CEGEP Linear Algebra Problems

An open source collection of

539 CEGEP level linear algebra problems from 16 authors.

November 24, 2019

http://obeymath.org/CEGEPLinearAlgebraProblems
Contents

1 Systems of Linear Equations 1

1.1 Introduction to Systems of Linear Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Gaussian and Gauss-Jordan Elimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Applications of Linear Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

2 Matrices 7
2.1 Introduction to Matrices and Matrix Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2 Algebraic Properties of Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.3 Matrix Inverses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.4 Elementary Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

3 Determinants 19
3.1 The Laplace Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.2 Determinants and Elementary Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.3 Properties of Determinants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.4 Adjoint of a Matrix and Cramer’s Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

4 Vector Geometry 27
4.1 Introduction to Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.2 Dot Product and Projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.3 Cross Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.4 Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.5 Planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

5 Vector Spaces 41
5.1 Introduction to Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5.2 Subspaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
5.3 Spanning Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
5.4 Linear Independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
5.5 Basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
5.6 Dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

6 Applications 53
6.1 The Simplex Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

A Answers to Exercises 55

References 101

Index 101
Chapter 1

Systems of Linear Equations

1.1 Introduction to Systems of Lin- 3x + 4y + 5z = 7

a. −x + y − 3z = 1
ear Equations 2x − 2y + 3z = 5
2x + 5y − 6z = 2
1.1.1 [GH] State which of the following equations is a linear b. 9x − 8z = 10
equation. If it is not, state why. −2x + 4y + z = −7
p x1 + 3x2 − 4x3 + 5x4 = 17
a. x + y + z = 10 f. x21 + x22 = 25 c. −x1 + 4x3 + 8x4 = 1
b. xy + yz + xz = 1 g. x1 + y + t = 1 2x1 + 3x2 + 4x3 + 5x4 = 6
c. −3x + 9 = 3y − 5z + x − 7 h. x1 + 9 = 3 cos(y) − 5z 3x1 − 2x2 = 4
√ i. cos(15)y + x4 = −1 2x1 = 3
d.
d. 5y + πx = −1 j. 2x + 2y = 16 −x1 + 9x2 = 8
e. (x − 1)(x + 1) = 0 5x1 − 7x2 = 13

1.1.6 [GH] Convert given augmented matrix into a system

1.1.2 [GH] Solve the system of linear equations using sub- of linear equations. Use the variables x1 , x2 , . . ..
stitution, comparison and/or elimination.
   
1 2 3 1 0 0 0 2
x + y = −1 x− y+ z= 1 a.
a. −1 3 9 0 1 0 0 −1
2x − 3y = 8 c. 2x + 6y − z = −4   d. 0 0 1 0 5 

4x − 5y + 2z = 0 −3 4 7
2x − 3y = 3 b. 0 0 0 1 3
b. 0 1 −2
3x + 6y = 8 x+y− z=1   
1 0 1 0 7 2

d. 2x + y =2 1 1 −1 −1 2 e.
c. 0 1 3 2 0 5
y + 2z = 0 2 1 3 5 7

1.1.3 [KK] Graphically, find the point of intersection of the 1.1.7 [GH] Perform the given row operations on
two lines 3x + y = 3 and x + 2y = 1. That is, graph each line  
2 −1 7
and see where they intersect. 0 4 −2 .
5 0 3
1.1.4 [YL] Given the linear system
 a. −1R1 → R1 d. 2R2 + R3 → R3
 x − y + z = b1
 b. R2 ↔ R3 e. 21 R2 → R2
2x − 2y − 2z = b2 . c. R1 + R2 → R2 f. − 52 R1 + R3 → R3

x + 3y − 5z = b3


Determine the bi if the linear system has the particular solu-

tion (3, −2, 1). 1.1.8 [GH] Give the row operation that transforms A into
B where  
1 1 1
1.1.5 [GH] Convert the given system of linear equations into A = 1 0 1 .
an augmented matrix. 1 2 3

1
CHAPTER 1. SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS 1.2. GAUSSIAN AND GAUSS-JORDAN ELIMINATION
   
1 1 1 1 0 1 1.2 Gaussian and Gauss-Jordan
a. B = 2 0 2 d. B = 1 1 1
1 2 3 1 2 3 Elimination
   
1 1 1 1 1 1
b. B = 2 1 2 e. B = 1 0 1 1.2.1 [GH] State whether or not the given matrices are in
1 2 3 0 2 2 reduced row echelon form.
 
3 5 7 
1 0
 
0 0 0
 
1 0 0 −5

c. B = 1 0 1 a. g.
0 1 1 0 0 l. 0 1 0 7
1 2 3     0 0 1 3
0 1 0 0 0
b. h.
1 0 0 0 0
 
2 0 0 2
m. 0 2 0 2
   
1.1.9 [JH] In the system 1 1 1 1 1 
c. 0 0 2 2
1 1 i. 0 1 1
 
0 0 1
 
ax + by = c 0 1 0 0
 
1 0 1
dx + ey = f d.  
n. 0 0 1 0
0 1 2 1 0 0
  j. 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0
each of the equations describes a line in the xy-plane. By e. 0 0 0  
0 0 1 0 0 1 −5
geometrical reasoning, show that there are three possibilities:  
0 0

1 0 1
 1 0 0 o. 0 0
there is a unique solution, there is no solution, and there are f.
0 1 1 k. 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
infinitely many solutions.
0 0 0

1.1.10 [JH] Is there a two-unknowns linear system whose

solution set is all of R2 ? 1.2.2 [SZ] State whether the given matrix is in reduced row
echelon form, row echelon form only or in neither of those
1.1.11 [KK] You have a system of k equations in two vari- forms.
ables, k ≥ 2. Explain the geometric significance of    
1 0 3 1 0 0 0
a. No solution. a.
0 1 3 d. 0 1 0 0
b. A unique solution.   0 0 0 1
3 −1 1 3
c. An infinite number of solutions.  
b. 2 −4 3 16
  1 0 4 3 0
1 −1 1 5 e. 0 1 3 6 0

1 1 4 3
 0 0 0 0 0
 
c. 0 1 3 6
  1 1 4 3
f.
0 0 0 1 0 1 3 6

1.2.3 [KK] Consider the following augmented matrix in

which ∗ denotes an arbitrary number and  denotes a nonzero
number. Determine whether the given augmented matrix is
consistent. If consistent, is the solution unique?
   
 ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗  ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
 0  ∗ ∗ 0 ∗  0  0 ∗ 0 ∗
a. 
 0 0  ∗ ∗ ∗
 c. 
 0 0 0  ∗ ∗


0 0 0 0  ∗ 0 0 0 0  ∗
   
 ∗ ∗ ∗  ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
b.  0  ∗ ∗ 0  ∗ ∗ 0 ∗
d.  
0 0  ∗ 0 0 0 0  0
0 0 0 0 ∗ 

1.2.4 [SZ] The following matrices are in reduced row echelon

form. Determine the solution of the corresponding system of
linear equations or state that the system is inconsistent.

2
CHAPTER 1. SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS 1.2. GAUSSIAN AND GAUSS-JORDAN ELIMINATION

   
1 0 −2 1 0 0 3 0 −5x + y = 17 x − y + z = −4
a. a.
0 1 7 d. 0 1 2 6 0 x+y= 5 g. −3x + 2y + 4z = −5

1 0 0 −3
 0 0 0 0 1 x+ y+ z=3 x − 5y + 2z = −18
 
b. 0 1 0 20  1 0 −8 1 7 b. 2x − y + z = 0 2x − 4y + z = −7
0 0 1 19 0 1 4 −3 2 −3x + 5y + 7z = 7 h. x − 2y + 2z = −2
e.  

1 0 0 3 4
 0 0 0 0 0 4x − y + z = 5 −x + 4y − 2z = 3
c. 0 1 0 6 −6 0 0 0 0 0 c. 2y + 6z = 30 2x − y + z = 1
 
0 0 1 0 2 1 0 9 −3 x+ z= 5 i. 2x + 2y − z = 1
f. 0 1 −4 20  x − 2y + 3z = 7 3x + 6y + 4z = 9
0 0 0 0 d. −3x + y + 2z = −5 x − 3y − 4z = 3
2x + 2y + z = 3 j. 3x + 4y − z = 13
3x − 2y + z = −5 2x − 19y − 19z = 2
1.2.5 [GH] Use Gauss-Jordan elimination to put the given e. x + 3y − z = 12 x+ y+z= 4
matrix into reduced row echelon form. x + y + 2z = 0 k. 2x − 4y − z = −1
    2x − y + z = −1 x− y = 2
1 2 2 1 1
a. f. 4x + 3y + 5z = 1 x− y+ z= 8
−3 −5 j. 1 1 1
  2 1 2
5y + 3z = 4 l. 3x + 3y − 9z = −6
2 −2 7x − 2y + 5z = 39
b.  
3 −2 1 2 1

4 12
 k.  1 3 1
c. −1 −3 0
−2 −6   1.2.8 [GH] Find the solution to the given linear system. If

−5 7
 1 2 3 the system has infinite solutions, give two particular solutions.
d. l. 0 4 5
10 14
  1 6 9 2x1 + 4x2 = 2
−1 1 4 a.
e. x1 + 2x2 = 1
 
−2 1 1 1 1 1 2 x1 + x2 + 6x3 + 9x4 = 0
h.
  m.  2 −1 −1 1 −x1 + 5x2 = 3 x1 + x3 + 2x4 = 3
7 2 3 b.
f. −1 1 1 0 2x1 − 10x2 = −6 x1 + 2x2 + 2x3 = 1
3 1 2  
  2 −1 1 5 x1 + x2 = 3 i. 2x1 + x2 + 3x3 = 1
3 −3 6 c.
g. n. 3 1 6 −1 2x1 + x2 = 4 3x1 + 3x2 + 5x3 = 2
−1 1 −2
3 0 5 0 2x1 + 4x2 + 6x3 = 2

4 5 −6
 −3x1 + 7x2 = −7
h.

1 1 −1 7
 d. j. 1x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 = 1
−12 −15 18 2x1 − 8x2 = 8
o. 2 1 0 10 3x1 + 6x2 + 9x3 = 3

−2 −4 −8
 −2x1 + 4x2 + 4x3 = 6
3 2 −1 17 e. 2x1 + 3x2 = 1
i. −2 −3 −5   x1 − 3x2 + 2x3 = 1 k.
4 1 8 15 −2x1 − 3x2 = 1
2 3 6 −x1 + 2x2 + 2x3 = 2
p. 1 1 2 7  f. 2x1 + x2 + 2x3 = 0
2x1 + 5x2 + x3 = 2
3 1 5 11 l. x1 + x2 + 3x3 = 1
−x1 − x2 + x3 + x4 = 0
g. 3x1 + 2x2 + 5x3 = 3
−2x1 − 2x2 + x3 = −1
1.2.6 [JH] Use Gauss’s Method to find the unique solution
for each system.
1.2.9 [KK] Find the solution to the system of equations,
2x + 3y = 13 x −z=0 65x + 84y + 16z = 546, 81x + 105y + 20z = 682, and 84x +
a. 110y + 21z = 713.
x − y = −1 b. 3x + y =1
−x + y + z = 4
1.2.10[YL] Solve the following systems by Gauss-Jordan
elimination and find two particular solution for each system:
1.2.7 [SZ] Solve the following systems of linear equations.
y− z+ w−v=0
2x − 3y + 4z − 4w + v = 0
a.
3x − 3y + 4z − 4w + v = 0
5x − 5y + 7z − 7w + v = 0
y− z+ w−v=3
b. 2x − 3y + 4z − 4w + v = 2
3x − 3y + 4z − 4w + v = 2

3
CHAPTER 1. SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS 1.2. GAUSSIAN AND GAUSS-JORDAN ELIMINATION

1.2.11[YL] Given 1.2.15[AG]

a. Solve the linear system using Gauss-Jordan:
3x1 + 3x2 + 7x3 − 3x4 + x5 = 3
2x1 + 3x2 + 3x3 + x4 − 2x5 = 1

2x1 + 2x2 + 2x3 + 4x4 = 6

4x1 + 17x3 − 2x4 − x5 = 1 2x1 + 3x2 + 3x3 + 7x4 = 10

3x1 + 3x2 + 4x3 + 7x4 = 10

a. Solve the following system by Gauss-Jordan elimination.
b. Solve the homogeneous system whose coefficient matrix
b. Find two particular solution to the above system. is the augmented matrix of the system in part a.
c. Find a solution to the above system when x3 = 1.
1.2.16[YL] Given
1.2.12[YL] Given  
1 2 2 −1 3 1
0 0 1 1 2 2
3x1 + 3x2 + 7x3 − 3x4 = 0 M = 
0 0 0 0 1 1
2x1 + 3x2 + 3x3 + x4 = 0
4x1 + 17x3 − 2x4 = 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
9x1 + 6x2 + 27x3 − 4x4 = 0 where M is in row echelon form.
a. Find the reduced row echelon form of M .
a. Solve the system by Gauss-Jordan elimination.
b. Find two different row echelon form of M .
b. Find two particular nontrivial solution to the system.
c. Find the solution set of the system of linear equations
c. Find a solution to the system when x1 = 1. whose augmented matrix is M by using back substitu-
tion.
1.2.13[?] Given d. Find two particular solution of the system of linear equa-
tions whose augmented matrix is M .
 
0 2 −5 −18 e. Find the solution set of the homogeneous system of linear
−3 −6 0 3  equations whose coefficient matrix is M .
A= 
3 7 0 −2  f. Find a particular solution the homogeneous system of
5 10 3 7 linear equations whose coefficient matrix is M when the
solution of the first variable is equal to 1.
a. Find the reduced row echelon form of the matrix A.
b. Suppose that A is the augmented matrix of a linear sys-
tem. Write the corresponding system of linear equations. 1.2.17[BS] Given the following matrix:
Use the first part to find the solution of the system.  
3 1 2 4
c. Suppose that A is the coefficient matrix of a homogeneous A = 1 0 2 0 .
linear system. Write the corresponding system of linear 3 1 0 2
equations. Use the first part to find the solution of the
system. Solve the linear system whose coefficient matrix is the matrix
A and which has a particular solution (1, 0, −1, 0).

1.2.14[YL, ?] Given
  1.2.18 [SZ] Find at least two different row echelon forms for
0 2 0 8 the matrix  
0 −6 0 3 1 2 3
A= 
4 12 8
3 7 0 −2
5 10 3 7

a. Find the reduced row echelon form of the matrix A. 1.2.19 [JH] Find the coefficients a, b, and c so that the
b. Suppose that A is the augmented matrix of a linear sys- graph of f (x) = ax2 + bx + c passes through the points (1, 2),
tem. Write the corresponding system of linear equations. (−1, 6), and (2, 3).
Use the first part to find the solution of the system.
c. Suppose that A is the coefficient matrix of a homogeneous 1.2.20 [JH] True or false: a system with more unknowns
linear system. Write the corresponding system of linear than equations has at least one solution. (As always, to say
equations. Use the first part to find the solution of the ‘true’ you must prove it, while to say ‘false’ you must produce
system. a counterexample.)

4
CHAPTER 1. SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS 1.2. GAUSSIAN AND GAUSS-JORDAN ELIMINATION

1.2.21 [KK] If a system of equations has more equations c. has infinitely many solutions, justify.
than variables, can it have a solution? If so, give an example
and if not, explain why.
1.2.28[?] Find the value(s) of k such that the system

1.2.22 [KK] If a system of linear equations has fewer equa- x + 2y + 3z = 4

tions than variables and there exist a solution to this system. y + 2z = 3
Is it possible that your solution is the only one? Explain.
−y + kz = 1 + k

1.2.23 [JH] For which values of k are there no solutions, a. has no solution,
many solutions, or a unique solution to this system? b. has exactly one solution,
x− y=1 c. has infinitely many solutions.
3x − 3y = k
1.2.29[OV] Find k for which the system

1.2.24 [GH] State for which values of k the given system x1 + kx2 =0
will have exactly 1 solution, infinite solutions, or no solution. (k − 1)x2 + x3 = 0
x1 + (k + 2)x3 = 0
x1 + 2x2 = 1 x1 + 2x2 = 1
a. c.
2x1 + 4x2 = k x1 + kx2 = 2 a. has infinitely many solutions.
x1 + 2x2 = 1 x1 + 2x2 = 1 b. has only the trivial solution.
b. d.
x1 + kx2 = 1 x1 + 3x2 = k

1.2.30[BS] Consider the system

1.2.25 [KK] Choose h and k such that the augmented matrix 2kx + (k + 1)y = 2
shown has each of the following: one solution, no solution and x + y + z = 0
infinitely many solutions. kx + (2k − 1)y = 1
   
1 h 2 1 2 2 Find the value(s) of k, if any, such that the system has:
a. b.
2 4 k 2 h k
a. no solutions,
b. a unique solution,
c. infiniely many solutions.
1.2.26[MB] The augmented matrix of a linear system is
given by  
1 −4 −2 −1 1.2.31[YL] Given the augmented matrix of a linear system:
0 1 −1 4 
0 0 a b
 
1 √2 3 4 π
0 2 4 5 6 
Without performing any calculation, state for what values of
a and b there is 0 0 0 a2 − 1 b2 − a2
a. no solution? If possible for what values of a and b the system has
b. exactly one solution? a. no solution? Justify.
c. infinitely many solutions? b. exactly one solution? Justify.
c. infinitely many solutions? Justify.
1.2.27[YL] Consider the following augmented matrix of a
system of linear equations.
1.2.32[BS] Consider the system
 
1 2 3 4
0 5 kx + y + kz = 1
6 7 
2 x + y + z = 1
0 0 a − 1 ba − b
(2 − k)x + (2 − k)y + z = 1
For which value(s) of a and b, if any, the system kx + y + kz = k2
a. has a unique solution, justify. Find the value(s) of k, if any, such that the system has:
b. has no solutions, justify. a. no solutions,

5
CHAPTER 1. SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS 1.3. APPLICATIONS OF LINEAR SYSTEMS

b. a unique solution, 1.3 Applications of Linear Systems

c. infiniely many solutions.
1.3.1 [KK] Consider the following diagram of four circuits.
1.2.33[BS] Consider the system 3Ω 20 volts 1 Ω
kx − y − kz = 2k + 1
kx − ky − 2z = k+1 I2 I3
kx − y + kz = 4k + 3 5 volts 5Ω 1Ω
2Ω 6Ω
Find the value(s) of k, if any, such that the system has:
a. no solutions,
b. a unique solution, I1 I4
10 volts 1Ω 3Ω
c. infiniely many solutions.
4Ω 2Ω

1.2.34[OV] Determine conditions on the bi ’s, if any, in order

to guarantee that the linear system is consistent. The jagged lines denote resistors and the numbers next to
them give their resistance in ohms, written as Ω. The breaks
x + z = b1 in the lines having one short line and one long line denote a
x + y + 2z = b2 voltage source which causes the current to flow in the direction
2x + y + 3z = b3 which goes from the longer of the two lines toward the shorter
along the unbroken part of the circuit. The current in amps in
the four circuits is denoted by I1 , I2 , I3 , I4 and it is understood
that the motion is in the counter clockwise direction. If Ik
1.2.35[YL] Given the augmented matrix of a linear system ends up being negative, then it just means the current flows
  in the clockwise direction. Then Kirchhoff’s law states:
1 3 1 −4 b1
3 −2 4 5 b2  The sum of the resistance times the amps in the counter clock-
4 1 5 1 b3  . wise direction around a loop equals the sum of the voltage
 
sources in the same direction around the loop.
7 −1 9 6 b4
In the above diagram, the top left circuit gives the equation
Determine the restrictions on the bi ’s for the system to be
2I2 − 2I1 + 5I2 − 5I3 + 3I2 = 5
consistent.
For the circuit on the lower left,
1.2.36 [JH] Prove that, where a, b, . . . , e are real numbers
4I1 + I1 − I4 + 2I1 − 2I2 = −10
and a 6= 0, if
ax + by = c Write equations for each of the other two circuits and then
has the same solution set as give a solution to the resulting system of equations.

ax + dy = e 1.3.2 [KK] Consider the following diagram of three circuits.

then they are the same equation. What if a = 0? 3Ω 12 volts 7 Ω

1.2.37 [JH] Show that if ad − bc 6= 0 then I1 I2

10 volts 5Ω 3Ω
ax + by = j
2Ω 1Ω
cx + dy = k

has a unique solution. I3

2Ω 4Ω

4Ω

The current in amps in the four circuits is denoted by

I1 , I2 , I3 and it is understood that the motion is in the
counter clockwise direction. Solve for I1 , I2 , I3 .

6
Chapter 2

Matrices

2.1 Introduction to Matrices and b. a 1×12 matrix times a 12×1 matrix

Matrix Operations c. a 2×3 matrix times a 2×1 matrix
d. a 2×2 matrix times a 2×2 matrix

2.1.1 [JH] Find the indicated entry of the following matrix.

  2.1.6 [GH] State the dimensions of A and B. State the
1 3 1 dimensions of AB and BA, if the product is defined. Then
A=
2 −1 4 compute the product AB and BA, if possible.
a. a2,1 b. a1,2 c. a2,2 d. a3,1    
1 2 2 6
a. A = ,
−1 4 e. A = 6 2  ,
5 −1
 
2 5
2.1.2 [JH] Determine the size of each matrix. B=  
3 −1 −4 5 0
B=
      
3 −1
 −4 4 −4
1 0 4 1 1 5 10 b. A = ,
a. c.  
2 1 5 b. −1 1  10 5 2 2  f. A =
1 4
,
3 −1 1 0 7 7 6
B=  
4 2 9 1 −1 −5 5
B=

0 1
 −2 1 3 −5
2.1.3 [GH] Simplify the given expression where c. A =  1 −1 ,
 
−1 2 1
    −2 −4 g. A = −1 2 −1 ,
1 −1 −3 2
 
−2 0
A=
7 4
B=
5 9 B=  0 0 −2
3 8

0 0 −2
B = 1 2 −1
 
a. A + B c. 3(A − B) + B −2 −1
b. 2A − 3B d. 2(A − B) − (A − 3B) d. A =  9 −5 , 1 0 0
3 −1
 
  −4 −1 3
−5 6 −4 h. A =  2 −3 5 ,
B=
0 6 −3
2.1.4 [GH] The row and column matrix U and V are defined. 1 5 3
Find the product U V , where possible. −2 4 3
B = −1 1 −1
4 0 2
   
a. U = 1 −4 , c. U = 1  2 3 ,
−2 3
V = V =
5 2
2.1.7 [GH] Given a diagonal matrix D and a matrix A,
   
b. U = 6  2 −1 2 , d. U = 2  −5 ,
3 1 compute the product DA and AD, if possible.
2 V = 1 
V = 9

1
5

2.1.5 [JH] Give the size of the product or state “not de-
fined”.
a. a 2×3 matrix times a 3×1 matrix

7
CHAPTER 2. MATRICES 2.1. INTRODUCTION TO MATRICES AND MATRIX OPERATIONS

   
1 1 1 d 0 a. 3C − 4D h. F G
c. D = 1 ,
a. D =  2 2 2 , 0 d
2 b. A − (D + 2C) i. Illustrate the associa-
−3 −3 −3

a b tivity of matrix mul-
  A= c. A−E
2 0 0 c d tiplication by multiply-
A = 0 −3 0   d. AE
d1 0 0 ing (AB)C and A(BC)
0 0 5 e. 3BC − 4BD where A, B, and C are
d. D =  0 d2 0  ,
f. CB + D
 
4 0 matrices above.
b. D = , 0 0 d3
 0 −3
 a b c g. GC
1 2 A = d e f
A=
1 2 g h i
2.1.11 [SZ] Use the matrices

10 − 11
     
2.1.8 [GH] Given a matrix A compute A2 and A3 . 1 2 0 −3 2 0
A= B= C= 3
3 4 −5 2 5 5 9
   
0 1 0 1 0
a. A =
   
1 0 d. A = 0 0 1 7 −13 1 2 3
  1 0 0 D = − 43 0  E = 0 4 −9
2 0
b. A =   6 8 0 0 −5
0 3 0 0 1
  e. A = 0 0 0 to compute the following or state that the indicated operation
−1 0 0
0 1 0 is undefined.
c. A =  0 3 0
0 0 5
a. 7B − 4A h. A2 − B 2
b. AB i. (A + B)(A − B)
2.1.9 [MB] Consider the matrices c. BA j. A2 − 5A − 2I2
  d. E+D k. E 2 + 5E − 36I3
3 0     e. ED l. EDC
1 4 2 4 −1
A = −1 2 , B = and C = f. CD + 2I2 A m. CDE
3 1 5 0 2
1 1
g. A − 4I2 n. ABCEDI2
Suppose also that the matrices D and E have the following
sizes: D is 2×4 and E is 4×3.
Determine whether the given matrix expression is defined. 2.1.12 [GH] In each part a matrix A is given. Find AT .
For those that are defined, give the size of the resulting ma- State whether A is upper/lower triangular, diagonal, sym-
trix. metric and/or skew symmetric.

a. EB c. B 2
   
−9 4 10 −3 −4 −5
b. (2AC + B T )T d. CDE a.  6 −3 −7 f.  0 −3 5 
−8 1 −1 0 0 −3
   
4 2 −9 1 0
g.
2.1.10 [HE] Let b.  5 −4 −10 0 9
  −6 6 9 
4 0 −2

3 4
 

1 −2 3
 
4 −1 2
 4 −7 −4 −9 h.  0 2 3 
A= , B = 5 −1 , C = , c.
1 −1 0 −1 5 1 −9 6 3 −9 −2 3 6
1 −1    
−7 4 0 −6 1
d.
 

3 4
 4 −6 i.  6 0 4
−1 0 1 
4 0 0
 −1 −4 0
D= , E = −2 3 ,
0 2 1 e. −2 −7 0
0 1
  4 −2 5
2  
F = , G = 2 −1 .
−3
Compute each of the following and simplify, whenever possi- 2.1.13 [KK] Consider the matrices
ble. If a computation is not possible, state why.  
1 2    
2 −5 2 1 2
A = 3 2  , B = , C= ,
−3 2 1 5 0
1 −1

8
CHAPTER 2. MATRICES 2.1. INTRODUCTION TO MATRICES AND MATRIX OPERATIONS

   
−1 1 1 Find the following when possible. If not, justify briefly.
D= , E=
4 −3 3
Find the following if possible. If it is not possible explain why. a. BA c. (A−B)T d. A + B T f. tr(BA)
b. A2 e. tr(A)B
a. −3AT d. EE T g. DT BE
b. 3B − AT e. B T B
c. E T B f. CAT 2.1.23 [YL] Consider the matrices:
 
1 2    
2 −5 2 1 2
A= 3 2 , B=
  , C = ,
2.1.14 [BS] Evaluate: −3 2 1 5 0
1 −1
 √
4
24
0 0 2  
    1 2 3
 0
√ 1 0  −1 1 1
D= , E= , F = −1 0 2
4
2 0 0 4 −3 3
0 −5 −1
Evaluate the following if possible, justify.
T
2.1.15 [MB] Prove that if the product CAC is well-defined, a. tr(C)AB h. tr(C)BA − tr(D)EE T
then the matrix A must be a square matrix.
b. AA i. BTE
c. 3DE − 2E j. AB
2.1.16 [JH] Show that if G has a row of zeros then GH (if
d. C(BA + 2I) k. trace(D)F 2
defined) has a row of zeros. Does the same statement hold for
columns? e. tr(C)A − tr(D)B T l. (F − AB)T
f. EA m. trace(F )F B
2.1.17 [JH] Show that if the first and second rows of G are g. (AC)E
equal then so are the first and second rows of GH. Generalize.

2.1.18 [JH] Describe the product of two diagonal matrices. 2.1.24 [MB, YL]
a. Write the 3 × 2 matrix B = [bij ] whose entries satisfy
2.1.19 [JH] Show that the product of two upper triangular

1 if |i − j| ≥ 1,
matrices is upper triangular. Does this also hold for lower bij =
i + j if |i − j| < 1.
triangular matrices?

b. Write the 3 × 4 matrix B = [bij ] whose entries satisfy

2.1.20 [KK] Show that the main diagonal of every skew 
symmetric matrix consists of only zeros. i − j if |i − j| ≥ 1,
bij =
2i if |i − j| < 1.
2.1.21 [GH] Find the trace of the given matrix.
   
4 1 1 2 6 4 2.1.25 [YL] Consider the matrices:
d.
a. −2 0 0 −1 8 −10
−1 −2 −5
     
e. Any skew-symmetric A = aij 3×3 , B = bij 2×3 , C = cij 3×2 ,
matrix.
 
1 −5
b.  
D = dij 2×2 ,
 
E = eij 3×6
9 5 f. In
 
−10 6 −7 −9 where aij = i − j, bij = (−1)i 2 + (−1)j 3, cij = i +
 −2 1 6 −9  j, dij = (ij)2 , eij = i + j. Evaluate the following if possi-
c.  
 0 4 −4 0  ble, justify.
−3 −9 3 −10
a. EA e. C T AB T i. trace(C)AB−
b. AB T f. tr(D2 ) tr(D)B
2.1.22 [?] Consider the matrices c. AB g. (3BC − 2D)T j. (AB − 2I)A
AE tr(E)
 
  1 2 d. h.
3 0 1
A= and B = 0 1 .
−2 3 1
1 0

9
CHAPTER 2. MATRICES 2.2. ALGEBRAIC PROPERTIES OF MATRICES

2.1.26 [JH] Find the product of this matrix with its trans- 2.2 Algebraic Properties of Matrices
pose.  
cos θ − sin θ
sin θ cos θ 2.2.1 [GH] Given the matrices A and B below. Find X that
satisfies the equation.
   
3 −1 1 7
2
2.1.27 [KK] A matrix A is called idempotent if A = A. A = B =
2 5 3 −4
Show that the following matrix is idempotent.
a. 2A + X = B c. 3A + 2X = −1B
d. A − 21 X = −B
 
2 0 2 b. A − X = 3B
A= 1 1 2 
−1 0 −1
2.2.2 [OV] Find matrix A, if
  T  
2.1.28 [GH] Find values for the scalars a and b that satisfy T 1 −1 1 2
2A − 3 =
the given equation. 0 4 3 3
           
−3 8 7 1 −1 5
a. a +b = c. a +b =
1 4 1 1 3 5 2.2.3 [BS] Solve for A, if possible. A is a M2×2 diagonal
           
4 −6 10 1 3 4 matrix and satisfies A2 − 3A + 2I = 0.
b. a +b = d. a +b =
2 −3 5 3 9 −12
2.2.4 [CR] Given the matrix
 
2 −1
 
−1 −1 A=
2.1.29 [KK] Let A = . Find all 2 × 2 matrices, 0 2
3 3
B such that AB = 0. a. A2 b. A3 c. A5

2.1.30 [BS] Find all matrices A such that

    2.2.5 [GH] The following statement
1 1 1 1 0
A=
0 1 1 0 1 (A + B)2 = A2 + 2AB + B 2

is false. We investigate that claim here.

   
5 3 −5 −5
2.1.31 [BS] Find all matrices A such that a. Let A = and let B = . Compute
−3 −2 −2 1

1 1
 
1 1
 
1 4
 A+B
A+A = b. Find (A + B)2 by using the previous part.
0 1 0 1 2 2
c. Compute A2 + 2AB + B 2 .
d. Are the results from the two previous parts equal?
2.1.32 [YL] Solve for all a, b, c, d such that e. Carefully expand the expression (A + B)2 = (A + B)(A +
    B) and show why this is not equal to A2 + 2AB + B 2 .
3a + 3b + 7c − 3d 2a + 3b + 3c + d 1 2
=
4a + 17c − 2d 9a + 6b + 27c − 4d 3 6
2.2.6 [KK] Suppose A and B are square matrices of the same
size. Which of the following are necessarily true? Justify.
2
a. (A − B) = A2 − 2AB + B 2
2
b. (AB) = A2 B 2
2
c. (A + B) = A2 + 2AB + B 2
2
d. (A + B) = A2 + AB + BA + B 2
e. A2 B 2 = A (AB) B
3
f. (A + B) = A3 + 3A2 B + 3AB 2 + B 3
g. (A + B) (A − B) = A2 − B 2

10
CHAPTER 2. MATRICES 2.2. ALGEBRAIC PROPERTIES OF MATRICES

T
2.2.7 [JH] Prove each, assuming that the operations are b. Show that (r · H) = r · H T .
defined, where G, H, and J are matrices, where Z is the zero T
c. Show that (GH) = H T GT .
matrix, and where r and s are scalars.
d. Show that the matrices HH T and H T H are symmetric.
a. Matrix addition is commutative G + H = H + G.
b. Matrix addition is associative G+(H +J) = (G+H)+J.
c. The zero matrix is an additive identity G + Z = G. 2.2.14 [JH] Prove that for any square H, the matrix H +H T
d. 0 · G = Z is symmetric. Do every symmetric matrix have this form?
e. (r + s)G = rG + sG
f. Matrices have an additive inverse G + (−1) · G = Z. 2.2.15 [GH]
g. r(G + H) = rG + rH a. Prove that for any n × n matrix A, A + AT is symmetric
h. (rs)G = r(sG) and A − AT is skew-symmetric.
b. Prove that any n × n can be written as the sum of a
symmetric and skew-symmetric matrices.
2.2.8 [BS] Show that if A is an n×n skew-symmetric matrix
then B T AB is also skew-symmetric for any n×n matrix B.
(A matrix A is called skew-symmetric if AT = −A.) 2.2.16 [YL] Prove the following statements
a. If A is a n×n matrix then tr(AT ) = tr(A).
b. If A is a n×n matrix then tr(cA) = c tr(A).
2.2.9 [BS] Determine whether the following statements are
true or false for any n × n matrices A and B. If the statement c. If A and B are n×n matrices then tr(A + B) = tr(A) +
is false provide a counterexample. If the statement is true tr(B).
provide a proof of the statement. d. If A and B are n×n matrices then tr(AB) = tr(BA).
a. If A2 = 0 then A = 0.
b. A is said to be skew-symmetric if AT = −A. If A is 2.2.17 [YL] A non-zero square matrix A is said to be nilpo-
symmetric and skew-symmetric then A = 0. tent of degree 2 if A2 = 0.
c. If AAT = A then A is symmetric. Prove or disprove: There exists a square 2 × 2 matrix that is
d. If A2 is symmetric then A is symmetric. symmetric and nilpotent of degree 2.

2.2.10 [YL] Prove or disprove the following statements 2.2.18 [YL] A square matrix A is called idempotent if A2 =
a. Cancellation Law If A, B, C are matrices such that A.
AB = AC then B = C. Prove: If A is idempotent then A + AB − ABA is idempotent
for any square matrix B with the same dimension as A.
b. Commutativity If A, B are square matrices of the same
size then AB = BA.
c. Zero Factor Property If A, B are matrices such that 2.2.19 [?] An involutory matrix is a matrix A such that
AB = 0 then A = 0 or B = 0 A2 = I.
a. Show that In is involutory.
b. Show that if A is an involutory matrix , then A is a square
2.2.11 [KK] If possible find all k such that AB = BA.
    matrix.
1 2 1 2
a. A = , B= c. If A is involutory, is AT also involutory? If yes, prove it.
3 4 3 k
    If no, find a counter example.
1 2 1 2
b. A = , B= d. Suppose that A and B are involutory, Is AB also involu-
3 4 1 k
tory? If yes, prove it. If no, find a condition on A and B
so that AB is also involutory?
2.2.12 [JH]
a. Prove that H p H q = H p+q and (H p )q = H pq for positive 2.2.20* [JH] Find the formula for the n-th power of this
integers p, q. matrix.  
b. Prove that (rH)p = rp · H p for any positive integer p and 1 1
scalar r ∈ R. 1 0

2.2.13 [JH]
T
a. Show that (G + H) = GT + H T .

11
CHAPTER 2. MATRICES 2.3. MATRIX INVERSES

2.3 Matrix Inverses 2.3.8 [YL] Solve for A given that it satisfies
T
(I − AT )−1 = (tr(B)B 2 )
2.3.1 [GH] Given the matrices A. Find A−1 , if possible.
    where
1 5 2 5 
2 3

a. c. B=
−5 −24 3 4 1 2
   
3 0 1 −3
b. d.
0 7 −2 6
2.3.9 [AG] Solve for A the following equation:

2.3.2 [GH] Given the matrices A and B. Compute (AB)−1 (3AT − I)−1 C − D = 0
and B −1 A−1 .    
7 −1 5 4
where C = and D = .
6 −1 1 1
   
1 2 1 2
a. A = , b. A = ,
1 1 3 4
   
3 5 7 1  
B= B= a b
2 5 2 1 2.3.10 [YL] Find a formula for tr(A−1 ) if A = is
c d
invertible.
−1
2.3.3 [KK] Show (AB) = B −1 A−1 by verifying that
2.3.11 [OV] Consider p(X) = X 3 − 2X 2 + 4X − 3I
AB B −1 A−1 = I and B −1 A−1 (AB) = I

 
2 1
a. If p(A) = , compute p(AT )
−1 2
b. If p(B) = 0 where B is an n×n matrix, find B −1 in terms
2.3.4 [?] Find the matrix X such that of B.
   
T

1 3 1 2
X − 3I = 2.3.12 [JH] In real number algebra, there are exactly two
2 5 0 1
numbers, 1 and −1, that are their own multiplicative inverse.
Does H 2 = I have exactly two solutions for 2×2 matrices?
   
1 2 −1 1
2.3.5 [YL] Given C = and D = . Solve 2.3.13 [GH] Prove or disprove: If A and B are 2×2 invertible
5 0 4 −3
the given equations for X. matrices then A + B is an invertible matrix.
a. CXD = 10I
T
b. C((DX) − 2I)−1 = C 2.3.14 [GH] Given the matrices A. Find A−1 , if possible.

2.3.6 [YL] Solve for X given that it satisfies

DXDT = tr(BC)BC

where
 
  2 −1  
2 1 0 2 −2
B= C= 3 −2 D = .
−3 4 0 1 −2
1 0

2.3.7 [YL] Solve for X given that it satisfies

 −1
2A + X T =I

where  
1 3
A=
1 2

12
CHAPTER 2. MATRICES 2.3. MATRIX INVERSES

       
25 −10 −4 2 3 4 3 5 1 2 12
−18 −3 6 9  a. A = ,
a. 7 3 i. 2 3 c. A =  0 1 6  ,
−6 2 1 −1 9 13 −3 0 1
 
21
b=  
13 −17
   
1 0 0 5 −1 0
b.  4 1 −7  j. 7 7 1

1 −4
 b =  −5 
20 7 −48 −2 −8 −1 b. A = , 20
4 −15  
1 0 −3
 
21
   
−4 1 5 1 0 0 0 b=
c.  −5 1 9  −19 −9 0 4  77 d. A =  8 −2 −13 ,
k.  
12 −3 −20
−10 2 19  33 4 1 −7  

1 −5 0
 4 2 0 −1 −34
d. −2 15 4

1 0 0 0
 b = −159
−243
4 −19 1 27 1 0 4
  l. 
18 0 1 4

25 −8 0
e. −78 25 0 4 0 0 1
  2.3.18 [YL] Consider
48 −15 1 1 0 2 8  
  0 1 0 0  1 2 3
1 0 0 m.   A= 0 1 2 .
7 0 −4 −29 −110 
f. 5 8 0 0 3
−2 −2 −3 0 −3 −5 −19
 

0 0 1
 0 0 1 0 a. Find A−1 .
0 0 0 1
g. 1 0 0 n.   b. Using A−1 solve Ax = b where
1 0 0 0
0 1 0    
  0 1 0 0 x1 1
0 1 0   x = x2  and b = −2 .
h. 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 2 0 0  x3 1
0 0 1 o.  
0 0 3 0 
0 0 0 −4 
2x
 =a
2.3.19 [YL] Given the following system 3x + 4y =b

5x + 7y + 11z =c

2.3.15 [SZ] Find the inverse of the matrix or state that the
matrix is not invertible. a. Find the inverse of the coefficient matrix.

3 0 4
 
1 2 3
 b. For which value(s), if any, of a, b, c is the system consis-
a.  2 −1 3  c. 2 3 11
  tent, justify.
−3 2 −5 3 4 19 c. Solve the system using the inverse for the value(s), if any,

4 6 −3
 
1 0 −3 0
 found in part b.
b. 3 4 −3  2 −2 8 7
d.  
1 2 6 −5 0 16 0 2.3.20[BS] Consider the following system of linear equa-
1 0 4 1
9x + 3y + z = 0

tions: 3x + 2y + z = 4

6x + 2y + z = 1

2.3.16 [YL] Consider the following system:
a. Solve this system using the inverse of its coefficient ma-
x − 2y = 5 trix.
3x − 4y = 6 b. Use Gauss-Jordan elimination to solve the homogeneous
system whose coefficient matrix is the augmented matrix
of the given system.
a. Write the above system as a matrix equation.
c. Solve the system whose coefficient matrix is the aug-
b. Solve the matrix equation by using the inverse of the mented matrix of the given system and which has a par-
coefficient matrix. ticular solution (1, −1, −1, 1).
c. Give a geometrical interpretation of the solution set.
2.3.21 [BS] Given the following matrix:
2.3.17 [GH] Given the matrices A and b below. Find x that 
3 1 2 4

satisfies the equation Ax = b by using the inverse of A A = 1 0 2 0 .
3 1 0 2

13
CHAPTER 2. MATRICES 2.3. MATRIX INVERSES

Solve the linear system whose augmented matrix is the matrix 2.3.28 [OV] Assuming that all matrices are n × n and in-
A using the inverse of its coefficient matrix. vertible, solve the following equation for X and simplify.

−1
T
−1
T
A−1 BC T DT X C −1 A B T = B −1
2.3.22 [YL] Given
 
2 2 0
A = 4 3 0  . 2.3.29 [KK] Give an example of a matrix A such that A2 =
3 2 12 I, A 6= I and A 6= −I.

a. Find A−1 . 2.3.30 [JH] What is the inverse of rH?

b. Solve for X where AX = B and
1 0 12 0 0
 
2.3.31 [YL] Prove or disprove: If A, B, C denote n × n
B =  0 1 0 2 −1 matrices and AB = AC then B = C.
−4 2 12 0 0
2.3.32 [KK] Suppose AB = AC and A is an invertible n × n

T −1
c. Find 1 matrix. Does it follow that B = C? Explain.
2A if possible.

2.3.33 [YL] Given A and B, n × n matrices.

2.3.23 [?] Solve the given matrix equation: a. Prove or disprove: If AB = 0 then A = 0 or B = 0.
b. Prove or disprove: If A is invertible and AB = 0 then
   
2 6 6 1 2 0
2 7 6 X = 0 −1 4 . B = 0.
2 7 7 2 5 0
2.3.34 [JH] Assume that H is invertible and that HG is the
zero matrix. Show that G is a zero matrix.
2.3.24 [YL] Solve for X given that it satisfies
 −1 1 2.3.35 [JH] Prove that if H is invertible then the inverse
tr(A)A + X T A = I3 commutes with a matrix GH −1 = H −1 G if and only if H
6
itself commutes with that matrix GH = HG.
where  
1 2 3
A = 0 2 3 2.3.36 [YL] Show that if A is invertible then its inverse is
0 0 3 unique.

2.3.37 [JH] Prove: If T is an invertible matrix and k is a

2.3.25 [BS] Solve for A, if possible: natural number then (T k )−1 = (T −1 )k .
    −1
1 0 3 0
A−1 = − 2A
−1
−2 −1 5 3 2.3.38 [KK] Prove: If A is invertible, then A−1 = A.

2.3.39 [KK] Show that if A is an invertible n × n matrix,

2.3.26 [BS] Find all matrices A such that
−1
T
then so is AT and AT = A−1 .
 
1 0 0
−1
A−1 0 1 0 = (3I3 − 2A) 2.3.40 [JH] Show that if T is square and if T 4 is the zero
7 0 1 matrix then (I − T )−1 = I + T + T 2 + T 3 .

2.3.41 [AG] A matrix A is called nilpotent if Ak = 0 for

2.3.27 [YL, MB] Given that A, B, C and M are invertible
some positive integer k. Show that if A is nilpotent for a
matrices simplify the following expressions.
certain k then (I − A)−1 = I + A + A2 + · · · + Ak .
a. AT B(AB)−1 (AT A−1 )−1
T T
b. B T AT ((AB) )−1 C(C T A) B(CB)−1 2.3.42 [YL] Prove: If B and C are n×n matrices such that
T T
T
c. (AT M −1 )−1 (A2 ) (H T AT (A−1 ) ) A = B T C + C T B is invertible then A−1 is symmetric.

14
CHAPTER 2. MATRICES 2.4. ELEMENTARY MATRICES

2.3.43 [YL] Show that a matrix A which satisfy A3 + 3A2 + 2.4 Elementary Matrices
A + I = 0 is invertible and express its inverse in terms of A
and the identity.
2.4.1 [JH] Predict the result of each multiplication by an
elementary matrix, and then verify by performing the multi-
2.3.44 [YL] Given an n × n matrix A such that p(A) = 0 plication.
where p(x) = x3 −x2 + 1. Determine the inverse of A in terms         
of A. 3 0 1 2 1 0 1 2 1 0 1 2
a. b. c.
0 1 3 4 0 2 3 4 −2 1 3 4
2.3.45 [YL] Given an n × n identity I and p(x) = a0 + a1 x +
a2 x2 + . . . + am xm an arbitrary polynomial of degree m. Find
the condition for which p(I) is invertible. 2.4.2 [JH] Find
a. a 3×3 matrix that, acting from the left, swaps rows one
2.3.46 [YL] Prove: If AB and BA are both invertible then and two.
A and B are both invertible. b. a 2×2 matrix that, acting from the right, swaps column
one and two.
2.3.47 [YL] Prove or disprove: If (AB)x = 0 has only the    
trivial solution then Ax = 0 and Bx = 0 have only the trivial a b c 0 1
2.4.3 [SZ] Let A = E1 = E2 =
solution. d e f 1 0
   
5 0 1 −2
E3 = .
0 1 0 1
2.3.48 [JH] Prove or disprove: Nonsingular matrices com-
Compute E1 A, E2 A and E3 A. What effect did each of the Ei
mute.
matrices have on the rows of A? Create E4 so that its effect
on A is to multiply the bottom row by −6.
2.3.49 [YL] Prove: If A and B are square matrices satisfying
AB = I, then A = B −1 .
2.4.4 [JH] Write  
1 0
2.3.50 [?] An involutory matrix is a matrix A such that −3 3
A2 = I. Show that if A is an involutory matrix, then A is as the product of two elementary matrices.
invertible and find A−1 .
 
1 0 1
−1 T
2.3.51 [BS] A matrix A is said to be orthogonal if A = A . 2.4.5 [OV] Given A = 3 2 −4
If A is an orthogonal matrix with integer entries show that 0 0 1
every row of A has exactly one nonzero entry which is equal
a. Find the inverse of A.
to ±1.
b. Write A−1 as a product of elementary matrices.

2.3.52 [BS] Show that every square matrix can be written

as a sum of two invertible matrices. 2.4.6 [AG] Given the matrix
 
5 3 0
2.3.53 [BS] A = 3 2 1 .
Determine whether the following statements are true or false 0 0 1
for any n × n matrices A and B. If the statement is false
−1
provide a counterexample. If the statement is true provide a a. Find A
proof of the statement. b. Write A as a product of elementary matrices.

If A3 = 0 then A2 − A + I is invertible.
2.4.7 [MB] Consider the following system of equations:

2.3.54 [SS] Show that if A is a 3 × 2 matrix and if B is a x1 − x3 = 2

2 × 3 matrix, then AB is not invertible. 5x1 − 2x3 = 1 ,
x2 =4
which can be written as AX = B, where A is the matrix of
coefficients, X is the column matrix of unknowns, and B is
the column matrix of constants.

15
CHAPTER 2. MATRICES 2.4. ELEMENTARY MATRICES

a. Compute the inverse of A and use it to solve the system. b. If possible show that M and A are row-equivalent. Jus-
tify.
b. Using your work of a., write the inverse of the matrix A
as a product of elementary matrices.
2.4.13 [BS] Find all matrices A such that
   
1 1 1 6 6 6
2.4.8 [YL] Write the given matrix as a product of elementary
A 2 2 2 = 2 2 2
matrices 
0 0 1
 3 3 3 3 3 3
1 3 0
2 4 0
2.4.14 [BS] Find all matrices A such that
 
1 0 3
2.4.9 [YL] Express
A(3I − 2A)−1 = 0 1 0

1 0 0
 0 0 1
A = 1 0 1
0 2 1
2.4.15 [YL] Show that
as a product of 4 elementary matrices.
   
5 7 9 1 2 3
A = 1 2 3 and B = 4 5 6
2.4.10 [YL] Express
4 5 6 8 10 12
 
1 0 2 are row-equivalent by finding 3 elementary matrices Ei such
A = 2 0 4 that E3 E2 E1 A = B.
0 3 3

as a product of elementary matrices, Ei , and a reduced row 2.4.16 [YL] Given

echelon matrix, R. That is, express A as Ek · · · E2 E1 R.  
1 1 1 1
A = 2 2 2 2 ,
2.4.11 [KK] Given matrices A and B and suppose a row 3 3 3 3
operation is applied to A and the result is B. Find the ele-      
mentary matrix E such that EA = B. Find the inverse of E, 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
E −1 , such that E −1 B = A. E1 = 0 1 0 , E2 = 0 −3 0 , E3 = 0 1 0
2 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
   
1 2 1 1 2 1
a. A = 0 5 1 and B = 2 −1 4 solve for X, if possible.
2 −1 4 0 5 1
T
a. X T E1 E2 E3 = A
1 2 1
   
1 2 1

0 5 1 b. E3 tr(E1 )X T + E2 A = A
b. A = 0 5 1 and B =
   
1 − 12 2


2 −1 4 c. E3 E1 X T + tr(E2 )A = A
   
1 2 1 1 2 1
c. A = 0 5 1 and B = 2 4 5 2.4.17 [YL] Given the following 5 × 5 matrices: A, Hilbert’s
2 −1 4 2 −1 4 matrix H and its inverse
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5
1 2 1 2 1  21 1 1 1 1
2.4.12 [YL] Given a 5 × 5 Magic Square (matrix) 1 3 2 5 3 3 4 5 6
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
    A=
3 4 5 6 7 , H=
3 4 5 6 7 ,
11 24 7 20 3 4 12 25 8 16 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
 4 12 25 4 5 6 7 8 4 5 6 7 8
8 16 11 24 7 20 3  1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 2 3 4 5 5 6 7 8 9
   
M = 17 5 13 21 9   and A = 34 10 26 42 18


10 18 1 14 22 10 18 1 14 22

25 −300 1050 −1400 630

23 6 19 2 15 33 24 20 16 37  −300 4800 −18900 26880 −12600
H −1
 
 1050
= −18900 79380 −117600 56700 

−1400 26880 −117600 179200 −88200
a. True or False: There exists an elementary matrix E such
that EM = A. Justify. 630 −12600 56700 −88200 44100

16
CHAPTER 2. MATRICES 2.4. ELEMENTARY MATRICES

a. Show that H is row equivalent to A by finding two ele-

mentary matrices Ei such that E2 E1 H = A.
b. Find the inverse of A.

2.4.18 [JH] Prove that any matrix row-equivalent to an

invertible matrix is also invertible.

2.4.19 [AG] Show that if A and B are square matrices such

that AB is invertible, then A can be written as a product of
elementary matrices.

2.4.20 [YL] Prove: If Ei are elementary matrices and

En · · · E2 E1 A is invertible then A is invertible.

2.4.21 [?] An involutory matrix is a matrix A such that

A2 = I. Some elementary matrices are involutory. What is
the corresponding type of row operation?

2.4.22 [OV] True or false? Justify your answer either prov-

ing the assertion or giving an example showing that it is false.
The product of two elementary matrices of the same size must
be an elementary matrix.

2.4.23 [YL] Show that there exist an n×n symmetric ele-

mentary matrix E such that E 2 = I.

2.4.24[OV] If matrices A and B are row equivalent then it

can be denoted as A ∼
= B. Show that
∼
a. A = A
b. If A ∼
= B, then B ∼
= A.
c. If A ∼
= B and B ∼= C, then A ∼
= C.

2.4.25 [BS, YL] Determine whether the following state-

ment is true or false for any n × n matrices A and B. If the
statement is false provide a counterexample. If the statement
is true provide a proof of the statement.

a. If A and B are invertible then A and B are row equiva-

lent.
b. All elementary matrices are symmetric.
c. If A is elementary then A2 is elementary.
d. If A2 is an elementary matrix then A is an elementary
matrix.

17
Chapter 3

Determinants

3.1 The Laplace Expansion 3.1.5 [GH] Find the determinant of the given matrix using
cofactor expansion.

3.1.1 [GH] Compute the determinant of the following ma-

   
3 2 3 3 −1 0
trices. a. −6 1 −10 d. −3 0 −4
    −8 −9 −9 0 −1 −4
10 7 −1 −7
a. c.
   
8 9 −5 9 8 −9 −2 0 0 −1 −1
b. −9 9 −7 1 1 0 1
e. 
   
6 −1 −10 −1 5 −1 9 1 1 −1 0

b. d.  
−7 8 −4 7   −1 0 1 0
1 −4 1  
c. 0 3 0 −1 0 0 −1
1 2 2 −1 0 0 1
3.1.2 [GH] For the following matrices, construct the sub- f. 
1 1 1

0
matrices used to compute the minors M1,1 , M1,2 and M1,3 .
1 0 −1 −1
Compute the cofactors C1,1 , C1,2 , and C1,3 .
   
7 −3 10 −5 −3 3
a. 3 7 6 c. −3 3 10 3.1.6 [SZ] Compute the determinant of the given matrix.
1 6 10 −9 3 9
x x2
   

−2 −9 6
 
−6 −4 6
 1 2 3
a.
b. −10 −6 8  d.  −8 0 0 1 2x d. 2 3 11
0 −3 −2 −10 8 −1

1 ln(x)
 3 4 19
 
 x3 x 3  i j k
b.  
 3 1 − 3 ln(x)  e. −1 0 5
− 4 9 −4 −2
3.1.3 [JH] Evaluate the determinant by performing a cofac-  x x4  
tor expansion   4 6 −3 1 0 −3 0
 3 0 1 c. 3 4 −3  2 −2 8 7
  f. 
−5 0

 1 2 2
  1 2 6 16 0
−1 3 0 1 0 4 1

a. along the first row,

b. along the second row, 3.1.7 [JH] Verify that the determinant of an upper-
c. along the third column. triangular 3×3 matrix is the product of the main diagonal.
 
a b c
3.1.4 [KK] Find the determinants of the following matrices. det 0 e f  = aei
    0 0 i
1 2 3 1 2 3 2
a. 3 2 2 1 3 2 3 Is it the same for lower triangular matrices?
c.  
0 9 8 4 1 5 0

4 3 2
 1 2 1 2
3.1.8 [KK] Find the determinants of the following matrices.
b.  1 7 8 
3 −9 3

19
CHAPTER 3. DETERMINANTS 3.2. DETERMINANTS AND ELEMENTARY OPERATIONS

   
a.
1 −34 2 3 15 0 3.2 Determinants and Elementary
0 2 0 4 1 7
  c. 
0 0 −3

5 Operations
4 3 14
b. 0 −2 0  0 0 0 1
0 0 5 3.2.1 [KK] An operation is done to get from the first matrix
to the second. Identify the operation and how the determi-
nant will change.
3.1.9 [BS] Given the following matrices:    
a b a c
a. to
c d b d
   
a b a b
   
1 0 0 1 2  
d. to
2 −2 6    
c d 2c 2d
A = 0 1 0 , B = 2 4  and C = a b c d
0 1 −3 b. to
5 0 1 1 −1 c d a b
   
a b b a
 e. to
c d d c
  
a b a b
Find det(X) given that X satisfies the equation c. to
c d a+c b+d
(X + BC)−1 = A.

3.2.2 [GH] A matrix M and det(M ) are given. Matrices

A, B and C are obtained by performing operations on M .
3.1.10 [JH] True or false: Can we compute a determinant
Determine the determinants of A, B and C and indicate the
by expanding down the diagonal? Justify.
operations used to obtain A, B and C.
   
 2
x 1 x
 9 7 8 5 1 5
3.1.11 [BS] Given A =  3 1 2  find the value(s) of a. M = 1 3 7 , c. M = 4 0 2 ,
x −1 −1 6 3 3 0 0 4
x, if any, such that det(A) = 0. det(M ) = −41, det(M ) = −16,
   
18 14 16 0 0 4
3.1.12 [JH] Which real numbers θ make A =  1 3 7 , A = 5 1 5 ,
  6 3 3 4 0 2
   
cos θ − sin θ 9 7 8 −5 −1 −5
sin θ cos θ B =  1 3 7 , B = −4 0 −2 ,
96 73 83 0 0 4
equal to zero? 
9 1 6
 
15 3 15


C = 7 3 3. C = 12 0 6 .
3.1.13 [BS] Solve for x where 8 7 3 0 0 12
   
  0 3 5 5 4 0
  1 1 1  b. M =  3 1 0 , d. M = 7 9 3 ,
 sin x cos x  x

− cos x = e 1 ex  −2 −4 −1 1 3 9
sin x  
1 ex 0 det(M ) = 45, det(M ) = 120,
   
0 3 5 1 3 9
A = −2 −4 −1 , A = 7 9 3 ,
3.1.14 [YL] Find the determinant of the matrix A.
3 1 0 5 4 0 

2 + 2 tr(A) det(A) 1
 0 3 5 5 4 0
A= −2 3 1 B = 3 1 0 , B = 14 18 6  ,
2 5 0 8 16 4   3 9 27 
3 4 5 −5 −4 0
C= 3 1 0 . C = −7 −9 −3.
−2 −4 −1 −1 −3 −9

3.2.3 [GH] Find the determinant of the given matrix by us-

ing elemetary operations to bring the matrix under triangular
form.

20
CHAPTER 3. DETERMINANTS 3.2. DETERMINANTS AND ELEMENTARY OPERATIONS

     
−4 3 −4 1 0 0 a 0 b
a. −4 −5 3  d.  0 1 0 3.2.9 [YL] If A = 0 c 0 and det(2AT ) = 16 then
3 −4 5 −1 1 1  d 0 e

1 −2 1
 
−5 1 0 0
  2a 4a 6a + 12b 
 
b. 5 5 4 −3 −5 2 5 evaluate  0 8c 10c .
e. 
−2
  2d 4d 6d + 12e

4 0 0 4 −3 4 

−5 0 −4
 5 4 −3 3
 
c.  2 4 −1 2 −1 4 4 3.2.10 Vandermonde’s determinant[JH] Prove:
−5 0 −4 3 −3 3 2
f.  
0 4 −5 1
 
1 1 1
−2 −5 −2 −5 det  a b c  = (b − a)(c − a)(c − b)
a2 b2 c2

3.2.4 [AG] Find the determinant of A:

 
  c d
3 2 −1 4 3.2.11 [YL] Given r 6= 0 and B = then
2 1 5 ra + 2c rb + 2d
7
A=  express
 B as
 E3 E2 E1 A where Ei are elementary matrices and
0 5 2 −6 a b
−1 2 1 0 A= . And given det(A) = 2 find the determinant of
c d
B by using the expression E3 E2 E1 A.

3.2.5 [MB] Compute the determinant of the matrix 3.2.12 [KK] Let A be an r×r matrix and suppose there are
  r − 1 rows (columns) such that all rows (columns) are linear
1 2 0 −3
0 combinations of these r−1 rows (columns). Show det (A) = 0.
4 2 1
A= 
0 2 −1 −1
2 3 1 0

by combining row operations and cofactor expansions.

3.2.6 [YL] Consider

     
a b c d b 2a − 3b
A= , B= , C= .
c d −7a − 5c −7b − 5d d 2c − 3d

a. If det(B) = 5 then determine det(A).

b. If det(C) = 5 then determine det(A).

3.2.7 [YL] Consider

   
a d g 3d 3e 3f
A = b e h and B = a + 2d b + 2e c + 2f  .
c f k 4g 4h 4k

If det(B) = 5 then determine det(A).

3.2.8 [YL] Using elementary operations show that

   
a b  sb + 2d rsa + 2rc
−sr 
  =  
c d  d rc 

21
CHAPTER 3. DETERMINANTS 3.3. PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS

3.3 Properties of Determinants 3.3.11 [YL] Prove: If A is an n×n matrix such that AT A = A
then det(A) = 0 or det(A) = 1.

3.3.1 [JH] Which real numbers x make this matrix singular?

  3.3.12 [JH] Prove that each statement holds for 2×2 ma-
12 − x 4 trices.
8 8−x a. The determinant of a product is the product of the de-
terminants det(ST ) = det(S) det(T ).
b. If T is invertible then the determinant of the inverse is
3.3.2 [KK] Consider the following matrices. Does there exist the inverse of the determinant det(T −1 ) = ( det(T ) )−1 .
a value of t for which this matrix fails to have an inverse?
Justify.
  3.3.13 [YL] Given
1 0 0
0 0 a3 a3
   
a. 0 cos t − sin t a 0 0 0
 0 b 0 0 2
0 sin t cos t  and B =  0 01 0 1b  .

A=  0 0 c 0 0
 t
e e−t cos t e−t sin t

c 0 c
4 4
b. et −e−t cos t − e−t sin t −e−t sin t + e−t cos t 0 0 0 d d 0 0 d
et 2e−t sin t −2e−t cos t If det(B) = 5 then determine det(A).
1 t t2
 

c. 0 1 2t 3.3.14 [KK] Prove or disprove: If A and B are square ma-

t 0 2 trices of the same size then det (A + B) = det (A) + det (B).

3.3.3 [KK] If A, B, and C are each n×n matrices and ABC 3.3.15 [JH]
is invertible, show why each of A, B, and C are invertible. a. Suppose that det(A) = 3 and that det(B) = 2. Find
det(A2 B T B −2 AT ).
3 2
3.3.4 [KK] Show that if det (A) 6= 0 for A an n × n matrix, b. If det(A) = 0 then show that det(6A + 5A + 2A) = 0.
it follows that if AX = 0, then X = 0.
3.3.16 [BS] If A and B are 3×3 matrices such that AB T = I
3.3.5 [KK] Suppose A, B are n × n matrices and that and det(A) = 2, find det(A2 B).
AB = I then show that BA = I. Hint: First explain why
det (A) , det (B) are both nonzero. Then (AB) A = A and 3.3.17 [YL] Prove: There does not exist n × n invertible
then show BA (BA − I) = 0. From this use what is given to matrices A and B where A is symmetric, B is skew symmetric,
conclude A (BA − I) = 0. n is odd such that AB is symmetric.

3.3.6 [KK] Suppose A is an upper triangular matrix. Show

 
x 1 x
that A−1 exists if and only if all elements of the main diagonal 3.3.18 [BS] If A = find the values of x such that
1 1 1
are non zero. Is it true that A−1 will also be upper triangular? det(AAT ) = det(AT A)
Explain. Could the same be concluded for lower triangular
matrices?
3.3.19 [JH]
a. Give a non-identity matrix with the property that AT =
3.3.7 [JH] Prove: If S and T are n×n matrix then det(T S) =
A−1 .
det(ST ).
b. Prove: If AT = A−1 then det(A) = ±1.
c. Does the converse to the above hold?
3.3.8 [YL] Prove or disprove: If det(A2 ) = det(A) then
A2 = A.
3.3.20 [JH] Two matrices H and G are said to be similar if
there is a nonsingular matrix P such that H = P −1 GP Show
3.3.9 [KK] Show det (aA) = an det (A) for an n×n matrix that similar matrices have the same determinant.
A and scalar a.
3.3.21 [KK] An n×n matrix is called nilpotent if for some
3.3.10 [YL] Prove: If A is an n×n skew-symmetric matrix positive integer, k it follows Ak = 0. If A is a nilpotent matrix
where n is odd then det(A) = 0. and k is the smallest possible integer such that Ak = 0, what
are the possible values of det (A)?

22
CHAPTER 3. DETERMINANTS 3.4. ADJOINT OF A MATRIX AND CRAMER’S RULE

3.3.22 [JH] Show that this gives the equation of a line in 3.4 Adjoint of a Matrix and
R2 thru (x2 , y2 ) and (x3 , y3 ).
Cramer’s Rule
 
x x2 x3 
 
 y y 2 y3  = 0 3.4.1 [JH] Find the adjoint of the following matrices.
 
1 1 1    
2 1 4 1 4 3
a. −1 0 2 d. −1 0 3
1 0 1 1 8 9
3.3.23 [JH] Prove or disprove: The determinant is a linear    
function, that is det(x · T + y · S) = x · det(T ) + y · det(S). 3 −1 2 1 0 0
b.
2 4 1 2 1 0
  e. 0 1 2 1

1 1
3.3.24 [KK] True or false. If true, provide a proof. If false, c. 0 0 1 2
5 0
provide a counter example.
a. If A is a 3×3 matrix with a zero determinant, then one
column must be a multiple of some other column. 3.4.2 [JH]
b. If any two columns of a square matrix are equal, then the a. Find a formula for the adjoint of a 2×2 matrix.
determinant of the matrix equals zero.
b. Use the above to derive the formula for the inverse of a
c. For two n×n matrices A and B, det (A + B) = det (A) + 2×2 matrix.
det (B) .
d. For an n×n matrix A, det (3A) = 3 det (A)
−1 3.4.3 [JH] Derive a formula for the adjoint of a diagonal
e. If A−1 exists then det A−1 = det (A) .


matrix.
f. If B is obtained by multiplying a single row of A by 4
then det (B) = 4 det (A) .
n 3.4.4 [JH] Prove that the transpose of the adjoint is the
g. For A an n×n matrix, det (−A) = (−1) det (A) .
adjoint of the transpose.
h. If A is a real n×n matrix, then det AT A ≥ 0.

i. If Ak = 0 for some positive integer k, then det (A) = 0.

3.4.5 [JH] Prove or disprove: adj(adj(T )) = T .
j. If AX = 0 for some X 6= 0, then det (A) = 0.

3.4.6 [KK] Determine whether the matrix A has an inverse

by finding whether the determinant is non zero. If the deter-
minant is nonzero, find the inverse using the formula for the
inverse which involves the cofactor matrix.
   
1 2 3 1 3 3
a. 0 2 1 c. 2 4 1
3 1 0 0 1 1
   
1 2 0 1 0 3
b. 0 2 1 d. 1 0 1
3 1 1 3 1 0

3.4.7 [MB] Given that the cofactor matrix of A is

 
3 −6 5
cof(A) = −4 3 −5
5 −5 5
 
and that the first row of A is 2 1 −1
a. Find adj(A).
b. Find det(A).
c. Find the minors M12 and M22 of A.
d. Find A−1 .

23
CHAPTER 3. DETERMINANTS 3.4. ADJOINT OF A MATRIX AND CRAMER’S RULE

3.4.8 [YL] Consider the matrix: b. Given M is a 4×4 matrix such that det(M ) = 2, evaluate
  det(det(M )adj(5M T A−1 )).
sin θ 0 cos θ c. Given M is a 4×4 matrix such that det(M ) = 3, evaluate
A= 0 π 0  det(det(5AT )adj(M A−1 )).
− cos θ 0 sin θ

a. Determine the value(s) of θ for which A is invertible. 3.4.16 [YL] Given

b. Determine the adjoint of A.
 
10 1 1 1 9 3 4 1 0 9
0 9 1 1 4 9 2 7 7 9
 
0 0 8 1 1 4 9 2 7 7
3.4.9 [YL] Given 
0 0 0 7 1 1 4 9 2 7

 
  0 0 0 0 6 1 1 4 9 2
0 1 2 0 A=0 0

3 0 0 0 5 1 1 4 9
0 0 4  
A=
5
 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 1 1 4
0 0 6 
0 0

0 0 0 0 0 3 1 1
0 7 8 0 
0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 2 1
. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
a. Evaluate det(A).    
4 3 −2 8 4 3 −2 8
b. Evaluate det adj (3A−1 )T .



2 3 1 −4 0 3 1 −4
B= −1 2 −1
, C = .
4 0 0 −1 4
3.4.10 [YL] Let B be a 3×3 matrix where det(B) = 3. Find 1 2 2 −8 0 0 0 8
a. Given G is a 4×4 matrix show that BG is not invertible.
det 2B + B 2 adj(B) .

b. Given F is a 10 × 10
invertible matrix evaluate

det F 101 adj(A)(F −1 )101 .
3.4.11 [KK] Use the formula for the inverse in terms of the c. Evaluate det 2 adj(A) + 3A−1 , if possible.


cofactor
 t matrix to find the inverse of the matrix.
e 0 0
 d. Given D is a 10×10 matrix such that A−1 D2 = I deter-
et cos t et sin t mine det(D), if possible.
a.  0 
e. Evaluate det B 101 adj(C) + BC 2015 , if possible.


0 e cos t − e sin t e cos t + et sin t
t t t
 
f. Given E is a square matrix and det det(C)
 t  T 3
e cos t sin t 2 E A =π
b. et − sin t cos t  find det(E), if possible.
et − cos t − sin t
g. Given H is a 10×10 matrix and det(2HA+Hadj(A)A2 ) =
0 show that H singular.
3.4.12 [YL] Prove: If A is an invertible n×n matrix then h. Evaluate det(adj(A) + I), if possible.
det(adj(A)) = (det(A))n−1 . i. Determine adj(adj(A)), if possible.

3.4.13 [MB] Consider two 4 × 4 matrices A and B, with 3.4.17 [BS] If A is a 3×3 matrix such that det(A) = 2 find
det(A) = −2 and det(B) = 3. Find the determinant of M ,
det adj 2adj A−1




knowing that det(2B T M A−1 B) = det(adj(A)A2 B).
.
3.4.14 [AG] Let A and B be two 3×3 matrices with
det(A) =
2 and det(B) = 5. Find det A3 det(B)AT (adj(A))4 . 3.4.18 [BS] Given A, an n × n matrix such that det(A) = 9
and
A3 AT = 3A−1 adj(A)
3.4.15 [YL] Let
find n.
 
1 2 3 4
0 −2 −3 −4 3.4.19 [BS] If A and B are invertible matrices of the same
A= 2 3
.
0 0 size show that
0 4 5 0
adj (AB) = adj (B) adj (A)
a. Evaluate det(A). .

24
CHAPTER 3. DETERMINANTS 3.4. ADJOINT OF A MATRIX AND CRAMER’S RULE

3.4.20 [MB] Use Cramer’s rule to solve this system. 3.4.26 [YL] Given A = [aij ]n×n and the cofactors of A, Cij .
Show that a11 C21 + a12 C22 + . . . + a1n C2n = 0.
x1 + 2x2 = −1
.
−x1 + −4x2 = 2

3.4.21 [AG] Solve the linear system for x and y using

Cramer’s rule: (
17x + 23y = 63
−13x + 31y = 49

3.4.22 [YL] Solve only for x1 using Cramer’s Rule.

x1 − 2x2 + 3x3 = 4
5x2 − 6x3 = 7
8x3 = 9

3.4.23 [GH] Given the matrices A and b, evaluate det(A)

and det(Ai ) for all i. Use Cramer’s Rule to solve Ax = b. If
Cramer’s Rule cannot be used to find the solution, then state
whether or not a solution exists.
   
3 0 −3 7 14
d. A =
a. A = 5 4 4  −2 −4
5 5 −4
 
−1
  b=
24 4
b=0 
4 9 3

31 e. A = −5 −2 −13
 
b. A =
9 5  −1  10 −13
−4 −7 −28
 
−45 b =  35 
b=
20 7
   
−8 16 7 −4 25
c. A =
 10  −20 f. A = −2 1 −7
b=
−48  9  −7 34
60 −1
b = −3
5

3.4.24 [SZ] Use Cramer’s Rule to solve for x4 .

x1 − x3 = −2 4x1 + x2 = 4
2x2 − x4 = 0 x2 − 3x3 = 1
a. b.
x1 − 2x2 + x3 = 0 10x1 + x3 + x4 = 0
−x3 + x4 = 1 −x2 + x3 = −3

3.4.25 [YL] Determine for which value(s) of λ, if any, the

following system can be solved using Cramer’s Rule.
x −2y +z − 2w =5
3x −4y + 3w =6
5y − λw =7
2x −λy− 2z =8

25
Chapter 4

Vector Geometry

4.1 Introduction to Vectors j. Is there a scalar m such that m(v + 2 w) = k? If so, find
it.
4.1.1 [GHC] Sketch u, v, u + v and u − v on the same axes.
4.1.4 [GHC] Find kuk, kvk, ku + vk and ku − vk.
y
a. u = (2, 1), v = (3, −2)
z
b. u = (−3, 2, 2), v = (1, −1, 1)
⃗u
a. c. ⃗v . c. u = (1, 2), v = (−3, −6)
x
⃗u d. u = (2, −3, 6), v = (10, −15, 30)
x y

. ⃗v . 4.1.5 [GHC] Under what conditions is kuk+kvk = ku+vk?

y

⃗u z

⃗u
4.1.6 [GHC] Find the unit vector u in the direction of v.
d. . a. v = (3, 7)
b. x
b. v in the first quadrant of R2 that makes a 50◦ angle with
⃗v x ⃗v y the x-axis.
. c. v in the second quadrant of R2 that makes a 30◦ angle
.
with the y-axis.

4.1.2 [GHC] Points P and Q are given. Write the vector 4.1.7 [MB] Find a vector u, of length 3, in the direction of
−−→ P Q, where P (5, 1, 2) and Q(−2, −2, 5).
P Q in component form and using the standard unit vectors.
a. P = (2, −1), Q = (3, 5)
b. P = (3, 2), Q = (7, −2) 4.1.8 [JH] Decide if the two vectors are equal.
c. P = (0, 3, −1), Q = (6, 2, 5) a. the vector from (5, 3) to (6, 2) and the vector from (1, −2)
to (1, 1)
d. P = (2, 1, 2), Q = (4, 3, 2)
b. the vector from (2, 1, 1) to (3, 0, 4) and the vector from
(5, 1, 4) to (6, 0, 7)
4.1.3 [MC] Let v = (−1, 5, −2) and w = (3, 1, 1).
a. v − w 4.1.9 [SM] Determine the distance from P to Q as given.
b. v + w a. P (2, 3) and Q(−4, 1)
v
c. kvk b. P (1, 1, −2) and Q(−3, 1, 1)
d. k 12 (v − w)k c. P (4, −6, 1) and Q(−3, 5, 1)
e. k 21 (v + w)k d. P (2, 1, 1, 5) and Q(4, 6, −2, 1)
f. −2 v + 4 w
g. v − 2 w.
4.1.10 [GHC] Let u = (1, −2) and v = (1, 1).
h. Find the vector u such that u + v + w = i.
a. Find u + v, u − v, 2u − 3v.
i. Find the vector u such that u + v + w = 2 j + k.
b. Find x where u + x = 2v − x.

27
CHAPTER 4. VECTOR GEOMETRY 4.1. INTRODUCTION TO VECTORS

c. Sketch the above vectors on the same axes, along with u c. Determine whether the points S(1, 0, 1, 2), T (3, −2, 3, 1),
and v. and U (−3, 4, −1, 5) are collinear. Show how you decide.

4.1.11 [GHC] Let u = (1, 1, −1) and v = (2, 1, 2). 4.1.19 [SM] Determine whether the three points P (1, −1, 0),
√
a. Find u + v, u − v, πu − 2v. Q(2, 4, 1) and R(−1, −11, −2) are collinear.
b. Find x where u + x = v + 2x.
c. Sketch the above vectors on the same axes, along with u 4.1.20 [SM] Show that a(5, 7) + b(3, −10) = (−16, 77) rep-
and v. resents a system of two linear equations in the two variables
a and b. Solve and check.
4.1.12 [SM] Let x = (1, 2, −2) and x = (2, −1, 3). Deter-
mine 4.1.21 [SM] Show that a(1, −1, 0) + b(3, 2, 1) + c(0, 1, 4) =
a. 2x − 3y (−1, 1, 19) represents a system of three linear equations in the
b. −3(x + 2y) + 5x three variables a, b, and c. Solve and check.
c. z such that y − 2z = 3x
d. z such that z − 3x = 2z 4.1.22 [SM] Prove that the two diagonals of a parallelogram
bisect each other.

4.1.13 [SM] Find the coordinates of the point which is one

4.1.23 [SM] Prove that the line segment joining the mid-
third of the way from the point (1, 2) to the point (3, −2).
points of two sides of a triangle is parallel to the third side
and half as long.
4.1.14 [SM] Consider the points P (2, 3, 1), Q(3, 1, −2),
−−→ −→ −→ −−→
R(1, 4, 0), and S(−5, 1, 5). Determine P Q, P R, P S, QR, and 4.1.24 [SM] Prove that the quadrilateral P QRS, whose ver-
−→ −−→ −−→ −→ −→ −→
SR, and verify that P Q + QR = P R = P S + SR. tices are the midpoints of the sides of an arbitrary quadrilat-
eral ABCD, is a parallelogram.
4.1.15 [SM] Find the midpoint of the line segment joining C
Q
the given points. B
a. (2, 1, 1) and (−3, 1, −4)
b. (2, −1, 0, 3) and (−3, 2, 1, −1) R
P

4.1.16 [SM] Find the points that divide the line segment D
S
joining the given points into three equal parts. A
a. (2, 4, 1) and (−1, 1, 7)
b. (−1, 1, 5) and (4, 2, 1)
4.1.25 [SM] Prove that the line segments joining the mid-
points of opposite sides of a quadrilateral bisect each other.
4.1.17 [SM] Given the points P and Q, and the real number
−→ −−→
r, determine the point R such that P R = rP Q. Make a rough
sketch to illustrate the idea. 4.1.26 [SM] A median of a triangle is a line segment from
a vertex to the midpoint of the opposite side. Prove that the
a. P (1, 4, −5) and Q(−3, 1, 4); r = 14
three medians of any triangle intersect at a common point
b. P (2, 1, 1, 6) and Q(8, 7, 6, 0); r = − 13 G that is two-thirds of the distance from each vertex to the
c. P (2, 1, −2) and Q(−3, 1, 4); r = 43 midpoint of the opposite side. (The point G is called the
centroid of the triangle.)

4.1.18 [SM] A set of points in Rn is collinear if they all line

on one line. 4.1.27 [JH] Does any vector have length zero except a zero
vector? (If “yes”, produce an example. If “no”, prove it.)
a. By considering directed line segments, give a general
method for determining whether a given set of three
points is collinear. 4.1.28 [JH] Show that if v 6= 0 then v/kv k has length one.
b. Determine whether the points P (1, 2, 2, 1), Q(4, 1, 4, 2), What if v = 0?
and R(−5, 4, −2, −1) are collinear. Show how you decide.

28
CHAPTER 4. VECTOR GEOMETRY 4.2. DOT PRODUCT AND PROJECTIONS

4.1.29 [JH] Show that if r ≥ 0 then rv is r times as long as 4.2 Dot Product and Projections
v. What if r < 0?

4.2.1 [GHC] Find the dot product of the given vectors.

4.1.30 [SM]
 Prove, as a consequence of the triangle inequal- a. u = (2, −4), v = (3, 7)
ity, that kxk − kyk ≤ kx − yk.
b. u = (1, −1, 2), v = (2, 5, 3)
c. u = (1, 1), v = (1, 2, 3)
d. u = (1, 2, 3), v = (0, 0, 0)

4.2.2 [SM] Determine whether the given pair of vectors is

orthogonal.

a. (1, 3, 2), (2, −2, 2) c. (2, 1, 1), (−1, 4, 2)

b. (−3, 1, 7), (2, −1, 1) d. (4, 1, 0, −2), (−1, 4, 3, 0)

4.2.3 [GHC] A vector v is given. Give two vectors that are

orthogonal to v.

a. v = (4, 7) c. v = (1, 1, 1)
b. v = (−3, 5) d. v = (1, −2, 3)

4.2.4 [SM] Determine all values of k for which the vectors

are orthogonal.

a. (3, −1), (2, k) c. (1, 2, 3), (3, −k, k)

b. (3, −1), (k, k 2 ) d. (1, 2, 3), (k, k, −k)

4.2.5 [GHC] Find the measure of the angle between the two
vectors in both radians and degrees.
a. u = (1, 1), v = (1, 2)
b. u = (−2, 1), v = (3, 5)
c. u = (8, 1, −4), v = (2, 2, 0)
d. u = (1, 7, 2), v = (4, −2, 5)

4.2.6 [SM] Determine the angle (in radians) between the

vectors a and b given.
a. a = (2, 1, 4) and b = (4, −2, 1)
b. a = (1, −2, 1) and b = (3, 1, 0)
c. a = (5, 1, 1, −2) and b = (2, 3, −2, 1)

√
4.2.7 [YL] Prove: If u, v ∈ Rn such that ||u|| = 2 and the
angle between u and v is π4 then ||u + v||2 = ||v||2 + 2||v|| + 2.

4.2.8 [?] Suppose that → −u and →

−v are two vectors in
the xy-plane with directions as given in the diagram
and such that →
−u has length 2 and →−
v has length 3.

29
CHAPTER 4. VECTOR GEOMETRY 4.2. DOT PRODUCT AND PROJECTIONS

y 4.2.14 [SM] For each of the given pairs of vectors a, b, check

−
→
u that a is a unit vector, determine proja (b) and perpa (b), and
32◦ check your results by verifying that proja (b) + perpa (b) = b
x
−28◦ and a • perpa (b) = 0 in each case.
−
→ a. a = (0, 1) and b = (3, −5)
v
b. a = 53 , 45 and b = (−4, 6)

a. Find u · v. c. a = (0, 1, 0) and b = (−3, 5, 2)

d. a = 31 , − 32 , 23 and b = (4, 1, −3)


b. Find ku + vk.

4.2.9 [YL] Given the line y = x + 2 which is a tangent of 4.2.15 [SM] Consider the force represented by the vector
the circle with centre C. The vector v has initial point C F = (10, 18, −6), and let u = (2, 6, 3).
and terminal point B which lies both on the circle and the a. Determine a unit vector in the direction of u.
tangent. b. Determine the projection of F onto u.
c. Determine the component of F perpendicular to u.
B
4.2.16 [SM] Let v be any non-zero vector in R2 , and v̂ be
v the unit vector in its direction.
C a. Show that v̂ can be written as v̂ = (cos φ, sin φ), where
w φ is the angle from the positive x-axis to v. Also show
that v = kvk(cos φ, sin φ).
b. Prove the formula cos(α − β) = cos α cos β + sin α sin β
u = (10, 4) by considering the dot product of the two unit vectors
ea = (cos α, sin α) and eb = (cos β, sin β).
A(−6, −4)

4.2.17 [SM]
a. Find the centre C of the circle. a. Let u1 , u2 , and u3 be non-zero vectors orthogonal to
b. Find the point B. each other, and let w = au1 + bu2 + cu3 . Show that
c. Find the equation of the circle. w • u1 w • u2 w • u3
a= , b= , c=
ku1 k2 ku2 k2 ku3 k2
4.2.10 [YL] Given u, v ∈ R2 where u = (1, 1), ||v|| = 1 and b. Show that u1 = (1, −2, 3), u2 = (1, 2, 1), and u3 =
the angle between u and v is π/4. (−8, 2, 4) are orthogonal to each other, and write w =
a. Determine u · v. (13, −4, −7) as a linear combination of u1 , u2 , and u3 .
b. Determine v.

4.2.18 [SM] Verify the triangle inequality and the Cauchy-

4.2.11 [BS] If u = (0, 1, 1) and v = (p, 4, p) then find the Schwartz inequality for the given vectors.
parameter p such that the angle between u and v is π/3. a. x = (4, 3, 1) and y = (2, 1, 5)
b. x = (1, −1, 2) and y = (−3, 2, 4)
4.2.12 [SM] Find the angle between each pair of vectors.
a. u = (1, 4, −2) and v = (3, −1, 4) in R3
4.2.19 Cauchy-Schwartz Inequality[YL] Prove without
b. u = (2, 4, 0, 1, 3) and v = (1, 1, 4, 2, 0) in R5 assuming that the law of cosine holds in Rn : If u, v ∈ Rn then
|u • v| ≤ kukkvk.
4.2.13 [SM] Determine
a. proj(2,3,−2) ((4, −1, 3)) and perp(2,3,−2) ((4, −1, 3)) 4.2.20 [YL] Prove or disprove: There does not exist two
b. proj(1,1,−2) ((4, 1, −2)) and perp(1,1,−2) ((4, 1, −2)) unit vectors u, v ∈ Rn such that u · v = −2.
c. proj(−2,1,−1) ((5, −1, 3)) and perp(−2,1,−1) ((5, −1, 3))
d. proj(−1,2,1,−3) ((2, −1, 2, 1)) and 4.2.21 [SM] Consider the following statement: “If a • b = a • c
perp(−1,2,1,−3) ((2, −1, 2, 1)) then b = c.”

30
CHAPTER 4. VECTOR GEOMETRY 4.2. DOT PRODUCT AND PROJECTIONS

a. If the statement is true, prove it. If the statement is false, 4.2.30 [JH] Generalize to Rn the converse of the
provide a counterexample. Pythagorean Theorem, that if u and v are perpendicular then
b. If we specify a 6= 0, does that change the result? ku + v k2 = ku k2 + kv k2 .

4.2.22 [SM] Prove the parallelogram law for the norm: 4.2.31 [JH] Show that ku k = kv k if and only if u + v and
u − v are perpendicular. Give an example in R2 .
ka + bk2 + ka − bk2 = 2kak2 + 2kbk2

for all vectors in Rn . 4.2.32 [JH] Prove that, where u, v ∈ Rn are nonzero vectors,
the vector
u v
+
4.2.23 [?] Let u and v be vectors in Rn . ku k kv k
a. Simplify bisects the angle between them. Illustrate in R2 .
(u + v) · (u − v)

4.2.33 [JH] Show that the inner product operation is lin-

b. Use your previous result to show that the parallelogram ear : for u, v, w ∈ Rn and k, m ∈ R, u • (kv + mw) =
defined by u and v is a rhombus (i.e. has four sides of k(u • v) + m(u • w).
equal length) if and only if its diagonals are perpendicu-
lar.
Hint: Express the diagonals as vectors in terms of u and 4.2.34 [SM] An altitude of a triangle is a line segment from
v. A drawing may help. a vertex that is orthogonal to the opposite side. Prove that
the three altitudes of a triangle intersect at a common point.
(This point is called the orthocenter of the triangle.
4.2.24 [JH]
a. Find the angle between the diagonal of the unit square
in R2 and one of the axes. 4.2.35 [SM] Use dot products to prove the Theorem of
Thales: If A and B are endpoints of a diameter of a circle,
b. Find the angle between the diagonal of the unit cube in
and C is any other point on the circle, then angle ∠ACB is
R3 and one of the axes.
a right angle.
c. Find the angle between the diagonal of the unit cube in
Rn and one of the axes. C
d. What is the limit, as n goes to ∞, of the angle between
the diagonal of the unit cube in Rn and one of the axes?
A B
O
4.2.25 [JH] Is any vector orthogonal to itself?

4.2.26 [JH] Describe the algebraic properties of dot product.

a. Is it right-distributive over addition: (u + v) • w = u •

w + v • w?
b. Is it left-distributive (over addition)?
c. Does it commute?
d. Associate?
e. How does it interact with scalar multiplication?

4.2.27 [JH] Suppose that u • v = u • w and u 6= 0. Must

v = w?

4.2.28 [JH] Show that if x • y = 0 for every y then x = 0.

4.2.29 [JH] Give a simple necessary and sufficient condition

to determine whether the angle between two vectors is acute,
right, or obtuse.

31
CHAPTER 4. VECTOR GEOMETRY 4.3. CROSS PRODUCT

4.3 Cross Product 4.3.7 [SM] Let p = (−1, 4, 2), q = (3, 1, −1), and r =
(2, −3, −1). Check by calculation that the following general
properties hold.
4.3.1 [GHC] Vectors u and v are given. Compute u × v
and show this is orthogonal to both u and v. a. p × p = 0
a. u = (3, 2, −2), v = (0, 1, 5) b. p × q = −q × p
b. u = (5, −4, 3), v = (2, −5, 1) c. p × 3r = 3(p × r)
c. u = (1, 0, 1), v = (5, 0, 7) d. p × (q + r) = p × q + p × r
d. u = (1, 5, −4), v = (−2, −10, 8) e. p × (q × r) 6= (p × q) × r
e. u = i, v = j
f. u = i, v = k 4.3.8 [GHC] Find the area of the triangle with the given
g. u = j, v = k vertices.
a. (0, 0, 0), (1, 3, −1) and (2, 1, 1).
b. (5, 2, −1), (3, 6, 2) and (1, 0, 4).
4.3.2 [SM] Calculate the following cross products.
c. (1, 1), (1, 3) and (2, 2).
a. (1, −5, 2) × (−2, 1, 5)
d. (3, 1), (1, 2) and (4, 3).
b. (2, −3, −5) × (4, −2, 7)
c. (−1, 0, 1) × (0, 4, 5)
4.3.9 [BS] Given the points A(1, 2, −1) and B(1, 1, 2). Find
the point√C on the y-axis such that the area of the triangle
4.3.3 [GHC] The magnitudes of vectors u and v in R3 ABC is 210 .
are given, along with the angle θ between them. Use this
information to find the magnitude of u × v.
a. kuk = 2, kvk = 5, θ = 30◦ 4.3.10 [SM] Calculate the area of the parallelogram deter-
b. kuk = 3, kvk = 7, θ = π/2 mined by the following vectors. (Hint: For the vectors in R2 ,
think of them as vectors in R3 by letting z = 0.)
c. kuk = 3, kvk = 4, θ = π
a. (1, 2, 1) and (2, 3, −1)
d. kuk = 2, kvk = 5, θ = 5π/6
b. (1, 0, 1) and (1, 1, 4)
c. (1, 2) and (−2, 5)
4.3.4 [AG] Given d. (−3, 1) and (4, 3)
    
1 3 0
1 4 1
u= 
 , v= 
 and w =   4.3.11 [SM] Find the volume of the parallelepiped deter-
0 1 2
mined by the following vectors.
2 0 −1
a. (4, 1, −1), (−1, 5, 2), and (1, 1, 6)
in R4 evaluate the following (if they exist): b. (−2, 1, 2), (3, 1, 2), and (0, 2, 5)

a. proju (v + w)
4.3.12 [MB] Given three vectors u = (2, 1, 3), v =
b. kuk2 + kvk2 + v · w (−1, −1, 1), and w = (0, 1, −1), find the volume of the
c. u×v−u·w parallelepiped defined by u, 2v, and 3w.
d. the angle θ between u and v
4.3.13 [AG] A parallelepiped has the vectors
4.3.5 [GHC] Find a unit vector orthogonal to both u and  
a
 
0
 
1
v. u = 2 , v =  a  , w = 1
a. u = (1, 1, 1), v = (2, 0, 1) 1 −2 1
b. u = (1, −2, 1), v = (3, 2, 1)
as its edges. Find the values of a so that it will have volume
c. u = (5, 0, 2), v = (−3, 0, 7)
V = 8.
d. u = (1, −2, 1), v = (−2, 4, −2)

4.3.14 [YL] Given A(1, 0, 1), B(0, 1, 2) and C(3, −2, 1).
4.3.6 [YL] Find all vectors of length 2 that are orthogonal a. Compute proj−→ −→ (2, 3, −4).
−
AB×AC
to both u = (−2, 3, 1) and v = (1, 2, −3). b. Compute the area of the triangle defined by A, B, C.

32
CHAPTER 4. VECTOR GEOMETRY 4.3. CROSS PRODUCT

−→
c. Compute the volume of the parallelepiped defined by AC, 4.3.19 [GHC] Show, using the definition of the cross prod-
−−→
AB and →
−
v = (1, 0, 0). uct, that u × u = 0.

4.3.20 [?] Consider the three vectors u = (4, −1, −5), v =

4.3.15 [YL] Given a parallelepiped generated by the vec-
(1, −4, 1) and w = (1, 1, −2).
tors u = (1, −1, −1), v and w ∈ R3 with volume 2017 and
v×w √1 (1, 2, 3). Find the area of the base defined by v a. Compute the scalar triple product of u, v and w.
||v×w|| = 14
and w. b. What can you deduce about the vectors u, v and w,
supposing they have the same initial point?
4.3.16 [YL] A cylinder where the sides are not perpen-
dicular to the base (the circle) is called an oblique cylin- 
a b c

der. Given the oblique cyclinder defined by the given vectors 4.3.21 [?] Let A = d e f  such that det A = 10. Let
u = (2, 2, 4), v = (1, 2, 1) and w = (4, 1, 3). Find the volume g h i
of the oblique cylinder. u, v and w be the columns of A. Find u · (v × w).
Note from the diagram that
w is not perpendicular to the 4.3.22 [GHC] Show, using the definition of the cross prod-
base, that v is positioned uct, that u · (u × v) = 0; that is, that u is orthogonal to the
such that its tail is at the cross product of u and v.
w center of the circle and its tip
lies on the circle, that u is
positioned such that the vec- 4.3.23 [BS] If u, v and w are vectors in R3 the prove the
tor passes through the center identity: (6u) · (v × w) = − ((u × (3w)) · (2v))
of the circle while its tail and
v tip lie on the circle. (Hint: 4.3.24 [YL] Prove or disprove: If u, n1 , n2 ∈ R3 such that
the volume of an oblique cy- n1 is not a scalar multiple of n2 then
u clinder is equal to the area of
the base times the height.) projn1 (projn1 ×n2 (u)) = 0

4.3.17 [YL] Given the cone defined by the given vectors

u = (2, 2, 4), v = (1, 2, 1) and w = (4, 1, 3). Find the volume
of the cone.

w is not perpendicular to the

base, that v is positioned
such that its tail is at the
w center of the circle and its tip
lies on the circle, that u is
positioned such that the vec-
tor passes through the center
of the circle while its tail and
tip lie on the circle. (Hint:
u v the volume of a cone is equal
to one third of the area of the
Note from the diagram that base times the height.)

4.3.18 [YL] If u, v, w ∈ R3 and u · (v × w) = 2 then

evaluate
a. u · (v × v)
b. (3v) · ((5u) × w)
c. (u − v) · (v × w)

33
CHAPTER 4. VECTOR GEOMETRY 4.4. LINES

4.4 Lines a. A(0, 0, 2), x = (1, 2, −1) + t(2, 3, −3), t ∈ R


x = −1 + 2t
4.4.1 [SM] Write the vector equations of the line passing b. B(1, 0, 0), y = −1 + 3t , t ∈ R
z = 1 − 2t

through the given point with the given direction vector.
a. point (3, 4), direction vector (−5, 1)
b. point (2, 0, 5), direction vector (4, −2, −11) 4.4.7 [JH] Does (1, 0, 2, 1) lie on the line through (−2, 1, 1, 0)
c. point (4, 0, 1, 5, −3), direction vector (−2, 0, 1, 2, −1) and (5, 10, −1, 4)?

4.4.2 [SM] Write a vector equation for the line that passes 4.4.8 [SM] Do the lines x = (1, 0, 1) + t(1, 1, −1), t ∈ R and
through the given points. x = (2, 3, 4) + s(0, −1, 2), s ∈ R have a point of intersection?
a. (−1, 2) and (2, −3)
b. (4, 1) and (−2, −1) 4.4.9 [SM] Determine the point of intersections (if any) for
c. (1, 3, −5) and (−2, −1, 0) each pair of lines.
d. 12 , 14 , 1 and −1, 1, 13 a. x = (1, 2) + t(3, 5), t ∈ R and

e. (1, 0, −2, −5) and (−3, 2, −1, 2) x = (3, −1) + s(4, 1), s ∈ R
b. x = (2, 3, 4) + t(1, 1, 1), t ∈ R and
x = (3, 2, 1) + s(3, 1, −1), s ∈ R
4.4.3 [GHC] Write the vector, parametric and symmetric c. x = (3, 4, 5) + t(1, 1, 1), t ∈ R and
equations of the lines described. x = (2, 4, 1) + s(2, 3, −2), s ∈ R
a. Passes through P = (2, −4, 1), parallel to d = (9, 2, 5). d. x = (1, 0, 1) + t(3, −1, 2), t ∈ R and
b. Passes through P = (6, 1, 7), parallel to d = (−3, 2, 5). x = (5, 0, 7) + s(−2, 2, 2), s ∈ R
c. Passes through P = (2, 1, 5) and Q = (7, −2, 4).
d. Passes through P = (1, −2, 3) and Q = (5, 5, 5).
4.4.10 [GHC] Determine if the described lines are the same
e. Passes through P = (0, 1, 2) and orthogonal to both d1 = line, parallel lines, intersecting or skew lines. If intersecting,
(2, −1, 7) and d2 = (7, 1, 3). give the point of intersection.
f. Passes through P = (5, 1, 9) and orthogonal to both d1 = a. x = (1, 2, 1) + t(2, −1, 1) and x = (3, 3, 3) + t(−4, 2, −2)
(1, 0, 1) and d2 = (2, 0, 3).
b. x = (2, 1, 1) + t(5, 1, 3) and x = (14, 5, 9) + t(1, 1, 1)
g. Passes through the point of intersection and orthogonal
c. x = (3, 4, 1) + t(2, −3, 4) and x = (−3, 3, −3) + t(3, −2, 4)
of both lines, where x = (2, 1, 1) + t(5, 1, −2) and
x = (−2, −1, 2) + t(3, 1, −1).
d. x = (1, 1, 1) + t(3, 1, 3) and x = (7, 3, 7) + t(6, 2, 6)
h. Passes through the point of intersection and orthogonal  
to both
 lines, where  x = 1 + 2t
 x = 3 − t

x = t
 x = 2 + t
 e. x = y = 3 − 2t and x = y = 3 + 5t
 
x = y = −2 + 2t and x = y = 2 − t . z=t z = 2 + 7t
 
 
z =1+t z = 3 + 2t
 
i. Passes through P = (1, 1), parallel to d = (2, 3).
4.4.11 [JH] Find the intersection of the pair of lines, if
j. Passes through P = (−2, 5), parallel to d = (0, 1). possible.
           
 1 0    1 0  
1 + t 1  t ∈ R ,  3  + s 1  s ∈ R
4.4.4 [SM] Find the equations (in vector form and para-  2 1 
  
−2 2 
 
metric form) of the line passing through the given point and
parallel to the given vector.
a. A(1, −1, −1), d = (2, 3, −1) 4.4.12 [SM] For the given point and line, find by projection
b. B(2, −4, 5), d = 3î − ĵ − 2k̂ the point on the line that is closest to the given point, and
find the distance from the point to the line.
a. point (0, 0), line x = (1, 4) + t(−2, 2), t ∈ R
4.4.5 [SM] Find the equations of the lines through b. point (2, 5), line x = (3, 7) + t(1, −4), t ∈ R
P (3, −4, 7) which are parallel to the coordinate axes. c. point (1, 0, 1), line x = (2, 2, −1) + t(1, −2, 1), t ∈ R
d. point (2, 3, 2), line x = (1, 1, −1) + t(1, 4, 1), t ∈ R
4.4.6 [SM] Find the parametric equations of the line through
the given point and parallel to the line with given equations

34
CHAPTER 4. VECTOR GEOMETRY 4.4. LINES

4.4.13 [GHC] Find the distance from the point to the line. b. x = (−4, 5, −2) + t(3, , −4, 1) and x = (−3, 3, 5) +
t(4, −5, −2)
 
a. P = (1, 1, 1), x = (2, 1, 3) + t(2, 1, −2) x = 3t
 x = 1 − 6t

b. P = (2, 5, 6), x = (−1, 1, 1) + t(1, 0, 1) c. L1 : y = −1 + 2t and L2 : y = −4t .
 
c. P = (0, 3), x = (2, 0) + t(1, 1) z = 1 + 2t
 
z = 2 − 4t
d. P = (1, 1), x = (4, 5) + t(−4, 3) d. y = 2x + 1 and 2y − 4x + 1 = 0

4.4.14 [MB] Using projections, determine the distance from 4.4.22 [BS] Find the distance between the line L :
the point A(2, 3) to the line x − y = 0. (x, y, z) = (1, 3, 0) + t(4, 3, 1) and the y-axis.

4.4.15 [YL] Given E : x − 2y = 3 and P = (−1, 1). 4.4.23 [MB] Consider the points P (1, 0, 1), Q(−2, 1, 2),
a. Find the closest point on E from P . and R(3, 2, 1), and the vector v = (4, 0, −1) in R3 .
b. Find the shortest distance from P to E. a. Consider L1 , the line passing through P and Q, and L2
the line passing through R and parallel to v. Determine
whether these lines are parallel, intersect, or are skew.
4.4.16 [YL] Given the line (x, y, z) = (1 + 3t, 2 + 2t, 3 + t)
where t ∈ R and point P (3, 2, 1). b. If L1 and L2 intersects, find their point of intersection,
then find the distance between the two lines.
a. Sketch the given line using P0 the point on the line when
t = 0 and P1 the point on the line when t = 1, also sketch
P. 4.4.24 [YL] Given
b. Using projections find area of the triangle defined by the
points P0 , P1 and P . L1 : (x, y, z) = (1, 0, 1) + t1 (−2, −1, 0)
L2 : (x, y, z) = (−2, −1, 2) + t2 (1, 0, 1)
c. Find the equation of the line which passes through the
point P and the closest point on the given line. where t1 , t2 ∈ R.
a. Determine whether the two lines intersect, are parallel or
4.4.17 [BS] Find the distance between the origin and the are skew lines.
line passing through the points A(−2, 0, −1) and B(−2, 1, 0). b. Find the shortest distance between the two lines.
c. Find the equation of a line which is orthogonal to the
4.4.18 [BS] Given the non-intersecting lines: direction of both given lines and passes through L1 . Is
the line unique?
L1 : (x, y, z) = (1, 2, −2) + t1 (1, 2, 1)
L2 : (x, y, z) = (2, 1, 3) + t2 (1, 2, 3) where t1 , t2 ∈ R.
4.4.25 [BS] Given the lines:
Find the shortest distance between L1 and L2 .
L1 : (x, y, z) = (1, 2, −2) + t1 (1, 2, 1)
L2 : (x, y, z) = (2, 1, 3) + t2 (1, 2, 3)
4.4.19 [AG] Find the distance between the lines
L3 : (x, y, z) = (1, 1, 1) + t3 (2, 7, 3)
           
x 1 1 x 1 0
where t1 , t2 , t3 ∈ R. Find the equation of the line which is
L1 : y  = 0+r 1 and L2 : y  = 0+t  1  .
parallel to L3 and which intersects both L1 and L2 .
z 1 1 z 0 −1

4.4.26 [YL] Given the following lines which are all skew to
4.4.20 [GHC] Find the distance between the two lines. each other:
a. x = (1, 2, 1) + t(2, −1, 1) and x = (3, 3, 3) + t(4, 2, −2). L1 : (x, y, z) = (1, 0, 0) + t1 (1, 2, 0)
b. x = (0, 0, 1) + t(1, 0, 0) and x = (0, 0, 3) + t(0, 1, 0). L2 : (x, y, z) = (1, 1, 0) + t2 (1, 0, 1)
L3 : (x, y, z) = (1, 0, 1) + t3 (1, 2, 3)

4.4.21 [YL] Determine whether the two lines intersect, are here t1 , t2 , t3 ∈ R. Consider a line L4 that is parallel to L3
parallel or are skew lines. Find a point on each line which is and intersects both L1 and L2 . Find the points of intersection
closest to the other line, are those points unique? Find the of L4 with L1 and L4 with L2 .
shortest distance between the lines.
a. x = (1 − 2t, 2 − t, 3 + 3t) and x = (4 + 3t, −1 + t, 2 + t)

35
CHAPTER 4. VECTOR GEOMETRY 4.5. PLANES

4.5 Planes h. Contains the parallel lines

x = (1, 1, 1) + t(4, 1, 3) and x = (2, 2, 2) + t(4, 1, 3).
4.5.1 [SM] Find the scalar equation of the plane containing  the point (2, −6, 1) and the line
i. Contains
the given point with the given normal. x = 2 + 5t

a. point (−1, 2, −3), normal (2, 4, −1) x= y = 2 + 2t

z = −1 + 2t

b. point (2, 5, 4), normal (3, 0, 5)
c. point (1, −1, 1), normal (3, −4, 1) j. Contains
 the point (5, 7, 3) and the line
x = t

x= y=t
4.5.2 [SM] Find the equation of the plane containing 
z=t

A(2, 4, −1) and parallel to the plane 2x + 3y − 5z = 6.
k. Contains the point (5, 7, 3) and is orthogonal to the line
x = (4, 5, 6) + t(1, 1, 1).
4.5.3 [SM] Find an equation for the plane through the given l. Contains
 the point (4, 1, 1) and is orthogonal to the line
point and parallel to the given plane.
x = 4 + 4t

a. point (1, −3, −1), plane 2x1 − 3x2 + 5x3 = 17 x= y = 1 + 1t
b. point (0, −2, 4), plane x2 = 0 

z = 1 + 1t
m. Contains the point (−4, 7, 2) and is parallel to the plane
4.5.4 [GHC] Give any two points in the given plane. 3(x − 2) + 8(y + 1) − 10z = 0.
n. Contains the point (1, 2, 3) and is parallel to the plane
a. 2x − 4y + 7z = 2 c. x = 2 x = 5.
b. 3(x+2)+5(y−9)−4z = 0 d. 4(y + 2) − (z − 6) = 0
4.5.7 [SM] Determine the scalar equation of the plane that
contains the following points.
a. (2, 1, 5), (4, −3, 2), (2, 6, −1)
4.5.5 [YL] Given b. (3, 1, 4), (−2, 0, 2), (1, 4, −1)
P1 : 2x+y−3z = 6, P2 : −6x−3y+9z = 1, P3 : x+y+z = 1,
c. (−1, 4, 2), (3, 1, −1), (2, −3, −1)
L1 : x = (1, 0, 1) + t(−4, −2, 6) where t ∈ R.
Complete the following sentences with the word perpendic-
ular, parallel or, neither perpendicular nor parallel, as 4.5.8 [SM] Determine the scalar equation of the plane with
appropriate. the given vector equation.
a. P1 and P2 are to each other. a. x = (1, 4, 7) + s(2, 3, −1) + t(4, 1, 0), s, t ∈ R
b. P1 and P3 are to each other. b. x = (2, 3, −1) + s(1, 1, 0) + t(−2, 1, 2), s, t ∈ R
c. P1 and L1 are to each other. c. x = (1, −1, 3) + s(2, −2, 1) + t(0, 3, 1), s, t ∈ R
d. P3 and L1 are to each other.

4.5.9 [JH]
4.5.6 [GHC] Give the equation of the described plane in
a. Describe the plane through (1, 1, 5, −1), (2, 2, 2, 0), and
standard and general forms.
(3, 1, 0, 4).
a. Passes through (2, 3, 4) and has normal vector
b. Is the origin in that plane?
n = (3, −1, 7).
b. Passes through (1, 3, 5) and has normal vector
n = (0, 2, 4). 4.5.10 [JH] Describe the plane that contains this point and
c. Passes through the points (1, 2, 3), (3, −1, 4) and (1, 0, 1). line.        
2  −1 1 
 
0  0  + 1 t  t ∈ R
d. Passes through the points (5, 3, 8), (6, 4, 9) and (3, 3, 3). 3

−4 2

 
e. Contains the intersecting lines
x = (2, 1, 2) + t(1, 2, 3) and x = (2, 1, 2) + t(2, 5, 4).
f. Contains the intersecting lines 4.5.11 [SM] Determine a normal vector for the plane or the
x = (5, 0, 3) + t(−1, 1, 1) and x = (1, 4, 7) + t(3, 0, −3). hyperplane.
g. Contains the parallel lines a. 3x1 − 2x2 + x3 = 7 in R3
x = (1, 1, 1) + t(1, 2, 3) and x = (1, 1, 2) + t(1, 2, 3).
b. −4x1 + 3x2 − 5x3 − 6 = 0 in R3

36
CHAPTER 4. VECTOR GEOMETRY 4.5. PLANES

c. x1 − x2 + 2x3 − 3x4 = 5 in R4 b. The distance from the point (2, 6, 2) to the plane
2(x − 1) − y + 4(z + 1) = 0.
c. The distance between the parallel planes
4.5.12 [SM] Determine the scalar equation of the hyperplane
x + y + z = 0 and
passing through the given point with the given normal.
(x − 2) + (y − 3) + (z + 4) = 0
a. point (1, 1, −1, −2), normal (3, 1, 4, 1)
d. The distance between the parallel planes
b. point (2, −2, 0, 1), normal (0, 1, 3, 3) 2(x − 1) + 2(y + 1) + (z − 2) = 0 and
2(x − 3) + 2(y − 1) + (z − 3) = 0
4.5.13 [SM] Determine the point of intersection of the given
line and plane.
4.5.19 [AG] Find the closest point to the point P =
a. x = (2, 3, 1) + t(1, −2, −4), t ∈ R, and 3x1 − 2x2 + 5x3 = (1, 1, −2) on the plane Π of equation 2x − 3y + z = 1.
11
b. x = (1, 1, 2) + t(1, −1, −2), t ∈ R, and 2x1 + x2 − x3 = 5
4.5.20 [YL] Find the closest point on the plane 2x+y −3z =
1 to the point P (3, 26, 1).
4.5.14 [GHC] Find the point of intersection between the
line and the plane.
4.5.21 [SM, YL] Use a projection (onto or perpendicular
a. line: (1, 2, 3) + t(3, 5, −1), plane: 3x − 2y − z = 4 to) to find the distance from the point to the plane. And find
b. line: (1, 2, 3) + t(3, 5, −1), plane: 3x − 2y − z = −4 the closest point on the plane to the given point.
c. line: (5, 1, −1) + t(2, 2, 1), plane: 5x − y − z = −3 a. point (−1, −1, 1), plane 2x1 − x2 − x3 = 4
d. line: (4, 1, 0) + t(1, 0, −1), plane: 3x + y − 2z = 8 b. point (0, 2, −1), plane 2x1 − x3 = 5
c. point (2, 3, 1), plane 3x1 − x2 + 4x3 = 5
4.5.15 [JH] Find the intersection of the line and plane, if d. point (−2, 3, −1), plane 2x1 − 3x2 − 5x3 = 5
possible.
            
 2 1    0 0  
0 + t  1   t ∈ R , s 1 + w 4  s, w ∈ R 4.5.22 [BS] Find the point P on the plane (x, y, z) =

   (0, 1, 4) + s(0, 6, 4) + t(−1, −1, 1) where s, t ∈ R which is
1 −1  2 1 
  
closest to the the origin.

4.5.16 [YL] Given the plane x + y + z = 0 and the line

(x, y, z) = (1 + t, 2 + 2t, 3 + 3t) where t ∈ R. 4.5.23 [SM] For the given point and hyperplane in R4 , de-
termine by a projection the point in the hyperplane that is
a. Determine whether the line is perpendicular to the plane,
closest to the given point.
parallel or neither.
a. point (2, 4, 3, 4), hyperplane 3x1 − x2 + 4x3 + x4 = 0
b. Find the point of intersection between the line and the
plane if it exists. b. point (−1, 3, 2, −1), hyperplane x1 + 2x2 + x3 − x4 = 4
c. Find the smallest angle between the line and the plane.
4.5.24 [GHC] Give the equation of the line that is the in-
tersection of the given planes.
4.5.17 [SM] Given the plane 2x1 − x2 + 3x3 = 5, for each
of the following lines, determine if the line is parallel to the a. p1 : 3(x − 2) + (y − 1) + 4z = 0, and
plane, orthogonal to the plane, or neither parallel nor orthog- p2 : 2(x − 1) − 2(y + 3) + 6(z − 1) = 0.
onal. If the answer is “neither”, determine the angle between b. p1 : 5(x − 5) + 2(y + 2) + 4(z − 1) = 0, and
the direction vector of the line and the normal vector of the p2 : 3x − 4(y − 1) + 2(z − 1) = 0.
plane.
a. x = (3, 0, 4) + t(−1, 1, 1), t ∈ R
4.5.25 [JH] Find the intersection of these planes.
b. x = (1, 1, 2) + t(−2, 1, −3), t ∈ R
     
c. x = (3, 0, 0) + t(1, 1, 2), t ∈ R  1 0 
 
1 t + 1 s  t, s ∈ R
d. x = (−1, −1, 2) + t(4, −2, 6), t ∈ R 
1 3
  
e. x = t(0, 3, 1), t ∈ R        
 1 0 2 
 
1 + 3 k + 0 m  k, m ∈ R
4.5.18 [GHC] Find the distances.

0 0 4
  
a. The distance from the point (1, 2, 3) to the plane
3(x − 1) + (y − 2) + 5(z − 2) = 0.

37
CHAPTER 4. VECTOR GEOMETRY 4.5. PLANES

4.5.26 [SM] Determine a vector equation of the line of in- b. Using projections find the shortest distance between the
tersection of the given planes. y-intercept and the line which passes through the x and
a. x + 3y − z = 5 and 2x − 5y + z = 7 z-intercepts.
b. 2x − 3z = 7 and y + 2z = 4 c. Find the equation of the line which passes through the
y-intercept and the closest point to the y-intercept from
the line which passes through the x and z-intercepts.
4.5.27 [BS] Find all unit vectors parallel to the plane x +
2y + 3z = 5 and the xy-plane.
4.5.34 [YL] Given the plane P : 3x + 2y + z = 6.
a. Sketch the given plane using the x, y and z-intercepts.
4.5.28 [YL] Given two planes: x+y +z = 1, x+2y +3z = 4.
b. Using projection(s) find the distance between the origin
and P.
a. Determine whether the two planes are perpendicular,
c. Find the angle between P and the xz-plane.
parallel or neither.
b. Find the intersection between the two planes if it exists.
4.5.35 [YL] Given two planes:
c. Find the angle between the normal of the two planes.
P1 : x + z = 1
P2 : y + z = 1
4.5.29 [BS] Determine whether the following planes x +
y + 2z = 5 and (x, y, z) = (1, 2, 3) + s(1, 1, 2) + t(3, 0, 7) are a. Give a point of intersection of the two planes, by inspec-
perpendicular. tion.
b. Give a geometrical argument to explain why the inter-
4.5.30 [BS] Given the lines L1 : (x, y, z) = (1, 3, 0) + section of the two planes is a line.
t(4, 3, 1), L2 : (x, y, z) = (1, 2, 3) + t(8, 6, 2), and the plance c. Find the direction vector for the intersection of the two
P : 2x − y + 3z = 15 and the point A(1, 0, 7). planes without solving for the solution set. Justify.
a. Show that the lines L1 and L2 lie in the same plane and d. Find the solution set of the system of linear equations
find the general equation of this plane. determined by P1 and P2 by only using part a) and part
b. Find the point B on the plane P which is closest to the c).
point A.
4.5.36 [YL] Given
P1 : 2x + y − 3z = 6,
4.5.31 [SM] In each case, determine whether the given pair
P2 : −6x − 3y + 9z = −18,
of lines has a point of intersection; if so, determine the scalar
P3 : x + y + z = 1,
equation of the plane containing the lines, and if not, deter-
L1 : x = (1, 0, 1) + t(−4, −2, 6),
mine the distance between the lines.
L2 : x = (1, 1, 1) + s(2, 1, −3),
a. x = (1, 3, 1) + s(−2, −1, 1) and x = (0, 1, 4) + t(3, 0, 1), L3 : x = (1, 1, 1) + r(−2, −1, 4) where s, t, r ∈ R.
s, t ∈ R
a. Determine whether L1 and L2 are skew lines.
b. x = (1, 3, 1) + s(−2, −1, 1) and x = (0, 1, 7) + t(3, 0, 1),
b. Find the parametric equation of the plane that contains
s, t ∈ R
L1 and L2 .
c. x = (2, 1, 4) + s(2, 1, −2) and x = (−2, 1, 5) + t(1, 3, 1),
c. Find the intersection of L2 and P1 . What of significance
s, t ∈ R
can be said about the point of intersection and the point
d. x = (0, 1, 3) + s(1, −1, 4) and x = (0, −1, 5) + t(1, 1, 2), (1, 1, 1).
s, t ∈ R
d. Find the intersection of P1 , P2 and P3 .
e. Find the smallest angle between L3 and P3 .
4.5.32 [YL] Given E : x − 2y = 3 and P = (−1, 1, −1). f. Find the intersection of 2x+y−3z = α, −6x−3y+9z = β,
a. Find the equation of a line orthogonal to E that passes and x + y + z = γ for fixed values of α, β, and √ γ given
through P . that intersection passes throught the point (π, 2, e)
b. Find the closest point on E from P .
c. Find the shortest distance from P to E. 4.5.37 [AG] Let Π be the plane in R3 with normal vector
 
cos θ
4.5.33 [YL] Given the plane 4x + 3y + 2z = 12. n = cos θ + sin θ .
a. Sketch the given plane using the x, y and z-intercepts. sin θ

38
CHAPTER 4. VECTOR GEOMETRY 4.5. PLANES

Find all the values of θ in the interval [0, 2π) such that Π is a. Find the point C on the yz-plane such that the points A,
parallel to the plane of vector equation B and C are collinear.
        b. Determine whether the points A and B are on the same
x 1 1 1
y  = 0 + r −1 + t −1 side of the plane 7x + y + z = 1.
z 0 1 −2
. 4.5.42 [BS] Determine whether the point (1, 2, 1) is be-
tween planes 6x − 3y + 6z = −3 and 4x − 2y + 4z = 2.
4.5.38 [YL] Given two planes:
4.5.43 [BS] Given the line L : (x, y, z) = (2, 2, 3) +
P1 : x − 2y + z = 1
t(1, −1, −3) where t ∈ R, the plane P : 3x − 2y + 2z = 7 and
P2 : −4x + 8y − 4z = −4
the point A(1, 1, 1).
a. Find parametric equations of the line which contains A,
a. Give a geometrical argument to explain why the inter- intersects L and which is parallel to P.
section of the two planes is a plane.
b. Find parametric equations of the line which contains A
b. Find the solution set of the associated homogeneous lin- and which intersects L at a right angle.
ear system.
c. Show that the solution set of the associated homegeneous
linear system is orthogonal to the rows of the coefficient 4.5.44 [JH] Show that if a vector is perpendicular to each of
matrix of the system. two others then it is perpendicular to each vector in the plane
d. Give a geometrical interpretation to part c). they generate. (Remark. They could generate a degenerate
plane (a line or a point) but the statement remains true.)

4.5.39 [MB] Given the following: parametric equations of

two skew lines L1 and L2 , two nonparallel planes P1 and P2 ,
coordinates of the point Q, that does not lie on L1 , L2 , P1 ,
nor P2 .
a. Does a line that is perpendicular to L1 and passes
through Q exist? If so, is it unique? How would the
equation of such a line (if it exist), be obtained with the
provided information?
b. Does a line parallel to the intersection of the planes P1
and P2 and passes through Q exist? If so, is it unique?
How would the equation such a line (if it exist), be ob-
tained with the provided information?
c. Does a plane containing L1 and L2 exists? Is so, is it
unique? How would the equation of such a plane (if it
exists), be obtained with the provided information?

4.5.40 [YL] Given:

L1 : (x, y, z) = (1, 0, 1) + t1 (−2, −1, 0)

L2 : (x, y, z) = (−2, −1, 2) + t2 (1, 0, 1)

where t1 , t2 ∈ R.
a. Determine whether the two lines intersect, are parallel or
are skew lines.
b. Find a point on each line which is closest to the other
line, are those points unique?
c. Find the equation of a plane that contains the line which
passes through the point on each line which is closest to
the other line. Is the plane unique?

4.5.41 [BS] Given the points A(−3, 0, −1) and B(−2, 1, 0).

39
Chapter 5

Vector Spaces

5.1 Introduction to Vector Spaces 5.1.5 [JH] For each, list three elements and then show it is
a vector space.
a. The set of linear polynomials P1 =
5.1.1 [JH] Name the zero vector for each of these vector
{a0 + a1 x | a0 , a1 ∈ R} under the usual polynomial
spaces.
addition and scalar multiplication operations.
a. The space of degree three polynomials under the natural
b. The set of linear polynomials
operations.
{a0 + a1 x | a0 − 2a1 = 0}, under the usual poly-
b. The space of 2×3 matrices. nomial addition and scalar multiplication operations.
c. The space { f : [0, 1] → R | f is continuous}.
d. The space of real-valued functions of one natural number
variable. 5.1.6 [JH] For each, list three elements and then show it is
a vector space.
a. The set of 2×2 matrices with real entries under the usual
5.1.2 [JH] Find the additive inverse, in the vector space, of
matrix operations.
the vector.
b. The set of 2×2 matrices with real entries where the 2, 1
a. In P3 , the vector −3 − 2x + x2 .
entry is zero, under the usual matrix operations.
b. In the space M2×2 ,
 
1 −1
. 5.1.7 [JH] For each, list three elements and then show it is
0 3
a vector space.
x −x
c. In { ae + be | a, b ∈ R }, the space of functions of the a. The set of three-component row vectors with their usual
real variable x under the natural operations, the vector operations.
3ex − 2e−x . b. The set

(x, y, z, w) ∈ R4  x + y − z + w = 0

5.1.3 [NS] Let V = {x | x ∈ R and x > 3}. For u, v ∈ V
and a ∈ R vector addition is defined as u
v = uv−3(u+v)+
under the operations inherited from R4 .
12 and scalar multiplication is defined as a u = (u − 3)a + 3.
It can be shown that (V,
, ) is a vector space over the scalar
field R. Find the following: 5.1.8 [JH] Show that the following are not vector spaces.
a. 4
5 c. 0 a. Under the operations inherited from R3 , this set
b. −2 4 d. the additive inverse of x  
(x, y, z) ∈ R3  x + y + z = 1

b. Under the operations inherited from R3 , this set

5.1.4 [NS] Let V = R2 . For (u1 , u2 ), (v1 , v2 ) ∈ V and a ∈ R
define vector addition by (u1 , u2 )
(v1 , v2 ) := (u1 + v1 +

(x, y, z) ∈ R3  x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1

2, u2 + v2 + 1) and scalar multiplication by a (u1 , u2 ) :=
(au1 + 2a − 2, au2 + a − 1). It can be shown that (V,
, ) is c. Under the usual matrix operations,
a vector space over the scalar field R. Find the following:    
a 1 
a. (3, 3)
(−9, −6) c. 0 a, b, c ∈ R
b c 
b. −6 (3, 3) d. the additive inverse of
(x, y)

41
CHAPTER 5. VECTOR SPACES 5.1. INTRODUCTION TO VECTOR SPACES

d. Under the usual polynomial operations, a. Does V satisfy closure under vector addition? Justify.
 
a0 + a1 x + a2 x2  a0 , a1 , a2 ∈ R+
b. Does V contain a zero vector? If so find it. Justify.
c. Does V contains an additive inverse for all of its vectors?
where R+ is the set of reals greater than zero Justify.
e. Under the inherited operations, d. Does V satisfy closure under scalar multiplication? Jus-
 
(x, y) ∈ R2  x + 3y = 4, 2x − y = 3 and 6x + 4y = 10
tify.

 5.1.15 [YL] Determine whether the following is a vector

5.1.9 [BS] Let S = (0, 0, x, y) ∈ R4  x ≤ y . Deter-
 
space: V = A  A ∈ M2×2 and AT = A with the follow-
mine whether S is a vector space with standard addition and ing operations:
multiplication by a scalar of R4 .
A + B = AB and kA = kA
5.1.10 [JH] Is the set of rational numbers a vector space
That is, vector addition is matrix multiplication and scalar
over R under the usual addition and scalar multiplication op-
multiplication is the regular scalar multiplication. Justify.
erations?

5.1.11 [JH] Prove that the following is not a vector space: 5.1.16 [YL] The number of leading 1’s in a row echelon
the set of two-tall column vectors with real entries subject to form of A is called the rank of A. Let V = {M | M ∈
these operations. M2×2 and rank(M ) = 2} with the following vector addition
          and scalar multiplication:
x1 x2 x1 − x2 x rx
+ = r· =   k
y1 − y2 bk
       
y1 y2 y ry a b e f ae bf a b a
+ = and k = k
c d g h cg dh c d c dk

5.1.12 [JH] Prove or disprove that R3 is a vector space under

a. Is the zero vector an element of V ? Justify.
these operations.
          b. Determine whether the following axiom holds: (rs)M =
x1 x2 0 x rx
r(sM ) where r, s ∈ R and M ∈ V
a.  y1  +  y2  = 0 and r y  = ry 
z1 z2 0 z rz
         
x1 x2 0 x 0 5.1.17 [YL] A function f is said to be odd if f (−x) = −f (x).
b.  y1  +  y2  = 0 and r y  = 0 Let V = {f | f : R → R and f is an odd function} with the
z1 z2 0 z 0 following vector addition and scalar multiplication:

(f + g)(x) = f (x)g(x) and (kf )(x) = (f (x))k

5.1.13 [JH] For each, decide if it is a vector space; the
intended operations are the natural ones.
a. The set of diagonal 2×2 matrices a. Is the zero vector an element of V ? Justify.
    b. Determine whether the following axiom holds: (rs)f =
a 0 
a, b ∈ R r(sf ) where r, s ∈ R and f ∈ V
0 b 

b. The set of 2×2 matrices

    5.1.18 [YL] Given
x x + y 

V = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2  a0 + a1 = π and ai ∈ R and the

x, y ∈ R
x+y y  following vector addition and scalar multiplication:

c. (x, y, z, w) ∈ R4  x + y + w = 1


d. The set of functions { f : R → R | df /dx + 2f = 0} p(x) + q(x) = (a0 + b0 ) + (a1 + b1 − π)x + a2 b2 x2 and
e. The set of functions { f : R → R | df /dx + 2f = 1} r · p(x) = ra0 + (ra1 − π)x + (a2 )r x2

where p(x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 and q(x) = b0 + b1 x + b2 x2 .

5.1.14 [YL] Let V = { A | A ∈ M2×2 and det(A) 6= 0} a. Determine whether the above set is closed under vector
with the following operations: addition.
A + B = AB and kA = kA b. Determine whether the above set is closed under scalar
multiplication.
That is, vector addition is matrix multiplication and scalar
multiplication is the regular scalar multiplication. c. Is V a vector space under the given operations? Justify.

42
CHAPTER 5. VECTOR SPACES 5.2. SUBSPACES

5.1.19 [JH] Show that the set R+ of positive reals is a vector 5.2 Subspaces
space when we interpret ‘x + y’ to mean the product of x and
y (so that 2 + 3 is 6), and we interpret ‘r · x’ as the r-th power
of x. 5.2.1 [JH] Which of these subsets of the vector space of
2×2 matrices are subspaces under the inherited operations?
Justify.
5.1.20 [JH] Prove or disprove that the following is a vector    
a 0 
space: the set of polynomials of degree greater than or equal a. a, b ∈ R
0 b 
to two, along with the zero polynomial.    
a 0 
b. a + b = 0
  0 b 
5.1.21 [JH] Is (x, y)  x, y ∈ R a vector space under   
a 0 

these operations? c. a + b = 5
0 b 
a. (x1 , y1 ) + (x2 , y2 ) = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ) and r · (x, y) =    
a c 
(rx, y) d. a + b = 0, c ∈ R
0 b 
b. (x1 , y1 ) + (x2 , y2 ) = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ) and r · (x, y) =
(rx, 0)
5.2.2 [YL]
 Determine
  whether
a b 
5.1.22 [JH] Prove the following: W = (ab)2 = (cd)2 is a subspace of M2×2 .
c d 
a. For any v ∈ V , if w ∈ V is an additive inverse of v, then
v is an additive inverse of w. So a vector is an additive
inverse of any additive inverse of itself. 5.2.3 [JH] Is this a subspace of P2 :
a0 + a1 x + a2 x2  a0 + 2a1 + a2 = 4 ? Justify.

b. Vector addition left-cancels: if v, s, t ∈ V then v + s =
v + t implies that s = t.
5.2.4 [YL] Determine whether
W = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 | a0 a1 a2 = 0 is a subspace of P2 .

5.1.23 [JH] Consider the set
   
 x    
y   x + y + z = 1 5.2.5 [BS] Show that Vn = A ∈ Mn×n  AT = −A is a
subspace of Mn×n .

z
  

under these operations.

5.2.6 [BS]  Determine whether the W =
(x, y, z) ∈ R3  xy = 0 and yz = 0
          
x1 x2 x1 + x2 − 1 x rx − r + 1 is a subspace of
 y1 + y2  =  y1 + y2  r y  =  ry  R3 .
z1 z2 z1 + z2 z rz

Show that it is a vector space. 5.2.7 [JH] The solution set of a homogeneous linear system
is a subspace of Rn where the system has n variables. What
about a non-homogeneous linear system; do its solutions form
5.1.24 [JH] The definition of vector spaces does not explic- a subspace (under the inherited operations)?
itly say that 0 + v = v (it instead says that v + 0 = v). Show
that it must nonetheless hold in any vector space.
5.2.8 [JH]
a. Prove that every point, line, or plane thru the origin in
5.1.25 [JH] Prove or disprove that the following is a vector
R3 is a subspace of R3 under the inherited operations.
space: the set of all matrices, under the usual operations.
b. What if it doesn’t contain the origin?

5.1.26 [JH] In a vector space every element has an additive

inverse. Is the additive inverse unique (Can some elements 5.2.9 [JH] R3 has infinitely many subspaces. Do every non-
have two or more)? trivial space have infinitely many subspaces?

5.1.27 [JH] Assume that v ∈ V is not 0. 5.2.10 [JH] Is the following a subspace under the inher-
a. Prove that r · v = 0 if and only if r = 0. ited natural operations: the real-valued functions of one real
b. Prove that r1 · v = r2 · v if and only if r1 = r2 . variable that are differentiable?
c. Prove that any nontrivial vector space is infinite.

43
CHAPTER 5. VECTOR SPACES 5.3. SPANNING SETS

5.2.11 [JH] Determine if each is a subspace of the vector 5.3 Spanning Sets
space of real-valued functions of one real variable.
a. The even functions { f : R → R | f (−x) = f (x) for all x }.
5.3.1 [JH] Determine whether the vector lies in the span of
the set.
b. The odd functions { f : R → R | f (−x) = −f (x) for all x }.      
2  1 0 
a. 0, 0 , 0
1 0 1
 
5.2.12 [YL] Let V = {(a, b, c) + sd1 + td2 | s, t ∈ R} for
− x3 , x2 , 2x + x2 , x + x3

fixed (a, b, c), d1 and d2 in R3 . In addition, d1 and d2 are not b. x      
parallel nor the zero vector. 0 1 1 0 2 0
c. , ,
a. Give a geometric description of V . 4 2 1 1 2 3
b. Show that V with the standard operations of R3 is a
vector space if and only if (a, b, c) = (0, 0, 0).
5.3.2 [JH] Which
of these are members of the span
span cos2 x, sin2 x in the vector space of real-valued
2 3 functions of one real variable?
5.2.13 [JH] Is R a subspace of R ?
a. f (x) = 1 c. f (x) = sin x
5.2.14 [JH] b. f (x) = 3 + x2 d. f (x) = cos(2x)
a. Give a set that is closed under scalar multiplication but
not addition.
b. Give a set closed under addition but not scalar multipli- 5.3.3 [JH] Which of these sets spans R3 ?
cation.
     
 1 0 0 
c. Give a set closed under neither. a. 0 , 2 , 0
0 0 3
 
     
5.2.15 [JH] Subspaces are subsets and so we naturally con-  2 1 0 
b. 0 , 1 , 0
sider how ‘is a subspace of’ interacts with the usual set oper-
1 0 1
 
ations.    
a. If A, B are subspaces of a vector space, are their inter-  1 3 
c. 1 , 0
section A ∩ B be a subspace?
0 0
 
b. Is the union A ∪ B a subspace?        
 1 3 −1 2 
c. If A is a subspace, is its complement be a subspace? 0 , 1 ,  0  , 1
d.
1 0 0 5
 
       
5.2.16 [JH] Is the relation ‘is a subspace of’ transitive? That  2 3 5 6 
is, if V is a subspace of W and W is a subspace of X, must e. 1 , 0 , 1 , 0
V be a subspace of X? 1 1 2 2
 

5.3.4 [YL] Given u = (1, −1, 1), v = (−1, 1, λ), w =

(1, 2, 3) ∈ R3 and the set S = {u, v, (u · v)w}.
a. Find the value(s), if any, of λ for which S spans R3
b. Find the value(s), if any, of λ for which S spans a plane.

c. Find the value(s), if any, of λ for which S spans a line.

5.3.5 [YL] Given u = (1, 2, 3), v = (−3, −6, λ) ∈ R3 and the

set S = {u, v, u × v}.
a. Find the value(s), if any, of λ for which S spans R3
b. Find the value(s), if any, of λ for which S spans a plane.

c. Find the value(s), if any, of λ for which S spans a line.

44
CHAPTER 5. VECTOR SPACES 5.3. SPANNING SETS

5.3.6 [BS] Let W be the solution  space of the

 homogeneous 5.3.12 [JH] Does the span of a set depend on the enclosing
1 1 k space? That is, if W is a subspace of V and S is a subset
system whose coefficient matrix is 1 k 1. Find the val- of W (and so also a subset of V ), might the span of S in W
k 1 1 differ from the span of S in V ?
ues of k such that W is
a. the zero space,
5.3.13 [JH] Because ‘span of’ is an operation on sets we nat-
b. a line through the origin, urally consider how it interacts with the usual set operations.
c. a plane through the origin.
a. If S ⊆ T are subsets of a vector space, is span (S) ⊆
5.3.7 [JH] Express each subspace as a span of a set of vec- span (T )?
tors. b. If S, T are subsets of a vector space, is span (S ∪ T ) =
 
a. (a b c)  a − c = 0
span (S) ∪ span (T )?
    c. If S, T are subsets of a vector space, is span (S ∩ T ) =
a b 
b. a+d=0 span (S) ∩ span (T )?
c d 
    d. Is the span of the complement equal to the complement
a b 
c. 2a − c − d = 0 and a + 3b = 0 of the span?
c d 

d. a + bx + cx3  a − 2b + c = 0


e. The subset of P2 of quadratic polynomials p such that

p(7) = 0

5.3.8 [JH] Find a set that spans the given subspace.

a. The xz-plane in R3 .
   
 x  
b. y   3x + 2y + z = 0

z
  
   

 x 
 

y 
   
c. 
z   2x + y + w = 0 and y + 2z = 0

  

w 
 

d. a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + a3 x3  a0 + a1 = 0 and a2 − a3 = 0


e. The set P4 in the space P4

f. M2×2 in M2×2

5.3.9 [JH] Show that for any subset S of a vector space,

span (span (S)) = span (S). (Hint. Members of span (S)
are linear combinations of members of S. Members of
span (span (S)) are linear combinations of linear combinations
of members of S.)

5.3.10 [YL] Given the following two subspace of R3 : W1 =

{ x | A1 x = 0} and W2 = {x | A2 x = 0} where
   
1 2 3 5 7 9
A1 =  4 5 6  , A2 = −5 −7 −9 .
−3 −3 −3 10 14 18
Determine whether the two subspaces are equal or whether
one of the subspaces is contained in the other.

5.3.11 [JH] Prove: v ∈ span ({v1 , . . . , vn }) if and only if

span ({v1 , . . . , vn }) = span ({ v, v1 , . . . , vn })

45
CHAPTER 5. VECTOR SPACES 5.4. LINEAR INDEPENDENCE

5.4 Linear Independence 5.4.8 [YL] Let u = (1, λ, −λ), v = (−2λ, −2, 2λ) and
w = (λ − 2, −5λ − 2, −2).
a. For what value(s) of λ will { u, v } be linearly dependent.
5.4.1 [JH] Determine whether each subset of R3 is linearly
dependent or linearly independent.
      b. For what value(s) of λ will { u, v, w } be linearly inde-
 1 2 4 
−3 , 2 , −4 pendent.
a.
5 4 14
 
5.4.9 [YL] Given the vectors u = (λ + 1, 1, λ), v =
     
 1 2 3 
b. 7 , 7 , 7 (λ, 2, 2) and w = (1, 1, λ).
7 7 7 a. For which value(s) of λ if any, are the vectors u, v and
 
w linearly independent.
   
 0 1 
c.  0  , 0 b. For which value(s) of λ if any, span ({ u, v, w }) = R3 .
−1 4
 
        c. For which value(s) of λ if any, span ({u, v, w }) is a
 9 2 3 12  plane through the origin.
d. 9 , 0 ,  5  ,  12  d. For which value(s) of λ if any, span ({ u, v, w }) is a line
0 1 −4 −1 through the origin.
 

e. For which value(s) of λ if any, the vectors u, v and w

generate a parallelpiped of volume 2016.
5.4.2 [JH] Which of these subsets of P2 are linearly depen-
dent and which are independent?
a. 3 − x + 9x2 , 5 − 6x + 3x2 , 1 + 1x − 5x2 5.4.10 [JH]


b. −x2 , 1 + 4x2
 a. Show that if the set { u, v, w } is linearly independent
then so is the set { u, u + v, u + v + w }.
c. 2 + x + 7x2 , 3 − x + 2x2 , 4 − 3x2

b. What is the relationship between the linear independence
d. 8 + 3x + 3x2 , x + 2x2 , 2 + 2x + 2x2 , 8 − 2x + 5x2

or dependence of { u, v, w } and the independence or
dependence of { u − v, v − w, w − u }?
 
1 2
5.4.3 [BS] Let A = . Determine whether the vectors
0 1 5.4.11 [JH]
AT , A−1 and A2 are linearly independent in M2 ×2. a. When is a one-element set linearly independent?
b. When is a two-element set linearly independent?
5.4.4 [JH] Prove that each set { f, g } is linearly independent
in the vector space of all functions from R+ to R. 5.4.12 [JH] Show that if {x, y, z } is linearly independent
a. f (x) = x and g(x) = 1/x then so are all of its proper subsets: {x, y }, {x, z }, {y, z },
b. f (x) = cos(x) and g(x) = sin(x) {x },{ y }, { z }. Is the converse also true?
c. f (x) = ex and g(x) = ln(x)
5.4.13 [JH]
a. Show that this
5.4.5 [JH] Which of these subsets of the space of real-valued    
functions of one real variable are linearly dependent and which  1 −1 
are linearly independent? S = 1 ,  2 
0 0
 
a. 2, 4 sin2 (x), cos2 (x) (1 + x)2 , x2 + 2x, 3
 
d.
is a linearly independent subset of R3 .
b. { 1, sin(x), sin(2x)} 2

e. 0, x, x
b. Show that  
c. { x, cos(x) } f. cos(2x), sin2 (x), cos2 (x) 3

2
0
5.4.6 [JH] Is the xy-plane subset of the vector space R3 is in the span of S by finding c1 and c2 giving a linear
linearly independent? relationship.
     
1 −1 3
5.4.7 [BS] Find all values of t such that c1 1 + c2  2  = 2
{ (1, −t, 2), (t, 3, −1), (3t, 5, −4)} is a linearly inde- 0 0 0
pendent set of vectors in R3 . Show that the pair c1 , c2 is unique.

46
CHAPTER 5. VECTOR SPACES 5.4. LINEAR INDEPENDENCE

c. Assume that S is a subset of a vector space and that 5.4.21 [JH]

v is in span (S), so that v is a linear combination of a. We might conjecture that the union S ∪ T of linearly in-
vectors from S. Prove that if S is linearly independent dependent sets is linearly independent if and only if their
then a linear combination of vectors from S adding to v spans have a trivial intersection span (S) ∩ span (T ) =
is unique (that is, unique up to reordering and adding {0 }. What is wrong with this argument for the ‘if’
or taking away terms of the form 0 · s). Thus S as a direction of that conjecture? “If the union S ∪ T is
spanning set is minimal in this strong sense: each vector linearly independent then the only solution to c1 s1 +
in span (S) is a combination of elements of S a minimum · · · + cn sn + d1 t1 + · · · + dm tm = 0 is the trivial one
number of times (only once). c1 = 0, . . . , dm = 0. So any member of the intersec-
d. Prove that it can happen when S is not linearly indepen- tion of the spans must be the zero vector because in
dent that distinct linear combinations sum to the same c1 s1 + · · · + cn sn = d1 t1 + · · · + dm tm each scalar is
vector. zero.”
b. Give an example showing that the conjecture is false.
5.4.14 [JH] c. Find linearly independent sets S and T so that the union
of S − (S ∩ T ) and T − (S ∩ T ) is linearly independent,
a. Show that any set of four vectors in R2 is linearly depen-
but the union S ∪ T is not linearly independent.
dent.
d. Characterize when the union of two linearly independent
b. Is this true for any set of five? Any set of three?
sets is linearly independent, in terms of the intersection
c. What is the most number of elements that a linearly of spans.
independent subset of R2 can have?

5.4.22 [JH] With a some calculation we can get formulas to

5.4.15 [JH] Is there a set of four vectors in R3 such that determine whether or not a set of vectors is linearly indepen-
any three form a linearly independent set? dent.
a. Show that this subset of R2
5.4.16 [JH]    
a b
a. Prove that a set of two perpendicular nonzero vectors ,
c d
from Rn is linearly independent when n > 1.
b. What if n = 1? is linearly independent if and only if ad − bc 6= 0.
c. Generalize to more than two vectors. b. Show that this subset of R3
     
 a b c 
5.4.17 [JH] Show that, where S is a subspace of V , if a  d  ,  e  , f 
g h i
 
subset T of S is linearly independent in S then T is also
linearly independent in V . Is the converse also true?
is linearly independent iff aei + bf g + cdh − hf a − idb −
gec 6= 0.
5.4.18 [JH] Show that the nonzero rows of an echelon form c. When is this subset of R3
matrix form a linearly independent set.    
 a b 
d ,  e 
5.4.19 [JH] In R4 what is the largest linearly independent set 
g h

you can find? The smallest? The largest linearly dependent
set? The smallest? linearly independent?

5.4.20 [JH]
a. Is the intersection of linearly independent sets indepen-
dent? Must it be?
b. How does linear independence relate to complementa-
tion?
c. Show that the union of two linearly independent sets can
be linearly independent.
d. Show that the union of two linearly independent sets need
not be linearly independent.

47
CHAPTER 5. VECTOR SPACES 5.5. BASIS

5.5 Basis

a2 x2 + a1 x + a0  a2 − 2a1 = a0 of P2

a. The subspace

5.5.1 [JH] Determine if each is a basis for R3 . b. The space of three component vectors whose first and
second components add to zero
           
1 3 0 0 1 2 c. This subspace of the 2×2 matrices
a. h2 , 2 , 0i c. h 2  , 1 , 5i    
a b 
3 1 1 −1 1 0 c − 2b = 0
          0 c 
1 3 0 1 1
b. h2 , 2i d. h 2  , 1 , 3i
3 1 −1 1 0 5.5.10 [JH] Find the span of each set (that is, find restric-
tion(s) on the coefficient of the polynomial) and then find a
basis for that span.
5.5.2 [JH] Determine if each is a basis for P2 . a. { 1 + x, 1 + 2x } in P2
a. hx2 − x + 1, 2x + 1, 2x − 1i b. 2 − 2x, 3 + 4x2 in P2


b. hx + x2 , x − x2 i
5.5.11 [JH] Find a basis for each of these subspaces of the
 2
5.5.3 [BS] Show that 2x + 5, x − 3x + 1, x + x is a2
space P3 of cubic polynomials.
basis of P2 and find the coordinates of the vector 5x2 − x + 7 a. The subspace of cubic polynomials p(x) such that p(7) =
relative to this basis. 0.
b. The subspace of polynomials p(x) such that p(7) = 0 and
5.5.4 [JH] Represent the vector with respect to the given p(5) = 0.
basis.  c. The subspace of polynomials p(x) such that p(7) = 0,
p(5) = 0, and p(3) = 0.
   
1 1 −1
a. ,B=h , i ⊆ R2
2 1 1 d. The space of polynomials p(x) such that p(7) = 0, p(5) =
b. x2 + x3 , D = h1, 1 + x, 1 + x + x2 , 1 + x + x2 + x3 i ⊆ P3 0, p(3) = 0, and p(1) = 0.

5.5.12 [YL] Given B = { M1 , M2, M3 } a basis of W =

5.5.5 [JH] Find a basis for P2 , the space of all quadratic
1 2 1 0 1 2
polynomials. Must any such basis contain a polynomial of span(B) where M1 = , M2 = , M3 = .
0 1 0 1 0 −1
each degree: degree zero, degree one, and degree two?  
0 0
a. Is ∈ W ? Justify.
0 0
5.5.6 [JH] Find a basis for the solution set of this system.  
0 0
b. Is ∈ W ? Justify.
x1 − 4x2 + 3x3 − x4 = 0 1 0
 
2x1 − 8x2 + 6x3 − 2x4 = 0 1 2
c. Show M = ∈ W and find the coordinates of M
0 3
relative to the basis B. That is, find (M )B .
5.5.7 [YL] Given
  5.5.13 [YL] Given
1 2 2 −1 3 1 
W = p(x) = a0 + a2 x2 + a3 x3  p(−1) = 0

0 0 1 1 2 2
M =
0

0 0 0 1 1 a subspace of P3 .
0 0 0 0 0 0
a. Find a basis B for W.
where M is in row echelon form. b. Find the coordinate vector of p(x) = −2 + 2x2 relative
a. Find the reduced row echelon form of M . to the basis B.
b. Find a basis for the solution space of the homogeneous
system of linear equations whose coefficient matrix is M . 5.5.14 [YL] Given

W = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + a3 x3  a0 + 2a1 + 3a2 + 4a3 = 0

 
5.5.8 [JH] Find a basis for M2×2 , the space of 2×2 matrices.
and a1 + a2 + a3 = 0}

5.5.9 [JH] Find a basis for each of the following. a subspace of P3 . Find a basis for W .

48
CHAPTER 5. VECTOR SPACES 5.5. BASIS

5.5.15[YL]
 Given
  a. Show that no linearly independent subset of R3 contains
a b  more than three vectors.
W = a + 2b + 3c + 4d = 0 and b + c + d = 0 a
c d  b. Show that no spanning subset of R3 contains fewer than
subspace of M2×2 . Find a basis B for W . three vectors. Hint: recall how to calculate the span of
a set and show that this method cannot yield all of R3
when we apply it to fewer than three vectors.
5.5.16 [BS] Let u, v and w be non-zero vectors in R3 . Show
that if u · v = u · w = v · w = 0 then {u, v, w} is a basis for
R3 . 5.5.25 [JH] Find a basis for the following vector space:
   
5.5.17 [JH] Can a basis contain a zero vector?  x  
y   x + y + z = 1

z
  
5.5.18 [JH] Let hβ1 , β2 , β3 i be a basis for a vector space.
a. Show that hc1 β1 , c2 β2 , c3 β3 i is a basis when c1 , c2 , c3 6= 0. is a vector space under these operations.
What if at least one ci is 0?          
x1 x2 x1 + x2 − 1 x rx − r + 1
b. Prove that hα1 , α2 , α3 i is a basis where αi = β1 + βi .  y1 + y2  =  y1 + y2  r y  =  ry 
z1 z2 z1 + z2 z rz
5.5.19 [BS] Determine whether the following statement is
true or false. Justify by providing a proof or a counterexam-
ple.

If { u, v, w } is a basis of a vector space V then

{ u, u + v + w, u + 2v + 2w } is also a basis of V .

5.5.20 [JH] Find one vector v that will make each into a
basis for the space.
 
1
a. h , vi in R2
1
   
1 0
b. h1 , 1 , vi in R3
0 0
c. hx, 1 + x2 , vi in P2

5.5.21 [JH] Where hβ1 , . . . , βn i is a basis, show that in this

equation

c1 β1 + · · · + ck βk = ck+1 βk+1 + · · · + cn βn

each of the ci ’s is zero. Generalize.

5.5.22 [JH] If a subset is not a basis, can linear combinations

be not unique? If so, must they be?

5.5.23 [JH]
a. Find a basis for the vector space of symmetric 2×2 ma-
trices.
b. Find a basis for the space of symmetric 3×3 matrices.
c. Find a basis for the space of symmetric n×n matrices.

5.5.24 [JH] We can show that every basis for R3 contains

the same number of vectors.

49
CHAPTER 5. VECTOR SPACES 5.6. DIMENSION

5.6 Dimension 5.6.10 [JH] What is the dimension of the vector space M3×5
of 3×5 matrices?
5.6.1 [JH] Find a basis for, and the dimension of, P2 .
5.6.11 [JH] Show that this is a basis for R4 .
5.6.2 [JH] Find a basis for, and the dimension of, M2×2 , the
       
1 1 1 1
vector space of 2×2 matrices. 0 1 1 1
h
0 , 0 , 1 , 1i
      

0 0 0 1
5.6.3 [JH] Find a basis for, and the dimension of, the solu-
tion set of this system.

x1 − 4x2 + 3x3 − x4 = 0 5.6.12 [JH] Where S is a set, the functions f : S → R form

2x1 − 8x2 + 6x3 − 2x4 = 0 a vector space under the natural operations: the sum f + g is
the function given by f + g (s) = f (s) + g(s) and the scalar
product is r · f (s) = r · f (s). What is the dimension of the
5.6.4 [JH] Find the dimension of the vector space of matrices space resulting for each domain?
  a. S = { 1 }
a b b. S = { 1, 2 }
c d
c. S = { 1, . . . , n }
subject to each condition.
a. a, b, c, d ∈ R 5.6.13 [JH] Show that any set of four vectors in R2 is linearly
b. a − b + 2c = 0 and d ∈ R dependent.
c. a + b + c = 0, a + b − c = 0, and d ∈ R
5.6.14 [JH] Show that hα1 , α2 , α3 i ⊂ R3 is a basis if and
5.6.5 [YL] Given W = only if there is no plane through the origin containing all three
vectors.

p(x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + a3 x3  p(1) = 0 and p(−1) = 0


a subspace of P3 . Determine the dimension of W .

5.6.15 [JH]
5.6.6 [BS] Given S{p(x) ∈ P2 | p(1) = p(2)}. a. Prove that any subspace of a finite dimensional space has
a basis.
a. Show that S is a subspace of P2 .
b. Prove that any subspace of a finite dimensional space is
b. Find a basis and the dimension of S.
finite dimensional.
c. Find the coordinates of the vector p(x) = 5x2 − 15x + 7
relative to the basis found in part b.
5.6.16 [JH] Prove that if U and W are both three-
  dimensional subspaces of R5 then U ∩ W is non-trivial. State
5.6.7 [BS] Let Vn = A ∈ Mn×n  AT = −A . Find a a generalization of the above.
basis and the dimension of V3 .
5.6.17 [JH]
5.6.8 [JH] Find the dimension of each. a. Consider first how bases might be related by ⊆. Assume
a. The space of cubic polynomials p(x) such that p(7) = 0. that U, W are subspaces of some vector space and that
U ⊆ W.
b. The space of cubic polynomials p(x) such that p(7) = 0 Can there exist bases BU for U and BW for W such that
and p(5) = 0. BU ⊆ BW ? Must such bases exist?
c. The space of cubic polynomials p(x) such that p(7) = 0, For any basis BU for U , must there be a basis BW for W
p(5) = 0, and p(3) = 0. such that BU ⊆ BW ?
For any basis BW for W , must there be a basis BU for
d. The space of cubic polynomials p(x) such that p(7) = 0, U such that BU ⊆ BW ?
p(5) = 0, p(3) = 0, and p(1) = 0. For any bases BU , BW for U and W , must BU be a subset
of BW ?
5.6.9 [JH] What is the dimension of the span of the set b. Is the ∩ of bases a basis? For what space?
cos2 θ, sin2 θ, cos 2θ, sin 2θ ? This span is a subspace of

c. Is the ∪ of bases a basis? For what space?
the space of all real-valued functions of one real variable. d. What about the complement operation?

50
CHAPTER 5. VECTOR SPACES 5.6. DIMENSION

5.6.18 [JH] Assume U and W are both subspaces of some

vector space, and that U ⊆ W .
a. Prove that dim(U ) ≤ dim(W ).
b. Prove that equality of dimension holds if and only if U =
W.

51
Chapter 6

Applications

6.1 The Simplex Method b. Minimize Z = 2x + y + z subject to the constraints

x+z ≥2
6.1.1 [YL] 2x + y + z ≥ 3.
a. Maximize Z = 3x + y subject to the constraints
2x − y ≤ 60
c. Minimize Z = 2x + y + 3z subject to the constraints
x + y ≤ 50.
x + 4z ≥ 2
b. Maximize Z = 2x + y + 3z subject to the constraints 2x + y + z ≥ 3
x + y + z ≥ 1.
2x − y + z ≤ 100
x + y + 2z ≤ 70.
d. Minimize Z = x + y + z subject to the constraints

c. Maximize Z = 2x + y + 3z subject to the constraints x + y ≥ 50

2x − y − z ≤ 10 y + z ≥ 50
x + y + 2z ≤ 60 x + z ≥ 10.
x − y − z ≤ 10.
e. Minimize Z = 3x + y − 2z subject to the constraints
d. Maximize Z = 4x + 3y + 3z subject to the constraints
2x − y ≥ 60
y − z ≤ 10 x + y − 2z ≥ 50
2x − y + 2z ≤ 60 x − y − z ≥ 10.
2x − y − z ≤ 10
x + y + 2z ≤ 30.

e. Maximize Z = 2x−y +4z +2w subject to the constraints

y + z + w ≤ 30
2x − y + 2z − w ≤ 60
2x − y − z − w ≤ 10.

6.1.2 [YL]
a. Minimize Z = x + y subject to the constraints
x+y ≥2
3x + y ≥ 4.

53
Appendix A

Answers to Exercises

Note that either a hint, a final answer or a complete solution 1.1.6

is provided. x1 + 2x2 = 3
a.
−x1 + 3x2 = 9
1.1.1
−3x1 + 4x2 = 7
a. Yes b.
x2 = −2
b. No
x1 + x2 − x3 − x4 = 2
c. Yes c.
2x1 + x2 + 3x3 + 5x4 = 7
d. Yes x1 = 2
e. No x2 = −1
d.
f. No x3 = 5
g. Yes x4 = 3
h. No x1 + x3 + 7x5 = 2
e.
i. Yes x2 + 3x3 + 2x4 =5
j. No
1.1.7 
−2 1 −7
1.1.2
a.  0 4 −2
a. x = 1, y = −2 5 0 3
b. x = 2, y = 31 
2 −1 7

c. x = −1, y = 0, and z = 2. b. 5 0 3
d. x = 1, y = 0, and z = 0. 0 4 −2
 
2 −1 7
3x + y = 3 c. 2 3 5
1.1.3 , Solution is: x = 1, i y = 0
x + 2y = 1 5 0 3
 
1.1.4 b1 = 6, b2 = 8, b3 = −8 2 −1 7
d. 0 4 −2
1.1.5 5 8 −1

3 4 5 7
 
2 −1 7
a. −1 1 −3 1 e. 0 2 −1
2 −2 3 5 5 0 3
 
2 5 −6 2
 
2 −1 7
b. 9 0 −8 10  f. 0 4 −2 
−2 4 1 −7 0 5/2 −29/2
 
1 3 −4 5 17
c. −1 0 4 8 1 1.1.8
2 3 4 5 6 a. 2R2 → R2
 
3 −2 4 b. R1 + R2 → R2
2 0 3
d.   c. 2R3 + R1 → R1
−1 9 8
d. R1 ↔ R2
5 −7 13
e. −R2 + R3 ↔ R3

55
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

1.1.9 Recall that if a pair of lines share two distinct points 1.2.4
then they are the same line. That’s because two points de- a. (−2, 7)
termine a line, so these two points determine each of the two b. (−3, 20, 19)
lines, and so they are the same line.
Thus the lines can share one point (giving a unique solution), c. (−3t + 4, −6t − 6, 2, t) for all real numbers t
share no points (giving no solutions), or share at least two d. Inconsistent
points (which makes them the same line). e. (8s − t + 7, −4s + 3t + 2, s, t)
for all real numbers s and t
1.1.10 Yes, this one-equation system:
f. (−9t − 3, 4t + 20, t)
0x + 0y = 0 for all real numbers t
is satisfied by every (x, y) ∈ R2 . 1.2.5 
1 0
1.1.11 Each equation can be represented in R2 as a line. a.
0 1
a. At least one of the line is parallel and does not lie on an 
1 0

other line. b.
0 1
b. All the lines intersect at one and only one point. 
1 3

c. All the lines are identical, i.e. they all lie on top of each c.
0 0
other.  
1 0
d.
1.2.1 0 1
 
a. Yes 1 0 3
e.
b. No 0 1 7
 
c. No 1 0 −1
f.
0 1 5
d. Yes  
1 −1 2
e. Yes g.
0 0 0
f. Yes 5
− 23
 
1 4
g. No h.
0 0 0
h. Yes  
1 0 0
i. No i. 0 1 0
j. Yes 0 0 1
k. Yes
 
1 0 0
l. Yes j. 0 1 0
m. No 0 0 1
 
n. Yes 1 0 0
k. 0 1 0
o. Yes
0 0 1
1.2.2
 
1 0 0
a. Reduced row echelon form l. 0 1 0
b. Neither 0 0 1
 
c. Row echelon form only 1 0 0 1
m. 0 1 1 1
d. Reduced row echelon form
0 0 0 0
e. Reduced row echelon form  
1 0 0 5
f. Row echelon form only
n. 0 1 0 2
1.2.3 0 0 1 −3
 
a. The solution exists but is not unique. 1 0 1 3
o. 0 1 −2 4
b. A solution exists and is unique.
0 0 0 0
c. The solution exists but is not unique.  
1 0 3 4
d. There might be a solution. If so, there are infinitely p. 0 1 −1 3
many. 0 0 0 0

56
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

1.2.6 b. (x, y, z, w, v) = (0, 14 + 3s, 11 + 2t + s, s, t)

a. x = 2, y = 3 where s, t ∈ R. (x, y, z, w, v) = (0, 14, 11, 0, 0),
b. x = −1, y = 4, and z = −1. (x, y, z, w, v) = (0, 14, 13, 0, 1)

1.2.7 1.2.11
a. (−2, 7) a. (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 ) =
b. (1, 2, 0) (60s − 55t + 30, − 79 3 s + 73
3 t − 38
3 , −14s + 13t − 7, s, t)
where s, t ∈ R.
c. (−t + 5, −3t + 15, t) for all real numbers t
b. If s = t = 0 then (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 ) =
d. (2, −1, 1)
(30, − 383 , −7, 0, 0).
e. (1, 3, −2) If s = 0 and t = 1 then (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 ) =
f. Inconsistent (−25, 35 3 , 6, 0, 1).
g. (1, 3, −2) c. If t = 0 then s = − 47 and (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 ) =
h. −3, 12 , 1


(− 30 316 4
7 , 21 , 1, 7 , 0).
i. 13 , 23 , 1

j. 19 51 11 4

1.2.12
13 t + 13 , − 13 t + 13 , t for all real numbers t
k. Inconsistent a. (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) = (60t, − 79
3 t, −14t, t) where t ∈ R.

l. (4, −3, 1) b. If t = 1 then (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) = (60, − 79

3 , −14, 1).
If t = 3 then (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) = (180, −79, 42, 3).
1.2.8 1 79 14 1
c. If t = 60 then (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) = (1, − 180 , − 60 , 60 ).
a. x1 = 1 − 2t; x2 = t where t ∈ R. Possible solutions:
x1 = 1, x2 = 0 and x1 = −1, x2 = 1. 1.2.13
 
b. x1 = −3 + 5t; x2 = t where t ∈ R. Possible solutions: 1 0 0 −3
0 1 0 1 
x1 = 3, x2 = 0 and x1 = −8, x2 = −1. a.  
0 0 1 4 
c. x1 = 1; x2 = 2.
0 0 0 0
d. x1 = 0; x2 = −1.
2x2 − 5x3 = −18
e. x1 = −11 + 10t; x2 = −4 + 4t; x3 = t where t ∈ R.
−3x1 − 6x2 = 3
Possible solutions: x1 = −11, x2 = −4, x3 = 0 and b. ,
3x1 + 7x2 = −2
x1 = −1, x2 = 0 and x3 = 1.
5x1 + 10x2 + 3x3 = 7
f. x1 = − 23 + 89 t; x2 = 23 − 59 t; x3 = t where t ∈ R. Possible (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (−3, 2, 4)
solutions: x1 = − 32 , x2 = 23 , x3 = 0 and x1 = 49 , x2 =
2x2 − 5x3 − 18x4 = 0
− 19 , x3 = 1.
−3x1 − 6x2 + 3x4 = 0
g. x1 = 1 − s − t; x2 = s; x3 = 1 − 2t; x4 = t where s, t ∈ R. c. ,
3x1 + 7x2 − 2x4 = 0
Possible solutions: x1 = 1, x2 = 0, x3 = 1, x4 = 0 and 5x1 + 10x2 + 3x3 + 7x4 = 0
x1 = −2, x2 = 1, x3 = −3, x4 = 2. (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) = (3t, −t, −4t, t) where t ∈ R
h. x1 = 3 − s − 2t; x2 = −3 − 5s − 7t; x3 = s; x4 = t where
s, t ∈ R. Possible solutions: x1 = 3, x2 = −3, x3 = 0, 1.2.14
x4 = 0 and x1 = 0, x2 = −5, x3 = −1, x4 = 1. a. The reduced row echolon form of A is the identity.
i. x1 = 13 − 43 t; x2 = 31 − 13 t; x3 = t where t ∈ R. Possible b.
solutions: x1 = 13 , x2 = 31 , x3 = 0 and x1 = −1, x2 = 0, 2x2 = 8
x3 = 1. − 6x2 = 3
j. x1 = 1 − 2s − 3t; x2 = s; x3 = t where s, t ∈ R. Possible 3x 1 + 7x 2 = −2
solutions: x1 = 1, x2 = 0, x3 = 0 and x1 = 8, x2 = 1, 5x 1 + 10x 2 + 3x 3= 7
x3 = −3. No solution since the reduced row echolon form has a
k. No solution; the system is inconsistent. leading one in the constant column.
l. No solution; the system is inconsistent. c.
2x2 + 8x4 = 0
1.2.9 x = 2, y = 4, z = 5 − 6x2 + 3x4 = 0
3x1 + 7x2 − 2x4 = 0
1.2.10 5x1 + 10x2 + 3x3 + 7x4 = 0
a. (x, y, z, w, v) = (0, 3t, 2t + s, s, t) where s, t ∈ R.
Only the trivial solution since there are 4 unknowns and
(x, y, z, w, v) = (0, 3, 2, 0, 1), (x, y, z, w, v) =
4 leading one’s.
(0, 0, 1, 1, 0)

57
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

1.2.15 1.2.24
a. (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) = (−1 + t, 3 − 2t, 1 − t, t) where t ∈ R a. Never exactly 1 solution; infinite solutions if k = 2; no
b. (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 ) = (s + t, −2s − 3t, −s − t, s, t) solution if k 6= 2.
where s, t ∈ R b. Exactly 1 solution if k 6= 2; infinite solutions if k = 2;
never no solution.
1.2.16
  c. Exactly 1 solution if k 6= 2; no solution if k = 2; never
1 2 0 −3 0 −2 infinite solutions.
0 0 1 1 0 0 
a. 
  d. Exactly 1 solution for all k.
0 0 0 0 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0
    1.2.25
1 2 0 −3 0 −2 1 2 2 −1 0 −2 a. If h 6= 2 there will be a unique solution for any k. If
0 0 1 1 0 0  0 0 1 1 0 0 
b. 
  ,   h = 2 and k 6= 4, there are no solutions. If h = 2 and
0 0 0 0 1 1  0 0 0 0 1 1  k = 4, then there are infinitely many solutions.
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
b. If h 6= 4, then there is exactly one solution. If h = 4 and
c. (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 ) = (−2 − 2s + 3t, s, −t, t, 1) where k 6= 4, then there are no solutions. If h = 4 and k = 4,
s, t ∈ R then there are infinitely many solutions.
d. (−2, 0, 0, 0, 1), (−1, 1, −1, 1, 1)
e. (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 , x6 ) = (−2s − 2u + 1.2.26
3t, s, −t, t, −u, u) where s, t, u ∈ R a. a = 0 and b 6= 0
1 1


f. 1, 0, − 3 , 3 , 0, 0 b. a 6= 0
c. a = 0 and b = 0
1.2.17 { (1 + 2t, −8t, −1 − t, t) | t ∈ R }
    1.2.27
1 2 3 1 3 2 a. a 6= ±1 and b ∈ R
1.2.18 and
0 1 −1 0 1 −1 b. a = −1 and b ∈ R
1.2.19 Because f (1) = 2, f (−1) = 6, and f (2) = 3 we get a c. a = 1 and b ∈ R
linear system.
1.2.28
1a + 1b + c = 2
1a − 1b + c = 6
a. k = −2. c. no value exists.
4a + 2b + c = 3
6 −2.
b. k =
After performing Gaussian elimination we obtain
a+ b+ c= 2 1.2.29
−2b = 4 √
a. k = −1 ± 3
−3c = −9 √
b. k 6= −1 ± 3
which shows that the solution is f (x) = 1x2 − 2x + 3.
1.2.30
1.2.20 The following system with more unknowns than equa-
tions a. k = 0 b. k 6= 0, 1 c. k = 1
x+y+z=0
x+y+z=1
1.2.31
has no solution. a. Possible if a = ±1 and a 6= ±b.
1.2.21 For example, x + y = 1, 2x + 2y = 2, 3x + 3y = 3 has b. Not possible.
an infinitely many solutions. c. Possible if a 6= ±1 or a = ±b.
1.2.22 No. There must be a free variable and since the sys- 1.2.32
tem is consistent there are infinitely many solutions
a. k 6= ±1 b. k = −1 c. k = 1
1.2.23 After performing Gaussian elimination the system be-
comes
x−y= 1 1.2.33
0 = −3 + k
This system has no solutions if k 6= 3 and if k = 3 then it has a. k = 1 and k = 0. c. no such k.
infinitely many solutions. It never has a unique solution. b. k 6= 1 and k =
6 0.

58
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

1.2.34 b3 = b1 + b2 The solution is:

1.2.35 Consistent if b3 − b2 − b1 = 0 and b4 − 2b2 − b1 = 0. I1 = −2. 010 7, I2 = −1. 269 9, I3 = −2. 735 5, I4 = −1. 535 3
1.2.36 If a 6= 0 then the solution set of the first equation
is { (x, y) | x = (c − by)/a}. Taking y = 0 gives the solution 1.3.2 The equations obtained are
(c/a, 0), and since the second equation is supposed to have the
same solution set, substituting into it gives that a(c/a)+d·0 = 2I1 + 5I1 + 3I1 − 5I2 = −10
e, so c = e. Then taking y = 1 in x = (c − by)/a gives that I2 + 3I2 + 7I2 + 5I2 − 5I1 = −12
a((c − b)/a) + d · 1 = e, which gives that b = d. Hence they 2I3 + 4I3 + 4I3 + I3 − I2 = 0
are the same equation.
When a = 0 the equations can be different and still have the Simplifying this yields
same solution set: e.g., 0x + 3y = 6 and 0x + 6y = 12.
10I1 − 5I2 = −10
1.2.37 We take three cases: that a 6= 0, that a = 0 and 16I2 − 5I1 = −12
c 6= 0, and that both a = 0 and c = 0. 11I3 − I2 = 0
For the first, we assume that a 6= 0. Then Gaussian elimina-
tion Solving the system gives
ax + by = j
(−(cb/a) + d)y = −(cj/a) + k 44 34 34
I1 = − , I2 = − , I3 = −
shows that this system has a unique solution if and only if 27 27 297
−(cb/a) + d 6= 0; remember that a 6= 0 so that back substi- Thus all currents flow in the clockwise direction.
tution yields a unique x (observe, by the way, that j and k
play no role in the conclusion that there is a unique solution, 2.1.1
although if there is a unique solution then they contribute to a. 2
its value). But −(cb/a) + d = (ad − bc)/a and a fraction is b. 3
not equal to 0 if and only if its numerator is not equal to 0. c. −1
Thus, in this first case, there is a unique solution if and only
d. Not defined.
if ad − bc 6= 0.
In the second case, if a = 0 but c 6= 0, then we swap 2.1.2
cx + dy = k a. 2×3
by = j b. 3×2
to conclude that the system has a unique solution if and only c. 2×2
if b 6= 0 (we use the case assumption that c 6= 0 to get a
unique x in back substitution). But where a = 0 and c 6= 0 the 2.1.3 
condition “b 6= 0” is equivalent to the condition “ad−bc 6= 0”. a. −2 −1
That finishes the second case. 12 13
 
Finally, for the third case, if both a and c are 0 then the 11 −8
b.
system −1 −19
0x + by = j 
9 −7

0x + dy = k c.
11 −6
might have no solutions (if the second equation is not a mul- 
−2 1

tiple of the first) or it might have infinitely many solutions (if d. 12 13
the second equation is a multiple of the first then for each y
satisfying both equations, any pair (x, y) will do), but it never 2.1.4
has a unique solution. Note that a = 0 and c = 0 gives that
ad − bc = 0. a. −22
b. 23
1.3.1 The two other equations are c. Not possible.
6I3 − 6I4 + I3 + I3 + 5I3 − 5I2 = −20 d. Not possible.
2I4 + 3I4 + 6I4 − 6I3 + I4 − I1 = 0
2.1.5
Then the system is
a. 2×1
2I2 − 2I1 + 5I2 − 5I3 + 3I2 = 5
b. 1×1
4I1 + I1 − I4 + 2I1 − 2I2 = −10
6I3 − 6I4 + I3 + I3 + 5I3 − 5I2 = −20 c. Not defined.
2I4 + 3I4 + 6I4 − 6I3 + I4 − I1 = 0 d. 2×2

59
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

2.1.6     is 3 and not equal to the number of rows of B which is

8 3 −3 24 2.
a. AB = , BA =
10 −9 4 2 b. The expression is defined and the resulting matrix is 2×3.
 
−1 −2 12
b. AB = , BA is not defined
10 4 32 c. The expression is undefined as B is not square.
 
3 8 d. The expression is defined and the resulting matrix is 2×3.
c. AB = −5 −8 , BA is not defined
−8 −32 2.1.10
 

10 −18 11
 16 −3 2

52 −21
 a.
d. AB = −45 24 −21 , BA =
  −3 7 −1
45 −27  
−15 12 −9 −2 0 −2
b.

−32 34 −24

  3 −13 −3
22 −14 c. Not possible, since dimension of A and E are not the
e. AB = −32 38 −8 , BA =
 
−4 −12 same.
−16 21 4  
  7 1
−7 3 7 −15 d.
f. AB = , BA is not defined 5 1
−5 −1 −17 5  
    36 19 2
3 4 0 0 0 4
e. 83 −22 11
g. AB =  1 4 0, BA = −3 6 1
19 −10 3
−2 0 0 −1 2 1
    f. Not possible, since the dimension of CD is 2×2 and is
21 −17 −5 19 5 23 not equal to the dimension of D.
h. AB = 19 5 19 , BA =  5 −7 −1  
5 9 4 −14 6 18 g. 9 −7 3
 
4 −2
h.
2.1.7 −6 3
   
2 2 2 2 −3 5
a. AD =  −6 −6 −6 , DA =  4 −6 10  2.1.11  
−15 −15 −15 −6 9 −15 −4 −29
a. 7B − 4A =

4 −6
 
4 8
 −47 −2
b. AD = , DA = 
−10 1

4 −6 −3 −6 b. AB =

d1 a d1 b
 
d1 a d2 b
 −20 −1
c. AD = , DA = 
−9 −12

d2 c d2 d d1 c d2 d c. BA =

d1 a d1 b d1 c
 
d1 a d2 b d3 c
 1 −2
d. AD = d2 d d2 e d2 f , DA = d1 d d2 e d3 f  d. E + D is undefined
d3 g d3 h d3 i d1 g d2 h d3 i
 67
11

3
2.1.8 e. ED = − 178 −72
3
   
2 1 0 3 0 1 −30 −40
a. A = ,A =
0 1 1 0 " #
238
−126
   
2 4 0 8 0 3
b. A = , A3 = CD + 2I2 A =
0 9 0 27 863 361
    15 5
1 0 0 −1 0 0  
c. A2 = 0 9 0 , A3 =  0 27 0  −3 2
g. A − 4I2 =
0 0 25 0 0 125 3 0
 

0 0 1
 
1 0 0
 −8 16
h. A2 − B 2 =
d. A2 = 1 0 0, A3 = 0 1 0 25 3
 
0 1 0 0 0 1 −7 3
i. (A + B)(A − B) =

0 1 0
 
0 0 0
 46 2
 
e. A2 = 0 0 0, A3 = 0 0 0 2 0 0
j. A − 5A − 2I2 =
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
 
−30 20 −15
2.1.9 k. E 2 + 5E − 36I3 =  0 0 −36
a. The product is undefined as the number of columns of E 0 0 −36

60
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

3449
− 407 99
 
15 6 g. Not possible.
l. EDC = − 9548 − 101 −648
15 3  
−324 −35 −360 64 0 0
2.1.14  0 1 0
m. CDE is undefined 0 0 64
"
− 90749 − 28867
# 2.1.15 Let’s denote by m × n the size of the matrix C, and
15 5
n. ABCEDI2 = by p × q the size of the matrix A. Since the product CA
− 156601
15 − 47033
5 is defined, p must be equal to n. Since the product AC T is
defined, and C T is n × m, q must be equal to n. As both p
2.1.12
  and q must be equal to n, A is a square matrix (of size n × n).
−9 6 −8
a.  4 −3 1  2.1.16 The i-th row of GH is made up of the products of the
10 −7 −1 i-th row of G with the columns of H. The product of a zero

4 5 −6
 row with a column is zero.
b.  2 −4 6 It works for columns if stated correctly: if H has a column of
−9 −10 9 zeros then GH (if defined) has a column of zeros.
 
4 −9 2.1.17 The generalization is to go from the first and second
−7 6  rows to the i1 -th and i2 -th rows. Row i of GH is made up of
c. −4 3 

the dot products of row i of G and the columns of H. Thus
−9 −9 if rows i1 and i2 of G are equal then so are rows i1 and i2 of
GH.
 
−7 4
d. , symmetric
4 −6
  2.1.18 If the product of two diagonal matrices is defined, if
4 −2 4 both are n×n then the product of the diagonals is the diagonal
e. 0 −7 −2, A is lower triangular and AT is upper of the products: where G, H are equal-sized diagonal matrices,
0 0 5 GH is all zeros except each that i, i entry is gi,i hi,i .
triangular.
2.1.19 A matrix is upper triangular if and only if its i, j entry
 
−3 0 0
f. −4 −3 0 , A is upper triangular and AT is lower is zero whenever i > j. Thus, if G, H are upper triangular
−5 5 −3 then hi,j and gi,j are zero when i > j. An entry in the product
triangular. pi,j = gi,1 h1,j + · · · + gi,n hn,j is zero unless at least some of
the terms are nonzero, that is, unless for at least some of
 
1 0
g. , diagonal. the summands gi,r hr,j both i ≤ r and r ≤ j. Of course, if
0 9
  i > j this cannot happen and so the product of two upper
4 0 −2
triangular matrices is upper triangular. (A similar argument
h.  0 2 3 , symmetric.
works for lower triangular matrices.)
−2 3 6
 
0 −6 1 2.1.20 f A is skew-symmetric then A = −AT . It follows that
i.  6 0 4, skew-symmetric. aii = −aii and so each aii = 0.
−1 −4 0
2.1.21
2.1.13
  a. −9
−3 −9 −3 b. 6
a.
−6 −6 3 c. −23
 
5 −18 5 d. Not defined; the matrix must be square.
b.
−11 4 4
  e. 0
c. −7 1 5 f. n
 
1 3
d. 2.1.22
3 9  
  −1 6 3
13 −16 1
a. −2 3 1
e. −16 29 −8
3 0 1
1 −8 5
  b. Not defined since A is not a square matrix.
5 7 −1
f. c. Not defined since A and B do not have the same dimen-
5 15 5
sion.

61
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

 
4 0 2 2.1.28
d.
0 4 1 a. a = −1, b = 1/2
e. Not defined since the trace of a matrix is only defined for b. a = 5/2 + 3/2t, b = t where t ∈ R
square matrices.
c. a = 5, b = 0
f. 3
d. No solution.
2.1.23
2.1.29
   
−4 −1 4 17  
−1 −1 x y
 
−x − z −w − y

a. 0 −11 8 g. 31 =
3 3 z w 3x + 3z 3w + 3y
   
5 −7 1 2  
0 0
b. Not defined. =
 
−7 4 0 0

4
 h.
c. 16 33
−21
  i. Not defined. Solution
  w = −y, x = −z so the matrices are of the form
is:
−1 −10 j. Not defined. x y
d.
−45 −40 
−1 −13 4
 −x −y
 
9 −10 k. −4 −1 −12 −5  
e. −17 10  5 5 −9 1 −1
9 3   2.1.30 −s 1 − t where s, t ∈ R
5 −1 −5 s t
f. Not defined. l.  3 11 2
−1 −6 −2 
0 7/4

m. Not defined. 2.1.31 A =
1 1/2

2.1.32 (a, b, c, d) = (−29 + 60t, 13 − 79

3 t, 7 − 14t, t) where
2.1.24
t ∈ R.
   
2 1 2 −1 −2 −3 2.2.1
a. B = 1 4 b. B = 1 4 −1 −2
 
−5 9
1 1 2 1 6 −1 a. X =
−1 −14
 
0 −22
2.1.25 b. X =
−7 17
a. Not
 defined.
 
−5 −2
9 −3
 c. X =
−9/2 −19/2
b.  0 0  
8 12
−9 3 d. X =
10 2
c. Not
 defined. 
−11 −14 −17 −20 −23 −26  
2 1
d.  −2 −2 −2 −2 −2 −2  2.2.2 A =
0 8
7 10 13 16 19 22
 
−54 6 
1 0
 
1 0
 
2 0
 
2 0

e. 2.2.3 , , ,
−72 6 0 1 0 2 0 1 0 2
f. 289
 
−83 19 2.2.4
g.
−116 4  
h. Not defined. 4 −4 A5
c.  =  A3 A2 =
a. A2 = 32 −80
0 4
i. Not
 defined.   0 32
−5 −18 8 −12
b. A3 = A2 A =
j. −31 −34 0 8
−17 −3
2.2.5 
2.1.26 The product is the identity matrix (recall that 0 −2
a.
cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1). −5 −1
 
10 2
2.1.27 Evaluate A2 = AA. b.
5 11

62
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

 
−11 −15 2.2.10 All three statements are false, find counter examples.
c.
37 32
d. No. 2.2.11
e. (A + B) = AA + AB + BA + BB = A2 + AB + BA + B 2 a.
    
1 2 1 2 7 2k + 2
2.2.6 =
3 4 3 k 15 4k + 6
a. Not necessarily true. Find a counterexample.     
1 2 1 2 7 10
b. Not necessarily true. Find a counterexample. =
3 k 3 4 3k + 3 4k + 6
c. Not necessarily true. Find a counterexample.  
d. Necessarily true. Prove. 3k + 3 = 15
Thus you must have , Solution is: k = 4
2k + 2 = 10
e. Necessarily true. Prove.
b.
f. Not necessarily true. Find a counterexample.
    
g. Not necessarily true. Find a counterexample. 1 2 1 2 3 2k + 2
=
3 4 1 k 7 4k + 6
2.2.7 First, each of these properties is easy to check in an 
1

2 1 2
 
7 10

entry-by-entry way. For example, writing =
1 k 3 4 3k + 1 4k + 2
   
g1,1 . . . g1,n h1,1 . . . h1,n However, 7 6= 3 and so there is no possible choice of k
G =  ... ..  H =  ... .. 
which will make these matrices commute.
 
.  . 
gm,1 ... gm,n hm,1 ... hm,n
2.2.12 Hint: Expand and rearrange.
then, by definition we have
2.2.13
  T
g1,1 + h1,1 ... g1,n + h1,n a. The i, j entry of (G + H) is gj,i + hj,i . That is also the
G+H =
 .. ..  T
i, j entry of G + H .T
. . 
T
gm,1 + hm,1 ... gm,n + hm,n b. The i, j entry of (r · H) is rhj,i , which is also the i, j
T
entry of r · H .
and   c. The i, j entry of GH T is the j, i entry of GH, which is
h1,1 + g1,1 . . . h1,n + g1,n the dot product of the j-th row of G and the i-th column
H +G= .. ..
of H. The i, j entry of H T GT is the dot product of the
 
. . 
hm,1 + gm,1 . . . hm,n + gm,n i-th row of H T and the j-th column of GT , which is the
dot product of the i-th column of H and the j-th row
and the two are equal since their entries are equal gi,j + hi,j = of G. Dot product is commutative and so these two are
hi,j + gi,j . equal.
2.2.8 Hint: Verify that B T AB satisfies the definition of skew- d. By theT prior Tpart each equals its transpose, e.g.,
symmetric matrices. (HH T ) = H T H T = HH T .

2.2.9   2.2.14 For H + H T , the i, j entry is hi,j + hj,i and the j, i

0 0 entry of is hj,i + hi,j . The two are equal and thus H + H T is
a. False, if A = then A2 = 0 but A 6= 0.
1 0 symmetric.
b. True, by the premises AT = A and AT = −A, it follows Every symmetric matrix does have that form, since we can
that write H = (1/2) · (H + H T ).

AT = AT 2.2.15
A = −A a. Verify using the definition of symmetric and skew-
2A = 0 symmetric matrices.
A = 0 b. Hint: use the previous part as the symmetric and skew-
symmetric matrices.

2.2.16
c. True, since AT = (AAT )T = (AT )T AT = AAT = A.
  a. Hint: The main diagonal is remains the same if a matrix
0 1
d. False, if A = then A2 = 0 which is a symmetric is transposed.
0 0
matrix but A is not a symmetric matrix. b. Hint: Apply the definition of the trace to arbitrary ma-
trices cA and A.

63
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

c. Hint: Apply the definition of the trace to arbitrary ma- 2.3.5

trices A and B.    
d. Hint: Analyse the ij product of the elements of the main a. X = 8 2 b. X =
9 3
diagonal. 11 4 12 3

2.2.17 Disprove: Show that it is impossible to obtain a 

0 −1

nonzero matrix. 2.3.6 A =
−11 − 17
2
2.2.18 Hint: Apply the definition of an idempotent matrix.  
−1 −2
2.3.7 X =
2.2.19 −6 −3
a. Involutory since I 2 = I  3 
b. For A2 to be defined, A needs to have the same number −4 3
2.3.8 A =
of rows as columns. 1 − 43
T
c. Hint: Show that (( A))2 = I. 
3 7

2.3.9 A = 3
d. AB is inovolutory under the condition that A and B −11 − 28
3
commute.
a+d
  2.3.10 tr A−1 = ad−bc
1 1
2.2.20 Let F = . We have
1 0 2.3.11  
T 2 −1
a. p(A ) =
     
2 1 3 2 5 3 1 2
F2 = F3 = F4 =
1 1 2 1 3 2
b. B −1 = 13 (B 2 − 2B + 4I)
In general,
2.3.12 Here are four solutions to H 2 = I.
 
fn+1 fn
Fn =
fnfn−1  
±1 0
where fi is the i-th Fibonacci number fi = fi−1 + fi−2 and 0 ±1
f0 = 0, f1 = 1, which we verify by induction, based on this
equation.    
1 0 −1 0
 
fi−1 fi−2 1 1
 
fi fi−1
 2.3.13 Disprove: A = B= .
= 0 1 0 −1
fi−2 fi−3 1 0 fi−1 fi−2
2.3.14
 
1 2 −2
2.3.1  a. 0 1 −3
−24 −5 6 10 −5
a.
5 1  
  1 0 0
1/3 0 b. 52 −48 7
b.
0 1/7 8 −7 1
 
−4/7 5/7 
1 −9 4

c.
3/7 −2/7 c. 5 −26 11
d. The inverse does not exist. 0 −2 1
 
2.3.2 91 5 −20
d.  18 1 −4 
 
−2 3
a. (AB)−1 = B −1 A−1 = −22 −1 5
1 −7/5  
25 8 0
 
−7/10 3/10
b. (AB)−1 = B −1 A−1 = e.  78 25 0
29/10 −11/10
−30 −9 1
 
−1 −1 −1 1 0 0

−1 −1
2.3.3 (AB) B A = A
BB A = AA = I
B −1 A−1 (AB) = B −1 A−1 A B = B −1 IB = B −1 B = I f.  5 −3 −8
−4 2 5
 
2 2
 
0 1 0
2.3.4 X =
1 2 g. 0 0 1
1 0 0

64
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

   
0 1 0 −7
h. 1 0 0 d. x = −7
0 0 1 9
i. The inverse does not exist.
j. The inverse does not exist. 2.3.18
1
 
  1 −2 3
1 0 0 0
 −3 a. A−1 = 0 1 − 23 
−1 0 −4  1
k. 
−35 −10 1 −47
 0 0 3
 16 
−2 −2 0 −9 3
  b. x = − 83 
1 0 0 0 1
−11 1 0 −4 3
l. 
 −2 0 1 −4

2.3.19
−4 0 0 1  1 
  2 0 0
1 28 −2 12 a. − 3 1
0
0 8 4
1 0 0  1 7
− 44 1
m. 
0 254 −19 110 
 88 11
b. Consistent for all values since the coefficient matrix is
0 −67 5 −29
  invertible.
0 0 1 0 c. (x, y, z) = 12 a, − 38 a + 41 b, 88
1 7
a − 44 1
b + 11 c


0 0 0 1
n. 
1 0 0 0

2.3.20
0 1 0 0
  a. (−1, 2, 3)
1 0 0 0
0 1/2 0 b. (t, −2t, −3t, t) where t ∈ R.
0 
o. 
0 0 1/3

c. (1, −1, −1, 1) + (t, −2t, −3t, t) where t ∈ R.
0 
0 0 0 −1/4
2.3.21
2.3.15 a. (−1, 2, 3)
 
−1 8 4 b. (t, −2t, −3t, t) where t ∈ R.
a.  1 −3 −1 c. (1, −1, −1, 1) + (t, −2t, −3t, t) where t ∈ R.
1 −6 −3
 5 7 1

−2 2 2
2.3.22  3 
b.  74

− 49 − 14 
 −2 1 0
a. A =  2 −1 0
− 16 1 1
6 6 1 −2 2
c. not invertible  3
1 − 43

−2 2 −1
16 0 3 0
 
−90 − 1 − 35 7
b. X =  2 −1 1 −2 1
3

d. 
 2 2 2
 −7 2 −4 2
 5 0 1 0
   2
−3 4 2
−36 0 −7 1 c.  2 −2 −4
0 0 4
2.3.16
    
1 −2 x 5  5
−2 −8 0

a. =
3 −4 y 6 2.3.23 X =  −1 −3 4
b. (x, y) = (−8/2, −9/2) 2 6 −4
c. Two lines instersection at (x, y) = (−8/2, −9/2).  
0 0 0
2.3.17   2.3.24 X = −6 −3 0
2 0 −3 −4
a. x =
3  
 
−7 1 0
b. x = 2.3.25 A =
−7 7 3
 
−7
c. x =  1 
−1

65
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

 
1 0 0 (I − T )−1 = I + T + T 2 + · · · + T n−1 ; the check again is
2.3.26 A =  0 1 0 easy.
7
3 0 1
2.3.41 Show that (I − A)(I + A + A2 + · · · + Ak ) = I
2.3.27
a. I 2.3.42 Hint: Apply the definition of symmetric matrices.
b. CAT 2.3.43 Show that A−1 = −A2 − 3A − I.
c. M AT H
2.3.44 A−1 = A − A2
T −1
B −1 C T


2.3.28 X = DT C
2.3.45 Invertible if a0 + a1 + a2 + . . . + am 6= 0.
 
1 0 0 2.3.46 Hint: Use the definition of the inverse of a matrix.
2.3.29 A = 0 −1 0
0 0 1 2.3.47 Hint: Prove. Determine the invertibility of the coef-
ficent matrices.
2.3.30 The proof that the inverse is r−1 H −1 = (1/r) · H −1 2.3.48 It is false; these two don’t commute.
(provided, of course, that the matrix is invertible) is easy.
   
      1 2 5 6
1 0 1 0 1 0 3 4 7 8
2.3.31 Disprove: if A = , B= , C=
0 0 1 0 0 0
 
1 0
then AB = = AC but B 6= C. 2.3.49 Hint: Show that the homogeneous system Ax = 0
0 0
has only the trivial solution.
2.3.32 Yes B = C. Multiply AB = AC on the left by A−1 .
2.3.50 Since AA = I it follows that A−1 = A.
2.3.33 
1 0
 
0 0
 2.3.51 Hint: Look at the product AAT = I to obtain the
a. Disprove: if A = , B = then AB = result.
  0 0 1 0
0 0 2.3.52 Hint: Write A as a sum of lower and upper triangular
but A 6= 0 and B 6= 0.
0 0 matrice.
b. Prove: apply the inverse of A on AB = 0.
2.3.53 Hint: a3 + b3 = (a + b)(a2 − ab + b2 ).
2.3.34 The associativity of matrix multiplication gives
2.3.54 Since B is 2 × 3, then the homogenuous system
H −1 (HG) = H −1 Z = Z and also H −1 (HG) = (H −1 H)G =
BX = 0 has non-trivial solutions, say X0 . Thus the sys-
IG = G.
tem (AB)X = 0 also has a non-trivial solution, namely X0 .
2.3.35 Multiply both sides of the first equation by H. This in turn implies that AB cannot be invertible.

2.3.36 Suppose that that there exists two inverse then show 2.4.1
that they are equal using the fact that they are both the a. The second matrix has its first row multiplied by 3.
inverse of A.  
3 6
2.3.37 T k (T −1 )k = (T T · · · T ) · (T −1 T −1 · · · T −1 ) = 3 4
T k−1 (T T −1 )(T −1 )k−1 = · · · = I.

2.3.38 Since A−1 A = AA−1 = I and inverses are unique b. The second matrix has its second row multiplied by 2.

−1
then it follows that A−1 = A. 
1 2

6 8
2.3.39

T
T
AT A−1 = A−1 A = IT = I c. The second matrix undergoes the combination operation

T
A−1 AT = AA −1 T

T
=I =I of replacing the second row with −2 times the first row
added to the second.
 
1 2
2.3.40 Checking that when I − T is multiplied on both
1 0
sides by that expression (assuming that T 4 is the zero ma-
trix) then the result is the identity matrix is easy. The ob-
vious generalization is that if T n is the zero matrix then 2.4.2

66
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

a. This matrix swaps row one and row three. 2.4.8

      
     0 0 1 0 0 1 2 0 0 1 0 0 1 2 0
0 1 0 a b c d e f 1 3
1 0 0 d e f  = a b c  0 = 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0
2 4 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
0 0 1 g h i g h i
Note: The answer is not unique.
b. This matrix swaps column one and two. 2.4.9
    
 
a b 0 1
 
b a
 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
= A = 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 2 0
c d 1 0 d c
0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
  Note: The answer is not unique.
d e f
2.4.3 E1 A = E1 interchanged R1 and R2 of A.
a b c 2.4.10
 A =E3 E2 E1 R    
1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 2

5a 5b 5c
E2 A = E2 multiplied R1 of A by 5. = 2 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1
d e f  0 0 1 0 0 3 0 1 0 0 0 0
a − 2d b − 2e c − 2f
E3 A = E3 replaced R1 in A with
d e f
2.4.11
R1 − 
2R2.   
1 0 1 0 0
E4 = a. E = E −1 = 0 0 1
0 −6
0 1 0
2.4.4
   
   1 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 b. E = 0 1 0  , E −1 = 0 1 0
0 3 −1 1 0 0 21 0 0 2
   
  1 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 −1 c. E = 0 1 1 , E −1 = 0 1 −1
2.4.5 A−1 = − 3 1 7 
= 0 0 1 0 0 1
2 2 2
0 0 1
    
1 0 −1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 2.4.12
0 1 0  0 1 72  0 1
2 0 −3 1 0 Note: a. False, There is no single elementary row operation to
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 obtain A from M . Hence no single elementary matrix
The answer is not unique. such that when its multiplied on the left of M , A is the
2.4.6 result.
b. A is obtained from M by performing the following el-
 
2 −3 3
a. A−1 = −3 5 −5 ementary row operation: R1 ↔ R2 , 2R3 → R3 and
0 0 1 R4 + R5 → R5 .
3
      
5 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 5 0 1 0 0 1 0 −5  
1 25 0 1 0 35
  
b. A = 0 1 0 3 1 0 0 15 0 0 1 0 0 1 5 0 16 00 0,
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 00 11 0 , 0 1 0 , 0 1 0 .
0 2.4.13
     
note that the answer is not unique. 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
 
2.4.7 1 0 1
2.4.14 A = 0 1 0
 2 1
  
−3 3 0 −1
a. A−1 = 0 0 1 and X =  4  0 0 1
− 53 1
3 0 −3    
0 1 0 1 0 0
b. A−1 =E4 E3 E2 E1 where  1
1 0 0 1 0 0
 2.4.15 E1 = 0 0 E2 = 0 1 0 E3 =
0 0 1 0 0 2
E1 = −5 1 0 , E2 = 0 0 1 ,  
0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0
    −1 1 0 Note: The answer is not unique.
1 0 0 1 0 1
0 0 1
E3 = 0 1 0  , E4 = 0 1 0 Note: The answer
0 0 31 0 0 1
2.4.16
is not unique.  
1 1 1 1
a. X = − 32 − 32 − 23 − 32 
1 1 1 1

67
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

2 8
− 23

3 3 b. If B is obtained from A by performing k elementary row
2 8
− 23  operations then A is obtained from B by performing the
b. X =  32 3
8
− 23 


3 3 k inverse elementary row operations.
2 8
3 3 − 23 c. If B is obtained from A by performing k elementary row
 
4 4 −4 operations and C is obtained from B by performing l
4 4 −4 elementary row operations then C is obtained from A by
c. X =  .
4 4 −4 performing the k + l elementary row operations.
4 4 −4
2.4.25
2.4.17 a. True, the reduced row echelon form of A and B is I
a. A can be obtained from H by performing R1 ↔ R5 and since both matrices are invertible. Hence there exists a
2R2 → R2 . Hence finite sequence of elementary row operations that when
    applied on A result in I. And a second finite sequence of
0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 elementary row operations that when applied on B result
0 1 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 in I. If the first sequence of elementary row operations
   
0 0 1 0 0 , E2 = 0 0
E1 =  1 0 0 is applied on A followed by the inverse elementary row
 

0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 operations applied in reverse order of the second sequence
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 of elemtary row operations then B is obtained. Hence A
and B are row equivalent.
−1 −1 −1 −1
 
b. A = H  E1 E2 1 2
 b. False, is elementary but not symmetric.
1 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 0 c. True, show that for each type of elementary matrices they
2
−1
 
H E1  0 0 1 0 0
 are still elementary when squared.
0 0 0 1 0  
−1 0
0 0 0 0 1 d. False, if A = then A2 = I which is an elemen-
  0 −1
630 −150 1050 −1400 25 tary matrix but A is not an elementary matrix.
−12600 2400 −1890 26880 −300 
 
= 56700 −9450 79380 −117600 1050   3.1.1
−88200 13440 −117600 179200 −1400
a. 34
44100 −6300 56700 −88200 630
b. 41
2.4.18 Assume that B is row equivalent to A and that A c. −44
is invertible. Because they are row-equivalent, there is a se- d. −74
quence of elementary row operations to reduce one to the
other. We can do that reduction with elementary matri- 3.1.2      
ces, for instance, A can change by row operations to B as a. M1,1 = 7 6 , M1,2 = 3 6 , M1,3 = 3 7 .
B = En · · · E1 A. This equation gives B as a product of ele- 6 10 1 10 1 6
mentary which are invertible matrices then, B is also invert- C 1,1 = 43, C 1,2 = −24, C 1,3 = 11.
   
ible. −6 8 −10 8
b. M1,1 = , M1,2 = , M1,3 =
−3 −2 0 −2
2.4.19 Hint: First prove that A is invertible. 
10 −6

.
2.4.20 Hint: A matrix is invertible if and only if it can be 0 −3
C1,1 = 36, C1,2 = −20, C1,3 = −30.
expressed as a product of elementary matrices.      
3 10 −3 10 −3 3
c. M1,1 = , M1,2 = , M1,3 = .
2.4.21 Elementary matices which its inverse is the same. El- 3 9 −9 9 −9 3
ementary matrices obtained by interchanging two rows of the C1,1 = −3, C1,2 = −63, C1,3 = 18.
identity.
   
0 0 −8 0
d. M1,1 = , M1,2 = , M1,3 =
     8 −1 −10 −1
1 0 1 1 1 1  
2.4.22 False, = −8 0
2 1 0 1 2 3 .
−10 8
C1,1 = 0, C1,2 = −8, C1,3 = −64.
2.4.23 Show that the elementary matrix obtained by inter-
changing the first and last row satisfy the conditions.
3.1.3      
2 2
2.4.24  + 0(−1)  1 2 + 1(+1)  1 2 = −13
   
a. 3(+1) 
3 0   −1 0   −1 3
a. A is obtained from A by performing no elementary row
operation on A.

68
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

     
0 1  3 1  3 0 3.1.14 −24
b. 1(−1) 
  + 2(+1) 
  + 2(−1) 
  = −13
3 0 −1 0 −1 3

 1 2
     3.2.1
 + 2(−1)  3 0 + 0(+1) 3 0 = −13
   
c. 1(+1)  a. The transpose was applied and it does not change the
−1 3   −1 3   1 2
determinant.
3.1.4 b. Two rows were switched and so the resulting determinant
a. 31 is −1 times the first.
b. 375 c. The determinant is unchanged since the operation is
adding first row to the second.
c. −2
d. The second row was multiplied by 2 so the determinant
3.1.5 of the result is 2 times the original determinant.
a. −59 e. Two columns were switched so the determinant of the
b. 250 second is −1 times the determinant of the first.
c. 3 3.2.2
d. 0 a. det(A) = 90; 2R1 → R1 .
e. 0 det(B) = 45; 10R1 + R3 → R3 .
f. 2 det(C) = 45; C = AT .
b. det(A) = 41; R2 ↔ R3 .
3.1.6 det(B) = 164; −4R3 → R3 .
a. x2 det(C) = −41; R2 + R1 → R1 .
1 c. det(A) = −16; R1 ↔ R2 then R1 ↔ R3 .
b. 7
x det(B) = −16; −R1 → R1 and −R2 → R2 .
c. −12
det(C) = −432; C = 3M .
d. 0
d. det(A) = −120; R1 ↔ R2 then R1 ↔ R3 then R2 ↔ R3 .
e. 20i + 43j + 4k det(B) = 720; 2R2 → R2 and 3R3 → R3 .
f. −2 det(C) = −120; C = −M .

3.1.7 Evaluate the determinant using a cofactor expansion. 3.2.3

The same is true for lower triangular matrices. a. 15
3.1.8 b. −52
a. 2 c. 0
b. −40 d. 1
c. −24 e. −113
f. 179
3.1.9 8
3.2.4 −418
3.1.10 False, Here is a determinant whose value
  3.2.5 det(A) = −41
1 0 0 
 
0 1 0  = 1 3.2.6
 
0 0 1 
2
a. det(A) = 7 b. det(A) = − 52
doesn’t equal the result of expanding down the diagonal.
     
1 0 1 0 1 0  5
3.2.7 det(A) = − 12
1 · (+1) 
  + 1 · (+1) 
  + 1 · (+1) 
 =3
0 1 0 1 0 1
3.2.8 Use a combination of elementary row and column op-
eration to get from one side of the equation to the other.
3.1.11 3
3.2.9 384
3.1.12 There are no real numbers θ that make the matrix
singular because the determinant of the matrix cos2 θ + sin2 θ 3.2.10 Hint: Use elementary operations to bring the matrix
is never 0, it equals 1 for all θ. under triangular form.
3.1.13 ln 2
   
0 1 1 2 r 0
3.2.11 B = A, det(B) = −2r
1 0 0 1 0 1

69
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

3.2.12 If the determinant is nonzero, then it will remain while the product of the determinants is this.
nonzero with row operations applied to the matrix. How-    
a b w x
ever, by assumption, you can obtain a row of zeros by doing det( ) det( ) = (ad − bc)(wz − xy)
c d y z
row operations. Thus the determinant must have been zero.
Verification that they are equal is easy.
3.3.1 This equation
  b. Use the prior part.
12 − x 4
0 = det( ) = 64 − 20x + x2 = (x − 16)(x − 4) −24
8 8−x 3.3.13 det(A) = 5
has roots x = 16 and x = 4.  
1 0
3.3.14 The statement is false. Consider A = B =
3.3.2
 0 1

a. The determinant is equal to 1, so the matrix is invertible −1 0
.
for all t. 0 −1
b. The determinant is equal to 5e−t hence it never equal to
3.3.15
zero, so the matrix is invertible for all t.
a. If it is defined then it is (32 )(2)(2−2 )(3).
c. The determinant
√ is equal to t3 + 2 hence it has no inverse
when t = − 2.3 b. Hint: det 6A3 + 5A2 + 2A = det A det 6A2 + 5A + 2I.
1
3.3.3 This follows because det (ABC) = 3.3.16 2
det (A) det (B) det (C) and if this product is nonzero,
then each determinant in the product is nonzero and so each 3.3.17 Hint: Prove by contradiction, apply the determinant
of these matrices is invertible. to (AB)T = AB.

3.3.4 If det (A) 6= 0, then A−1 exists and by multiplying 3.3.18 1

both sides on the left by A−1 . The result is X = 0. 3.3.19  
0 1
3.3.5 1 = det (A) det (B). Hence both A and B have in- a. A = .
1 0
verses. Given any X,
b. 1 = det(AA−1 ) = det(AAT ) = det(A) det(AT ) =
A (BA − I) X = (AB) AX − AX = AX − AX = 0 (det(A))2
and so it follows that (BA − I) X = 0. Since X is arbitrary, c. The converse does not hold; here is an example.
it follows that BA = I. 
3 1


3.3.6 The given condition is what it takes for the determi- 2 1

nant to be non zero. Recall that the determinant of an upper
triangular matrix is just the product of the entries on the 3.3.20 If H = P −1 GP then det(H) =
main diagonal. −1
det(P ) det(G) det(P ) = det(P −1 ) det(P ) det(G) =
det(P −1 P ) det(G) = det(G).
3.3.7 det(T S) = det(T )·det(S) = det(S)·det(T ) = det(ST ).
k
3.3.21 0 since 0 = det (0) = det Ak = (det (A)) .
 

0 1
3.3.8 Disprove using the counter example A = .
0 0
3.3.22 An algebraic check is easy.
3.3.9 det (aA) = det (aIA) = det (aI) det (A) = an det (A) . 0 = xy2 +x2 y3 +x3 y−x3 y2 −xy3 −x2 y = x·(y2 −y3 )+y·(x3 −x2 )+x2 y3 −x
The diagonal matrix which has a down the main diagonal has
determinant equal to an . simplifies to the familiar form
y = x · (x3 − x2 )/(y3 − y2 ) + (x2 y3 − x3 y2 )/(y3 − y2 )
3.3.10 Hint: Apply the determinant on AT = −A
(the y3 − y2 = 0 case is easily handled).
3.3.11 Hint: Apply the determinant on AT A = A.
3.3.23 Disprove. Recall that constants come out one row at
3.3.12 a time.
a. Plug and chug: the determinant of the product is this 
2 4
 
1 2
 
1 2

det( ) = 2 · det( ) = 2 · 2 · det( )
2 6 2 6 1 3
    
a b w x aw + by ax + bz
det( ) = det( )
c d y z cw + dy cx + dz
This contradicts linearity (here we didn’t need S, i.e., we can
= acwx + adwz + bcxy + bdyz take S to be the matrix of zeros).
−acwx − bcwz − adxy − bdyz

70
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

3.3.24   times the product of those.

1 1 2  
a. False. Consider −1 5 4 d2 · · · dn 0 0
0 3 3 0 d1 3 · · · dn
d 0
 
adj(D) = 
 
.. 
b. True.  . 
c. False. d1 · · · dn−1
d. False.
e. True. 3.4.4 Just note that if S = T T then the cofactor Sj,i equals
f. True. the cofactor Ti,j because (−1)j+i = (−1)i+j and because the
g. True. minors are the transposes of each other (and the determinant
of a transpose equals the determinant of the matrix).
h. True.
i. True. 3.4.5 False. A counter example.
j. True.     
1 2 3 −3 6 −3 0
3.4.1 T = 4 5 6 adj(T ) =  6 −12 6 adj(adj(T )) = 0
0 −1 2
 7 8 9 −3 6 −3 0
a. 3 −2 −8
0 1 1 3.4.6 

4 1
  1 2 3 
b. 
a.  0 2 1

 = −13 and so it has an inverse given by
−2 3 
   3 1 0
0 −1

c.
−5 1  
 2
     T
1   01   0 2 
− 
 
−24 −12 12 
  1 0 
d.  12 6 −6    3 0   3 1  
1 −  2
 3   1 3   1 2 
−8 −4 4  −  
  −13    1
 0   3
 0   3
 1  

4 −3 2 −1   2 3   13   1 2  
−3 6 −4 2 

 2 − 
1  01   0 2 
e.  2 −4 6 −3

 T
−1 3 −6
−1 2 −3 4 1 
= 3 −9 5
−13
−4 −1 2
3.4.2  1 3 4 
− 13
       
T1,1 T2,1 t2,2  − t1,2  −t1,2
a. =     = t2,2 13 13
T1,2 T2,2 − t2,1  t1,1  −t2,1 t1,1 
 3

9 1
−

=  13 13 13
 
t −t1,2

b. (1/t1,1 t2,2 − t1,2 t2,1 ) 2,2

−t2,1 t1,1
 
 6 − 135 2
− 13 
13

3.4.3 Consider this diagonal matrix.

 
   1 2 0 
d1 0 0 . . . 
b.  0 2 1

 = 7 so it has an inverse. This inverse is
 0 d2 0  3

1 1
 
 
D =  0 0 d3  1
− 27 2 
 

 ..  7 7
 .  
1 3 −6
T  
 3 1 1
dn 1 −
−2 1 5  = 7 7 7

7 
2 −1 2
 
− 6 5 2 
If i 6= j then the i, j minor is an (n − 1)×(n − 1) matrix with 7 7 7
only n − 2 nonzero entries, because we have deleted both di  
and dj . Thus, at least one row or column of the minor is all  1 3 3



zeroes, and so the cofactor Di,j is zero. If i = j then the c.  2 4 1 
 = 3 so it has an inverse which is
minor is the diagonal matrix with entries d1 , . . . , di−1 , di+1 ,  0 1 1 
. . . , dn . Its determinant is obviously (−1)i+j = (−1)2i = 1 
1 0 −3

− 32 1
3
5
3

 
 
 2
3 − 31 2
−3

71
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

 
 1 0 3  3.4.16
 
d.  1 0 1  = 2 and so it has an inverse. The inverse is

 3 1 0  a. Hint: take the determi- g. Hint: Show that
 1 3
−2 0 nant of BG. det(H)(2+det(A))10 det(A) =

2
 3 b. (10!)9 0 then conclude that
− 29

1
det(H) = 0.

 2 10
c. (2(10!)+3)

 1
− 21

0 10! (10+10!)(9+10!)···(2+10!)(1+10!)
2 √ h. 10!
d. ± 10!
e. 0 i. Hint: Show that
3.4.7 10
f. (96)210 (10!)
π
3 adj(adj(A)) = (det(A))n−2 A.
 
3 −4 5 c. M12 = 6 and M22 = 3
a. adj(A) = −6 3 −5
 
3 −4 5 3.4.17 4
5 −5 5 d. A−1 = −5 1 
−6 3 −5
b. det(A) = −5 5 −5 5 3.4.18 4
3.4.19 Hint: Use adj (A) = (det A) A−1 .
3.4.8 −1
3.4.20 x1 = 0, x2 = 2
a. Determinant of A is π 6= 0, therefore A is invertible.
3.4.21 x = 1, y = 2
 
π sin θ 0 −π cos θ
b.  0 1 0 
π cos θ 0 π sin θ 3.4.22 x1 = 4
3.4.23
3.4.9
a. det(A) = −123, det(A1 ) = −492, det(A2 ) =
9 123, det(A 3 ) = 492,
a. 12 b. 433 4
x = −1 .
3.4.10 375 −4

3.4.11
b. det(A) =−43, det(A1 ) = 215, det(A2 ) = 0,
 t  −5
 e 0 0  x= .
 t t
 3t 0
a.  0 e cos t e sin t  = e . Hence
 0 et cos t − et sin t et cos t + et sin t 
 c. det(A) = 0, det(A1 ) = 0, det(A2 ) = 0, det(A3 ) = 0.
the inverse is Infinite solutions exist.
 2t d.
T
det(A) = 0, det(A1 ) = −56, det(A2 ) = 26. No solution
e 0 0 exist.
e−3t  0 e2t cos t + e2t sin t − e2t cos t − e2t sin te. det(A) = 0, det(A ) = 0, det(A ) = 0, det(A ) = 0.


1 2 3
0 −e2t sin t e2t cos (t) Infinite solutions exist.
 −t 
e 0 0 f. det(A) = 0, det(A1 ) = 1247, det(A2 ) = −49, det(A3 ) =
=  0 e−t (cos t + sin t) − (sin t) e−t  −49. No solution exist.
0 −e−t (cos t − sin t) (cos t) e−t
3.4.24
1 −t 1 −t
 
2 e 0 2 e a. 4
b.  12 cos t + 12 sin t − sin t 1
2 sin t − 1
2 cos t 
b. −1
1 1
2 sin t − 2 cos t cos t − 12 cos t − 12 sin t
3.4.25 The determinant of the coefficient matrix is non-zero
3.4.12 Hint: Use the identity det(A)A−1 = adj(A). for all λ. Hence the system can be solve for any value of λ.

3.4.13 det(M ) = 4 3.4.26 Hint: Find the matrix for which a11 C21 + a12 C22 +
3
. . . + a1n C2n is a cofactor expandion of.
3.4.14 53 212
4.1.1
3.4.15
7 12
a. −60 b. − 26053 c. −33 516 60

72
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

y
4.1.4
√ √ √ √
a. kuk = 5, kvk = 13, ku + vk = 26, ku − vk = 10
√ √ √ √
b. kuk = 17, kvk = 3, ku + vk = 14, ku − vk = 26
⃗u √ √ √ √
a. x
c. kuk = 5, kvk = 3 5, ku + vk = 2 5, ku − vk = 4 5
d. kuk = 7, kvk = 35, ku + vk = 42, ku − vk = 28

⃗v
4.1.5 When u and v have the same direction. (Note: parallel

−
⃗u + ⃗v

⃗u
⃗v
. is not enough.)
y
4.1.6
⃗u √ √
⃗u + ⃗v a. u = (3/ 30, 7/ 30)
b. u = (cos 50◦ , sin 50◦ ) ≈ (0.643, 0.766)
b. √
x
c. u = (cos 120◦ , sin 120◦ ) = (−1/2, 3/2).
⃗v ⃗v
−
⃗u
4.1.7 u = √3 (−7, −3, 3)
67
.
4.1.8
a. No, they are different.
z
   
⃗u + ⃗v
1 0
c. ⃗v . −1 3
⃗u − ⃗v
⃗u

x y b. Yes, they are the same.

 
. 1
−1
3
z

⃗u ⃗u + ⃗v
.
4.1.9
d. √
a. 2 10
⃗u − ⃗v
b. 5
x ⃗v y √
c. 170
√
. d. 3 6
4.1.2 4.1.10
−−→
a. P Q = (1, 6) = 1i + 6j a. u + v = (2, −1); u − v = (0, −3); 2u − 3v = (−1, −7).
−−→
b. P Q = (−4, 4) = −4i + 4j b. x = (1/2, 2).
−−→
c. P Q = (6, −1, 6) = 6i − j + 6k
−−→ 4.1.11
d. P Q = (2, 2, 0) = 2i + 2j √
a. u + v √= (3, 2,√1); u − v√= (−1, 0, −3); πu − 2v =
4.1.3 (π − 2 2, π − 2, −π − 2 2).
a. (−4, 4, −3) b. x = (−1, 0, −3).
b. (2, 6, −1)
  4.1.12
c. √−1 30
, √530 , √−2
30 a. (−4, 7, −13)
√
d. 41 b. (−10, 10, −22)
2
√ c. (−1/2, 7/2, 9/2)
41
e. 2
d. (−3, −6, 6)
f. (14, −6, 8)
g. (−7, 3, −4) 5 2


4.1.13 3, 3
(h) (−1, −6, 1)
h. (−2, −4, 2) −−→ −→ −→
4.1.14 P Q = (1, −2, −3), P R = (−1, 1, −1), P S =
i. No. −−→ −→
(−7, −2, 4), QR = (−2, 3, 2), SR = (6, 3, −5)

73
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

4.1.15 4.1.28 Assume that v ∈ Rn has components v1 , . . . , vn . If

a. − 12 , 1, − 32 v 6= 0 then we have this.

b. − 12 , 21 , 12 , 1


s 2  2
v1 vn
√ + · · · + √
4.1.16 v1 2 + · · · + vn 2 v1 2 + · · · + vn 2
a. (1, 3, 3) and (0, 2, 5)
s
v1 2 vn 2
  
b. 23 , 43 , 11 and 73 , 53 , 73 = + ··· +



3 v1 2 + · · · + vn 2 v1 2 + · · · + vn 2
4.1.17 =1
a. 0, 13 11


4 ,− 4 If v = 0 then v/kv k is not defined.
0, −1, − 23 , 8


b.
− 14

4.1.29 For the first question, assume that v ∈ Rn and r ≥ 0,
c. 3 , 1, 6
take the root, and factor.
4.1.18 p p
krv k = (rv1 )2 + · · · + (rvn )2 = r2 (v1 2 + · · · + vn 2 = rkv k
−−→ −→
a. AB = k AC for some k ∈ R
−−→ −→ For the second question, the result is r times as long, but it
b. since −2P Q = P R, the points are collinear
−→ −→ points in the opposite direction in that rv + (−r)v = 0.
c. S, T , and U are not collinear because SU 6= k ST for any
k∈R 4.1.30 Hint: x = x − y + y
4.1.19 Since P R = −2P Q, the points P , Q and R are col- 4.2.1
inear. a. −22
b. 3

5a + 3b = −16
4.1.20 We have which gives that a = 1
7a − 10b = 77 c. Not defined.
and b = −7. d. 0

 a + 3b = −1 4.2.2
4.1.21 We have −a + 2b + c = 1 which implies that a =
a. Yes
b + 4c = 19

2, b = −1 and c = 5. b. Yes
c. No
4.1.22 Suppose the vertices are labeled A, B, C and D.
−→ −−→ −−→ d. Yes
Show that 21 AC = AB + 21 BD.
4.2.3
4.1.23 If A, B, and C are the vertices of the triangle, P is a. Answers will vary; two possible answers are (−7, 4) and
the midpoint of AC, and Q is the midpoint of BC, show that (14, −8).
−−→ 1 −−→
P Q = 2 AB.
b. Answers will vary; two possible answers are (5, 3) and
4.1.24 Use Exercise 4.1.23 twice. (−15, −9).
c. Answers will vary; two possible answers are (1, 0, −1) and
4.1.25 Use Exercises 4.1.24 and 4.1.22. (4, 5, −9).
4.1.26 In the triangle ABC with midpoints P QR, show that d. Answers will vary; two possible answers are (2, 1, 0) and
the point that is two thirds of the distance from A to P is given (1, 1, 1/3).
by 31 (a + b + c). Then show that 13 (a + b + c) is two thirds of
the distance from B to Q and two thirds of the distance from 4.2.4
C to R.
a. k = 6 c. k = −3
4.1.27 We prove that a vector has length zero if and only if
b. k = 0 or k = 3 d. any k ∈ R
all its components are zero.
Let u ∈ Rn have components u1 , . . . , un . Recall that the
square of any real number is greater than or equal to zero, 4.2.5
with equality only when that real is zero. Thus |u |2 = u1 2 + a. θ = 0.3218 ≈ 18.43◦
· · · + un 2 is a sum of numbers greater than or equal to zero,
b. θ = 1.6476 ≈ 94.4◦
and so is itself greater than or equal to zero, with equality if
and only if each ui is zero. Hence |u | = 0 if and only if all c. θ = π/4 = 45◦
the components of u are zero. d. θ = π/2 = 90◦

74
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

ea • eb
4.2.6 β) = . The denominator here is one since they
kea kkeb k
a. ≈ 1.074 radians are both unit vectors, and working out the top gives the
b. ≈ 1.180 radians required result.
c. ≈ 1.441 radians
4.2.17
4.2.7 Hint: ||u + v||2 = (u + v) · (u + v) a. Find a, b, and c by taking the dot product of w with u1 ,
u2 , and u3 , respectively.
4.2.8
b. w = − 13 u2 − 35 u3
√
a. 3 b. 19
4.2.18

4.2.9 hint: A tangent to a circle is perpendicular to the ra- 4.2.19 Analyse the squared norm of kukv−kvku and kukv+
dius at the point at which the tangent and circle intersect. kvku).

4.2.20 Hint: Prove by contradiction, can use Cauchy-

a. C(4, 0) c. (x − 4)2 + y 2 = 18
Schwartz Inequality.
b. B(1, 3)
4.2.21
4.2.10 a. The statement is false: Let a be any non-zero vector, let
b be any non-zero vector that is orthogonal to a, and let
a. 1.
c = −b. Then the antecedent of the statement is true,
b. (0, 1) and (1, 0). since both sides are equal to 0, while the consequent is
false.
4.2.11 p = −1
b. No.
4.2.12 
9
 4.2.22 Expand the left side of the equation by using the fact
a. arccos − ≈ 112.65◦ that kvk2 = v • v for any vector v to get to the right side.
546
 
4 4.2.23
b. arccos ≈ 71.86◦
165 a. (u + v) · (u − v) = kuk2 − kvk2
b. Hint: The vectors u + v and u − v are the diagonals
4.2.13 of the parallelogram defined by u and v. And use the
2 3 2

70 14 49

a. − 17 , − 17 , 17 , ,− , previous part.
3 3

5 117
17 17
b. 2 , 2 , −3 , 2 , − 2 , 1
4.2.24
c. 14 7 7

1 4 2

3 , −3, 3 , 3, 3, 3
a. We can use the x-axis.
d. 31 , − 23 , − 13 , 1 , 53 , − 13 , 73 , 0



(1)(1) + (0)(1)
arccos( √ √ ) ≈ 0.79 radians
4.2.14 1 2
a. proja (b) = (0, −5), perpa (b) = (3, 0)
36 48
, 25 , perpa (b) = − 136 102



b. proja (b) = 25 25 , 25 b. Again, use the x-axis.
c. proja (b) = (0, 5, 0), perpa (b) = (−3, 0, 2)
(1)(1) + (0)(1) + (0)(1)
d. proja (b) = − 49 , 89 , − 89 , perpa (b) = 40 1 19 √ √



9 , 9, − 9
arccos( ) ≈ 0.96 radians
1 3
4.2.15
2 6 3 c. The x-axis worked before and it will work again.


a. û = 7, 7, 7
220 660 330


b. 49 , 49 , 49 (1)(1) + · · · + (0)(1) 1
270 222 624

arccos( √ √ ) = arccos( √ )
c. 49 , 49 , − 49 1 n n

4.2.16
d. Using the formula
√ from the prior item,
a. If v = (v1 , v2 ), show that v1 = kvk cos φ and that v2 = limn→∞ arccos(1/ n) = π/2 radians.
kvk sin φ. This shows that v = kvk(cos φ, sin φ), and
v
since v̂ = kvk , the required formula follows. 4.2.25 Clearly u1 u1 + · · · + un un is zero if and only if each
b. The angle between the vectors ea and eb is exactly α−β, ui is zero. So only 0 ∈ Rn is orthogonal to itself.
so by the definition of the dot product we get cos(α −

75
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

4.2.26 In each item below, assume that the vectors u, v, w ∈ 4.2.31 Where u, v ∈ Rn , the vectors u + v and u − v are
Rn have components u1 , . . . , un , v1 , . . . , wn . perpendicular if and only if 0 = (u + v) • (u − v) = u • u − v • v,
a. Dot product is right-distributive. which shows that those two are perpendicular if and only if
      u • u = v • v. That holds if and only if ku k = kv k.
u1 v1 w1
(u + v) • w = [ ...  +  ... ] •  ...  4.2.32 We will show something more general: if kz1 k = kz2 k
     
for z1 , z2 ∈ Rn , then z1 + z2 bisects the angle between z1 and
un vn wn
    z2
u1 + v1 w1
=
 ..  •  ..  000 0
.   . 
gives 0
un + vn wn 00 0
0
= (u1 + v1 )w1 + · · · + (un + vn )wn 0
= (u1 w1 + · · · + un wn ) + (v1 w1 + · · · + vn wn )
(we ignore the case where z1 and z2 are the zero vector).
=u•w+v•w The z1 + z2 = 0 case is easy. For the rest, by the definition
of angle, we will be finished if we show this.
b. Dot product is also left distributive: w • (u + v) = w • z1 • (z1 + z2 ) z2 • (z1 + z2 )
u + w • v. The proof is just like the prior one. =
kz1 k kz1 + z2 k kz2 k kz1 + z2 k
c. Dot product commutes.
     But
 distributing
 inside each expression gives
u1 v1 v1 u1
 .. • ..   .  .  z1 • z1 + z1 • z2 z2 • z1 + z2 • z2
 .   .  = u1 v1 +· · ·+un vn = v1 u1 +· · ·+vn un =  .. • .. 
kz1 k kz1 + z2 k kz2 k kz1 + z2 k
un vn vn un
and z1 • z1 = kz1 k2 = kz2 k2 = z2 • z2 , so the two are equal.
d. Because u • v is a scalar, not a vector, the expression
(u • v) • w makes no sense; the dot product of a scalar 4.2.33 Let
and a vector is not defined.  
u1
 
v1
 
w1
e. This is a vague question so it has many answers. Some are  ..   ..   .. 
u =  . , v =  .  w =  . 
(1) k(u • v) = (ku) • v and k(u • v) = u • (kv), (2) k(u • v) 6=
(ku) • (kv) (in general; an example is easy to produce), un vn wn
and (3) |kv | = |k||v | (the connection between length and then
and dot product is that the square of the length is the      
dot product of a vector with itself). u1 kv1 mw1
u • kv + mw =  ...  •  ...  +  ... 

     

4.2.27 No. These give an example.
      un kvn mwn
1 1 1   
u1 kv1 + mw1

u= v= w=
0 0 1  ..  •  ..
= .  

. 
un kvn + mwn
4.2.28 We will prove this demonstrating that the contrapos-
itive statement holds: if x 6= 0 then there is a y with x • y 6= 0. = u1 (kv1 + mw1 ) + · · · + un (kvn + mwn )
Assume that x ∈ Rn . If x 6= 0 then it has a nonzero compo- = ku1 v1 + mu1 w1 + · · · + kun vn + mun wn
nent, say the i-th one xi . But the vector y ∈ Rn that is all = (ku1 v1 + · · · + kun vn ) + (mu1 w1 + · · · + mun wn )
zeroes except for a one in component i gives x • y = xi . (A
= k(u • v) + m(u • w)
slicker proof just considers x • x.)
as required.
4.2.29 The angle between u and v is acute if u • v > 0, is
right if u • v = 0, and is obtuse if u • v < 0. That’s because, in 4.2.34 If A, B, and C are the vertices of the triangle, let H
the formula for the angle, the denominator is never negative. be the point of intersection of the altitudes from A and B.
−−→ −−→
4.2.30 Suppose that u, v ∈ Rn . If u and v are perpendicular Then prove that CH is orthogonal to AB.
then 4.2.35 Hint: Let O be the centre of the circle, and express
2 2
−→ −−→
• • • • •+kv k2 in terms of OA and OC.
ku+v k = (u+v) (u+v) = u u+2 u v+v v = u u+v v = ku keverything
•

(the third equality holds because u • v = 0). 4.3.1

a. u × v = (12, −15, 3)

76
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

b. u × v = (11, 1, −17) 4.3.12 24

c. u × v = (0, −2, 0) 4.3.13 −4, 3
d. u × v = (0, 0, 0)
e. i×j =k 4.3.14
a. 52 , 5


f. i × k = −j 2, 0
√
g. j×k =i b. 2
c. 2
4.3.2 √
2017 14
a. (−27, −9, −9) 4.3.15 4
b. (−31, −34, 8) √
48π 11
c. (−4, 5, −4) 4.3.16 11
√
16π 11
4.3.3 4.3.17 11
a. 5
4.3.18
b. 21
a. 0
c. 0
b. −30
d. 5
c. 2
4.3.4
4.3.19 With u = (u1 , u2 , u3 ), we have
√ √ √
a. ( 6, 6, 0, 2 6) defined in R4  u × u = (u2 u3 − u3 u2 , −(u1 u3 − u3 u1 ), u1 u2 − u2 u1 )
b. 38 d. θ = arccos √67√26 ≈ = (0, 0, 0)
c. the cross product is not 56◦ = 0.

4.3.5 4.3.20
a. ± √16 (1, 1, −2) a. 0
b. ± √121 (−2, 1, 4) b. The vectors are coplanar.
c. (0, ±1, 0)
4.3.21 10
d. Any vector orthogonal to u works (such as √1 (1, 0, −1)).
2
4.3.22 With u = (u1 , u2 , u3 ) and v = (v1 , v2 , v3 ), we have
4.3.6 √±2 (−11, −5, −7)
195 u · (u × v) = (u1 , u2 , u3 ) · (u2 v3 − u3 v2 , −(u1 v3 − u3 v1 ), u1 v2 − u2 v1 )
4.3.7 = u1 (u2 v3 − u3 v2 ) − u2(u1 v3 − u3 v1 ) + u3(u1 v2 − u2 v1 )
= 0.
4.3.8
√
a. 5 2/2
√ 4.3.23 Hint: use the property that the scalar triple product
b. 3 30/2
can be evaluated using a determinant.
c. 1
d. 5/2 4.3.24 Prove. Hint: (n1 × n2 ) • n1 .

5

4.4.1 Note that alternative correct answers are possible.
4.3.9 C = 0, 3, 0
a. x = (3, 4) + t(−5, 1), t ∈ R
4.3.10 b. x = (2, 0, 5) + t(4, −2, −11), t ∈ R
√
a. 35 c. x = (4, 0, 1, 5, −3) + t(−2, 0, 1, 2, −1), t ∈ R
√
b. 11
c. 9 4.4.2 Note that alternative correct answers are possible.
d. 13 a. x = (−1, 2) + t(3, −5), t ∈ R
b. x = (4, 1) + t(−6, −2), t ∈ R
4.3.11 c. x = (1, 3, −5) + t(−3, −4, 5), t ∈ R
a. 126 d. x = 21 , 14 , 1 + t − 32 , 34 , − 23 , t ∈ R



b. 5 e. x = (1, 0, −2, −5) + t(−4, 2, 1, 7), t ∈ R

77
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO EXERCISES


4.4.3 x = 1 + 2t
a. vector: x = (2, −4, 1) + t(9, 2, 5) b. y = 3t , t ∈ R.
z = −2t

parametric: x = 2 + 9t, y = −4 + 2t, z = 1 + 5t
symmetric: (x − 2)/9 = (y + 4)/2 = (z − 1)/5
4.4.7 That line is this set.
b. vector: x = (6, 1, 7) + t(−3, 2, 5)
parametric: x = 6 − 3t, y = 1 + 2t, z = 7 + 5t
     
 −2 7  
symmetric: −(x − 6)/3 = (y − 1)/2 = (z − 7)/5
  
  +  9 t
1
     
 t∈R
c. Answers can vary: vector: x = (2, 1, 5) + t(5, −3, −1)   1  −2  
  
parametric: x = 2 + 5t, y = 1 − 3t, z = 5 − t 0 4
  
symmetric: (x − 2)/5 = −(y − 1)/3 = −(z − 5)
Note that this system
d. Answers can vary: vector: x = (1, −2, 3) + t(4, 7, 2)
parametric: x = 1 + 4t, y = −2 + 7t, z = 3 + 2t −2 + 7t = 1
symmetric: (x − 1)/4 = (y + 2)/7 = (z − 3)/2 1 + 9t = 0
e. Answers can vary; here the direction is given by d1 × d2 : 1 − 2t = 2
vector: x = (0, 1, 2) + t(−10, 43, 9) 0 + 4t = 1
parametric: x = −10t, y = 1 + 43t, z = 2 + 9t
symmetric: −x/10 = (y − 1)/43 = (z − 2)/9 has no solution. Thus the given point is not in the line.
f. Answers can vary; here the direction is given by d1 × d2 :
4.4.8 No, they are skew lines.
vector: x = (5, 1, 9) + t(0, −1, 0)
parametric: x = 5, y = 1 − t, z = 9 4.4.9
symmetric: not defined, as some components of the di- a. − 25 36


17 , − 17
rection are 0.
b. (0, 1, 2)
g. Answers can vary; here the direction is given by d1 × d2 :
c. no point of intersection
vector: x = (7, 2, −1) + t(1, −1, 2)
parametric: x = 7 + t, y = 2 − t, z = −1 + 2t d. (7, −2, 5)
symmetric: x − 7 = 2 − y = (z + 1)/2
4.4.10
h. Answers can vary; here the direction is given by d1 × d2 :
vector: x = (2, 2, 3) + t(5, −1, −3)
a. Parallel. c. Intersecting; (9, −5, 13).
parametric: x = 2 + 5t, y = 2 − t, z = 3 − 3t
symmetric: (x − 2)/5 = −(y − 2) = −(z − 3)/3 b. Intersecting; (12, 3, 7). d. Parallel.
i. vector: x = (1, 1) + t(2, 3)
parametric: x = 1 + 2t, y = 1 + 3t 4.4.11 The system
symmetric: (x − 1)/2 = (y − 1)/3
j. vector: x = (−2, 5) + t(0, 1) 1= 1
parametric: x = −2, y = 5 + t 1+t= 3+s
symmetric: not defined 2 + t = −2 + 2s

gives s = 6 and t = 8, so this is the solution set.

4.4.4 
x = 1 + 2t  
 1 
a. x = (1, −1, −1) + t(2, 3, −1), y = −1 + 3t , t ∈ R 9
z = −1 − t

10
 

x = 2 + 3t
b. x = (2, −4, 5) + t(3, −1, −2), y = −4 − t , t ∈ R

z = 5 − 2t 4.4.12

5 5


√5

q 29
a. 2, 2 ,
17 1 1
4.4.5 To the x-axis: x = (3, −4, 7) + t(1, 0, 0), t ∈ R. To 2 c. 6 , 3, −6 , 6
the y-axis: x = (3, −4, 7) + t(0, 1, 0), t ∈ R. To the z-axis: b. 58 91
,


, √6 5 11 1

√
d. 3, 3 , −3 , 6
17 17 17
x = (3, −4, 7) + t(0, 0, 1), t ∈ R.

4.4.6 4.4.13
x = 2t √
a. 41/3
a. y = 3t , t ∈ R. √
z = 2 − 3t b. 3 2
√

c. 5 2/2
d. 5

78
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

4.4.14 √1 b. The lines intersect at (−5, 2, 3) and the distance is 0.

2

4.4.15 4.4.24
a. ( 15 , − 75 ) a. Skew lines.
√
q
6 5 2
b. b. 3
5
c. The line is not unique, (x, y, z) = (1, 0, 1) + t(−1, 2, 1)
4.4.16 where t ∈ R.
a.
z P0 (1, 2, 3) 4.4.25 (x, y, z) = ( 23 , 3, − 32 ) + t(2, 7, 3) where t ∈ R
P1 (4, 4, 4)
4 2 3 1



4.4.26 3, 3, 0 , 2, 1, 2

4.5.1
a. 2x1 + 4x2 − x3 = 9
P (3, 2, 1) b. 3x1 + 5x3 = 26
y c. 3x1 − 4x2 + x3 = 8

4.5.2 2x + 3y − 5 = 21
x 4.5.3
√
b. 2 6 a. 2x1 − 3x2 + 5x3 = 6
c. x = (3, 2, 1) + t(2, −1, −4) where t ∈ R. b. x2 = −2

q
14
4.5.4 Answers will vary.
4.4.17 3
4.5.5
3
√
4.4.18 5 5
a. parallel c. perpendicular
√
4.4.19 6/6 b. perpendicular d. parallel

4.4.20
4.5.6
√
a. 3/ 2 b. 2 a. Standard form: 3(x − 2) − (y − 3) + 7(z − 4) = 0
general form: 3x − y + 7z = 31
b. Standard form: 2(y − 3) + 4(z − 5) = 0
4.4.21 general form: 2y + 4z = 26
on first line: 35 , 73 , 2 , Point on second


a. Skew lines. Point c. Answers may vary;
line: 3, − 43 , 35 , unique closest points, shortest distance


q Standard form: 8(x − 1) + 4(y − 2) − 4(z − 3) = 0
46 general form: 8x + 4y − 4z = 4
between the two lines: 3 .
b. The two lines intersect. (5, −7, 1) is the point of inter- d. Answers may vary;
section, hence closest to the other line. And the shortest Standard form: −5(x − 5) + 3(y − 3) + 2(z − 8) = 0
distance is 0. general form: −5x + 3y + 2z = 0
c. Parallel lines. Point on first line: 1721 3
, − 17 , 31

e. Answers may vary;
17 , Point
on second line: Standard form: −7(x − 2) + 2(y − 1) + (z − 2) = 0
q (1, 0, 2), not unique. And the shortest general form: −7x + 2y + z = −10
2
distance is 17 .
f. Answers may vary;
d. Parallel lines. Point
on first line: − 35 , − 15 , Point on


Standard form: 3(x − 5) + 3(z − 3) = 0
second line: (0, − 12 ), not unique. And the shortest general form: 3x + 3z = 24
q
distance is 23 15 . g. Answers may vary;
Standard form: 2(x − 1) − (y − 1) = 0
general form: 2x − y = 1
4.4.22 √1
17 h. Answers may vary;
4.4.23 Standard form: 2(x − 1) + (y − 1) − 3(z − 1) = 0
general form: 2x + y − 3z = 0
a. The two lines intersect.
i. Answers may vary;

79
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

Standard form: 2(x − 2) − (y + 6) − 4(z − 1) = 0 is not on the line. Because

general form: 2x − y − 4z = 6      
2 −1 3
j. Answers may vary; 0 −  0  = 0
Standard form: 4(x − 5) − 2(y − 7) − 2(z − 3) = 0 3 −4 7
general form: 4x − 2y − 2z = 0
k. Answers may vary; we can describe that plane in this way.
Standard form: (x − 5) + (y − 7) + (z − 3) = 0        
general form: x + y + z = 15  −1 1 3  
 0  + m 1 + n 0  m, n ∈ R
l. Answers may vary; 
−4 2 7 
 
Standard form: 4(x − 4) + (y − 1) + (z − 1) = 0
general form: 4x + y + z = 18
m. Answers may vary; 4.5.11
Standard form: 3(x + 4) + 8(y − 7) − 10(z − 2) = 0 a. n = (3, −2, 1)
general form: 3x + 8y − 10z = 24
b. n = (−4, 3, −5)
n. Standard form: x − 1 = 0
c. n = (1, −1, 2, −3)
general form: x = 1
4.5.12
4.5.7
a. 3x1 + x2 + 4x3 + x4 = −2
a. 39x + 12y + 10z = 140
b. x2 + 3x3 + 3x4 = 1
b. 11x − 21y − 17z = −56
c. −12x + 3y − 19z = −14 4.5.13
20 51 37


a. 13 , 13 , 13
4.5.8
b. 73 , − 13 , − 23

a. x − 4y − 10z = −85 c. −5x − 2y + 6z = 15

4.5.14
b. 2x − 2y + 3z = −5
a. No point of intersection; the plane and line are parallel.
b. The plane contains the line, so every point on the line is
4.5.9
a “point of intersection.”
a. Note that
c. (−3, −7, −5)
           
2 1 1 3 1 2 d. (3, 1, 1)
2  1   1  1  1   0 
 − =   − = 
2  5  −3 0  5  −5 4.5.15 This system
0 −1 1 4 −1 5
2+t= 0
and so the plane is this set. t = s + 4w
        1 − t = 2s + w

 1 1 2 
 

1 1 0 gives t = −2, w = −1, and s = 2 so their intersection is this
     
  +  t +  s  t, s ∈ R
  5  −3 −5   point.
    
−1 1 5 0
  
−2
3
b. No; this system

1 + 1t + 2s = 0 4.5.16
1 + 1t =0
5 − 3t − 5s = 0 a. Neither. b. (0, 0, 0) c. ≈ 68◦
−1 + 1t + 5s = 0

has no solution. 4.5.17

a. The line is parallel to the plane.
4.5.10 The vector  
2 b. The line is orthogonal to the plane.
0 c. The line is neither parallel nor orthogonal to the plane,
3 θ ≈ 0.702 radians.
d. The line is orthogonal to the plane.

80
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

e. The line is parallel to the plane. and t = 1 + 2m. The intersection is

       
4.5.18  1 0 2  
1 + 3 (− 1 + 8 m) + 0 m

p  m∈R
a. 5/7 9 9 
√ 0 0 4
  
b. 8/ 21      
√  1 2 
c. 1/ 3  
= 2/3 + 8/3 m  m∈R
d. 3

0 4
  

4.5.19 (11/7, 1/7, −12/7)

4.5.26
4.5.20 (−1, 24, 7) 46 3


a. x = 11 , 11 , 0 + t(−2, −3, −11), t∈R
7


4.5.21 b. x = 2 , 4, 0 + t(3, −4, 2), t ∈ R
√
√2 , 23 40 9


a. 6, (1, −2, 0) c. 13 , 13 , 13
 
−1
√2 , √
26 4.5.27 ± 5 5
, 0 .
√4 , 8 , 2, − 9


b. √13 , − 25 75 103


5 5 5 d. 38 19 , 38 , − 38
4.5.28
a. Neither.
4.5.22 (1, 2, 3)
b. x = (−2, 3, 0) + t(1, −2, 1) where t ∈ R
4.5.23 c. ≈ 22◦
a. 31 (0, 14, 1, 10)
b. 17 (−11, 13, 10, −3) 4.5.29 The two planes are perpendicular.

4.5.30
4.5.24
a. Since the two lines are parallel they lie on the same plane.
a. Answers
 may vary: 5x − 6y − 2x − 13 = 0.
x = 14t b. B(− 71 , 47 , 37
7 )

x = y = −1 − 10t

z = 2 − 8t 4.5.31

b. Answers
 may vary: a. Point of intersection: (−3, 1, 3), −x + 5y + 3z = 17
x = 1 + 20t
 b. No point of intersection, √935
x = y = 3 + 2t 23
 c. No point of intersection, √
3 10
z = 3.5 − 26t

d. Point of intersection (1, 0, 7), 3x − y − z = −4
4.5.25 The points of coincidence are solutions of this system.
4.5.32
t = 1 + 2m a. x = (−1, 1, −1) + t(1, −2, 0) t ∈ R
t + s = 1 + 3k b. ( 51 , − 75 , −1)
t + 3s = 4m √
6 5
c. 5
Using Gaussian elimination on
  4.5.33
1 0 0 −2 1 a.
1 1 −3 0 1
1 3 0 −4 0

we get  
1 0 0 −2 1
0 1 −3 2 0
0 0 9 −8 −1
which gives k = −(1/9) + (8/9)m, so s = −(1/3) + (2/3)m

81
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

z is a line.
c. d = n1 × n2 = (−1, −1, 1)
(0, 0, 6)
d. (x, y, z) = (0, 0, 1) + t(−1, −1, 1) where t ∈ R.

4.5.36
a. Not skew lines since they are parallel.
b. x = (1, , 1, 1) + s(0, −1, 0) + t(2, 1, −3) where s, t ∈ R

13 10 −2


c. 7 , 7 , 7 . The closest point on the plane to (1, 1, 1).

d. x = (5, , −4, 0) + t(4, −5, 1) where t ∈ R

 
e. π2 − arccos √17
√
f. x = (π, , 2, e) + t(4, −5, 1) where t ∈ R

y 4.5.37 0, π
(0, 4, 0)
4.5.38
(3, 0, 0) a. Both equations are multiples of each other, hence they
x have the same points in common. Those points lie on
q
29
both planes.
b. 2 5 b. (x, y, z) = s(2, 1, 0)) + t(−1, 0, 1) where s, t ∈ R
c. x = (0, 4, 0) + t(−12, 20, −6) where t ∈ R c. s(2, 1, 0)+t(−1, 0, 1) is othogonal to both (1, −2, 1)
and (−4, 8, −4).
4.5.34
d. The rows of the coefficient matrix are the normals of
a. the planes, hence the vectors that lie on the plane are
z
orthogonal to the normals.
(0, 0, 6)
4.5.39
a. Such a line exists, but it is not unique. One of such line
is obtained by finding a vector d perpendicular to the
direction vector of L1 , then the equation of the line is
given by x = Q + td where t ∈ R.
b. Such a line exists and is unique. The line can be obtained
by finding a vector d parallel to the intersection of L1 and
L2 , then the equation of the line is given by x = Q + td
where t ∈ R.
c. Such a plane does not exist since the lines are skew.

4.5.40
a. Skew lines.
y b. Point on L1 : (− 37 , − 53 , 1) and the point on L2 :
(0, 3, 0) (− 83 , −1, 43 ).
(2, 0, 0)
c. A plane which contains the line is (x, y, z) =
x (− 37 , − 53 , 1) + t(− 31 , 23 , 13 ) + s(1, 0, 0) where t, s ∈ R and
is not unique.
3
√
b. 7 14
  4.5.41
c. arccos √2
14 a. (0, 3, 2)
b. Yes, the points are on the same side.
4.5.35
a. (0, 0, 1) 4.5.42 The point is not in between the planes.
b. The normal of both planes are not parallel, hence their
4.5.43
inclination are not the same therefore their intersection

82
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

a. x = 1 + 6t, y = 1 − 4t, z = 1 − 13t where t ∈ R b. It is not closed under addition.

b. x = 1 + 17t, y = 1 + 5t, z = 1 + 4t where t ∈ R
(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0) ∈ Q (1, 1, 0) 6∈ Q
n n
4.5.44 Suppose u ∈ R is perpendicular to both v ∈ R and
c. It is not closed under addition.
w ∈ Rn . Then, for any k, m ∈ R we have this.
     
0 1 1 1 1 2
u • (kv + mw) = k(u • v) + m(u • w) = k(0) + m(0) = 0 , ∈Q 6 Q
∈
0 0 0 0 0 0

5.1.1 d. It is not closed under scalar multiplication.

a. 0 + 0x + 0x2 + 0x3
1 + 1x + 1x2 ∈ Q − 1 · (1 + 1x + 1x2 ) 6∈ Q
0 0 0 0
b.
0 0 0 0 e. The set is empty, violating the existance of the zero vec-
c. The constant function f (x) = 0 tor.
d. The constant function f (n) = 0
5.1.9 Not a vector space since it is not closed under scalar
5.1.2 multiplication, i.e. s = (0, 1, 2) ∈ S but (−1) · s =
2 (0, −1, −2) ∈
/ S.
a. 3 + 2x − x

−1 +1 5.1.10 No, it is not closed under scalar multiplication since,
b.
0 −3 e.g., π · (1) is not a rational number.
c. −3ex + 2e−x
5.1.11 The ‘+’ operation is not commutative; producing two
5.1.3 members of the set witnessing this assertion is easy.

a. b. c. d. 5.1.12
a. It is not a vector space.
5.1.4      
1 1 1
(1 + 1) · 0 6= 0 + 0
a. (−4, −2) c. (−2. − 1) 0 0 0
b. (−32, −25) d. (−x − 4, −y − 2)
b. It is not a vector space.
5.1.5    
1 1
a. 1 + 2x, 2 − 1x, and x. 1 · 0 6= 0
b. 2 + 1x, 6 + 3x, and −4 − 2x. 0 0

5.1.6
5.1.13 For each “yes” answer, you must give a check of all
a. 
1 2
 
−1 −2
 
0 0
 the conditions given in the definition of a vector space. For
, , each “no” answer, give a specific example of the failure of one
3 4 −3 −4 0 0
of the conditions.
b.       a. Yes.
1 2 −1 −2 0 0
, , b. Yes.
0 4 0 −4 0 0
c. No, this set is not closed under the natural addition oper-
5.1.7 ation. The vector of all 1/4’s is an element of this set but
when added to itself the result, the vector of all 1/2’s, is
a. (1, 2, 3), (2, 1, 3), and (0, 0, 0).
not an element of the set.
b. (1, 1, 1, −1), (1, 0, 1, 0) and (0, 0, 0, 0).
d. Yes.
5.1.8 e. No, f (x) = e−2x + (1/2) is in the set but 2 · f is not (that
For each part the set is called Q. For some parts, there are is, closure under scalar multiplication fails).
more than one correct way to show that Q is not a vector
space. 5.1.14
a. It is not closed under addition. a. Closed under vector addition. Hint: Apply determinant
properties.
(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0) ∈ Q (1, 1, 0) 6∈ Q
 
1 0
b. 0 = ∈V
0 1

83
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

c. Every A ∈ V has an additive inverse A−1 . ear combinations of two vectors. If r1 , r2 , x1 , x2 , y1 , y2 , z1 , z2

d. Not are in R then
 closed
 under scalar multiplication. Since 00 =
1 0 0 0        
0 = 6∈ V x1 x2 r1 x1 − r1 + 1 r2 x2 − r2 + 1
0 1 0 0
r1  y1 +r2  y2  =  r1 y1 + r2 y2 
z1 z2 r1 z1 r2 z2
5.1.15 Not a vector space since the set is not closed under  
r1 x1 − r1 + r2 x2 − r2 + 1

1 2 1 −1
vector space addition. i.e. If A = , A= ∈ = r1 y1 + r2 y2
2 3 −1 1 

1 2

1 −1
 
−1 1
 r z
1 1 + r z
2 2
V then A + B = AB = = ∈
/ V.
2 3 −1 1 −1 1 (note that the definition of addition in this space is that the
first components combine as (r1 x1 −r1 +1)+(r2 x2 −r2 +1)−1,
5.1.16
so the first component of the last vector does not say ‘ + 2’).
a. The
 element
 that satisfy the zero vector axiom is 0 = Adding the three components of the last vector gives r1 (x1 −
1 1
which is not an element of V since it has rank 1. 1 + y1 + z1 ) + r2 (x2 − 1 + y2 + z2 ) + 1 = r1 · 0 + r2 · 0 + 1 = 1.
1 1 Most of the other checks of the conditions are easy (although
b. The axiom holds. the oddness of the operations keeps them from being routine).
Commutativity of addition goes like this.
5.1.17            
x1 x2 x1 + x2 − 1 x2 + x1 − 1 x2 x1
a. The element that satisfy the zero vector axiom is 0 =  y1 + y2  =  y1 + y2  =  y2 + y1  =  y2 + y1 
0(x) = 1 which is not an element of V since it is not an z1 z2 z1 + z2 z2 + z1 z2 z1
odd function.
b. The axiom holds. Associativity of addition has
       
x1 x2 x3 (x1 + x2 − 1) + x3 − 1
5.1.18
( y1  +  y2 ) +  y3  =  (y1 + y2 ) + y3 
a. Closed under vector addition. z1 z2 z3 (z1 + z2 ) + z3
b. Not closed under scalar multiplication.
while
c. Not a vector space since at least one of the ten axioms        
fail. Namely, closure under scalar multiplication. x1 x2 x3 x1 + (x2 + x3 − 1) − 1
 y1  + ( y2  +  y3 ) =  y1 + (y2 + y3 ) 
5.1.19 Check all 10 conditions of the definition of a vector z1 z2 z3 z1 + (z2 + z3 )
space. and they are equal. The identity element with respect to this
5.1.20 It is not a vector space since it is not closed under addition operation works this way
addition, as (x2 ) + (1 + x − x2 ) is not in the set.
       
x 1 x+1−1 x
y  + 0 =  y + 0  = y 
5.1.21
z 0 z+0 z
a. No since 1 · (0, 1) + 1 · (0, 1) 6= (1 + 1) · (0, 1).
b. No since the same calculation as the prior part shows a and the additive inverse is similar.
       
condition in the definition of a vector space that is vio- x −x + 2 x + (−x + 2) − 1 1
lated. Another example of a violation of the conditions y  +  −y  =  y−y  = 0
for a vector space is that 1 · (0, 1) 6= (0, 1). z −z z−z 0
The conditions on scalar multiplication are also easy. For the
5.1.22
first condition,
a. Let V be a vector space, let v ∈ V , and assume that    
w ∈ V is an additive inverse of v so that w + v = 0. x (r + s)x − (r + s) + 1
Because addition is commutative, 0 = w + v = v + w, (r + s) y  =  (r + s)y 
so therefore v is also the additive inverse of w. z (r + s)z
b. Let V be a vector space and suppose v, s, t ∈ V . The while
additive inverse of v is −v so v + s = v + t gives that        
−v + v + s = −v + v + t, which implies that 0 + s = 0 + t x x rx − r + 1 sx − s + 1
and so s = t. r y  + s y  =  ry + sy 
z z rz sz
5.1.23 We can combine the argument showing closure under  
(rx − r + 1) + (sx − s + 1) − 1
addition with the argument showing closure under scalar mul-
= ry + sy 
tiplication into one single argument showing closure under lin-
rz + sz

84
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

and the two are equal. The second condition compares c. A nontrivial space has a vector v 6= 0. Consider the set
        { k · v | k ∈ R}. By the prior item this set is infinite.
x1 x2 x1 + x2 − 1 r(x1 + x2 − 1) − r + 1
r·( y1 + y2 ) = r· y1 + y2  =  r(y1 + y2 ) 5.2.1

z1 z2 z1 + z2 r(z1 + z2 )
a. Yes, we can easily check that it is closed under addition
with and scalar multiplication.
        b. Yes, we can easily check that it is closed under addition
x1 x2 rx1 − r + 1 rx2 − r + 1
and scalar multiplication.
r  y1  + r  y2  =  ry1 + ry2 
z1 z2 rz1 rz2 c. No. It is not closed under addition. For instance,
 
(rx1 − r + 1) + (rx2 − r + 1) − 1
     
5 0 5 0 10 0
ry1 + ry2 + =
=  0 0 0 0 0 0
rz1 + rz2
is not in the set. (This set is also not closed under scalar
and they are equal. For the third condition, multiplication, for instance, it does not contain the zero
  
x rsx − rs + 1
 matrix.)
(rs) y =
   rsy  d. Yes, we can easily check that it is closed under addition
z rsz and scalar multiplication.

while 5.2.2 Not a subspace since it is not closed under vector ad-
dition.
     
x sx − s + 1 r(sx − s + 1) − r + 1
r(s y ) = r( sy ) =  rsy 
5.2.3 No, it is not closed. In particular, it is not closed
z sz rsz under scalar multiplication because it does not contain the
and the two are equal. For scalar multiplication by 1 we have zero polynomial.
this.   
x 1x − 1 + 1
  
x 5.2.4 Not a subspace since it is not closed under vector ad-
1 · y  =  1y  = y  dition.
z 1z z 5.2.5 Hint: Apply the subspace test.
Thus all the conditions on a vector space are met by these
two operations. 5.2.6 W is not a subspace since it is not closed under addi-
tion.
5.1.24
5.2.7 No, such a set is not closed. For one thing, it does not
Addition is commutative, so in any vector space, for any vec-
contain the zero vector.
tor v we have that v = v + 0 = 0 + v.
5.2.8
5.1.25
It is not a vector space since addition of two matrices of un- a. Every such set has the form {r · v + s · w | r, s ∈ R }
equal sizes is not defined, and thus the set fails to satisfy the where either or both of v, w may be 0. With the inher-
closure condition. ited operations, closure of addition (r1 v + s1 w) + (r2 v +
s2 w) = (r1 + r2 )v + (s1 + s2 )w and scalar multiplication
5.1.26 c(rv + sw) = (cr)v + (cs)w is clear.
Each element of a vector space has one and only one additive b. No such set can be a vector space under the inherited
inverse. operations because it does not have a zero element.
For, let V be a vector space and suppose that v ∈ V . If
w1 , w2 ∈ V are both additive inverses of v then consider 5.2.9 No. The only subspaces of R1 are the space itself and
w1 + v + w2 . On the one hand, we have that it equals w1 + its trivial subspace. Any subspace S of R that contains a
(v + w2 ) = w1 + 0 = w1 . On the other hand we have that it nonzero member v must contain the set of all of its scalar
equals (w1 + v) + w2 = 0 + w2 = w2 . Therefore, w1 = w2 . multiples {r · v | r ∈ R }. But this set is all of R.

5.1.27 5.2.10 Yes. A theorem of first semester calculus says that a

Assume that v ∈ V is not 0. sum of differentiable functions is differentiable and that (f +
a. One direction of the if and only if is clear: if r = 0 then g)0 = f 0 + g 0 , and that a multiple of a differentiable function
r · v = 0. For the other way, let r be a nonzero scalar. is differentiable and that (r · f )0 = r f 0 .
If rv = 0 then (1/r) · rv = (1/r) · 0 shows that v = 0,
contrary to the assumption. 5.2.11
b. Where r1 , r2 are scalars, r1 v = r2 v holds if and only if a. This is a subspace. It is closed because if f1 , f2 are even
(r1 − r2 )v = 0. By the prior item, then r1 − r2 = 0.

85
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

and c1 , c2 are scalars then we have this. is not. Similarly the sum is not an element of B. Hence
the sum is not an element of A ∪ B, and so the union is
(c1 f1 + c2 f2 ) (−x) not a subspace.
=c1 f1 (−x) + c2 f2 (−x) c. It is not a subspace. As A is a subspace, it contains the
=c1 f1 (x) + c2 f2 (x) zero vector, and therefore the set that is A’s complement
=(c1 f1 + c2 f2 ) (x) does not. Without the zero vector, the complement can-
not be a vector space.

b. This is also a subspace; the check is similar to the prior 5.2.16 It is transitive; apply the subspace test. (You must
one. consider the following. Suppose B is a subspace of a vector
space V and suppose A ⊆ B ⊆ V is a subspace. From which
5.2.12 space does A inherit its operations? The answer is that it
a. V is a plane which contains the point (a, b, c) and is doesn’t matter A will inherit the same operations in either
parallel to d1 and d2 . case.)
b. Hint: In the forward direction, prove by contradiction. 5.3.1
In backward direction, apply the subspace test.
a. Yes, solving the linear system arising from
5.2.13 No. Subspaces of R3 are sets of three-tall vectors,
     
1 0 2
while R2 is a set of two-tall vectors. Clearly though, R2 is r1 0 + r2 0 = 0
“just like” this subspace of R3 . 0 1 1
   
 x   gives r1 = 2 and r2 = 1.
y   x, y ∈ R b. Yes; the linear system arising from r1 (x2 ) + r2 (2x + x2 ) +

0 r3 (x + x3 ) = x − x3
  

2r2 + r3 = 1
5.2.14 r1 + r2 = 0
a. The union of the x-axis and the y-axis in R2 is one. r3 = −1
b. The set of integers, as a subset of R1 , is one.
gives that −1(x2 ) + 1(2x + x2 ) − 1(x + x3 ) = x − x3 .
c. The subset { v } of R2 is one, where v is any nonzero
vector. c. No; any combination of the two given matrices has a zero
in the upper right.
5.2.15
a. Is is a subspace. 5.3.2
2 2
Assume that A, B are subspaces of V . Note that their a. Yes. It is in that span since 1 cos x + 1 sin x = f (x).
intersection is not empty as both contain the zero vector. b. No. Since r1 cos2 x + r2 sin2 x = 3 + x2 has no scalar
If w, s ∈ A ∩ B and r, s are scalars then rv + sw ∈ A solutions that work for all x. For instance, setting x to
because each vector is in A and so a linear combination be 0 and π gives the two equations r1 · 1 + r2 · 0 = 3 and
is in A, and rv + sw ∈ B for the same reason. Thus the r1 · 1 + r2 · 0 = 3 + π 2 , which are not consistent with each
intersection is closed. other.
b. In general it is not a subspace. (It is a subspace, only if c. No. Consider what happens on setting x to be π/2 and
A ⊆ B or B ⊆ A). 3π/2.
Take V to be R3 , take A to be the x-axis, and B to be d. Yes, cos(2x) = 1 · cos2 (x) − 1 · sin2 (x).
the y-axis. Note that
        5.3.3
1 0 1 0
∈ A and ∈ B but + 6∈ A ∪ B a. Yes, for any x, y, z ∈ R this equation
0 1 0 1
       
1 0 0 x
as the sum is in neither A nor B.
r1 0 + r2 2 + r3 0 = y 
If A ⊆ B or B ⊆ A then clearly A ∪ B is a subspace.
0 0 3 z
To show that A ∪ B is a subspace only if one subspace
contains the other, we assume that A 6⊆ B and B 6⊆ A has the solution r1 = x, r2 = y/2, and r3 = z/3.
and prove that the union is not a subspace. The assump-
b. Yes, the equation
tion that A is not a subset of B means that there is an
a ∈ A with a 6∈ B. The other assumption gives a b ∈ B
       
2 1 0 x
with b 6∈ A. Consider a + b. Note that sum is not an r1 0 + r2 1 + r3 0 = y 
element of A or else (a + b) − a would be in A, which it 1 0 1 z

86
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

gives rise to this 5.3.5

2r1 + r2 =x a. λ 6= −9 b. No values of λ c. λ = −9
r2 =y exist.
r1 + r3 = z
Gaussian elimination gives 5.3.6
2r1 + r2 =x
r2 =y a. k 6= 1, −2 b. k = −2 c. k = 1
r3 = −(1/2)x + (1/2)y + z
5.3.7
so that, given any x, y, and z, we can compute that r3 =  
(−1/2)x + (1/2)y + z, r2 = y, and r1 = (1/2)x − (1/2)y. a.  (c b c)  b, c ∈ R  =
b(0 1 0) + c(1 0 1)  b, c ∈ R The obvious choice
c. No. In particular, we cannot get the vector
  for the set that spans is (0 1 0), (1 0 1) .
0 
−d b 
  
0 b. b, c, d ∈ R =
 c d

1 0 1

0 0
   
−1 0 

b +c +d b, c, d ∈ R One
as a linear combination since the two given vectors both 0 0 1 0 0 1 
have a third component of zero. set that spans this space consists of those three matrices.
d. Yes. The equation
          c. The system
1 3 −1 2 x a + 3b =0
r1 0 + r2 1 + r3  0  + r4 1 = y  2a −c − d = 0
1 0 0 5 z
gives b = −(c+d)/6 and a = (c+d)/2. So one description
leads to this reduction. is this.
        
1 3 −1 2 x 1/2 −1/6 1/2 −1/6 
0 1 0 1 y  c
1 0
+d
0 1  c, d ∈ R
0 0 1 6 −x + 3y + z
That shows that a set spanning this subspace consists of
We have infinitely many solutions. We can, for example, those two matrices.
set r4 to be zero and solve for r3 , r2 , and r1 in terms of d. The a = 2b  − c gives that the set
x, y, and z by the usual methods of back-substitution. 
(2b − c) + bx + cx 3 
b, c ∈ R equals the set
e. No. The equation 3 

b(2 + x) + c(−1 +x ) b, c ∈ R . So the subspace is
 
2
 
3
 
5
   
6 x the span of the set 2 + x, −1 + x3 .

a + bx + cx2  a + 7b + 49c = 0

r1 1 + r2 0 + r3 1 + r4 0 = y  e. The set can be
1 1 2 2 z parametrized as

leads to this reduction.


b(−7 + x) + c(−49 + x2 )  b, c ∈ R

 
2 3 5 6 x and so has the spanning set −7 + x, −49 + x2 .

0 −3/2 −3/2 −3 −(1/2)x + y 
0 0 0 0 −(1/3)x − (1/3)y + z 5.3.8
This shows that not every vector can be so expressed. a. We can parametrize in this way
Only the vectors satisfying the restriction that −(1/3)x−           
(1/3)y + z = 0 are in the span. (To see that any such  x    1 0 
 
 0   x, z ∈ R = x 0 + z 0  x, z ∈ R
vector is indeed expressible, take r3 and r4 to be zero  
z 0 1
   
and solve for r1 and r2 in terms of x, y, and z by back-
 
substitution.)
giving this for a spanning set.
5.3.4    
 1 0 
0 , 0
a. λ 6= 1, 2 b. λ = 1, 2 c. No values of λ 
0 1

exist.

87
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

b. Hereis aparametrization,
  and
 the
 associated spanning 5.3.12 The span of a set does not depend on the enclosing
 −2/3 −1/3   space. A linear combination of vectors from S gives the same
set. y  1  + z  0   y, z ∈ R sum whether we regard the operations as those of W or as
0 1 those of V , because the operations of W are inherited from
  
   
 −2/3 −1/3  V.
 1 , 0 
5.3.13
0 1
 
    a. Always; if S ⊆ T then a linear combination of elements
1 −1/2 

  of S is also a linear combination of elements of T .
−2 0 
   
c.   , 
 1   0 
 b. Sometimes (more precisely, if and only if S ⊆ T or T ⊆
S).

 
0 1
 
The answer is not ‘always’ as is shown by this example
d. Parametrize the  description as
 2 3 
from R3
−a 1 + a1 x + a 3 x + a3 x a1 , a3 ∈ R to get        

−1 + x, x2 + x3 .
 1 0   1 0 
S = 0 , 1 , T = 0 , 0
e. 1, x, x2 , x3 , x4

0 0 0 1
   
       
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
f. , , , because of this.
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1    
1 1
1 ∈ span (S ∪ T ) 1 6∈ span (S) ∪ span (T )
5.3.9 We will show mutual containment between the two
sets. 1 1
The first containment span (span (S)) ⊇ span (S) is an in- The answer is not ‘never’ because if either set contains
stance of the more general, and obvious, fact that for any the other then equality is clear. We can characterize
subset T of a vector space, span (T ) ⊇ T . equality as happening only when either set contains the
For the other containment, that span (span (S)) ⊆ span (S), other by assuming S 6⊆ T (implying the existence of a
take m vectors from span (S), namely c1,1 s1,1 +· · ·+c1,n1 s1,n1 , vector s ∈ S with s 6∈ T ) and T 6⊆ S (giving a t ∈ T
. . . , c1,m s1,m + · · · + c1,nm s1,nm , and note that any linear with t 6∈ S), noting s + t ∈ span (S ∪ T ), and showing
combination of those that s + t 6∈ span (S) ∪ span (T ).
c. Sometimes.
r1 (c1,1 s1,1 + · · · + c1,n1 s1,n1 ) + · · ·
Clearly span (S ∩ T ) ⊆ span (S) ∩ span (T ) because any
+ rm (c1,m s1,m + · · · + c1,nm s1,nm ) linear combination of vectors from S ∩T is a combination
of vectors from S and also a combination of vectors from
is a linear combination of elements of S
T.
=(r1 c1,1 )s1,1 + · · · + (r1 c1,n1 )s1,n1 + · · · Containment the other way does not always hold. For
instance, in R2 , take
+ (rm c1,m )s1,m + · · · + (rm c1,nm )s1,nm      
1 0 2
S= , , T =
and so is in span (S). That is, simply recall that a linear 0 1 0
combination of linear combinations (of members of S) is a
so that span (S) ∩ span (T ) is the x-axis but span (S ∩ T )
linear combination (again of members of S).
is the trivial subspace.
5.3.10 Hint: For each subspace determine a set of vectors Characterizing exactly when equality holds is tough.
that spans it. Clearly equality holds if either set contains the other,
W1 ( W2 but that is not ‘only if’ by this example in R3 .
       
 1 0   1 0 
5.3.11 For ‘if’, let S be a subset of a vector space V
S = 0 , 1 , T = 0 , 0
and assume v ∈ S satisfies v = c1 s1 + · · · + cn sn where
0 0 0 1
   
c1 , . . . , cn are scalars and s1 , . . . , sn ∈ S. We must show that
span (S ∪ { v }) = span (S).
d. Never, as the span of the complement is a subspace, while
Containment one way, span (S) ⊆ span (S ∪ { v }) is obvious.
the complement of the span is not (it does not contain
For the other direction, span (S ∪ { v }) ⊆ span (S), note that
the zero vector).
if a vector is in the set on the left then it has the form d0 v +
d1 t1 + · · · + dm tm where the d’s are scalars and the t ’s are in
5.4.1
S. Rewrite that as d0 (c1 s1 + · · · + cn sn ) + d1 t1 + · · · + dm tm
and note that the result is a member of the span of S. a. It is dependent. Considering
The ‘only if’ is clearly true adding v enlarges the span to
       
1 2 4 0
include at least v. c1 −3 + c2 2 + c3 −4 = 0
5 4 14 0

88
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

gives this linear system. homogeneous, and so has at least the solution of all ze-
roes). To exhibit a combination, we can do the reduction
c1 + 2c2 + 4c3 = 0  
−3c1 + 2c2 − 4c3 = 0 9 2 3 12 0
5c1 + 4c2 + 14c3 = 0 0 −2 2 0 0
0 0 −3 −1 0
Gauss’s Method
  and take, say, c4 = 1. Then we have that c3 = −1/3,
1 2 4 0 c2 = −1/3, and c1 = −31/27.
−3 2 −4 0
5 4 14 0 5.4.2
gives a. This set is independent. Setting up the relation c1 (3 −

1 2 4 0
 x+9x2 )+c2 (5−6x+3x2 )+c3 (1+1x−5x2 ) = 0+0x+0x2
0 8 8 0 gives a linear system
0 0 0 0  
3 5 1 0
yields a free variable, so there are infinitely many solu- −1 −6 1 0
tions. For an example of a particular dependence we can 9 3 −5 0
set c3 to be, say, 1. Then we get c2 = −1 and c1 = −2.
and Gaussian elimination gives
b. It is dependent. The linear system that arises here
 
  3 5 1 0
1 2 3 0 0 −13 4 0
7 7 7 0
0 0 −128/13 0
7 7 7 0
with only one solution: c1 = 0, c2 = 0, and c3 = 0.
and Gaussian elimination gives
b. This set is independent. We can see this by inspection,

1 2 3 0
 straight from the definition of linear independence. Ob-
0 −7 −14 0 viously neither is a multiple of the other.
0 0 0 0 c. This set is linearly independent. The linear system re-
duces in this way
has infinitely many solutions. We can get a particular  
solution by taking c3 to be, say, 1, and back-substituting 2 3 4 0
to get the resulting c2 and c1 . 1 −1 0 0
c. It is linearly independent. The system 7 2 −3 0
  and Gaussian elimination gives
0 1 0
 0 0 0  
2 3 4 0
−1 4 0 0 −5/2 −2 0
0 0 −51/5 0
and Gaussian elimination gives
  to show that there is only the solution c1 = 0, c2 = 0,
−1 4 0 and c3 = 0.
0 1 0
0 0 0 d. This set is linearly dependent. The linear system
 
8 0 2 8 0
has only the solution c1 = 0 and c2 = 0. (We could also 3 1 2 −2 0
have gotten the answer by inspection the second vector
3 2 2 5 0
is obviously not a multiple of the first, and vice versa.)
d. It is linearly dependent. The linear system must, after reduction, end with at least one variable free
  (there are more variables than equations, and there is
9 2 3 12 0 no possibility of a contradictory equation because the
9 0 5 12 0 system is homogeneous). We can take the free variables
0 1 −4 −1 0 as parameters to describe the solution set. We can then
set the parameter to a nonzero value to get a nontrivial
has more unknowns than equations, and so Gauss’s linear relation.
Method must end with at least one variable free (there
can’t be a contradictory equation because the system is 5.4.3 AT , A−1 and A2 are linearly independent.

89
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

5.4.4 Let Z be the zero function Z(x) = 0, which is the 5.4.7 {t ∈ R | t 6= −1 and t 6= −7 }
additive identity in the vector space under discussion.
5.4.8
a. This set is linearly independent. Consider c1 · f (x) + c2 ·
g(x) = Z(x). Plugging in x = 1 and x = 2 gives a linear a. λ = 1
system b. λ 6= −1, − 21 , 1
c1 · 1 + c2 · 1 = 0
c1 · 2 + c2 · (1/2) = 0 5.4.9
with the unique solution c1 = 0, c2 = 0. a. λ 6= 1 and λ 6= 0
b. This set is linearly independent. Consider c1 · f (x) + c2 · b. λ 6= 1 and λ 6= 0
g(x) = Z(x) and plug in x = 0 and x = π/2 to get c. λ = 1 and λ = 0
c1 · 1 + c2 · 0 = 0 d. No such√ value of λ exists.
c1 · 0 + c2 · 1 = 0 e. λ = 1± 24033
which obviously gives that c1 = 0, c2 = 0.
5.4.10
c. This set is also linearly independent. Considering c1 ·
a. Assume that { u, v, w } is linearly independent, so that
f (x) + c2 · g(x) = Z(x) and plugging in x = 1 and x = e
any relationship d0 u + d1 v + d2 w = 0 leads to the con-
c1 · e + c2 · 0 = 0 clusion that d0 = 0, d1 = 0, and d2 = 0.
c1 · e e + c2 · 1 = 0 Consider the relationship c1 (u) + c2 (u + v) + c3 (u + v +
w) = 0. Rewrite it to get (c1 + c2 + c3 )u + (c2 + c3 )v +
gives that c1 = 0 and c2 = 0.
(c3 )w = 0. Taking d0 to be c1 + c2 + c3 , taking d1 to be
c2 + c3 , and taking d2 to be c3 we have this system.
5.4.5
a. This set is dependent. The familiar relation sin2 (x) + c1 + c2 + c3 = 0
cos2 (x) = 1 shows that 2 = c1 · (4 sin2 (x)) + c2 · (cos2 (x)) c2 + c3 = 0
is satisfied by c1 = 1/2 and c2 = 2. c3 = 0
b. This set is independent. Consider the relationship c1 ·1+
Conclusion: the c’s are all zero, and so the set is linearly
c2 · sin(x) + c3 · sin(2x) = 0 (that ‘0’ is the zero function).
independent.
Taking three suitable points such as x = π, x = π/2,
x = π/4 gives a system b. The second set is dependent

c1 =0 1 · (u − v) + 1 · (v − w) + 1 · (w − u) = 0
c1 + √ c2 =0
whether or not the first set is independent.
c1 + ( 2/2)c2 + c3 = 0
whose only solution is c1 = 0, c2 = 0, and c3 = 0. 5.4.11
c. By inspection, this set is independent. Any dependence a. A singleton set {v } is linearly independent if and only if
cos(x) = c · x is not possible since the cosine function is v 6= 0. For the ‘if’ direction, with v 6= 0, we consider the
not a multiple of the identity function relationship c · v = 0 and noting that the only solution
d. By inspection, we spot that there is a dependence. Be- is the trivial one: c = 0. For the ‘only if’ direction, it is
2 2
cause (1 + x) = x + 2x + 1, we get that c1 · (1 + x) + 2 evident from the definition.
2 b. A set with two elements is linearly independent if and
c2 · (x + 2x) = 3 is satisfied by c1 = 3 and c2 = −3.
e. This set is dependent, because it contains the zero object only if neither member is a multiple of the other (note
in the vector space, the zero polynomial. that if one is the zero vector then it is a multiple of the
other). This is an equivalent statement: a set is linearly
f. This set is dependent. The easiest way to see that is to
dependent if and only if one element is a multiple of the
recall the trigonometric relationship cos2 (x) − sin2 (x) =
other.
cos(2x).
The proof is easy. A set {v1 , v2 } is linearly dependent if
and only if there is a relationship c1 v1 + c2 v2 = 0 with
5.4.6 No. Here are two members of the plane where the
either c1 6= 0 or c2 6= 0 (or both). That holds if and only
second is a multiple of the first.
    if v1 = (−c2 /c1 )v2 or v2 = (−c1 /c2 )v1 (or both).
1 2
0 , 0 5.4.12 Hint: Prove by contradiction. The converse (the ‘only
0 0 if’ statement) does not hold. An example is to consider the
vector space R2 and these vectors.
(Another reason that the answer is “no” is the the zero vector
is a member of the plane and no set containing the zero vector
     
1 0 1
is linearly independent.) x= , y= , z=
0 1 1

90
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

5.4.13 a. For any a1,1 , . . . , a2,4 ,

a. The linear system arising from 
a1,1
 
a1,2
 
a1,3
 
a1,4
  
0
c1 + c2 + c3 + c4 =
      a2,1 a2,2 a2,3 a2,4 0
1 −1 0
c1 1 + c2  2  = 0 yields a linear system
0 0 0
a1,1 c1 + a1,2 c2 + a1,3 c3 + a1,4 c4 = 0
has the unique solution c1 = 0 and c2 = 0. a2,1 c1 + a2,2 c2 + a2,3 c3 + a2,4 c4 = 0
b. The linear system arising from that has infinitely many solutions (Gauss’s Method leaves
      at least two variables free). Hence there are nontrivial
1 −1 3 linear relationships among the given members of R2 .
c1 1 + c2  2  = 2 b. Any set five vectors is a superset of a set of four vectors,
0 0 0 and so is linearly dependent.
With three vectors from R2 , the argument from the prior
has the unique solution c1 = 8/3 and c2 = −1/3.
item still applies, with the slight change that Gauss’s
c. Suppose that S is linearly independent. Suppose that we Method now only leaves at least one variable free (but
have both v = c1 s1 +· · ·+cn sn and v = d1 t1 +· · ·+dm tm that still gives infinitely many solutions).
(where the vectors are members of S). Now,
c. The prior part shows that no three-element subset of R2
c1 s1 + · · · + cn sn = v = d1 t1 + · · · + dm tm is independent. We know that there are two-element sub-
sets of R2 that are independent. The following one is
can be rewritten in this way.    
1 0
,
0 1
c1 s1 + · · · + cn sn − d1 t1 − · · · − dm tm = 0
and so the answer is two.
Possibly some of the s ’s equal some of the t ’s; we can
combine the associated coefficients (i.e., if si = tj then 5.4.15 Yes; here is one.
· · · + ci si + · · · − dj tj − · · · can be rewritten as · · · + (ci −        
 1 0 0 1 
dj )si +· · · ). That equation is a linear relationship among 0 , 1 , 0 , 1
distinct (after the combining is done) members of the set 
0 0 1 1

S. We’ve assumed that S is linearly independent, so all
of the coefficients are zero. If i is such that si does not
equal any tj then ci is zero. If j is such that tj does not 5.4.16
equal any si then dj is zero. In the final case, we have a. Assume that v and w are perpendicular nonzero vectors
that ci − dj = 0 and so ci = dj . in Rn , with n > 1. With the linear relationship cv+dw =
Therefore, the original two sums are the same, except 0, apply v to both sides to conclude that c·kvk2 +d·0 = 0.
perhaps for some 0 · si or 0 · tj terms that we can neglect. Because v 6= 0 we have that c = 0. A similar application
of w shows that d = 0.
d. This set is not linearly independent: b. Two vectors in R1 are perpendicular if and only if at least
    one of them is zero.
1 2 2 c. The right generalization is to look at a set {v1 , . . . , vn } ⊆
S= , ⊂R
0 0 Rk of vectors that are mutually orthogonal (also called
and these two linear combinations give the same result pairwise perpendicular ): if i 6= j then vi is perpendicular
to vj . Mimicking the proof of the first item above shows
that such a set of nonzero vectors is linearly independent.
         
0 1 2 1 2
=2· −1· =4· −2·
0 0 0 0 0
5.4.17 It is both ‘if’ and ‘only if’.
Thus, a linearly dependent set might have indistinct Let T be a subset of the subspace S of the vector space V .
sums. The assertion that any linear relationship c1 t1 +· · ·+cn tn = 0
In fact, this stronger statement holds: if a set is linearly among members of T must be the trivial relationship c1 = 0,
dependent then it must have the property that there are . . . , cn = 0 is a statement that holds in S if and only if it
two distinct linear combinations that sum to the same holds in V , because the subspace S inherits its addition and
vector. Briefly, where c1 s1 + · · · + cn sn = 0 then multi- scalar multiplication operations from V .
plying both sides of the relationship by two gives another
relationship. If the first relationship is nontrivial then the 5.4.18 Hint: Use the definition of linear independence to
second is also. show that there only exists the trivial linear combination giv-
ing the zero vector.
5.4.14

91
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

5.4.19 In R4 the biggest linearly independent set has four b. One example in R2 is these two.
vectors. There are many examples of such sets, this is one.      
1 1 0
S= T = ,
0 0 1
       

 1 0 0 0 
       
  ,   ,   , 0
0 1 0


 0
   0 1 0  c. An example from R2 is these sets.

0 0 0 1
 
       
1 0 1 1
S= , T = ,
To see that no set with five or more vectors can be indepen- 0 1 0 1
dent, set up

a1,1
 
a1,2
 
a1,3
 
a1,4
 
a1,5 0 d.
   The union of two linearly independent sets S ∪ T is
a2,1  a2,2  a2,3  a2,4  a2,5  0 linearly independent if and only if their spans of S
a3,1 +c2 a3,2 +c3 a3,3 +c4 a3,4 +c5 a3,5  = 0
c1             and T − (S ∩ T ) have a trivial intersection span (S) ∩
a4,1 a4,2 a4,3 a4,4 a4,5 0 span (T − (S ∩ T )) = {0 }. To prove that, assume that
S and T are linearly independent subsets of some vector
and note that the resulting linear system space.
For the ‘only if’ direction, assume that the intersection
a1,1 c1 + a1,2 c2 + a1,3 c3 + a1,4 c4 + a1,5 c5 = 0 of the spans is trivial span (S) ∩ span (T − (S ∩ T )) =
a2,1 c1 + a2,2 c2 + a2,3 c3 + a2,4 c4 + a2,5 c5 = 0 { 0}. Consider the set S ∪ (T − (S ∩ T )) = S ∪ T and
a3,1 c1 + a3,2 c2 + a3,3 c3 + a3,4 c4 + a3,5 c5 = 0 consider the linear relationship c1 s1 + · · · + cn sn + d1 t1 +
a4,1 c1 + a4,2 c2 + a4,3 c3 + a4,4 c4 + a4,5 c5 = 0 · · · + dm tm = 0. Subtracting gives c1 s1 + · · · + cn sn =
−d1 t1 − · · · − dm tm . The left side of that equation sums
has four equations and five unknowns, so Gauss’s Method to a vector in span (S), and the right side is a vector
must end with at least one c variable free, so there are in- in span (T − (S ∩ T )). Therefore, since the intersection
finitely many solutions, and so the above linear relationship of the spans is trivial, both sides equal the zero vector.
among the four-tall vectors has more solutions than just the Because S is linearly independent, all of the c’s are zero.
trivial solution. Because T is linearly independent so also is T − (S ∩ T )
The smallest linearly independent set is the empty set. linearly independent, and therefore all of the d’s are zero.
The biggest linearly dependent set is R4 . The smallest is {0 }. Thus, the original linear relationship among members of
5.4.20 S ∪ T only holds if all of the coefficients are zero. Hence,
S ∪ T is linearly independent.
a. The intersection of two linearly independent sets S ∩ T
For the ‘if’ half we can make the same argument in re-
must be linearly independent as it is a subset of the lin-
verse. Suppose that the union S ∪ T is linearly indepen-
early independent set S (as well as the linearly indepen-
dent. Consider a linear relationship among members of S
dent set T also, of course).
and T −(S ∩T ). c1 s1 +· · ·+cn sn +d1 t1 +· · ·+dm tm = 0
b. The complement of a linearly independent set is linearly Note that no si is equal to a tj so that is a combination
dependent as it contains the zero vector. of distinct vectors. So the only solution is the trivial one
c. A simple example in R2 is these two sets. c1 = 0, . . . , dm = 0. Since any vector v in the intersec-
    tion of the spans span (S) ∩ span (T − (S ∩ T )) we can
1 0 write v = c1 s1 + · · · + cn sn = −d1 t1 − · · · − dm tm , and
S= T =
0 1 it must be the zero vector because each scalar is zero.
A somewhat subtler example, again in R2 , is these two. 5.4.22
 
1
   
1 0 a. Assuming first that a 6= 0,
S= T = ,
0 0 1
     
a b 0
x +y =
c d 0
d. We must produce an example. One, in R2 , is gives
    ax + by = 0
1 2
S= T = cx + dy = 0
0 0
and Gaussian elimination
since the linear dependence of S1 ∪ S2 is easy to see.
ax + by = 0
(−(c/a)b + d)y = 0
5.4.21
a. The vectors s1 , . . . , sn , t1 , . . . , tm are distinct. But we which has a solution if and only if 0 6= −(c/a)b + d =
could have that the union S ∪ T is linearly independent (−cb + ad)/d (we’ve assumed in this case that a 6= 0, and
with some si equal to some tj . so back substitution yields a unique solution).

92
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

The a = 0 case is also not hard break it into the c 6= 0 The remaining cases have the same character. Do the
and c = 0 subcases and note that in these cases ad − bc = a = 0 but d 6= 0 case and the a = 0 and d = 0 but g 6= 0
0 · d − bc. case by first swapping rows and then going on as above.
b. The equation The a = 0, d = 0, and g = 0 case is easy a set with a
        zero vector is linearly dependent, and the formula comes
a b c 0 out to equal zero.
c1 d + c2  e  + c3 f  = 0 c. It is linearly dependent if and only if either vector is a
g h i 0 multiple of the other. That is, it is not independent iff
       
expresses a homogeneous linear system. We proceed by a b b a
writing it in matrix form and applying Gauss’s Method. d = r ·  e  or  e  = s · d
We first reduce the matrix to upper-triangular. Assume g h h g
that a 6= 0. With that, we can clear down the first col-
(or both) for some scalars r and s. Eliminating r and s in
umn.
order to restate this condition only in terms of the given
 
1 b/a c/a 0
0 (ae − bd)/a (af − cd)/a 0 letters a, b, d, e, g, h, we have that it is not independent,
0 (ah − bg)/a (ai − cg)/a 0 it is dependent iff ae − bd = ah − gb = dh − ge

Then we get a 1 in the second row, second column entry. 5.5.1 Each set is a basis if and only if we can express each
(Assuming for the moment that ae − bd 6= 0, in order to vector in the space in a unique way as a linear combination
do the row reduction step.) of the given vectors.

1 b/a c/a 0
 a. Yes this is a basis. The relation
       
0 1 (af − cd)/(ae − bd) 0  1 3 0 x
0 (ah − bg)/a (ai − cg)/a 0 c1 2 + c2 2 + c3 0 = y 
3 1 1 z
Then, under the assumptions, we perform the row oper-
ation ((ah − bg)/a)ρ2 + ρ3 to get this. gives  
1 3 0 x

1 b/a c/a 0
 2 2 0 y 
0 1 (af − cd)/(ae − bd) 0  3 1 1 z
0 0 (aei + bgf + cdh − hf a − idb − gec)/(ae − bd) 0 and Gaussian elimination gives
 
Therefore, the original system is nonsingular if and only 1 3 0 x
if the above 3, 3 entry is nonzero (this fraction is defined 0 −4 0 −2x + y 
because of the ae − bd 6= 0 assumption). It equals zero if 0 0 1 x − 2y + z
and only if the numerator is zero.
which has the unique solution c3 = x − 2y + z, c2 =
We next worry about the assumptions. First, if a 6= 0
x/2 − y/4, and c1 = −x/2 + 3y/4.
but ae − bd = 0 then we swap row 2 and row 3
b. This is not a basis. Setting it up as in the prior part
 
1 b/a c/a 0
     
1 3 x
0 (ah − bg)/a (ai − cg)/a 0 c1 2 + c2 2 = y 
0 0 (af − cd)/a 0 3 1 z
and conclude that the system is nonsingular if and only gives a linear system whose solution
if either ah − bg = 0 or af − cd = 0. That’s the same as  
1 3 x
asking that their product be zero: 2 2 y 
ahaf − ahcd − bgaf + bgcd = 0 3 1 z
ahaf − ahcd − bgaf + aegc = 0 gives  
a(haf − hcd − bgf + egc) = 0 1 3 x
0 −4 −2x + y 
(in going from the first line to the second we’ve applied 0 0 x − 2y + z
the case assumption that ae − bd = 0 by substituting ae is possible if and only if the three-tall vector’s compo-
for bd). Since we are assuming that a 6= 0, we have that nents x, y, and z satisfy x − 2y + z = 0. For instance, we
haf − hcd − bgf + egc = 0. With ae − bd = 0 we can can find the coefficients c1 and c2 that work when x = 1,
rewrite this to fit the form we need: in this a 6= 0 and y = 1, and z = 1. However, there are no c’s that work
ae − bd = 0 case, the given system is nonsingular when for x = 1, y = 1, and z = 2. Thus this is not a basis; it
haf − hcd − bgf + egc − i(ae − bd) = 0, as required. does not span the space.

93
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

c. Yes, this is a basis. Setting up the relationship leads to and Gaussian elimination gives
this reduction    
0 1 2 x 1 −1 1
 2 1 5 y 0 2 1
−1 1 0 z
and conclude that c2 = 1/2 and so c1 = 3/2. Thus, the
gives   representation is this.
−1 1 0 z
0 3 5 y + 2z    
1 3/2

0 0 1/3 x − y/3 − 2z/3 RepB ( )=
2 1/2 B
which has a unique solution for each triple of components
x, y, and z.
b. The relationship c1 · (1) + c2 · (1 + x) + c3 · (1 + x + x2 ) + c4 ·
d. No, this is not a basis. The reduction of (1 + x + x2 + x3 ) = x2 + x3 is easily solved by inspection
to give that c4 = 1, c3 = 0, c2 = −1, and c1 = 0.
 
0 1 1 x
 2 1 3 y  
0
−1 1 0 z
−1
RepD (x2 + x3 ) = 
 

gives 0
 
−1 1 0 z 1 D
0 3 3 y + 2z 
0 0 0 x − y/3 − 2z/3
5.5.5 A natural basis is h1, x, x2 i. There are bases for P2
which does not have a solution for each triple x, y, and
that do not contain any polynomials of degree one or degree
z. Instead, the span of the given set includes only those
zero. One is h1 + x + x2 , x + x2 , x2 i. (Every basis has at
vectors where x = y/3 + 2z/3.
least one polynomial of degree two, though.)
5.5.2 5.5.6 The reduction
a. This is a basis for P2 . To show that it spans the space  
we consider a generic a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 ∈ P2 and look 1 −4 3 −1 0
for scalars c1 , c2 , c3 ∈ R such that a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 = 2 −8 6 −2 0
2
c1 · (x − x + 1) + c2 · (2x + 1) + c3 (2x − 1). Gauss’s
Method on the linear system Gaussian elimination gives
 
c1 = a2 1 −4 3 −1 0
2c2 + 2c3 = a1 0 0 0 0 0
c2 − c3 = a0
gives that the only condition is that x1 = 4x2 − 3x3 + x4 . The
shows that given the ai ’s we can compute the cj ’s as c1 = solution set is
a2 , c2 = (1/4)a1 + (1/2)a0 , and c3 = (1/4)a1 − (1/2)a0 .    
Thus each element of P2 is a combination of the given  4x2 − 3x3 + x4 
  

three. x
 
2
  
   x2 , x3 , x4 ∈ R
To prove that the set of the given three is linearly in- 

 x3  
 

2
dependent we can set up the equation 0x + 0x + 0 = x4
  
c1 · (x2 − x + 1) + c2 · (2x + 1) + c3 (2x − 1) and solve, and
        
 4 −3 1  
it will give that c1 = 0, c2 = 0, and c3 = 0.
 
 1 0 0  
= x2   + x3   + x4    x2 , x3 , x4 ∈ R
b. This is not a basis. It does not span the space since no  0 1 0  
2 2
  
combination of the two c1 · (x + x ) + c2 · (x − x ) will 0 0 1 
 
sum to the polynomial 3 ∈ P2 .
and so the obvious candidate for the basis is this.
5.5.3 Show that
the set is linearly independent and spans      
4 −3 1
P2 . 5x2 − x + 7 B = (1, 2, 3) 1  0  0
h
0 ,  1  , 0i
    
5.5.4
0 0 1
a. We solve      
1 −1 1 We’ve shown that this spans the space, and showing it is also
c1 + c2 =
1 1 2 linearly independent is routine.
with  
1 −1 1 5.5.7
1 1 2

94
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

 
1 2 0 −3 0 −2 we get this system.
0 0 1 1 0 0 
a. 
0 0 0 0 1 1 

2c1 + 3c2 = a0
0 0 0 0 0 0 −2c1 = a1
b. B = {(2, 0, 0, 0, −1, 1), 4c2 = a2
(3, 0, −1, 1, 0, 0), (−2, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0)} and Gaussian elimination gives
5.5.8 There are many bases. This is a natural one. 2c1 + 3c2 = a0

1 0
 
0 1
 
0 0
 
0 0
 3c2 = a0 + a1
h , , , i 0 = (−4/3)a0 − (4/3)a1 + a2
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
Thus, the only quadratic polynomials a0 + a1 x + a2 x2
5.5.9 For each, many answers are possible. with associated c’s are the ones such that 0 = (−4/3)a0 −
a. One way to proceed is to parametrize by expressing the (4/3)a1 + a2 . Hence the span is this.
a2 as a combination of the other two a2 = 2a1 +a0 . Then 
(−a1 + (3/4)a2 ) + a1 x + a2 x2  a1 , a2 ∈ R

a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 is (2a1 + a0 )x2 + a1 x + a0 and
Parametrizing gives

(2a1 + a0 )x2 + a1 x + a0  a1 , a0 ∈ R


a1 · (−1 + x) + a2 · ((3/4) + x2 )  ai ∈ R , which sug-


= a1 · (2x2 + x) + a0 · (x2 + 1)  a1 , a0 ∈ R

gests h−1 + x, (3/4) + x2 i (checking that it is linearly
suggests h2x2 + x, x2 + 1i. This only shows that it spans, independent is routine).
but checking that it is linearly independent is routine.
get 5.5.11
 
b. Parametrize (a b c)  a+b=0 to
(−b b c) b, c ∈ R , which suggests using the a. The subspace is this.
 

sequence h(−1 1 0), (0 0 1)i. We’ve shown that it 
a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + a3 x3  a0 + 7a1 + 49a2 + 343a3 = 0

spans, and checking that it is linearly independent is
easy. Rewriting a0 = −7a1 − 49a2 − 343a3 gives this.
c. Rewriting 
 (−7a1 − 49a2 − 343a3 ) + a1 x + a2 x2 + a3 x3  ai ∈ R

         
a b   1 0 0 1  
a, b ∈ R = a · +b· a, b ∈ R
0 2b  0 0 0 2  On breaking out the parameters, this suggests h−7 +
suggests this for the basis. x, −49 + x2 , −343 + x3 i for the basis (it is easily veri-
    fied).
1 0 0 1
h , i b. The given subspace is the collection of cubics p(x) =
0 0 0 2
a0 +a1 x+a2 x2 +a3 x3 such that a0 +7a1 +49a2 +343a3 = 0
and a0 + 5a1 + 25a2 + 125a3 = 0. Gauss’s Method
5.5.10
a. Asking which a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 can be expressed as c1 · a0 + 7a1 + 49a2 + 343a3 = 0
(1 + x) + c2 · (1 + 2x) gives rise to three linear equations, a0 + 5a1 + 25a2 + 125a3 = 0
2
describing the coefficients of x , x, and the constants. gives
c1 + c2 = a 0 a0 + 7a1 + 49a2 + 343a3 = 0
c1 + 2c2 = a1 −2a1 − 24a2 − 218a3 = 0
0 = a2 gives that a1 = −12a2 − 109a3 and that a0 = 35a2 +
Gauss’s Method with back-substitution shows, provided 420a3 . Rewriting (35a2 + 420a3 ) + (−12a2 − 109a3 )x +
that a2 = 0, that c2 = −a0 + a1 and c1 = 2a0 − a1 . a2 x2 + a3 x3 as a2 · (35 − 12x + x2 ) + a3 · (420 − 109x + x3 )
Thus, with a2 = 0, we can compute appropriate c1 and suggests this for a basis h35 − 12x + x2 , 420 − 109x + x3 i.
c2 for any a0 and a1 . So the span is the entire set of lin- The above shows that it spans the space. Checking it
ear polynomials {a0 + a1 x | a0 , a1 ∈ R}. Parametriz- is linearly independent is routine. (Comment. A worth-
ing that set { a0 · 1 + a1 · x | a0 , a1 ∈ R } suggests a basis while check is to verify that both polynomials in the basis
h1, xi (we’ve shown that it spans; checking linear inde- have both seven and five as roots.)
pendence is easy). c. Here there are three conditions on the cubics, that a0 +
b. With 7a1 + 49a2 + 343a3 = 0, that a0 + 5a1 + 25a2 + 125a3 = 0,
and that a0 + 3a1 + 9a2 + 27a3 = 0. Gauss’s Method
a0 + a1 x + a2 x2
=c1 · (2 − 2x) + c2 · (3 + 4x2 ) a0 + 7a1 + 49a2 + 343a3 = 0
a0 + 5a1 + 25a2 + 125a3 = 0
=(2c1 + 3c2 ) + (−2c1 )x + (4c2 )x2 a0 + 3a1 + 9a2 + 27a3 = 0

95
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

gives the linear combination that gives the zero vector, {u, v, w}
a0 + 7a1 + 49a2 + 343a3 = 0 is linearly independent and is a basis of R3 .
−2a1 − 24a2 − 218a3 = 0
8a2 + 120a3 = 0 5.5.17 No linearly independent set contains a zero vector.
yields the single free variable a3 , with a2 = −15a3 , a1 = 5.5.18
71a3 , and a0 = −105a3 . The parametrization is this. a. To show that it is linearly independent, note that if
 d1 (c1 β1 ) + d2 (c2 β2 ) + d3 (c3 β3 ) = 0 then (d1 c1 )β1 +
(−105a3 ) + (71a3 )x + (−15a3 )x2 + (a3 )x3  a3 ∈ R

 (d2 c2 )β2 + (d3 c3 )β3 = 0, which in turn implies that each
= a3 · (−105 + 71x − 15x2 + x3 )  a3 ∈ R

di ci is zero. But with ci 6= 0 that means that each di is
zero. Showing that it spans the space is much the same;
Therefore, a natural candidate for the basis is h−105 +
because hβ1 , β2 , β3 i is a basis, and so spans the space,
71x−15x2 +x3 i. It spans the space by the work above. It
we can for any v write v = d1 β1 + d2 β2 + d3 β3 , and then
is clearly linearly independent because it is a one-element
v = (d1 /c1 )(c1 β1 ) + (d2 /c2 )(c2 β2 ) + (d3 /c3 )(c3 β3 ). If
set (with that single element not the zero object of the
any of the scalars are zero then the result is not a basis,
space). Thus, any cubic through the three points (7, 0),
because it is not linearly independent.
(5, 0), and (3, 0) is a multiple of this one. (Comment.
As in the prior question, a worthwhile check is to verify b. Showing that h2β1 , β1 + β2 , β1 + β3 i is linearly inde-
that plugging seven, five, and three into this polynomial pendent is easy. To show that it spans the space, assume
yields zero each time.) that v = d1 β1 + d2 β2 + d3 β3 . Then, we can represent the
same v with respect to h2β1 , β1 +β2 , β1 +β3 i in this way
d. This is the trivial subspace of P3 . Thus, the basis is
v = (1/2)(d1 − d2 − d3 )(2β1 ) + d2 (β1 + β2 ) + d3 (β1 + β3 ).
empty hi.

5.5.12 5.5.19 False since the 3rd vector is a linear combination of


0 0
 
0 0
 the first two vectors.
a. ∈ W , since = c1 M1 + c2 M2 + c3 M3 is
0 0 0 0 5.5.20 Each forms a linearly independent set if we omit v.
satisfied when c1 = c2 = c3 = 0. To preserve linear independence, we must expand the span of
   
0 0 0 0 each. That is, we must determine the span of each (leaving
b. ∈/ W since = c1 M1 + c2 M2 + c3 M3 gives
1 0 1 0 v out), and then pick a v lying outside of that span. Then
rise to the inconsistent equation c1 0 + c2 0 + c3 0 = 1. to finish, we must check that the result spans the entire given
 
1 2 space. Those checks are routine.
c. M = = c1 M1 + c2 M2 + c3 M3 is satisfied when
0 3 a. Any vector that is not a multiple of the given one, that
c1 = 2, c2 = 0 and c3 = −1, hence (M )B = (2, 0, −1). is, any vector that is not on the line y = x will do here.
One is v = e1 .
5.5.13
b. By inspection, we notice that the vector e3 is not in the
a. B = 1 + x3 , x2 + x3

span of the set of the two given vectors. The check that
b. (p(x))B = (−2, 2) the resulting set is a basis for R3 is routine.
c. For any member of the span
−1 − x + x2 , −2 − x + x3
 
c1 · (x) + c2 · (1 + x2 )  c1 , c2 ∈ R , the coefficient

5.5.14
    of x2 equals the constant term. So we expand the
−1 −1 −2 −1 span if we add a quadratic without this property, say,
5.5.15 ,
1 0 0 1 v = 1 − x2 . The check that the result is a basis for P2 is
easy.
5.5.16 Since dim(R3 ) = 3 then it is sufficient to show that
{u, v, w} is linearly indpendent to conclude that {u, v, w} 5.5.21 To show that each scalar is zero, simply subtract
spans R3 , hence is a basis of R3 . c1 β1 + · · · + ck βk − ck+1 βk+1 − · · · − cn βn = 0. The ob-
Given c1 u + c2 v + c3 w = 0, and taking the dot product of vious generalization is that in any equation involving only
both sides of the equality with u. the β’s, and in which each β appears only once, each scalar
is zero. For instance, an equation with a combination of the
u · (c1 u + c2 v + c3 w) = u · 0
even-indexed basis vectors (i.e., β2 , β4 , etc.) on the right
u · (c1 u) + u · (c2 v) + u · (c3 w) = 0 and the odd-indexed basis vectors on the left also gives the
c1 u · u + c2 u · v + c3 u · w = 0 since u · v = u · w = 0 conclusion that all of the coefficients are zero.
c1 ||u||2 = 0 since u 6= 0 5.5.22 Here is a subset of R2 that is not a basis, and two
c1 = 0 different linear combinations of its elements that sum to the
is obtained. Similarly if applied using v and w then c2 = 0
and c3 = 0 is obtained. Since only the trivial solution satisfies

96
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

same vector. b. We shall do just the two-vector case. Given x1 , . . . , z2 ,

            
1 2 1 2 1 2    
, 2· +0· =0· +1·  x1 x2 
2 4 2 4 2 4 S =  y1  ,  y2 
Thus, when a subset is not a basis, it can be the case that its z1 z2
 
linear combinations are not unique.
But just because a subset is not a basis does not imply that to decide which vectors
its combinations must be not unique. For instance, this set
 
x
  y 
1
2 z

does have the property that are in the span of S, set up

   
1 1
     
c1 · = c2 · x1 x2 x
2 2 c1  y1  + c2  y2  = y 
implies that c1 = c2 . The idea here is that this subset fails to z1 z2 z
be a basis because it fails to span the space. and row reduce the resulting system.
5.5.23 x1 c1 + x2 c2 = x
a. Describing the vector space as y1 c1 + y2 c2 = y
  
a b 
 z1 c1 + z2 c2 = z
a, b, c ∈ R
b c  There are two variables c1 and c2 but three equations, so
suggests this for a basis. when Gauss’s Method finishes, on the bottom row there
      will be some relationship of the form 0 = m1 x + m2 y +
1 0 0 0 0 1
h , , i m3 z. Hence, vectors in the span of the two-element set
0 0 0 1 1 0
S must satisfy some restriction. Hence the span is not
Verification is easy. all of R3 .
b. This is one possible basis.
           We have
5.5.25  (using these odball operations with care)
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0
0 0
h0 0 0 , 0 1 0 , 0 0 0 , 1 0 z i 
0, 01 −0y −1
0 , 0 0
        
  −y + 1 −z + 1 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1y 0   y, z ∈ R =  y  +  0 
1 0

 y, z ∈

z 0 z
    
c. As in the prior two questions, we can form a basis from 

 
0
  
0  


two kinds of matrices. First are the matrices with a single = y · 1 + z · 0  y, z ∈ R
one on the diagonal and all other entries zero (there are 
0 1 

n of those matrices). Second are the matrices with two
opposed off-diagonal entries are ones and all other entries and so a natural candidate for a basis is this.
are zeros. (That is, all entries in M are zero except that    
0 0
mi,j and mj,i are one.)
h1 , 0i
5.5.24 0 1
a. Any four vectors from R3 are linearly related because the To check linear independence we set up
vector equation      
          0 0 1
x1 x2 x3 x4 0 c1 1 + c2 0 = 0
c1  y1  + c2  y2  + c3  y3  + c4  y4  = 0 0 1 0
z1 z2 z3 z4 0
gives rise to a linear system (the vector on the right is the zero object in this space). That
yields the linear system
x1 c1 + x2 c2 + x3 c3 + x4 c4 = 0
y1 c1 + y2 c2 + y3 c3 + y4 c4 = 0 (−c1 + 1) + (−c2 + 1) − 1 = 1
z1 c1 + z2 c2 + z3 c3 + z4 c4 = 0 c1 =0
c2 =0
that is homogeneous (and so has a solution) and has four
unknowns but only three equations, and therefore has with only the solution c1 = 0 and c2 = 0. Checking the span
nontrivial solutions. (Of course, this argument applies to is similar.
any subset of R3 with four or more vectors.)

97
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

5.6.1 One basis is h1, x, x2 i, and so the dimension is three. 5.6.5 −1 + x2 , −x + x3 is a basis of W , therefore W is


of dimension 2.
5.6.2 For this space
    5.6.6
a b  a. Apply the Subspace Test.
a, b, c, d ∈ R
c d 
b. x2 − 3x, 1 is a basis of S. dim(S) = 2.

      
1 0 0 0 
c. (5, 7) is the coordinate vector of p(x) relative to the basis
= a· + ··· + d ·  a, b, c, d ∈ R
0 0 0 1 
found in part b.
this is a natural basis.      

1 0
 
0 1
 
0 0
 
0 0
  0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 
h , , , i 5.6.7 −1 0 0 ,  0 0 0 , 0 0 1 is a
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
0 0 0 −1 0 0 0 −1 0
 
The dimension is four. basis of V3 . dim (V3 ) = 3.
5.6.3 The solution set is 5.6.8 The bases for these spaces are developed in the answer
   

 4x2 − 3x3 + x4 
 
 set of the prior subsection.
x2 a. One basis is h−7+x, −49+x2 , −343+x3 i. The dimension
   
   x2 , x3 , x4 ∈ R


 x 3
 
 
 is three.
x4
 
b. One basis is h35 − 12x + x2 , 420 − 109x + x3 i so the


so a natural basis is this dimension is two.

c. A basis is −105 + 71x − 15x2 + x3 . The dimension is
      
4 −3 1
1  0  0 one.
0 ,  1  , 0i
h     
d. This is the trivial subspace of P3 and so the basis is
0 0 1 empty. The dimension is zero.
(checking linear independence is easy). Thus the dimension
is three. 5.6.9 First recall that cos 2θ = cos2 θ−sin2 θ, and so deletion
of cos 2θfrom this set leaves the
span unchanged. What’s left,
5.6.4 the set cos2 θ, sin2 θ, sin 2θ , is linearly independent (con-
a. As in the prior exercise, the space M2×2 of matrices with- sider the relationship c1 cos2 θ + c2 sin2 θ + c3 sin 2θ = Z(θ)
out restriction has this basis where Z is the zero function, and then take θ = 0, θ = π/4,

1 0
 
0 1
 
0 0
 
0 0
 and θ = π/2 to conclude that each c is zero). It is therefore
h , , , i a basis for its span. That shows that the span is a dimension
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
three vector space.
and so the dimension is four.
b. For this space 5.6.10 A basis is
     
    1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
a b  h0 0 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 0 0 , . . . , 0 0 0 0 0i
a = b − 2c and d ∈ R
c d  0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
        
1 1 −2 0 0 0 
= b· +c· +d· b, c, d ∈ R and thus the dimension is 3 · 5 = 15.
0 0 1 0 0 1 
this is a natural basis. 5.6.11 In a four-dimensional space a set of four vectors is lin-
      early independent if and only if it spans the space. The form
1 1 −2 0 0 0 of these vectors makes linear independence easy to show (look
h , , i
0 0 1 0 0 1 at the equation of fourth components, then at the equation
The dimension is three. of third components, etc.).
c. Gauss’s Method applied to the two-equation linear sys-
5.6.12
tem gives that c = 0 and that a = −b. Thus, we have
this description a. One
          b. Two

−b b  −1 1 0 0 
b, d ∈ R = b · +d· b, d ∈
c. Rn
0 d  0 0 0 1 
and so this is a natural basis. 5.6.13 dim(R2 ) = 2, hence a set of four vectors is linearly

−1 1
 
0 0
 independent.
h , i
0 0 0 1
5.6.14 A plane has the form {p + t1 v1 + t2 v2 | t1 , t2 ∈ R}.
The dimension is two. When the plane passes through the origin we can take the

98
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

particular vector p to be 0. Thus, in the language we have c. The ∪ of bases need not be a basis: in R2
developed in this chapter, a plane through the origin is the    
1 1
   
1 0
span of a set of two vectors. B1 = h , i and B2 = h , i
0 1 0 2
Now for the statement. Asserting that the three are not copla-
nar is the same as asserting that no vector lies in the span of B1 ∪ B2 is not linearly independent. A necessary and
the other two no vector is a linear combination of the other sufficient condition for a ∪ of two bases to be a basis
two. That’s simply an assertion that the three-element set is
linearly independent. Since dim(R3 ) = 3 then the set spans B1 ∪B2 is linearly independent ⇐⇒ span (B1 ∩ B2 ) = span
R3 . The set is a basis for R3 it is easy enough to prove (but perhaps hard to apply).
5.6.15 Let the space V be finite dimensional. Let S be a d. The complement of a basis cannot be a basis because it
subspace of V . contains the zero vector.
a. The empty set is a linearly independent subset of S. It 5.6.18
can be expanded to a basis for the vector space S.
a. A basis for U is a linearly independent set in W and so
b. Any basis for the subspace S is a linearly independent can be expanded to a basis for W . The second basis has
set in the superspace V . Hence it can be expanded to at least as many members as the first.
a basis for the superspace, which is finite dimensional.
Therefore it has only finitely many members. b. One direction is clear: if V = W then they have the same
dimension. For the converse, let BU be a basis for U .
5.6.16 Let BU be a basis for U and let BW be a basis for It is a linearly independent subset of W and so can be
W . Consider the concatenation of the two basis sequences. expanded to a basis for W . If dim(U ) = dim(W ) then
If there is a repeated element then the intersection U ∩ W is this basis for W has no more members than does BU and
nontrivial. Otherwise, the set BU ∪ BW is linearly dependent so equals BU . Since U and W have the same bases, they
5
as it is a six member subset of the five-dimensional space R . are equal.
In either case some member of BW is in the span of BU , and
6.1.1
thus U ∩ W is more than just the trivial space { 0 }.
Generalization: if U, W are subspaces of a vector space of a. Z = 370/3; x = 110/3, y = 40/3 from the final tableau
dimension n and if dim(U ) + dim(W ) > n then they have a 
x y s1 s2 Z

nontrivial intersection.  1 0 1/3 1/3 0 110/3
 
5.6.17 First, note that a set is a basis for some space if and  0 1 −1/3 2/3 0 40/3 
only if it is linearly independent, because in that case it is a 0 0 2/3 5/3 1 370/3
basis for its own span.
a. The answer to the question in the second paragraph is b. Z = 380/3; x = 130/3, y = 0, z = 40/3 from the final
“yes” (implying “yes” answers for both questions in the tableau
first paragraph). If BU is a basis for U then BU is a
 
x y z s1 s2 Z
linearly independent subset of W . It is possible to expand  1 −1 0 2/3 −1/3 0 130/3
it to a basis for W . That is the desired BW .
 
 0 1 1 −1/3 2/3 0 40/3 
The answer to the question in the third paragraph is 0 0 0 1/3 4/3 1 380/3
“no”, which implies a “no” answer to the question of the
fourth paragraph. Here is an example of a basis for a
c. Z = 98; x = 16, y = 0, z = 22 from the final tableau
superspace with no sub-basis forming a basis for a sub-
2
 
space: in W = R , consider the standard basis E2 . No x y z s1 s2 s3 Z
sub-basis of E2 forms a basis for the subspace U of R2  1 −1/5 0 2/5 1/5 0 0 16
 
that is the line y = x.  0 3/5 1 −1/5 2/5 0 0 22
 
b. It is a basis (for its span) because the intersection of  0 −1/5 0 −3/5 1/5 1 0 16
linearly independent sets is linearly independent (the in- 0 2/5 0 1/5 8/5 0 1 98
tersection is a subset of each of the linearly independent
sets). d. Z = 95; x = 25/2, y = 25/2, z = 5/2 from the final
It is not, however, a basis for the intersection of the tableau
spaces. For instance, these are bases for R2 :  
x y z s1 s2 s3 s4 Z
 0 1 0 5/8 0 −1/8 1/4 0 25/2
       
1 0 2 0
B1 = h , i and B2 = h , i
 
0 1 0 2
 0 0 0 9/8
 1 −5/8 −3/4 0 85/2 
 1 0 0 1/8 0 3/8 1/4 0 25/2
and R2 ∩ R2 = R2 , but B1 ∩ B2 is empty. All we can say
 
 0 0 1 −3/8 0 −1/8 1/4 0 5/2 
is that the ∩ of the bases is a basis for a subset of the 0 0 0 5/4 0 3/4 5/2 1 95
intersection of the spaces.

99
APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

e. Z = 400/3; x = 20, y = 0, z = 50/3, w = 40/3 from the

final tableau
 
x y z w s1 s2 s3 Z
0 0 1 0
 0 1/3 −1/3 0 50/3 

1 0 0 0 1/2 0 1/2 0 20 
 
0 1 0 1 1 −1/3 1/3 0 40/3 
0 3 0 0 3 2/3 1/3 1 400/3

6.1.2
a. Z = 2; x = 1, y = 1 from the final tableau
 
x y s1 s2 −Z
0
 1 −3/2 1/2 0 1
1 0 1/2 −1/2 0 1
0 0 1 0 1 −2

b. Z = 3; x = 1, y = 0, z = 1 from the final tableau

 
x y z s1 s2 −Z
0
 −1 1 −2 1 0 1
1 1 0 1 −1 0 1
0 0 0 0 1 1 −3

c. Z = 23/7; x = 10/7, y = 0, z = 1/7 from the final

tableau
 
x y z s1 s2 s3 −Z
 0 −1/7 1 −2/7 1/7 0 0 1/7 
 
 0 −4/7 0 −1/7 −3/7 1 0 4/7 
 
 1 4/7 0 1/7 −4/7 0 0 10/7 
0 2/7 0 4/7 5/7 0 1 −23/7

d. Z = 55; x = 5, y = 45, z = 5 from the final tableau

 
x y z s1 s2 s3 −Z
0 1 0
 −1/2 −1/2 1/2 0 45 

0 0 1
 1/2 −1/2 −1/2 0 5 
1 0 0 −1/2 1/2 −1/2 0 5 
0 0 0 1/2 1/2 1/2 1 −55

e. Z = 370/3; x = 110/3, y = 40/3, z = 0 from the final

tableau
 
x y z s1 s2 s3 −Z
 0 0 5/3 −2/3 1/3 1 0 40/3 
 
 0 1 −4/3 1/3 −2/3 0 0 40/3 
 
 1 0 −2/3 −1/3 −1/3 0 0 110/3 
0 0 4/3 2/3 5/3 0 1 −370/3

100
References

[BS] Bogdan Szczepara, Licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License or the Creative Commons Attribution-
ShareAlike License.
[GHC] Gregory Hartman, APEX Calculus, Version 3.0, https://github.com/APEXCalculus/APEXCalculus Source, Li-
censed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 3.0 license.

[GH] Gregory Hartman, Fundamentals of Matrix Algebra, https://github.com/APEXCalculus/

Fundamentals-of-Matrix-Algebra, Licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 3.0 license.
[HE] Harold W. Ellingsen Jr., Matrix Arithmetic, Licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 2.5 License.
[AG] Andrea Gambioli, Licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License or the Creative Commons Attribution-
ShareAlike License.

[JH] Jim Hefferon, Linear Algebra, http://joshua.smcvt.edu/linearalgebra, Licensed under the GNU Free Documentation
License or the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 2.5 License, 2014.
[KK] Ken Kuttler and Stephanie Keyowski, A First Course in Linear Algebra, http://lyryx.com, Licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution 4.0 License, 2015.

[MB] Mélanie Beck, Licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License or the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike
License.
[MC] Michael Corral, Vector Calculus, http://mecmath.net/, Licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License, Version
1.2, 2013.

[NS] Nandor Sieben, Licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License.
[OV] Olga Veres, Licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License or the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike
License.
[CR] Chris Roderick, Licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-ShareAlike License.

[SM] Sylvain Muise, Licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License or the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike
License.
[SS] Shahab Shahabi, Licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License or the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike
License.
[SZ] Carl Stitz and Jeff Zeager, Precalculus, http://http://stitz-zeager.com/, Licensed under the Creative Commons
Attribution-Noncommercial-ShareAlike License.
[YL] Yann Lamontagne, http://obeymath.org, Licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License or the Creative Com-
mons Attribution-ShareAlike License.

The problems contained in this textbook are taken directly or based on content of the above open source references.

101
Index

additive inverse, 41, 43 plane to plane, 37

adjoint matrix, 23–25 point to line, 34
algebraic properties, 31 point to plane, 37
angle, 30, 38 skew lines, 35, 39
between a line and a plane, 37 two lines, 35, 38, 39
between two plane and line, 38 distance:from a line to a line, 35
between two planes, 38 distance:from a point to a line, 34, 35
angle between line and plane, 37 distance:from a point to a plane, 37
angle between vectors, 29–31 dot product, 29–31, 33
area
parallelogram, 32, 33 elementary matrix, 15, 16, 21
triangle, 32 elementary operation, 20, 21
area of triangle, 32 elementary row operation, 1
area, area equation of circle, 30
triangle, 35 equation of line, 34, 37
augmented matrix, 1, 5, 6, 13 equation of plane, 37
even functions, 44
back substitution, 4
basis, 48–50 function
bisector, 31 even, 44
odd, 44
cancellation law, 14 function space, 41, 42, 44–46, 50, 51
Cauchy-Schwartz Inequality, 30 function subspace, 44
circle, tangent, orthogonal, perpendicular, radius, 30
closest point, 37, 38 Gauss-Jordan Elimination, 3, 4
co-factor expansion, 19 Gauss-Jordan elimination, 3
coefficient matrix, 4, 13 Gaussian Elimination, 3
cofactor, 19, 25 Gaussian elimination, 3, 5
cofactor expansion, 19–21 geometric interpretation, 2
collinear, 28, 39 geometry, 28, 31
cone, 33 graphical interpretation, 1
consistent, 6
consistent system, 5, 6, 13 homogeneous system, 4, 5, 13, 15, 48, 50
consistent, inconsistent, 4
idempotent matrix, 11
constants, 1
identity, 33
coordinate vector, 48, 49
ij product, 7
coplanar, 33
inconsistent, 5
Cramer’s Rule, 24, 25
inconsistent system, 5, 6
cross product, 32, 33
infinite solutions, 5
cube, 31
infinitely many solution, 5
determinant, 19–25 infinitely many solutions, 5, 6
triangular, 19, 20 intersection, 34, 37, 38
diagonal matrix, 7, 8, 10, 42 between line and plane, 37
dimension, 50, 51 between planes, 38
distance, 34, 35, 37, 39 line and plane, 37, 38
between two points, 27 planes, 38
line to line, 35 two lines, 34, 38
parallel lines, 35 intersection of line and plane, 37

102
INDEX INDEX

intersection of lines, line power, 9, 11

intersection, 34, 35 product, 8, 9
intersection of planes, 38 product of elementary matrices, 15, 17
intersection, intersetion of two planes, intersection reduced row echelon form, 16
planes, 38, 39 row equivalent, 16, 17
intersection:line and plane, 37 similar, 22
intersection:of two planes, 37 singular, 15
invertible matrix, 15, 23, 24 skew-symmetric, 9, 11, 44, 50
subtraction, 9
Kirchhoff’s law, 6 symmetric, 11, 49
trace of, 9, 12
Laplace expansion, 19–21 transpose, 8, 9, 11, 12, 14, 16, 17
line, 28, 34–39 triangular, 9, 15, 19, 20, 22
parallel, 34 upper triangular, 9
parametric equations, 34 zero factor property, 11
vector equation, 34 matrix addition, 7, 10
line, parametric equation of line, 35, 37–39 matrix associativity, 7, 8
line, plane, 44 matrix dimension, 7
linear combination, 28, 30, 49 matrix element, 7
linear dependence, 46–48 matrix entry, 7
linear equation, 1 matrix equation, 10, 12–17
linear independence, 46–48 matrix inverse, 12–15
linear system, 13 matrix multiplication, 8
lines, 35, 39 matrix polynomial, 12, 14, 15
intersection, 35 matrix power, 8, 10, 11
parallel, 35 matrix powers, 9, 10
skew, 35, 39 matrix product, 7, 8, 10
magic matrix, 16 matrix size, 7
matrix matrix space, 41–46, 48–50
addition, 9 matrix space, polynomial space, 45
adjoint, 23, 24 maximize, 53
algebraic properties, 10 midpoint, 28
arithmetic, 8, 10 minor, 19
augmented, 2 nearest point, 35, 39
cancellation law, 11 parallel lines, 35
coefficient, 13 skew lines, 35, 39
commutativity, 11, 14 nearest point:to a point in a hyperplane, 37
commutitavity, 11 nearest point:to a point in a line, 34, 35
diagonal, 9 nearest point:to a point in a plane, 37, 38
dimension, 8, 9 nilpotent matrix, 11, 14
elementary, 15–17 no solution, unique solution, infinitely many solution, 5
entry, 9 norm, 27–31
equation, 12–14, 16
expression, 14 oblique cylinder, 33
Hilbert’s, 16 odd function, 42, 44
idempotent, 10 orthogonal, 29–31, 39, 49
inverse, 9, 12–17, 22–24 orthogonal matrix, 15
invertible, 15, 23, 24 orthogonal vector, 31–33
involutory, 11, 15, 17 orthogonal vectors, 29, 32
lower triangular, 9
magic, 16 parallel lines, line
matrix, 15 parallel, 34, 35
multiplication, 7, 9, 10, 16 parallel planes, perpendicular planes, 38
nilpotent, 14, 22 parallel vectors, 32
of cofators, 23, 24 parallelepiped, 33
orthogonal, 15 parallelogram, 31, 33
polynomial, 15 parallelogram law, 31

103
INDEX INDEX

parametric equation of line, 34 symmetric, 22

particular solution, 1, 3, 4 system of linear equation, 13
perpendicular plane, 38 system of linear equations, 1, 3, 6, 10, 13, 15, 24, 25, 28
plane, 36–39
distance point to plane, 37 trace, 20
general form, 36 trace of a matrix, 9, 11
normal vector, 36 triangle inequality, 29, 30
parallel, 36 triangular matrix, 8, 15, 19
parallel plane, 38 trivial solution, 5, 15
parallel to another plane, 36 trivial subspace, 44
parametric equation, 38 true or false, 49
perpendicular, 36
point-normal equation, 36–38 unique solution, 5, 15
standard form, 36 unique solution, inconsistent, infinitely many solutions, 5
yz-plane, 39 unit vector, 27, 28, 30, 38
planes, 39
Vandermonde determinant, 21
point on plane, 36
vector, 27, 28, 34
polynomial space, 41, 42, 44–46, 48–50
vector arithmetic, 27, 28
positive real numbers, 43
vector equation of line, 34
projection, 30, 32–35, 37
vector plane equation, 38
Pythagorean theorem, 31
vector space, 41–43, 45
quadratic equation, parabola, 4 function space, 42
matrix space, 42
rational numbers, 42 polynomial space, 42
reduced row echelon form, 2–4 subspace, 44
rhombus, 31 volume, 33
row echelon form, 2, 4 cone, 33
row equivalent, 16, 17 oblique cylinder, 33
row-equivalent, 16 parallelepiped, 32, 33
volume:parallelepiped, 32
scalar multiplication, 8
scalar triple product, 33 zero factor property, 14
shortest distance, 38 zero vector, 41, 43
similar matrix, 22
simplex
maximize, 53
minimize, 53
simplex method, 53
singular matrix, 22, 24
skew line, line
skew, 35
skew lines, 35, 38
skew lines, line
skew, 34, 35, 39
skew symmetric matrix, 11
skew-symmetric matrix, 8, 22, 44, 50
skew-symmetric matrix, matrix
skew-symmetric, 22
solution set, 2–5
spaning set, 45, 46
spanning set, 45, 49
square, 31
subspace, 44–46, 50
symmetric equation, 14
symmetric equation of line, 34
symmetric matrix, 8, 11, 49
symmetric matrix, matrix

104