LITERATURE CITED

1. V. A. Borovikov, "Influence 3f annular a i r gap between c h a r g e and b o r e h o l e wall on s t r e s s w a v e , " F i z . -

Tekh. Probl. R a z r a b . Polezn. Iskop., No. 5 (1975).
2. T. K. Atchison, " P r i n c i p l e s of crushing by b l a s t i n g , " in: Opencast Mining [Russian translation], Nedra,
Moscow (1971).
3. K. P. Stanyukovich, T r a n s i e n t Motions of a Continuous Medium [in Russian], Nauka, Moscow (1971).
4. A. A. Sveshnikov, P r i n c i p l e s of E r r o r T h e o r y [in Russian], Leningrad State Univ. (1972).
5. Yu. K. Krasnov, "Action of propellant and b r i s a n t e x p l o s i v e s on r o c k , " F i z , - T e k h . Probl. R a z r a b . Polezn.
Iskop., No. 1 (1981).
6. Strength, Stability, and Vibrations (Handbook) [in Russian], Vol. 2, M a s h i n o s t r o e n i e , Moscow (1968).

A NEW CHARACTERISTIC OF THE BLASTABILITY

OF ROCK IN Q U A R R I E S

B. R . Rakishev

The t e r m Wblastability" [Russian " v z r y v a e m o s t ' ,] is conventionally understood to m e a n the r e s i s t a n c e

of r o c k to f r a c t u r e by a b l a s t , c h a r a c t e r i z e d by the expenditure of e x p l o s i v e s on the f r a c t u r e of unit volume of
rock to pieces of given s i z e in standard blasting conditions [1]. All r o c k s a r e c l a s s i f i e d into different b l a s t -
ability groups according to the e x p l o s i v e s expenditure thus found (in grouped i n t e r v a l s ) . This b l a s t a b i l i t y c h a r -
a c t e r i s t i c c l e a r l y depends not only on the natural p r o p e r t i e s of m a s s i v e r o c k but also on the blasting p a r a m -
e t e r s and conditions and the quality of f r a g m e n t a t i o n . At the s a m e t i m e , it is p e r f e c t l y obvious that the b l a s t -
ing p a r a m e t e r s a r e the m e a n s of obtaining the n e c e s s a r y quality of f r a g m e n t a t i o n , and that the l a t t e r is a r e -
sult of the blast. Naturally, t h e s e f a c t o r s , which a r e m e r e l y s e c o n d a r y , can in no way influence the s p e c i f i c
p r o p e r t y of the r o c k - its r e s i s t a n c e to f r a c t u r e .
To avoid subjectivity in the e s t i m a t i o n of the r e s i s t a n c e of the r o c k to f r a g m e n t a t i o n by blasting, g o v e r n e d
by the above f a c t o r s , by Wblastability" we should understand the g e n e r a l i z e d p r o p e r t i e s of the solid rock, d e t e r -
mined by a given combination of natural c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the r o c k - its e l a s t i c , s t r e n g t h , and s t r u c t u r a l c o n -
s t a n t s . In o t h e r w o r d s , the r e q u i r e d b l a s t a b i l l t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c should be a function of the following p r i n c i p a l
quantities :
v = v(p0; c, ~, E, % , at, dn, k), (1)

w h e r e v is the b l a s t a b i l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of m a s s i v e rock; P0, density of the r o c k , kg/m3; c, longitudinal wave

velocity in the s p e c i m e n , m / s e c ; v, P o i s s o n ' s ratio; E, modulus of e l a s t i c i t y of the rock, kN/m~; ~c, c o m p r e s -
sive strength of the rock, kN/m2; (rt, t e n s i l e strength of the rock, k N / m 2 ; d n, m e a n d i m e n s i o n of a natural
s t r u c t u r a l unit, m; and k, a coefficient r e p r e s e n t i n g the p r o p e r t i e s of the filling of the f r a c t u r e s and t h e i r
d e g r e e of opening.
Analysis of s i m p l e t h e o r i e s of f r a c t u r e of m a t e r i a l s and d i m e n s i o n s r e v e a l s that f r o m the s e t of b a s i c
p r o p e r t i e s of the r o c k on the right-hand side of Eq. fl) we can c o m p i l e a single p a r a m e t e r with the d i m e n s i o n s
of velocity, c h a r a c t e r i z i n g the p r o c e s s in question. In fact, as shown by Vlasov and Smirnov [2], the s p e c i f i c
potential e n e r g y of d e f o r m a t i o n c o r r e s p o n d i n g to the yield point of the t e s t s p e c i m e n can be r e p l a c e d by the
k i n e t i c energy which c a u s e s the onset of f r a c t u r e when c o m p l e t e l y t r a n s f o r m e d to w o r k of d e f o r m a t i o n . The
p a r t i c l e velocity f r o m which this kinetic e n e r g y is calculated is called the c r i t i c a l f r a c t u r e velocity, ff the
s p e c i m e n is loaded uniaxially, it is given by
O' s

u, = - ~ ' o ' (2)

w h e r e crs is the yield point of the m a t e r i a l in k N / m 2.
F o r longitudinal wave p r o p a g a t i o n in the solid r o c k

V. I. Lenin Polytechnic Institute, A i m a - A t a . T r a n s l a t e d f r o m F i z i k o - T e k h n i c h e s k i e P r o b l e m y R a z r a b o t k i

Poleznykh Iskopaemykh, No. 3, pp. 77-80, M a y - J u n e , 1981. Original a r t i c l e s u b m i t t e d March 12, 1980.

248 0038-5581/81/1703-0248507.50 9 1982 Plenum Publishing C o r p o r a t i o n

 E (1 ~ v ) ( l - 2v)
(~ - - ~ ) P0C ~"

and for most r o c k s v =0.3; hence Eq. (2) can be rewritten in the form
2 % (3)
u, = -V3 ' -'-~"
P0
In the case of uniaxial c o m p r e s s i o n of a specimen, crs =~c; in the case of uniaxial tension, crs =~t. For
blasting of the solid rock, the values of the breaking s t r e s s and the constant coefficient in (3) can be found
from the following c o n s i d e r a t i o n s .
It is known [3] that the state of s t r e s s of the medium v a r i e s with i n c r e a s i n g distance f r o m the c e n t e r
of the blast. For example, in a zone immediately adjoining the charge c h a m b e r the s t r e s s e s in the c o m p r e s s i o n
wave caused by the explosion are higher than the c o m p r e s s i v e strength of the rock. The l a t t e r will t h e r e f o r e
be crushed. The size of this zone does not exceed 7-15 times the charge radius [4]. Beyond this zone the
particles involved in the motion of the c o m p r e s s i o n wave continue in radial motion. As a result, each i m a g -
inary e l e m e n t a r y l a y e r is s t r e t c h e d , leading to the appearance of a s y s t e m of radial c r a c k s . These are due
to tangential tensile s t r e s s e s which are g r e a t e r than the breaking strength of the m a t e r i a l . This zone extends
to 20-40 times the c h a r g e r a d i u s . The f r a c t u r e running f r o m the free s u r f a c e is also due to tensile s t r e s s e s
[3]. It extends to a distance of the o r d e r of 30-60 charge radii [4]. Thus in o r d i n a r y blasting conditions not
m o r e than 10% of the whole volume of the rock is broken by s h e a r due to c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e s s e s . The rest
(over 90%) is broken by n o r m a l tensile s t r e s s e s . On this b a s i s , the value of the c o r r e c t e d breaking s t r e s s
in blasting of m a s s i v e rock can be taken to be equal, with a known e r r o r , to

acor= 0.in c + at- (4)

As demonstrated in [4], for plane loading of a specimen the constant f a c t o r in Eq. (3) is equal to 2 4 " ~ .
Comparing the above figures, we see that the g r e a t e r is the limitation on motion of the f r a g m e n t s formed by
the blast, the s m a l l e r will be this coefficient. Since in blasting of m a s s i v e r o c k the m o v e m e n t s of the p a r t i c l e s
in the main bulk of the r o c k a r e s e v e r e l y constrained, the r e q u i r e d f a c t o r can be a s s u m e d equal to unity. Thus,
for the critical f r a c t u r e velocity of an a v e r a g e natural s t r u c t u r a l unit, we have

%. = ~o[p0c. (5)
The influence of the s t r u c t u r a l p r o p e r t i e s of the medium ~block s t r u c t u r e of solid r o c k , packing of s t r u c -
tural blocks, and t h e i r shape) on the blastability c r i t e r i a is taken into account as follows. It is well known that
every real m a s s of solid rock is divided by a s y s t e m of joints and c o n s i s t s of an a g g r e g a t e of natural s t r u c -
tural units of various volumes and configurations, stuck t o g e t h e r by a natural c e m e n t . L a r g e - b l o c k r o c k s have
wider and m o r e open joints. On the other hand, s m a l l - b l o c k r o c k s have n a r r o w e r and m o r e closed joints, it
follows that the s t r u c t u r a l p r o p e r t i e s of m a s s i v e rock can be c h a r a c t e r i z e d by the m e a n dimension of the natu-
ral s t r u c t u r a l blocks and by a coefficient r e p r e s e n t i n g the m a t e r i a l of the filler and the opening of the f r a c -
t u r e s . Experience shows that the breaking s t r e s s e s , and hence the f r a c t u r e velocity, a r e directly proportional
to these s t r u c t u r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the solid r o c k . On this b a s i s , t o g e t h e r with the t h e o r y of dimensions,
for the desired component of the critical f r a c t u r e velocity of m a s s i v e rock we can write

Vc. v = kYgd~ (6)

where g is the a c c e l e r a t i o n due to g r a v i t y , m / s e c 2.
The coefficient k r e a c h e s its lower limit in the case of p r a c t i c a l l y monolithic r o c k s . The value of Vc.v
cannot be u n r e s t r l c t e d l y l a r g e . This m e a n s that a monolithic rock m a s s is equivalent to some jointed m a s s
with fixed values of k and dn.
Thus our analysis leads us to the conclusion that.the c r i t i c a l f r a c t u r e velocity of the solid r o c k during
blasting can finally be found f r o m the e x p r e s s i o n

%r = k V ~ + %__o~ (7)
poc 9

The proposed blastability c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s u c c e s s f u l l y i n t e r r e l a t e s the main b a s i c p r o p e r t i e s of the rock

and m a s s i f , it has a c l e a r physical m e a n i n g : The f i r s t t e r m r e p r e s e n t s the r e s u l t of the action of breaking
f o r c e s which tend to divide up the m a s s i f into its natural s t r u c t u r a l blocks~ the second t e r m is the r e s u l t of
f r a c t u r e of the blocks t h e m s e l v e s under complex b u l k loading in a given m e d i u m . T h e s e p r o c e s s e s o c c u r
simultaneously. F r o m e x p r e s s i o n (7) it a l s o follows that with i d e n t i c a l m e c h a n i c a l p r o p e r t i e s of the rock, an
i n c r e a s e in the mean d i a m e t e r of the natural blocks and l a r g e opening of the joints lead to an i n c r e a s e in the

249
 T A B L E 1. M a i n C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of R o c k and M a s s i f
.
I,._ [~ I (kNim z" ~=~ ~=~
>" >.
I~ o=o

_~>.~ o ~ - ~ 5 ~-

Gra.aodiorite - porphyry without ~gns I

of silicification 2720 52(~) 157 15,7 0 , 7 0 4,88 O1]
Secondary quartzites from:
effusive porp.hyries, hard 2770 5200 133 15,2 0,70 4,60 Ol]
effusive porphyries, medium 2740 4820 107 13,2 0 , 5 0 4,04 MB
granodiorite - porphyries, strongly
silioified 2760 4820 92, -r 9,8 0,50 3,65 MB
granodiorite - porphyries, moderately
silicified 2740 4550 7i,E 8,3 0,32 3,00 EB
Skamized limestone 2840 4250 209,~ t9,6 0,66 5,52 VDB
Coarse-grained limestone 2820 4350 175,C 16,2 0,06 4,80 DB
Marmodzed limestone 2820 3830 158,9 t2,3 0,50 4,48 MB
Diorite -porphyrite from Akzhal 2720 5700 i07,9 t0,3 0,32 3,t3 EB
Cherty sandstone 3060 44t0 258,0 2J,6 0,52 5,42 VDB
Diorite-porphyrite from Sayak 2900 4920 251,1 21,1 0,52, 5,t5 D8
Tuffaceous sandstone 2700 4640 243,3 20,6 0,52 5,50 VDB
Diabase porphyrlte 9_240 42t0 235,4 i7,7 0,52 5,36 DB
Garnet skarm .~900 5340 2i0,9 20,6 0,72 5,35 DB
GranddiorlteJ ~730 4960 189,3 16,2 0 . 5 2 4,50 MB
Pyroxene skarns ~.900 5700 179,5 i7,6 0,72 4,80 DB
Mineralized skarns ]800 5900 172,6 16,7 0,72 4,17 MB
M ~ i v e limestone .'820 3860 145,2 i2,7 0,72 4,77 DB
White marble .~710 4800 66,7 5,9 i,t0 5,54 VDB
forces required for fracture. F o r r o c k with t h e s a m e d e g r e e of j o i n t i n g (block s i z e ) , c r u s h i n g of s t r o n g e r
rocks requires more energy. T h e s e c o n c l u s i o n s a g r e e w i t h t h e l a w s found to hold in p r a c t i c e .
O u r new p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of b l a s t a b t l i t y - t h e c r i t i c a l f r a c t u r e v e l o c i t y of t h e s o l i d r o c k b e i n g
b l a s t e d - is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m t h e known e l a s t i c , s t r e n g t h , and s t r u c t u r a l p r o p e r t i e s of t h e r o c k . In c o n t r a s t
w i t h t h e w i d e l y u s e d b l a s t a b i l i t y c r i t e r i o n - t h e t h e o r e t i c a l (or s t a n d a r d ) e x p l o s i v e s c o n s u m p t i o n - t h e d e t e r -
r u i n a t i o n of Vcr h a s no l i m i t a t i o n s . T h e r e f o r e , b e i n g a n o b j e c t i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e r o c k m a s s , it c a n b e
used as a basis for classifying rocks according to blastability.
T h e c r i t i c a l f r a c t u r e v e l o c i t i e s of t y p i c a l l e d g e r o c k s , c a l c u l a t e d f r o m Eq. (7) f o r v a r i o u s p o s s i b l e c o m -
b i n a t i o n s of p h y s i c o m e c h a n i c a l and s t r u c t u r a l p r o p e r t i e s , r a n g e f r o m 2.7 to 6.5 m / s e e . C o m p a r i n g t h e m with
t h e u n i f i e d b l a s t a b i l i t y s c a l e [1, 5], we find t h a t u s i n g i n t e r v a l s of 0.9 m / s e e f o r Vcr we c a n d i v i d e a l l r o c k s
into f i v e c l a s s e s w i t h r e s p e c t to t h e d e g r e e of d i f f i c u l t y of b l a s t i n g . We s u g g e s t t h e f o l l o w i n g c l a s s c h a r a c t e r -
i s t i c s : e a s i l y b l a s t e d (EB, Vcr < 3.6 m / s e e ) ; m o d e r a t e l y e a s i l y b l a s t e d (MB, Vcr = 3 . 6 - 4 : 5 m / s e c ) ; d i f f i c u l t to
b l a s t (DB, Vcr = 4 . 5 - 5 . 4 m / s e e ) ; v e r y d i f f i c u l t to b l a s t (VDB, v e t = 5 . 4 - 6 . 3 m / s e c ) ; and e x c e p t i o n a l l y d i f f i c u l t t o
b l a s t (EDB, Vcr > 6.3 m / s e e ) .
T o v e r i f y t h e a b o v e , in T a b l e 1 w e g i v e t h e b a s i c p r o p e r t i e s of t h e r o c k s , t h e m e a n d i m e n s i o n of t h e
n a t u r a l s t r u c t u r a l b l o c k s , t h e new b l a s t a b i l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , and t h e d e g r e e of b l a s t a b i l t t y of t h e s o l i d r o c k
f o r t h r e e n o n f e r r o u s m e t a l d e p o s i t s in K a z a k h s t a n . In c a l c u l a t i n g t h e c r i t i c a l v e l o c i t i e s w e m a d e t h e f o l l o w -
ing a s s u m p t i o n s : F o r g r a n o d i o r i t e - p o r p h y r i e s , s e c o n d a r y q u a r t z i t e s {Kounrad o r e m i n e ) , d i o r i t e - p o r p h y r i t e s
f o r m A k z h a l , and s k a r n s (Sayak o r e m i n e ) , k =1 {mean o p e n i n g of f r a c t u r e s , 6 =2 9 10 -2 m ) ; f o r l i m e s t o n e s ,
s a n d s t o n e s , p o r p h y r i t e s , and g r a n o d i o r i t e s , k = 0 . 8 5 (6 = 1.7 9 10 -2 m); and f o r m a r b l e , k = 1.4 (6 =3 9 10 -2 m ) .
T h e d e g r e e of b l a s t a b i l i t y d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e n e w m e t h o d a g r e e s w i t h t h e q u a l i t a t i v e b l a s t a b i l i t y c h a r a c t e r -
i s t i c s of t h e r o c k s , found e x p e r i m e n t a l l y at t h e a b o v e s i t e s .
In c o n c l u s i o n , we m u s t n o t e t h a t t h e u s e of t h e a b o v e f r a c t u r e c r i t e r i o n e n a b l e s us to g i v e a n o b j e c t i v e
e s t i m a t e of the b l a s t a b i l i t y of the s o l i d r o c k and to c o m p a r e r o c k s f r o m d i f f e r e n t d e p o s i t e s w i t h r e s p e c t t o
difficulty of blasting.

LITERATURE CITED

lo B. N. Kutuzov, Blasting and Mechanica/ Fracture of Rocks [in Russian], Nedra, M o s c o w (1973).
2. O. E . V l a s o v and S. A. S m i r n o v , P r i n c i p l e s of C a l c u l a t i o n of F r a g m e n t a t i o n of R o c k s b y B l a s t i n g [in
R u s s i a n ] , I z d . A k a d . Nauk SSSR, M o s c o w (1962).
3. G. I. P o k r o v s k i l and L S. F e d o r o v , A c t i o n of I m p a c t and B l a s t i n g in D e f o r m a b l e M e d i a [in R u s s i a n ] ,
P r o m s t r o i i z d a t , M o s c o w (1957).

250
4. B. R. Rakishev, "Control of blasting p r o c e s s to attain required technological p a r a m e t e r s of blasted rock
in q u a r r i t e s , " Author's Abstract of Doctoral DisseI~ation, Moscow (1978).
5. Rzhevskii, P r o c e s s e s of Open-Cut Mining [in Russian], Nedra, Moscow (1978).

iNFLUENCE OF THE PRESTRESSED STATE

OF A MEDIUM ON T H E FRACTURING EFFECT
OF AN E X P L O S I O N

V. P. Koryavov, V. M. K u z n e t s o v ,
V. I. K u l i k o v , a n d L . D. L i v s h i t s

The depths at which m i n e r a l s a r e worked are i n c r e a s i n g e v e r y y e a r and are now of the o r d e r of 1000 m.
In this connection, the rock p r e s s u r e r e a c h e s 200-300 k g / c m 2, and the horizontal tectonic s t r e s s e s may exceed
the rock p r e s s u r e severalfold and, in c o n t r a s t to the latter, they may be either c o m p r e s s i v e or tensile. The
p r e s e n c e of such a static s t r e s s e d state in deep horizons has a significant effect on all tectonic p r o c e s s e s ,
p a r t i c u l a r l y on the output of drilling and blasting. F r o m experience gained in blasting at Khibiny it is known
that tectonic s t r e s s e s of the o r d e r of 200-500 k g / c m 2 enhance the f r a g m e n t size of the spoil; this i n c r e a s e s
the consumption of explosives p e r cubit m e t e r of the spoil [1]. On the o t h e r hand there is a directly opposing
result, when the specific consumption of explosives d e c r e a s e s with an inc t e a s e in the working depth [2]. The cause
of this d i s c r e p a n c y is apparently the difference in the specific geological conditions : The type of s t r e s s e d
state, the location of the workings with r e s p e c t to the principal s t r e s s axes, etc. In any event it is c l e a r that
the s t r e s s e d state of the medium m u s t be taken into account when drilling and blasting operations are planned,
and it is worthy of both experimental and theoretical interest.
Model Investigations of a Camouflet Explosion. L a b o r a t o r y investigations were p e r f o r m e d on Plexiglas
specimens in the f o r m of cubes 30 m m on a side. The s o u r c e of the explosion wave was the energy of a ruby
l a s e r , focused on the c e n t e r of the s p e c i m e n . The l a s e r explosion p a r a m e t e r s were as follows: E n e r g y of the
o r d e r of 1 J; l a s e r g e n e r a t i o n time about 30 nsec; the volume in which energy e m i s s i o n {focusing of the l a s e r
radiation) o c c u r r e d was a cone with a height and base d i a m e t e r of about 0.8 m m . E s t i m a t e s show that as r e -
g a r d s the energy e m i s s i o n time and the initial e n e r g y concentration, a l a s e r explosion does not differ f r o m a
chemical explosion. In p a r t i c u l a r , the explosion of a TNT charge weighing 0.24 mg is equivalent energywise
to our l a s e r explosion.
The l a s e r explosion was p e r f o r m e d in specimens subjected to uniaxial and biaxial c o m p r e s s i o n and uni-
a~ial elongation by m e a n s of a 4-ton p r e s s . After the explosion we cut f r o m the s p e c i m e n small cubes and
photographed the f r a c t u r e zones in t h r e e p r o j e c t i o n s . Figures 1-4 show typical photographs of the f r a c t u r e
zones together with the loading s c h e m e s of the s p e c i m e n s . The n u m b e r s on the faces of the specimens and
on the photographs of the projections c o r r e s p o n d to one another. Figure 1 shows the r e s u l t of an explosion
in a s t r e s s - f r e e specimen; Fig. 2 shows f r a c t u r e s in a specimen subjected to uniaxial c o m p r e s s i o n with a
s t r e s s of 700 kg/cm2; Fig. 3 shows f r a c t u r e s in a s p e c i m e n subjected to biaxial c o m p r e s s i o n with a s t r e s s
of 500 kg/cm2; Fig. 4 shows f r a c t u r e s in a s p e c i m e n subjected to uniaxial tension with a s t r e s s of 200 k g / c m 2.
The experiments showed that p r e c r e a t e d static s t r e s s introduces anisotropy into the c h a r a c t e r of f r a c -
t a r e of the medium, orienting the c r a c k s in the direction p e r p e n d i c u l a r to the maximal tensile s t r a i n s . The
s a m e phenomenon was o b s e r v e d by Mamaev et al. [8] dut:ing an explosion in cylindrical specimens subjected
to p r e c o m p r e s s i o n . It was concluded that the c r a c k s are predominantly oriented along the line of action of
the maximal c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e s s e s . C l e a r l y , for c a s e s of p r e c o m p r e s s i o n both conclusions are equivalent.
A quantitative p i c t u r e of the f r a c t u r e anlsotropy is given by Table 1, which gives the c r a c k radii (ram)
over t h r e e projections for four s e r i e s of e x p e r i m e n t s , d i s c u s s e d above. The f r a c t u r e anisotropy is estimated
as the ratio of the c r a c k radius is the given projection to the m i n i m u m c r a c k radius for this experiment. F r o m
Table 1 we see that in our understanding of the word the anisotropy r e a c h e s three o r d e r s of magnitude.

O. Yu. Shmidt Institute of E a r c h P h y s i c s , Moscow. T r a n s l a t e d f r o m Fiziko-Tekhnicheskie P r o b l e m y

Razrabotki Poleznykh Iskopaemykh, No. 3, pp. 80-87, May-June, 1981. Original a r t i c l e submitted October 2,
1980.

0038-5581/81/1703-0251507.50 9 1982 Plenum Publishing C o r p o r a t i o n 251