax that is imposed on incomes of individuals and is usually progressive in nature.
Example pay-As You-Earn (PAYE) for salaries.
In most cases it is paid through check-off system where the employer deducts it from the
employee’s salary and remits it to the tax authorities.
ii. Corporation tax
This is tax levied on profits of companies. It is usually proportional in nature.
iii. Stamps duty
This is tax paid in areas such as conveyance of land or securities from one person to another.
iv. Estate (death) duty
This type of tax is imposed on property transferred after the owners’ death. The tax helps in
raising government revenue and also in redistributing income since the inheritor has not worked
for it.
v. Wealth tax
This is tax levied on personal wealth beyond a certain limit.
vi. Capital gains tax
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This is tax levied on gains realized when a fixed asset is sold at a price higher than the book
value.
vii. Capital transfer (gifts) Tax
This is tax imposed on the value of property transferred from one person to another as a gift. The
tax is designed to seal loopholes whereby a wealthy person may try to avoid tax by transferring
his/her property to a friend or a relative as a gift.
This type of tax is progressive in nature. It however does not affect transfers between spouses or
to charitable organizations.
Merits/advantages of direct taxes
i. Economical in collection; most of direct taxes are collect at source and the cost of collecting
them is fairly low.
ii. Tax revenue is certain; the tax payer knows what and when to pay and the government knows
how much tax revenue to expect at what time (can be collected from the annual tax returns in
advance)
iii. Equitable /equity; they facilitate fair distribution in tax contribution as people pay according
to the size of their income.
iv. Simplicity /simple to understand; they are easy and simple to understand by both the tax
payer and the collector.
v. Does not affect the price of goods and services; direct tax does not cause inflation as it only
affects consumer’s disposable incomes and not the prices of goods and services.
vi. Brings redistribution of wealth; direct taxes are progressive in nature hence the wealthier
members of the society are taxed more than the poorer members of the society.
vii. Civic consciousness; tax payers feed the pinch of paying tax and thus take a keen interest in
government expenditure.
viii. No leakages; loss of collected revenue is minimized as the tax is paid directly to the tax
authorities and not through middle men.
ix. Desirable; the tax is desirable because it only affects people who fall within the jurisdiction
of income tax and corporation tax.
x. Elastic/flexible; the tax is flexible in that it can be expanded to cover as many areas as
desirable.
It can also be raised or reduced according to the needs of the economy.
DEMERITS OF DIRECT TAX
i. Encourage avoidance and evasion; whenever possible people come up with ways of reducing
the amount of tax payable by falsifying information or just ignoring payment.
ii. Discriminatory /not imposed on all citizens; direct taxes are not paid by all citizens as low
income earners who do not fall within the tax brackets are exempted
iii. Discourage investment/deterrent to investment; Heavy taxation on profits discourage people
from investing in risky but profitable businesses
iv. Discourage work/deterrent to work; High rate of direct tax may deter people from working
harder as people may opt for leasure instead of working extra time.
v. Encourage capital flight; high taxes such as corporate tax make foreigners to withdraw their
investments and transfer them to countries with lower taxes.
vi. Unpopularity; the burden of the tax (incidence and impact) of tax is borne by the tax payer
directly and at once. This makes direct taxes very unpopular.
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vii. May inconvenience the tax payer; the tax payer has to comply with complicated formalities
relating to sources of income as well as the expenses incurred while generating it. This may
force the tax-payer to engage the services of tax experts who have to be paid.
viii. Lack of civic awareness; on tax payers are not interested in scrutinizing government
expenditure as they do not feel the pinch of paying tax.
b. Indirect tax
These are taxes in which the impact is on one person and the incidence is partially or wholly on
another person. The tax payer may shift either the whole or part of the tax burden to another
person.
Such taxes are usually based on the expenditure on goods and services and include the following:
i. Sales tax: this is based on the sales made and may be assessed either as a percentage of the
sales or a fixed amount e.g. sh.2 per every kilograms sold. The tax may be collected at one
point or various points of sale. In Kenya, sales tax has been replaced by V.A.T
ii. VALUE ADDED TAX (V.A.T): this is the tax that is levied on the value that a business adds
borne by the consumer in the final price.
iii. Export duty: this is a type of tax that is levied on exports. The objective may either to raise
revenue or discourage the exploitation of some commodities.
iv. Import duty: This is tax levied on imported products,
For the following reasons.
 Raising government revenue
 Reducing incidences of dumping
 Discouraging consumption of imported goods with a view of boosting local production
 Protecting local industries
v. Excise duty: This is a type of tax that is imposed on goods that are manufactured and sold
within a country.
Its purpose includes:
 Raising revenue for the government
 Discouraging the consumption of some commodities such as beer and cigarettes.
MERITS OF INDIRECT TAX

I. Can be used selectively; It can be used selectively to achieve a given objective e.g.
consumption of some commodities.
II. Tax payment is voluntary; indirect tax is only paid by those who consume the tax
commodities therefore those who do not want to pay the tax would only need to avoid
taxed commodities.
III. Difficult to evade; the tax cannot be evaded because it is part of the price of the
commodity. All those who buy the commodity taxed must therefore pay the tax.
IV. Wide coverage/broad based; the tax is levied on a wide range of essential commodities
thus a high amount of revenue is collected.
V. Stimulate effort; indirect taxes if increased increases the prices of goods and services.
People who want to maintain the same living standards will therefore have to work harder
to be able to buy/affect the same goods and services.
VI. Convenient; the tax is paid in bits as one buys the goods and services. The tax is also
hidden in the price of the commodity and the payer may not be aware of it.
VII. Flexible; flexible; the government can raise or reduce the tax rate to suit the prevailing
economic situation in a country.
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DEMERITS OF INDIRECT TAXES
1. END May fuel inflation; continued increase in indirect taxes may fuel inflation as it directly
increases the prices of goods and services.
2. Less equitable/regressive; the same amount is charged on both the high and the low income
earners making the tax burden to fall heavily on the low income earners. The low income
earners end up paying a larger proportion of their income as tax.
3. Can be avoided; indirect taxes can be avoided by people who do not consume the taxed
commodity.
4. Encourages falsification of records; traders may falsify their rewards in order to pay less tax.
5. Lack of civic/contributors awareness; the tax is hidden in the price of the commodities
therefore the tax payers are not aware that they are contributing anything to the state.
6. Expensive to administer/expensive in collection; the government must employ many tax
inspectors making indirect taxes expensive in collection and administration.
7. Uncertainty in revenue collection; the government may not predict the amount of revenue
yield as it is not easy to forecast sales and people can also not be forced to buy the taxed
commodities.
8. Might interfere with resource allocation; indirect taxes increases the prices of commodities
and can therefore force consumers and producers to shift to the consumption and production
of commodities that are not taxed.
9. Discourages savings; increased expenditure due to increased prices will lead to low saving
and hence low investments.
INFLATION
Control of Inflation
The govt. may adopt the following policies depending on their situation to reduce inflation to
manageable levels. They include:
(iv)Monetary policy
This is a deliberate move by the govt. through the central bank to regulate and control the money
supply in the economy which may lead to demand pull inflation. The policies include;
 Increase rate of interest of lending to the commercial banks. This forces them to increase the
rate at which they are lending to their customers, to reduce the number of customers borrowing
money, reducing the amount of money being added to the economy
 Selling of govt. securities in an open market operation (o.m.o). the selling of securities such as
Bonds and Treasury bills mops money from the economy, reducing the amount of money being
held by individuals
 Increasing the commercial banks cash/liquidity ratio. This reduces their ability to lend and
release more money into the economy, reducing their customers purchasing power
 Increasing the compulsory deposits by the commercial banks with the central banks. This
reduces their lending power to their customers, which makes their customers to receive only
little amount from them, reducing the amount of money in the economy
 Putting in place the selective credit control measures. The central bank may instruct the
commercial bank to only lend money to a given sector of the economy which needs it most, to
reduce the amount of money reaching the economy
 Directives from the central banks to the commercial banks to increase their interest on the
money being borrowed, to reduce their lending rates
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 Request by the central bank to the commercial banks (the moral persuasion) to exercise control
on their lending rates to help them curb inflation.
(v) Fiscal policy
These are the measures taken by the govt. to influence the level of demand in the economy
through taxation process. They include;
 Reduced govt. spending. This reduces the amount of money reaching the consumers, which is
likely to increase their purchasing powers, leading to inflation
 Increasing income taxes. This reduces the level of the consumers disposable income and
lowering their spending levels, reducing the inflation
 Reducing taxes on production. This reduces the cost of production, lowering the prices of goods
reaching the market
 Subsidizing the production. This reduces the cost of production in the economy, which in turn
passes over the benefits to the consumers inform of reduced prices.
 Producing commodities that are in short supply. This increases their availability to meet their
existing demand in the market, controlling demand pull inflation
(vi)Statutory measures
These are laws made by the govt. to help in controlling the inflation. They include;
 Controlling wages and salaries. This reduces the pressure put on the employers to meet high cost
of labour for their production which in turn is just likely to lead to cost push inflation. It also
minimizes the amount reaching the consumers as their income, to control their purchasing power
and the level of demand, controlling the demand pull inflation
 Price controls. This reduces the manufactures ability to fix their prices beyond a given level
which may cause inflation due to their desire to receive high profits.
 Restrictive imports. This reduces the chances of high prices of imported goods impacting on the
prices of the goods in the country (imported inflation) and making the manufactures to look for
alternative source of raw materials for their production
 Restricting the terms of hire purchase and credit terms of sales. This reduces the level of demand
for those particular commodities in the economy which if not controlled may lead to demand pull
inflation
 Controlling exports. This ensures that the goods available in the local market are adequate for
their normal demand. Shortage of supply of goods in the market is likely to bring about the
demand pull inflation
Outline measures that the government may employ to control the following types of inflation;
Cost push inflation
o By controlling the wages and salaries in the economy
o Restricting import on raw materials
o Reducing taxes on production
o Subsidizing the production
o Employing the price control techniques
Demand pull inflation
o Increasing the rate of interest of lending to the commercial banks
o Selling govt. securities on O.M.O
o Increasing the commercial banks cash/liquidity ratio
o Increasing the compulsory deposits from the commercial banks to the central bank
o Putting in place the selective credit control measure
o Directives to the commercial banks
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o Request to the commercial banks
o Reducing govt. expenditure
o Increasing income taxes
o Producing commodities that are short in supply
o Restricting terms of hire purchase and credit terms of sale
o Controlling export
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNING
Economic Growth
This is the increase in the productivity of a country which can be seen in the continued increase
in the national income over a period of years.
It can be measured by taking the average percentage of increase in national income over a period
of time (number of years) and be assumed to be the average rate of economic growth in the
country
Economic Development
This is the quantitative change or increase in a country’s national income over the years,
accompanied by favorable changes in the structures within the country that leads to general
improvement of the individual well being, as well as the entire nation
A country may experience economic growth without experiencing economic development. This
is because the increase in the national income may be as a result of people working for long
hours without any time for rest, recreation and other development to occur in their body. This
will make them not to have better living, despite the fact that the national income shall have
increased.
The expected structural changes to be realized in a case of economic development include;
i) Shifting from depending on agricultural sector to manufacturing sector in the
economy
ii) Reducing illiteracy levels
iii) Increase in skilled manpower in the economy
iv) Improvement in health facilities within the country
v) Increase in technology and improvement of entrepreneurial ability
vi) Increase and improvement of institution that handles new methods of productive
economic activities
Outline the differences that exist between economic growth and economic development
Economic Growth Economic Development
i) An increase in size of the country’s i) An increase in the size and quality of the
National income country’s National income
ii) Number of people living in absolute ii) Number of people living in absolute
poverty can increase despite the increase in poverty does not increase
national income
iii)Increase in national income could be due iii) Increase in national income is
to increase in income of only few people attributed to general increase of incomes of
majority of the people in the country
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iv)No tendency to bridge the gap between the iv)Tends to bridge the gap between the rich
rich and the poor and the poor
Underdevelopment
This refers to a situation whereby the economic growth is in the negative direction (decreasing)
accompanied by uneven distribution of wealth and decrease in quality and quantity of the factors
of production available
Characteristics of Underdevelopment
 High level of poverty. This is characterized by most of the people in the country
depending on mainly subsistence, or lives below the poverty levels. Their per capita
income is lower as compared to the developed countries
 High disparity in income distribution. The income in this countries are not evenly
distributed with the few rich people earning so much while the poor majority earns so
little
 Low levels of savings and investments. They have very little if at all exist to save and
invest for their further development, making them to continue being poor. This is well
illustrated in the vicious circle of poverty
 High population growth rates. This is due to some of them not being able to afford,
ignorant about or simply refusing to use the modern birth control methods since they find
consolation on their high number of children
 Dominance of subsistence sector. This is due to their inability to raise capital for indirect
production
 Problem of unemployment. The high population growth rate leads to high supply of
labour that the country’s economy cannot afford to absorb all, leading to unemployment
 Under utilization of natural resources. This may be due to lack of capital in this countries
or in appropriate technology they use
 Dependence on the developed countries. This is due to their in ability to sustain
themselves financially, which makes them keep on calling upon the developed partners
for financial assistance
 Poor infrastructure. Their roads and communication networks are not properly
maintained due to the in availability of adequate resources to improve them
Goals of Economic Development
The following are the changes that economic development seeks to put in place, which in Kenya
they have been joined together in what is referred to as the millennium development goals. They
includes
1. Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
2. Achieve universal primary education
3. Promote gender equality and empower women
4. Reduce child mortality
5. Improve maternal health
6. Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases
7. Ensure environmental sustainability
8. Develop a global partnership for development
Some includes
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o Reducing income disparity in distributions
o Reducing unemployment
o Provision of important basic needs such as food, shelter, etc
Factor which may hinder development in a country
The rate of a country’s economic development may be influenced negatively by the following
factors
i. Low natural resource endowment. Absence or inadequacy of natural resources such as
raw materials, fertile land for agriculture, etc may slow the pace of the country’s
economic development
ii. Inadequate capital. This reduces the rate at which they exploit their natural resources, or
produce in the economy
iii. Poor technology used. The traditional methods of production that they use cannot sustain
their requirement any more
iv. Poor human resource endowment. Their inability to train adequate skilled manpower
together with their inappropriate system of education leads to their slow development
v. Unfavorable domestic environment. Their political, social and economic institutions
within their countries are not structured to favour economic development. For example
o Their political system is characterized by corruption, authoritarian kind of
leadership with lengthy procedures and bureaucratic controls that scares the
investors
o Their social environment is still full of outdated or retrogressive cultural values
and negative attitude towards work and investment, leading to slow development
o Their Economic institutions has allowed their markets to be influenced so much
that that leads to interference in their smooth operations
Development Planning
This is the process through which the country establishes their objectives to be achieved, identify
the resources that will be required and put in place the strategies or methods of acquiring the
resources and achieving their pre-determined objectives.
In most cases their objectives or goals are the goals of economic development
The plan will prioritize the objectives to be achieved and even brake it down in to targets that if
achieved with the planned strategy and resources, the objective shall have been achieved.
Need for economic planning
It enhances the following
a. Appropriate resource allocation, where resources are allocated according to the need of
the objective and in a most productive way
b. Stimulation of effort of people in the desired direction. The plan outlines including the
possible outcomes which persuade people to move to that direction
c. Support foreign aid bargain. Since it shows including the objective that the country seeks
to achieve, it is capable of convincing the donor to finance it in the country
d. Project evaluation, by assisting on checking whether the predetermined targets or
objectives are being achieved
e. Long term decision making, as it will show what each and every sector of the economy
will require in the future to make it stable.
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f. Avoiding duplication of industries in different parts of the country, for it will show the
ones that have been set in those parts and even enhance balancing
g. Promote balancing in regional development by ensuring that they are not concentrated in
only one region, ignoring other regions
Problems encountered in development planning
Problems at the planning stage
i) Lack of accurate or detailed data for planning. This may lead to in appropriate plan being
developed, as it entirely depends on the quality and availability of the data
ii) Existence of large subsistence sector, which make the planning unrealistic
iii) Lack of qualified personnel to assist in planning. This may make the country to rely on
foreign experts who do not fully understand the country
iv) Problem of the private sector which will always require incentives for them to follow the
plan
v) Transfer of inappropriate development plan. As some planners may simply borrow a plan
that they feel may have worked for a given country, yet the condition in those countries
may not be the same
Problems at the implementation stage
i. Over reliance on donor funding, which if they don’t receive, the plan may not be
implemented
ii. Lack of domestic resources such as skilled personnel, finance and capital may make the
implementation a problem
iii. Failure to involve the local people in planning. This will make them not to be willing to
implement it, for they will not be understanding it or rebelling for the fact that they were
not included
iv. Natural calamities such as diseases, floods, drought, etc may make the funds that had
been set aside for implementation be diverted to curb them
v. Over-ambitious plans which are a times just made to impress the donors to release their
funds but may not be easy to implement
vi. Lack of co-operation among the executing parties which may make the work not to kick
off. For example a conflict between the ministry of finance and that of planning of the
amount to be released
vii. Inflation which may make the estimated value of implementation not to be adequate,
bringing a problem of finances
viii. Lack of political will and commitment in implementing the plan. This may frustrate the
implementation.
INTERNATIONAL TRADE
A trade involving the exchange of goods and services between two or more countries. If the
exchange is between two countries only, then it is referred to as bilateral trade, but if it is
between more than two countries then it is referred to as multilateral trade.
Advantages of International Trade
 It enable the country to get access to wider range/variety of goods and services from
other countries
 It enable the country to get what it does not produce
 It helps in promoting peace among the trading countries
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 It enable the country to specialize in its production activities where they feel they have an
advantage
 It earns the country revenue through taxes and licenses fees paid by the importers and
exporters in the country
 It enable the country to dispose of its surplus goods and services thereby avoiding
wastage
 It creates employment opportunities to the citizens of that country either directly or
indirectly
 It may lead to the development of the country through importation of capital goods in to
the country
 It encourages easy movement of factors of production across the borders of the countries
involved
 It enable countries to earn foreign exchange which it can use to pay for its imports
 A country may be able to obtain goods and services cheaply than if they have been
produced locally
 During hard times or calamities such as wars, the country is able to get assistance from
the trading partners
 It brings about competition between the imported and locally produced goods, leading to
improvement in their quality
 It gives the country an opportunity to exploit fully its natural resources, due to increased
market
Disadvantages of International trade
 It may lead to collapse of the local industries, as people will tend to go for the imported
goods. The collapse may also lead to loss of employment
 It may also lead to importation of harmful foods and services such as drugs and
pornographic materials
 May lead to over depending on imported commodities especially the essential ones,
making the country to be a slave of the other countries, interfering with their sovereignty
 It may make the country to suffered during emergencies if they mainly rely on the
imported goods
 May make the country to suffer from import inflation
 May lead to acquisition of bad culture from other countries as a result of their interactions
 May lead to unfavorable balance of payment, if the import is higher than exports
Terms of Trade
This refers to the rate at which the country’s export exchanges with those from other country.
That is:
Terms of trade =
It determine the value of export in relations to import so that a country can know whether it’s
trade with the other country is favourable or unfavourable
Favourable terms of trade will make the country spent little on import and gain a lot of foreign
exchange from other countries
For example;
Then table below shows trade between Kenya and China in the year 2004 and 2005, with the
Kenyan government exporting and importing to and from china, and China also importing and
Exporting from and to Kenya.
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Average prices of export
Year
Kenya China
2004 1000 4000
2005 1200 6500
Calculate the Terms of trade for;
i. Kenya
ii. China
Solution:
Kenya
a) Export price index (E.P.I) = x 100
1200
= x100
1000
= 120%
average prices of import∈current year
b) Import price index (I.P.I) = x 100
average prices of import∈the base year
6500
= x 100
4000
= 162.5%
export price index
c) Terms of trade (T.O.T) = x 100
import priceind e x
120
= x 100
162.5
= 73.8%
This implies that Kenya is importing from China more than it is exporting, leading to
unfavourable terms of trade i.e. when the percentage is less than 100%, it implies unfavourable
terms of trade.
China (work out)
The average prices is the various prices of the individual export or import items divide by their
number
Factors that may lead to either favourable or unfavourable terms of trade
The country is experiencing a favourable terms of trade if:
 The prices of imports decline and those of export remains the constant
 The prices of imports declines while those of exports increase
 The price of imports remains constant while those of exports increase
 The prices of import and export increases but the rate of increase in export is higher
 Both prices decrease but the decrease in import prices is higher
The country will experience unfavourable terms of trade if;
 Prices of import increases while those of exports decline
 Prices of import remains constant while those of export declines
 Prices of import increase as the export remains constant
 Both prices increase, but for imports increases at a higher rate than export
 Both prices decrease, but for export decreases at a higher rate than import
Reasons for differences in terms of trade between countries
The terms of trade may differ due to:
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i. The nature of the commodity being exported. If a country exports raw materials, or
unprocessed agricultural products, its terms of trade will be unfavourable, as compared to
a country that exports manufactured goods
ii. Nature of the commodity being imported. A country that imports manufactured goods is
likely to have unfavourable terms of trade as compared to that which imports raw
materials or agricultural produce
iii. Change in demand for a country’s export. An increase in demand for the country’s export
at the world market will make it have favourable terms of trade as compared to those with
low demand at the world market
iv. Existing of world economic order favouring the products from more developed countries.
This may make the developing countries to have deteriorating terms of trade
v. Total quantity supplied. A country exporting what most countries are exporting will have
their products trading at a lower price, experiencing unfavourable terms of trade as
compared to a country that export what only few countries export
vi. Trade restrictions by trading partners. A country with no trading restrictions is likely to
import more products, leading to unfavourable terms of trade, as compared to if it impose
trade restrictions
Balance of trade
This is the difference between value of country’s visible exports and visible imports over a
period of time. If the value of visible/tangible export is higher than the value of visible/tangible
imports, then the country experiences favourable terms. If less than the invisible value, then the
country is experiencing unfavourable. The country is at equilibrium if the value of visible export
and import is the same
Balance of payments
This is the difference in the sum of visible and invisible export and the visible and invisible
imports. If positive then it means the country is having favourable terms, while if negative, then
it means unfavourable It goes beyond the balance of trade in that it considers the following
 The countries visible/tangible export and import of goods (visible trade)
 The countries invisible/services exported and imported in the country (invisible trade)
 The inflow and outflow of investment (capital goods)
Balance of Payment account
This is the summary showing all the transactions that have taken place between a particular
country and the rest of the world over a period of time. The transaction may arise from
a) The export of visible goods
b) The import of visible goods
c) The export of invisible goods/services
d) The import of invisible goods/services
e) Flow of capital in and out of the country
Components of balance of payments account
The balance of payment account is made up of the following
a) Balance of payment on current account
ii) Balance of payment on capital account
iii)Official settlement account/Cash account/foreign exchange transaction account
Balance of payment on current account
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This is the account that is used to determine the difference between the value of the country’s
visible and invisible imports and exports. That is
Balance of payment on current account = (visible export + invisible export) – (visible import +
invisible import)
In the account, the payments for the visible and invisible imports are debited while the receipts
from visible and invisible exports are credited that is
Dr current account Cr
Payments for imports Receipts from exports
(Visible and Invisible) (Visible and Invisible)
The balance of payment on current account may be;
In equilibrium i.e. if Dr = Cr
Unfavourable i.e. if Dr > Cr (-ve)
Favourable i.e. if Dr < Cr (+ve)
For example;
A given country had the following values of visible and invisible export and import during the
year 2004 and 2005
Trade 2004 (shs) 2005 (shs)
Visible export 18926 29954
Visible imports 22780 32641
Invisible exports 6568 19297
Invisible imports 5239 16129
Required
Prepare the country’s balance of payments on current account for the years 2004 and 2005 and
comment on each of them.
Dr current account year 2004 Cr
shs Shs
Visible imports 22780 Visible export 18926
Invisible imports 5239 Invisible export 6568
Total 28019 Total 25494
Deficit 2525
The country experienced unfavourable balance of payment on current account in the year 2004,
since they imported more than they exported
Dr current account year 2005 Cr

shs Shs
Visible imports 32641 Visible export 29954
Invisible imports 16129 Invisible export 19297
Total 28019 Total 49251
Excess 481
The country experienced favourable balance of payment on current account in the year 2005,
since they exported more than they imported
Balance of payments on capital account
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This account shows the summary of the difference between the receipt and payments on the
investment (capital). Receipts are income from investments in foreign countries while payments
are income on local investments by foreigners paid out of the country.
The capital inflow includes investments, loans and grants from foreign donors, while capital
outflow includes dividends paid to the foreign investors, loan repayments, donations and grants
to other countries.
In the account the payments are debited, while the receipts are credited. That is;
Dr capital account Cr
Payments Receipts
The account may be;

In equilibrium i.e. if Dr = Cr
Unfavourable i.e. if Dr > Cr (-ve)
Favourable i.e. if Dr < Cr (+ve)
The combined difference on the receipts and payments on both the current and capital accounts
is known as the overall balance of payments.
The official settlement account
This account records the financial dealings with other countries through the IMF. It is also called
the foreign exchange transaction account, and is always expected to balance which a times may
not be the case. That is;
o In case of surplus in the balance of payment, the central bank of that country creates a
reserve with the IMF and transfer the surplus to the reserves account.
o In case of a deficit in the balance of payment, the central banks collect the reserves from
the IMF to correct the deficit, and incase it did not have the reserves, the IMF advances
it/give loan
Balance of payment disequilibrium
This occurs when there is either deficit or surplus in the balance of payments accounts. If there is
surplus, then the country would like to maintain it because it is favourable, while if deficit, the
country would like to correct it.
Causes of balance of payment disequilibrium
It may be caused by the following;
 Fall in volume of exports, as this will reduce the earnings from exports leading to a
deficit.
 Deteriorating in the countries terms of trade. That is when the country’s exports decreases
in relation to the volume of imports, then her payments will higher than what it receives.
 Increasing in the volume of import, especially if the export is not increasing at the same
rate, then it will import more than it exports, leading to a disequilibrium
 Restriction by trading partners. That is if the trading partners decides to restrict what they
can import from the country to a volume lower than what the country import from them,
it will lead to disequilibrium
 Less capital inflow as compared to the out flow, as this may lead to a deficit in the capital
account, which may in turn leads to disequilibrium.
 Over valuation of the domestic currency. This will make the country’s export to very
expensive as compared to their import, making it to lose market at the world market
 Devaluation of the currency by the trading partner. This makes the value of their imports
to be lower, enticing the country to import more from them than they can export to them.
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Correcting the balance of payment disequilibrium
The measures that may be taken to correct this may include;
 Devaluation of the country’s currency to encourage more exports than imports,
discouraging the importers from importing more into the country.
 Encouraging foreign investment in the country, so that it may increase the level of
economic activities in the country, producing what can be consumed and even exported
to control imports
 Restricting the capital outflow from the country by decreasing the percentage of the
profits that the foreigner can repatriate back to their country to reduce the outflow
 Decreasing the volume of imports. This will save the country from making more
payments than it receives. It can be done in the following ways;
i) Imposing or increasing the import duty on the imported goods to make them more
expensive as compared to locally produced goods and lose demand locally
ii) Imposing quotas/total ban on imports to reduce the amount of goods that can be
imported in the country
iii) Foreign exchange control. This allows the government to restrict the amount of
foreign currencies allocated for the imports, to reduce the import rate
iv) Administrative bottlenecks. The government can put a very long and cumbersome
procedures of importing goods into the country to discourage some people from
importing goods and control the amount of imports
 Increasing the volume of exports. This enable the country to receive more than it gives to
the trading partners, making it to have a favourable balance of payment disequilibrium.
This can be done through;
i) Export compensation scheme, which allows the exporter to claim a certain
percentage of the value of goods exported from the government. This will make
them to charge their export at a lower price, increasing their demand
internationally
ii) Diversifying foreign markets, to enable not to concentrate only on one market that
may not favour them and also increase the size of the market for their exports
iii) Offering customs drawbacks. This where the government decides to refund in full
or in part, the value of the custom duties that has been charged on raw materials
imported into the country to manufacture goods for export
iv) Lobbying for the removal of the trade restriction, by negotiating with their trading
partners to either reduce or remove the barrier put on their exports
Terms of sales in international trade
Here the cost trading which includes the cost of the product, cost of transporting, loading,
shipping, insurance, warehousing and unloading may be expensive. This makes some of the cost
to be borne by the exporter, as some being borne by the importer. The price of the goods quoted
therefore at the exporters premises should clearly explain the part of the cost that he/she is going
to bear and the ones that the importer will bear before receiving his/her goods. This is what is
referred to as the terms of sale
Terms of sales therefore refers to the price quotation that state the expenses that are paid for by
the exporter and those paid for by the importer.
Some of the common terms include;
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(i) Loco price/ex-warehouse/ex-works. This states that the price of the goods quoted are as
they are at the manufacturers premises. The rest of the expenses of moving the good up to
the importers premises will be met by the importer
(ii) F.O.R (Free on Rail). This states that the price quoted includes the expenses of
transporting the goods from the seller’s premises to the nearest railway station. Other
railways charges are met by the importer
(iii) D.D (Delivered Docks)/Free Docks. This states that the
price quoted covers the expenses for moving the goods from the exporter’s premises to
the dock. The importer meets all the expenses including the dock charges
(iv)F.A.S (Free Along Ship). States that the price quoted includes the expenses from the
exporter’s premises to the dock, including the loading expenses. Any other expenses are
met by the importer
(v) F.O.B (Free on Board). States that the price quoted includes the cost of moving the goods
up to the ship, including loading expenses. The buyer meets the rest of the expenses
(vi)C&F (cost & freight). The price quoted includes the F.O.B as well as the shipping
expenses. The importer meets the insurance charges
(vii) C.I.F (Cost Insurance & freight). The price includes the C&F, including the insurance
expenses
(viii) Landed. The price includes all the expenses up to the port of destination as well as
unloading charges
(ix)In Bond. The price quoted includes the expenses incurred until the goods reaches the
bonded warehouse
(x) Franco (Free of Expenses). The price quoted includes all the expenses up to the
importer’s premises. The importer does not incur any other expenses other than the
quoted price
(xi)O.N.O (Or Nearest Offer). This implies that the exporter is willing to accept the quoted
price or any other nearest to the quoted one
Documents used in International trade
i) Enquiry/Inquiry. A letter sent by an importer to the exporter asking about the supply of
the goods and the terms of sale.
ii) Order of Indent. This asks the supplier to supply goods. It may specify the goods to be
supplied and suggest the preferred mode of transport for them. An indent may be open or
closed
o Open Indent. Here the importer does not specify the supplier and the goods to be
bought and therefore the exporter or export agent is free to choose the supplier
o Closed Indent. Here the importer specifies the supplier and the goods to be bought
iii) Letter of Credit. A document issued by the importers bank to the exporter’s bank to
assure the exporter of the payment for the goods ordered. The exporter can then be paid
by his bank on the basis of this letter.
iv) Import Licence. A document issued by the country to allow the importer to buy goods
from abroad.
v) Bill of Lading. A document of title to goods being exported issued by the shipping
company to the importer who should use it to have goods released at the port of entry.
vi) Freight Note. A document prepared by the shipping company to show the transportation
charges for goods.
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vii) Certificate of insurance. A document issued by the insurance company or agent,
undertaking to cover the risk against the loss or damage to goods being exported.
viii) Certificate of Origin. A document that shows the country from which the goods are
being imported have originated from.
ix) Commercial Invoice. A document issued by the exporter to demand for the payment for
the sold on credit to the importer.
It shows the following;
 The name and address of the exporter
 The name and the address of the importer
 The price charged
 The terms of sale
 The description of the consignment
 The name of the ship transporting the consignment
x) Consular Invoice. A document that shows that the prices of the goods that have been
charged is fair as certified by the consul with the embassy of the exporting country.
xi) Proforma Invoice. A document sent by the exporter to the importer if he/she is not willing
to sell goods on credit. It may be used to serve the following purposes;
 Serve as a formal quotation
 Serve as a polite request for payment before the goods are released for the
customer
 To enable the importer to initiated the clearing of the custom duty early enough to
avoid delays
 Used to by the importer to obtain permission from the Central Bank to import
goods
xii) Airway Bill. Issued by the airline company to show the charges for the goods being
transported
xiii) Letter of Hypothecation. A letter written by the exporter to his/her bank authorizing it to
resell the goods being exported. This occurs if the bank fails to get payment on the bill of
exchange drawn on the importer that it has discounted for the exporter. Should there be a
deficit after the resale, the exporter pays the deficit
xiv) Weight note. A documents that shows the weight and other measurements of the goods
being delivered at the dock
xv) Shipping advice note. A document issued by the exporter to his/her shipping agent
containing instruction for shipping goods.
International Financial Institutions
Some of the institutions that play a role in international monetary system include;
i. International Monetary Fund (I.M.F)
ii. African Development Bank (A.D.B)
iii. African Development Fund (A.D.F)
iv. International Bank For Reconstruction and Development (World Bank)
i. International Monetary Fund (I.M.F)
This bank operates like the central bank of the central banks of the member countries. Its
objective includes the following;
Ensuring that the member country maintains a stable foreign exchange rates for their
currencies. This it does by advising the country to raise or increase the supply of their
currency to devalue them or increase their value internationally
49
Provide financial support to the member country to alleviate poverty and boost their
income.
Relieving heavily indebted countries of debt repayment so that it can use that fund to
raise the living standards of its people.
Providing funds to the member countries to finance the deficits in their balance of
payment.
Provide forum through which the member country can consult and cooperate on matters
concerning trade among them
Maintaining currency reserves of the different countries, enabling member countries to
buy foreign exchange to be used to import goods and services.
ii. African Development Bank (A.D.B)
This bank was formed to promote the economic and social progress of its regional member
countries in Africa. It main source of finance is the members’ contributions and the interest
charged on the money they lend members.
Its functions include;
Providing loans for economic and social development to member countries
Provide technical advice in planning and implementation of the development plans
Assist member country to appropriately exploit it resources
To encourage co-operation among African countries in order to bring economic growth
To co-operate with various economic institutions in order to bring about development
especially in Africa countries
iii. African Development Fund (A.D.F)
This was formed to provide long term financial assistance to the low income countries that
cannot obtain loan from other financial institutions at the prevailing terms and condition. Their
loans may recover a longer repayment periods with no interest except the commitment fees and
service charge which is minimal. They fund activities, which includes;
o Education and research activities
o Offer technical advice to the member countries
iv. International Bank For Reconstruction and Development (World Bank)
The World Bank was formed to carry out the following functions;
 Giving loans to countries at very low interest rates to finance economic development
activities.
 Provision of grants to finance the provision of social amenities and basic infrastructural
development in developing countries.
 Fighting against corruption and poor governance which may lead to misuse of public
funds in different countries.
 Advancing money to countries to finance balance of payment deficit.
 Giving advice on economic challenges that countries may face.
 Availing technical assistance and personnel to help countries run their economic
programmes
Economic Integration
This occurs where two or more countries enter into a mutual agreement to cooperate with each
other for their own economic benefit. They may do this by allowing free trade or relaxing their
existing trade barriers for the member countries.
Economic integration may occur in the following forms;
A. Free Trade Area
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This is a case where the member countries agree to abolish or minimize tariffs and other
trade restrictions but the individual countries are free to impose restrictions on non-
member countries. They includes; Preferential Trade Area (P.T.A), European Free Trade
Area (E.F.T.A), Latin America Free Trade Area (L.A.F.T.A), etc.
B. Custom union
This is where the members of the free trade area may agree not only to abolish or
minimize their tariffs, but also establish a common tariff for the exchange of goods and
services with the non member countries. They include; Economic Community of West
Africa States (E.C.O.W.A.S), East Africa Custom Union (E.A.C.U), Central Africa
Custom and Economic Union (C.A.C.E.U)
C. Common Market
This is where the member countries allow for free movement of factors of production
across the borders. People are free to move and establish their business in any member
country. They include; East Africa Common Market (E.A.C.M), European Economic
Community (E.E.C), Central American Common Market (C.A.C.M), Common Market
for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA)
D. Economic Union
This is where the members of the common market agree for put in place a common
currency and a common central bank for the member countries. They even develop
common infrastructures which includes railways, communication networks, common
tariffs, etc
Importance of economic integration
Economic integration will ensure the following benefits for the member countries;
 Availability of wider market for the goods and services produced by the member
countries. This enables them to produce to their full capacity
 It enables the country to specialize in the goods they produce best, making them to
effectively utilize their resources
 It leads to promotion of peace and understanding among the member countries through
interaction
 It leads to high quality of goods and services being produced in the country due to the
competition they face
 It allow members to get access to wider variety of goods and services which satisfy
different consumer needs
 It leads to creation of employment for individuals living within the region, as they can
work in any of the member country
 It increase the economic bargaining power in trading activities by the countries forming a
trading bloc
 Improvement of the infrastructure in the region due to increased economic activities.
 It brings about co-ordination when developing industries, as the members will assign the
industries to each other to create balance development and avoid unnecessary duplication
Free Trade Area
This is a situation where there is unrestricted exchange of goods and services between the
countries. It has benefits/advantages similar to those of economic integration.
Disadvantages of free trade area
Some of the problems it is likely to bring include;
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 It may lead to importation of inferior goods and services to the country, as the member
country may not be able to produce high quality as compare to other non-member
countries
 It may discourage the growth of the infant industries due to competition from well
developed industries in other countries
 It may lead to reduced government revenue because no tariff may be charged on the
goods and services
 A country may be tempted to adopt technology not suitable for its level of development.
 If not controlled, it may lead to unfavourable balance of payment, where a country
imports more than it export
 It may lead to importation of harmful goods and services, that may affect the members
health such as illegal drugs
 It may lead to lack of employment opportunities especially where more qualified people
have moved from their country to secure job opportunities in the country
 It may expose the country to negative cultural practices in other countries, interfering
with their morals. For example the exposure to the pornographic materials.
 Compromising political ideologies especially where member countries with different
ideologies wants to fit in to the bloc
 It may lead to over exploitation of non-renewable economic resources such as minerals
Trade Restrictions
These are deliberate measures by the government to limit the imports and exports of a country.
They are also known as protectionism and includes the following;
 Tariffs which include taxes levied on both import and export. It can be used to increase or
decrease the level of both import and export
 Quotas which is the restriction on the quantity of goods to be either imported or exported.
It can be increased or decreased to increase or decrease the level of import or export
respectively.
 Total ban (zero quota) where the government issues a direction illegalizing either the
import or export of the products
 Complicated import procedure in order to discourage some importers from importing
 Subsidies on locally produced goods to discourage imports
 Legislation against importation of certain goods
 Setting the standards of products to be imported
Reasons for trade restrictions
 To prevent the inflow of harmful goods into the country, that may be harmful to the lives
of the citizens
 To protect the local infant industries that may not be able to compete favourably with
well established industry
 To give a country a chance to exploit its natural resources in producing their goods
 To protect strategic industry, since their collapse may make the country to suffer
 To minimize dependency of the country to other countries for their stability
 To create employment opportunity to its people by establishing the industries to produce
the goods and services
 To prevent dumping of goods in the country by the developed partners which may create
unfair competition
 To correct balance of payment deficit by limiting import
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 To protect good cultural and social values which may be influenced by unaccepted values
they are likely to acquire from other country through interaction
 To expand market for locally produced goods by restricting the number of foreign goods
in the market.
 To enable the country earn foreign exchange through imposing taxes and other tariffs
Advantages of trade restrictions
It promotes self reliance as industries have an opportunity to engage in the production of
goods and services that were previously imported
It protects the local industries from stiff competition that they may have faced from the
well developed countries
It may help to correct the balance of payment deficit
It restrict the entry of harmful goods into the country as it controls the inflow of imports
in to the country
It enables the country to conserve their valuable social and cultural values from the
external influence
It help in creating more job opportunities through diversification in the production
It promotes the growth of local/infant industries in the country.
Disadvantages of trade restriction
 There will be availability of limited variety of goods in the country that will limit the
consumer’s choices
 May lead to production of low quality goods as there will be no competition for the
producing firms
 Other countries may also retaliate, leading to reduction in export from their country
 There is likely to be high prices charged on the locally produced goods, since the small
firms which produce them may not be enjoying the economies of scale
 The country is likely to be exposed to small market, should all countries restrict which
may lead to reduction in trade.
 As a result of the continued protection, some industries may develop a tendency of
remaining young to still enjoy the protection, which limits the level of development
 It may lead to emergence of monopoly as the protected industry may end up remaining
alone in the market, bringing about the problems of monopolies
Trends in International Trade
i. Liberalization that has led to removal of many trade restriction among the countries,
increasing the levels of trade
ii. Development of E-Banking which has enable the international trader to get access to their
bank accounts from wherever they are in
iii. Development of export processing zones (EPZ) by the government to allows the
industries involved just concentrate in the exported goods only. It enable the country
enjoy the following benefits (advantages of EPZ)
 It creates job opportunities to the citizens
 It creates market for locally produced raw materials that they use in their
production
 It encourage the foreign investors to invest in the countries, i.e. in the processing
zones, increasing the level of investment in the country
 Encourages export in the country as the incentives given to them by the
government makes them to produce more and more for export
53
 It stimulates industrialization in the country in all sector including the ones
producing for local consumptions
However EPZ’s have the following problems/disadvantages
Most of them employs foreigners in their management team, denying the
locals a chance to get employed
They do not generate revenue to the government, especially during tax free
periods
They are concentrated in few towns, bringing about imbalance regional
development
Some of them encourages social evils such as prostitution in areas where they
are developed
iv. Development of e-commerce/website trading which has promoted the selling and buying
of items through the internet, with payments made online.
E-commerce has the following benefits/advantages:
 One is able to access the market worldwide, as the countries are connected to the
internet
 There is no discrimination, as both the small and large industries are able to
transact through the internet
 It is fast to transact the business through internet, as it saves on travelling time and
therefore suitable for urgent transaction
 It is cheap especially on the cost of sending, receiving and storing information
 It is easy for firms to share valuable information about production
THE STOCK EXCHANGE MARKET
This is a market whereby the buying and selling of shares and other securities takes place. Shares
are the smallest units of capital that can be sold to persons by a company for them to become
share holders. Other securities traded in this market includes debentures (a unit of loan sold by
the companies to the members of the public), government bonds (a long term borrowing
certificate by the government from its people) and government treasury bills ( a short term
borrowing certificate by the government from its people).
Common terms used in stock exchange
i) Securities:- a document certifying that one has lent money to the issuer (the person
borrowing the money)
ii) Broker:- a person/firm registered by the capital market authority (CMA) to buy and sell
shares and other securities on behalf of their clients
iii) Jobber:- a person/firm who buys and sell shares and other securities with an aim of
making a profit
iv) CDSC account:- Central Depository Settlement Corporation account for mobilizing the
shares and securities to be traded on at the market
In the stock exchange market only registered/listed/quoted companies are allowed to sell their
shares. A quoted/listed company is a company that has been registered as a member of the stock
exchange market.
The quoted companies can sell their shares through the Initial Public Offer (I.P.O) or normal
trading in the market.
IPO is the initial price that the company will float its shares to the members of the public to
buy/subscribe to for the first time. These shares are said to have been issued in the primary
54
market. After the IPO the shares are then accumulated as stock and traded on in the stock
exchange market (secondary market).
All the trading of the shares is done through the company’s agents or brokers.
Procedure of buying shares:
i. Opening a CDSC account through broker
ii. Filling in the purchase order form by stating the type and the number of shares to be
bought
iii. The broker identifies and negotiate with the willing buyer
iv. The shares are then paid for through brokers at a commission
v. Shares are then transferred and credited in the buyers CDSC account
Procedure for selling shares:
i. Opening a CDSC account through broker
ii. Filling in the sales order by stating the price and the number of shares to be sold
iii. The buyer identifies and negotiate with the willing buyer
iv. The buyer pays for the shares through the broker
v. Shares are transferred and credited in the buyer’s CDSC account with the sellers CDSC
account being debited
Roles of stock exchange market
They perform the following roles:
 They facilitate the buying of shares by creating a conducive environment for the investors
who wants to buy shares.
 They facilitate the selling of shares by creating a ready market for those who wish to sell
their shares
 They safeguard the investors’ interest by ensuring that the companies to be listed have
met a given standard of performance. If not they will be deregistered
 Assist the company to raise capital through IPO or sales of shares in the market
 Provide useful information to the investors which is always timely and accurate to assist
them in their decision making
 They create employment opportunity to those who facilitate the buying and selling of the
shares such a jobbers, brokers, etc
 They help the government in raising the revenues in terms of fees and rents to the
government
 They avail variety of securities for the investors to choose from before investing.
 They measure the country’s economic progress through checking the performance of the
stock, which may be an indicator of the economic performance.
SOURCE DOCUMENTS AND BOOKS OF ORIGINAL ENTRY
These are documents containing the information that makes basis of making entries in the books
of accounts. They act as evidence that the transaction actually took place. They includes
 Cash sale receipt: - a document that shows that cash as been received or paid out of the
business either in form of cash or cheque. It is a source document that is mainly used in making
records in the cash journals cash book, cash accounts or bank accounts. If the receipt is received,
it means payments has been made and therefore will be credited in the above accounts, or taken
to cash disbursement/payment journals, while when issued, it means cash/cheque has been
received and therefore will be debited in the above accounts or taken to cash receipt journals
55
 Invoice: - a document issued when the transaction was done on credit to demand for their
payment. If the invoice is an incoming invoice/invoice received, then it implies that the
purchases were made on credit, and if it is an outgoing/invoice issued then it implies that sales
were made on credit.
The incoming invoice will be used to record the information in the purchases journals/diary,
while an outgoing invoice will be used to record information in sales journals/diaries
 Credit note: - a document issued when goods are returned to the business by the
customer or the business return goods to the supplier and to correct any overcharge that may
have taken place. If it is received, then it means part of the purchases has been returned and
therefore the information will be used to record information in the purchases return journals,
while if issued then it means the part of sales has been returned by the customers and therefore
used to record the information in the sales return journals/diaries
 Debit note: - a document used to correct an undercharge that may have taken place to
inform the debtor to pay more. It therefore acts as an additional invoice
 Payment voucher: - a document used where it is not possible to get a receipt for the
cash/cheque that has been received or issued. The person being paid must sign on it to make it
authentic. It is therefore used to record information just as receipts
Books of original entries/Journals/Diaries/day’s books/Subsidiary books
These are books where the transactions are listed when they first occur, with their entries being
made on a daily basis before they are posted to their respective ledger accounts. The information
in the source documents are used to make entries in these books. The books of original entries
include:
 Sales journals
 Sales return journals/Return inwards journals
 Purchases journals/creditors journals/bought journals
 Purchases return journals/return outwards journal
 Cash receipt journals
 Cash payment/cash disbursement journals
 Three column cash book
 The petty cash book
 Analysis cash book
 General journals/journal proper
(i) Sales journals
This is used to record credit sales of goods before they can be recorded in their various ledgers.
The information obtained in the outgoing invoice/invoice issued is used to record the information
in this journal as the source document
The overall total in the sales journal is therefore posted in the sales account in the general ledger
on credit side and debtors account in the sales ledger as a debit entry
Sales journal
Date Particulars/details Invoice no Ledger folio amount
Example:
The following information relates to Tirop traders for the month of June 2010
June 1: Sold goods to wafula on credit of ksh 200, invoice no 0114
56
2: Sold to the following debtors on credit; Wanjiru ksh 400, Musyoka ksh 300,
Wafula ksh 300
5: sold goods on credit to Wanjiru of ksh 300
10: Sold goods to the following on credit Kanini ksh 100, Wafula ksh 500,
Wanjiru ksh 600
12: Sold goods on credit to musyoka of ksh 350
Required:
Prepare the relevant day book for the above transactions; hence post the various amounts to their
respective individual accounts
Sales journal
June 2010:
1 Wafula 0114 SL 200
2 Wanjiru SL 400
2 Musyoka SL 300
2 Wafula SL 300
5 Wanjiru SL 300
10 Wanjiru SL 600
10 Wafula SL 500
10 Kanini SL 100
12 Musyoka SL 350
15 Totals posted to the sales
account (Cr) GL 3050
(Post the rest to their individual debtors account)

(ii) Sales Return Journals/Return inwards journals
This is for recording the goods that the customers/debtors have returned to the business. It uses
the information in the credit note issued as a source document to prepare it. The information is
therefore recorded to the return inwards account in the general ledger, while the individual’s
entries are reflected (credited) also in their respective debtors account for double entry to be
completed. It takes the following format
Sales return journal
Date Particulars/details Credit note no Ledger folio amount
For example;
Record the following transaction for the 2007 in their relevant diaries, hence post them to their
respective ledger accounts;
May 1: goods that had been sold to M Okondo of shs 2600 on credit was returned to the
business
“ 2: G. Otuya returned good worth shs 1320 that was sold to him on credit to the
business
“ 8: the following returned goods that had been sent to them on credit to the business
H Wati shs 3500, Muya shs 4700 M Okondo shs 2900
“ 12: G Otuya returned goods worth shs 5400 that were sold on credit to the business
57
“ 30: Goods worth sh 8900 that had been sold on credit to G Otuya were returned to
the business
Sales Return journal
Date Particulars/details Credit note Ledger folio amount
no
May 2007:
1 M Okondo S.L 2600
2 G Otuya S.L 1320
8 H Wati S.L 3500
8 Muya S.L 4700
8 M Okondo S.L 2900
12 G Otuya S.L 5400
30 G Otuya S.L 8900
Totals posted to Return
Inwards a/c (Dr) GL 29320
(Post the entries to the individual ledger a/c’s (Cr))
Purchases Journal
This is used to record the credit purchase of goods. The totals are then debited in the purchases
account in the general ledger, while the individual’s creditors accounts are credited. It used the
invoices received/incoming invoices as it source document. It takes the following format;
Purchases journal
Date Particulars/details Invoice no Ledger folio Amount
For example
The following information relates to Mikwa Traders for the month of April 2011. Record them in
their relevant day’s book, hence post the entries to their relevant ledger accounts.
April 2011;
“ 2. Bought goods worth shs 25 000 on credit from Juma, Invoice no 3502
3. Bought goods worth shs 16 500 from kamau on credit, invoice no 2607
6. Bought goods worth shs 12 700 from Juma on credit, invoice no 3509
8. Purchased goods of shs 25 200 from juma, invoice no 3605; shs 17 500 from Kamau,
invoice no 3700; shs 45 000 from Wamae wholesalers, invoice no 3750
15. Purchased goods of shs 9 200 from Wamae wholesalers on credit, invoice no 3762
18. Bought goods of shs 17 000 from Kamau on credit, invoice no 3802
24. Purchased goods of shs 36 000 from Juma suppliers on credit, Invoice no 3812
Purchases Day book
April 2011:
2 Juma 3502 PL 25 000
3 Kamau 2607 PL 16 500
6 Juma 3509 PL 12 700
8 Juma 3605 PL 25 200
8 Kamau 3700 PL 17 500
8 Wamae 3750 PL 45 000
15 Wamae 3762 PL 9 200
18 Kamau 3802 PL 17 000
58
24 Juma 3812 PL 36 000
Totals posted to the
Purchase account (Dr) GL 204100
(Post the individual entries to their relevant accounts in the ledger (crediting))
(iii) Purchases Return Journals/Return outwards Journals

This is used to record goods that have been returned to the creditors by the business, reducing the
value of the goods that had been purchased. It uses the credit note received as the source
documents, with the totals being in the purchases return account while the individual creditor’s
accounts are debited in their respective ledger accounts. It takes the following format
Purchases return journal
Date Particulars/details Credit note no Ledger folio amount
For example:
Record the following transaction in the purchases return day book for Njiru’s traders for the
month of June 2010, hence post the information into their relevant ledger accounts.
June 2010;
“ 3. Returned goods worth shs 400 that had been bought from Nairobi stores, credit note
no 56
“ 8. Return goods of shs 1 200 to Matayos store, Credit no 148
“19. Had some of their purchases returned to the following; Njoka enterprises shs 700,
credit note no 205, Nairobi Stores shs 600, credit note no 58, Matayos store shs 1
000 credit note no 191
“26. Returned goods worth shs 1 800 to Njoka enterprise credit note no 210
“30. Return goods worth shs 1 020 to Matayos store, credit note no 200
(iv)Cash receipt Diaries
This is used to record all the cash and cheques that have been received in the business. They may
be many that posting directly in the cash book may be tedious and are therefore first recorded
here. It totals are posted to the cash and bank accounts in the general ledger (Dr), while the
individual accounts are credited in their respective accounts in the ledger. It uses the cash receipt
issued and bank slips received as the source documents. It takes the following format;
Cash receipt journal
Date Particulars/details Receipt no Ledger folio Disc cash Bank
allowed
(v) Cash payment Journals

This is used to record cash and cheques that have been issued to the creditors/out of the business.
Its totals are credited (Cr) in the cash and bank account and the individual accounts are debited
(Dr) in their respective accounts It uses the cash receipt received and bank slips issued as the
source documents. It takes the following format;
Cash Payment journal
Date Particulars/details Receipt no Ledger folio Disc cash bank
received
59
For example:
Record the following transactions into their relevant day books of Onyango traders, hence post
the entries to their respective ledger accounts and balance them off;
May 2011:
“1. Cash sales amounting to ksh 3 000, receipt no 0112
“2. Paid the following creditors by cheque after having deducted a cash discount of 10%
in each case; H. Mwangi ksh 1 500, J. Mwaniki ksh 1 600, N. Mugo ksh 1 200
“3. Receive the following Chaques from debtors in settlement of their debts after having
deducted 5% cash discount in each case; Lucy kshs 22 800 cheque no 0115, Otieno
kshs 8 550 cheque no 0011, Martha ksh 1 330 cheque no 0016
“5. Paid for repairs in cash kshs 16 000, receipt no 0251
“10. Paid Juma in cash kshs 9 500, receipt no 0295
“14. Cash sales kshs 17 000, receipt no 02714
“15. Banked kshs 6 000 from the cash till
“15. Received cash from Mary of kshs 13 500, receipt no 0258
“16. Cash sales of kshs 26 400 was directly banked, bank slip no 40152
“20. Cash purchases of kshs 8 920, receipt no 117
“22. Cash purchases of kshs 15 200 was paid for by a cheque, cheque no 512
Cash receipt journal
Date Particulars/details Document Ledger Disc cash bank
no folio allowed
May 2011
1 Sales 0112 GL 3 000
3 Lucy 0115 SL 1200 22 800
3 Otieno 0011 SL 450 8 550
3 Martha 0016 SL 700 1 330
14 Sales 02714 GL 17 000
15 Cash “c” 6 000
15 Mary 0258 SL 13 500
16 Sales 40152 GL 26 400
Totals to be posted to
the cash and bank a/c
(Dr) 2 350 33 500 65 080
(Post the totals and the entries to their respective accounts)

Cash Payment journal
Date Particulars/details Document Ledger Disc cash bank
no folio Received
May 2011
2 H. Mwangi PL 166.70 1 500
2 J. Mwaniki PL 177.70 1 600
2 N. Mugo PL 133.30 1 200
5 Repairs 0251 GL 16 000
10 Juma 0295 PL 9 500
60
15 Bank “c” 6 000
20 Purchases 117 GL 8 920
22 Purchases 512 GL 15 200
Totals to be posted to
the cash and bank a/c
(Cr) 477.30 40 420 19 500
(Post the totals and the entries to their respective accounts)
(vi)The petty Cash book
This is used to record money that has been set aside to make payments that does not require large
amounts, such as cleaning, staff tea, posting letters, etc. it is always kept by the petty cashier,
under the supervision of the main cashier. The amount received by the petty cashier is always
debited, while the payments made from the same is credited. The credit side also contains the
analytical columns for various items of expenditure. The amount credited is also extended to the
analysis column for the specific item. At the end of the stated period, the petty cash book is
balanced, and the totals are posted to their individual accounts. The individual’s accounts are
debited with the totals of the analytical columns, while the cash account is credited by the main
cashier for the total that was spent in the petty cash book.
Petty cash book can also be operated on an imprest system, where the petty cashier receives a
given amount of money at an intervals (imprest) to spend, and report back to the main cashier at
the end of the period on how the money has been spent and the balance still remaining for re-
stocking (reimbursed), and only the amount spent can be reimbursed so that at the beginning of
the period the petty cashier will always have the full amount (cash float).
For example:
A petty cashier of sina chuki traders operate a petty cash book on an imprest of kshs 2 500 on a
monthly basis. On 1st February 2010, she had cash in hand of shs 150 and was reimbursed the
difference by the main cashier to restore her cash float. The following payments were made
during the month of February 2010
Feb; 1. Travelling expenses kshs110
2. Correcting fluid kshs 200
3. Sugar for staff tea ksh 180
4. Stamps kshs 255
10. Telephone kshs 255
15. Entertainment kshs 130
18. Postage stamps kshs 100
20. Bread for staff tea kshs 148
25. Fare kshs 200
26. Duplicating ink kshs 250
27. Entertainment kshs 400
28. Telephone kshs 100
28. Atieno a creditor was paid ksh 150
Required;
Prepare a petty cash book from the above information and post the totals to the relevant ledger
accounts.
Sina Chuki Traders
Petty Cash Book
61
For month of Feb. 2010
Recei L. Date Details Vouc Tot Trav Offi Staf postag Teleph Ent. Ledger
pt sh F h no al el ce f e one a/c
sh exp exp tea
2010
150 Feb Bal b/d
2 350 C. 1 Reimbursem
B 1 ent 110 110
1 Travelling 200 200
2 exp 180 180
3 Correcting 255 255
4 fluid 255 255
10 Sugar 130 130
15 Stamps 100 100
18 Telephone 148 148
20 Entertainmen 200 200
25 t 250 250
26 Stamps 400 400
27 Bread 100 100
28 Fare 150 150
28 Duplicating 247 310 450 328 355 355 530 150
ink 8
2500 Entertainmen 22
22 t 250
Telephone 0
Atieno
Totals
Bal c/d
Bal b/d
The totals in the analytical columns are Debited in the individual accounts, with the petty cash
book totals being credited in the cash account.
(vii) The general Journal/Journal proper

This one is used to record purchases or sales of fixed assets of the business on credit. These
assets do not form part of the stock since the business does not deal in them, however the
business may decide to buy or sell them for one reason or the other.
In this journal, the account to be debited begins at the margin, while the account to be credited is
indented from the margin, with a narration below them put in brackets. The narration simply
explains the nature of the transaction that has taken place. The individual entries are then posted
to their respective accounts by either debiting or crediting depending on the transactions. It takes
the following format;
General journal
Date Particulars/details Ledger folio Dr shs Cr shs
For example:
62
Journalise then following transactions which took place in the business of J Opuche during the
month of March 2005
March 5; Purchased office furniture on credit for shs 25 000 from miugiza Furniture Limited
10; Sold old duplicating machine for shs 15 000 to samba academy on credit
15; Bought a new motor vehicle for shs 800 000 from explo motors Ltd, paying shs 300
000 in cash and balance was to be settled at a later date
18; Sold old vehicle to Mara Secondary school for shs 500 000 on credit
25;The owner converted personal electronic calculator valued at shs 9 000 into business
asset
27; Sold old computers valued at shs 20 000 for shs 15 000 on credit to Mara secondary
school
30; Sold old dining chairs worth shs 10 000 to Maendeleo for shs 15 000 on credit
General journal
Date Particulars/details Ledger Dr shs Cr shs
folio
March
2005
5 Office Furniture a/c 25 000
Miugiza a/c 25 000
(Being a credit purchase of office
furniture from Miugiza)
10 Samba Accademy a/c 15 000
Duplicating Machine a/c 15 000
(Being credit sales of duplicating
machine to Samba academy)
Motor vehicle a/c
15 Cash a/c 800 000
Explo Motors a/c 300 000
(Being purchase of motor vehicle 500 000
from explo. motors, paying part in
cash and part on credit)
18 Mara Sec sch a/c 500 000
Motor vehicle a/c 500 000
(being the credit sale of old motor
vehicle to mara sec sch)
25 Calculators a/c 9 000
Capital a/c 9 000
(being conversion of private
calculator to business asset)
27 Mara Sec. Sch. a/c 15 000
Loss on disposal a/c 5 000
Computer a/c 20 000
(being credit sale of old computers
to Mara school at a loss of 5 000)
30 Maendeleo a/c 15 000
Furniture a/c 10 000
63
Gain on disposal a/c 5 000
(being the credit sale of dining chairs
to maendeleo at a gain of 5 000)
1 384 000 1 384 000
The entries are then transferred to their respective accounts in the ledger, with the ones debited in
the journals being debited and the ones credited being credited.
The Journal proper can also be used to show the opening entries and the closing entries. That is;
 Opening entries
The opening entries are the entries of the assets and liabilities at the beginning of the trading
periods to facilitate the opening of different accounts for them. They are the balance b/d for the
assets and liabilities of the business.
The assets to be debited are recorded first, followed by the liabilities and capital to be credited.
In case the capital is not given, it can be calculated using the book keeping equation, that is A =
C + L. the narration then follows the entries.
The opening entries are necessary when;
 A business that did not keep complete accounting records would like to start keeping
 Opening up new sets of accounting books, after closing the old ones
 Starting accounting records for a business which has been bought, though was in full
operation
For example;
The following balances were extracted from Martine’s store that did not keep complete
records, and would like to start keeping on 1st January 2011. Prepare for them their
relevant subsidiary book to show the balances.
Shs
Motor vehicles 230 000
Machinery 40 000
Creditors 10 000
Debtors 5 000
Cash in hand 20 000
Stock 10 000
Insurance prepaid 5 000
Bank 25 000
Premises 335 000
Capital 660 000
Martine’s Store
General journal
On 1st January 2011
Date Particulars/details Ledger folio Dr shs Cr shs
2011 Premises 335 000
January 1 Motor vehicle 230 000
Machinery 40 000
64
Debtors 5 000
Cash 20 000
Insurance prepaid 5 000
Bank 25 000
Stock 10 000
Capital 660 000
Creditors 10 000
(being the records of assets,
liability and capital at the
beginning of new period)
670 000 670 000
 Closing entries
At the end of the trading period the business asses how it carried out its trade and the amount
of profit it made by preparing the Trading profit and loss account and the balance sheet to
show its financial position. These are prepared by the information obtained from the ledgers.
That is, all the nominal accounts (sale, purchase, expenses and revenue accounts), both
opening and closing stocks are transferred to the trading profit and loss account through the
trial balance and general journals, while the rest are taken to the balance sheet.
Uses of general journal;
 To record purchases of fixed assets on credit
 To record sales of fixed assets on credit
 To correct errors by checking the balances
 To record the opening and closing entries
 To write off bad debts
 To record the inter ledger transfers
 To issues shares and debentures in companies
 To make end of the year adjustments for the final accounts
In the table below, indicate the books of original entry that the information obtained from the
given source documents are used to prepare
Source Document Books of Original entry
Sales Invoice/invoice issued/Invoice retained/invoice Sales journals
copy
Purchases Invoice/Invoice received/Original invoice Purchases journals
Credit note issued/Credit note retained/Credit note Return inwards/Sales return journals
copy
Credit note received/credit note original Return outwards/purchases return
journals
Original receipt/Receipt received Cash payment/Analysis cash book/
Cash book
Receipt copy/Retained receipt Cash receipt journal/Analysis cash
book/cash book
Petty cash voucher Petty cash book
Uses of Journals
65
 To relive ledger of many details
 To record more details about the transaction that are not found in the ledger
 To facilitate tracing of errors
 To facilitate the preparation of control accounts
 To curb frauds and promote efficiency, since they are prepared by different people from
the ones handling ledgers
Assignment:
(Exercise 1B pages 50 and 51, Nos16 and 18 in Inventor book 4, KLB Students book)
66

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BUSINESS STUDIES FORM FOUR NOTES

COGS = Opening Stock + Net Purchases – Closing stock

Net Profit = Gross profit – Total expenses

Name of the business

Importance of Profit and Loss account

The net profit/loss may be taken to the balance sheet.

Name of the business

Provision for Depreciation

Current Assets Long term liabilities

1 408 720 1 408 720

Current assets = 526 000

MONEY AND BANKING

Factors influencing supply of money

 Housing Finance Companies

THE CENTRAL BANK

Factors to consider before the government decides whether to borrow internally or

Factors that determine the amount of money raised through taxation

MERITS OF INDIRECT TAX

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNING

Balance of payment on current account

Dr current account year 2005 Cr

The account may be;

SOURCE DOCUMENTS AND BOOKS OF ORIGINAL ENTRY

(Post the rest to their individual debtors account)

(iii) Purchases Return Journals/Return outwards Journals

(v) Cash payment Journals

(Post the totals and the entries to their respective accounts)

(vii) The general Journal/Journal proper

1 384 000 1 384 000

670 000 670 000

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