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PHYSCIS FORM 1 HANDBOOK

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PHYSCIS FORM 1 HANDBOOK
[With well-drawn diagrams, solved examples and questions for exercise]
{2020 Edition}

Table of Contents
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
BRIEF PERSONAL PROFILE
GUIDELINES IN MY LIFE
Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS
Chapter 2 MEASUREMENT 1
Chapter 3 FORCE
Chapter 4 PRESSURE
Chapter 5 PARTICULATE NATURE OF
MATTER
Chapter 6 THERMAL EXPANSION
Chapter 7 HEAT TRANSFER
Chapter 8 ELECTROSTATICS I
Chapter 9 CELLS AND SIMPLE CIRCUITS
Chapter 10 RECTILINEAR PROPAGATION
OF LIGHT AND REFLECTION
AT PLANE SURFACES

2|P a ge
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The figure below shows a transverse section of a water dam. Explain why engineers
prefer the design to others.

Chapter Two 𝐌𝐄𝐀𝐒𝐔𝐑𝐄𝐌𝐄𝐍𝐓 𝐈

Introduction 3. Complete the table below
❖ Measurement refers to the process of Basic quantity SI Symbol of Derived
finding the size of a physical quantity. un unit quantit
❖ Scientists all over the world have one it y
international system of units i.e. systeme Length
internationale de unites (SI units) for Mass
physical quantities. Electric
current
Reasons for Establishing SI Units Thermodyna
1. To have international uniformity among mic
scientists. temperature
2. To avoid confusion among scientists. Luminous
intensity
Types of Physical Quantities Amount of
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i. Basic Physical Quantities (Fundamental substance

Physical Quantities) 4. Why is it necessary to establish SI
❖ These are quantities that cannot be units?
obtained from other physical quantities.
❖ There are seven basic quantities
according to the international system of
units (SI units). They are as shown in the
table below:
Basic physical SI unit Symbol
quantity of the SI LENGTH
unit ❖ It is the measure of distance between
Length Meter m two points. Examples of length are:
Mass Kilogra kg • breadth
m • diameter
Time Second s • height
Electric currents Ampere A • Depth etc.
Thermodynamic Kelvin K Multiples and Sub-multiples of the metre
temperature 1 𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 (1 𝑘𝑚) = 1000 𝑚
Luminous Candela Cd 1 ℎ𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 (1 𝐻𝑚) = 100 𝑚
1 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 (1 𝐷𝑚) = 10 𝑚
intensity
1 𝑚 = 10 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒 (𝑑𝑚)
Amount of mole mol
1 𝑚 = 100 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 (𝑐𝑚)
substance
1 𝑚 = 1 000 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 (𝑚𝑚)
1 𝑚 = 1 000 000 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 (µ𝑚)
ii. Derived Physical Quantities
❖ These are quantities obtained by Exercise 2.2
multiplication or division of other physical Convert the following into SI units
quantities e.g. area, volume, work, a) 1000km (answer: 1 000 000 m)
density, momentum etc. b) 0.00025 mm (answer: 0.00000025 m)
c) 0.01Hm (answer: 1 m)
d) 25 mm (answer: 0.025 m)
e) 25 µm (answer: 0.000025 m)

Exercise 2.1 Measurement of Length

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1. Identify the mistake(s) in the following SI There are two methods that can be used in
units and hence write them correctly. measurement of length:
(a) Amperes(a) 1. Measurement by estimation.
(b) Candela(cand) 2. Accurate measurement using a suitable
(c) Metres(M) measuring instrument.
(d) Kalvin Examples of instruments used in measuring
(e) Seconds length
(f) Kilograms I. Meter rule and half-meter rule.
(g) Pascals II. Tape measure used to measure
(h) newtons relatively long lengths e.g. length of a
2. There are two types of physical soccer field.
quantities: basic and derived quantities, III. Vernier calipers – used to measure
state the difference between the two. short lengths e.g. thickness of a
textbook or diameter of as measuring
cylinder.
IV. Micrometer screw gauge – used to
measure very short lengths e.g.
diameter of a wire.

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Factors Considered When Choosing an

Instrument for Measuring Lengths
1. Size of the object to be measured.
2. Level of accuracy required.

The Meter rule

❖ Meter rules and a half– meter rules are
graduated (calibrated) in centimeter and
millimeter
❖ The smallest division on a meter rule R 1 = 77. 9 cm, R 2 = 82.8 cm, R 3 = 25.5 cm, R
scale is 1mm (0.1cm or 0.001 m). This is 4 =30.0 cm, R 5 =3.4 cm, R 6 =7.0 cm
the accuracy of the meter rule.
Note: Exercise
I. Accuracy of a measuring instrument is Express the above readings in:
the smallest value that can be accurately I. Mm
obtained using the instrument. II. M
II. The measurement taken using a
measuring instrument must be Precaution When Using a Meter Rule
expressed to the number of decimal ❖ Care should be taken to avoid damage to
places of the accuracy of that the ends of meter rules. This is because
instrument. For example, any most of them do not have a short
measurement taken using a meter rule allowance at the ends to cater for tear.
should be expressed in whole number if
in millimeter, to 1 decimal place if in
centimeters and to 3 decimal places if in Tape Measure
meters. Types of Tape Measure
i. Tailor’s tape measure
Procedure Followed When Using a Meter ii. Carpenter’s tape measure
Rule iii. Surveyor’s tape measure etc.
1. Place the meter rule in contact with the Note: The choice of tape measure depends
object whose length is to be measured. on the nature and length of distance to be
2. Place the end of the object against the measured.
zero cm mark of the scale. Precaution When Using Tape Measure
3. Position your eye perpendicularly above ❖ Ensure it is taut (very straight) during use.
the scale.

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Measuring Curved Lengths

❖ To measure curved lengths such as rails
and roads on maps, a thread is placed
along the required length. The length is
then found by placing the thread on a
millimeter scale.
❖ For curved surfaces like a cylinder, a
Sources of Error When Using a Meter Rule thread is closely wrapped around the
❖ When using a meter rule, an error may surface a number of times.
arise when:
I. the rule is not in contact with the object, Experiment 2.1
II. the end of the object is not aligned to Aim/ Objective
the zero mark of the meter rule scale, To measure the circumference of a
III. the position of the eye is not measuring cylinder using a thread
perpendicular to the scale. Apparatus
i. 10 ml measuring cylinder
❖ NB: The error that occurs when the ii. Thread
position of the eye is not perpendicular to iii. Meter rule
the scale is called parallax error. Procedure
1. Closely wrap a thin thread ten times
around the cylinder as shown below.

Example
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What are the readings indicated by arrows

R 1 ,R2 , R 3 , R 4 , R 5 and R 6 below.

2. Mark with ink the beginning and end of

the turns.
3. Remove the thread.
4. Measure the length between the ink
marks and call it 𝑅1.
5. Repeat two times, recording readings as Results and Calculations
𝑅2 and 𝑅3 so as to ensure accuracy of • Height of the tree is estimated using the
your measurements. expression:
𝑅1 +𝑅2 +𝑅3
6. Find the average length as . ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑒, ℎ𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑒
3
Results and Calculations ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑑, ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑑
𝑅1 +𝑅2 +𝑅3 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑑𝑜𝑤 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑒, 𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑒
❖ Average length of 10 turns, 𝑅 = =
3
𝑅 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑑𝑜𝑤 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑑, 𝐿𝑟𝑜𝑑
❖ Circumference of the cylinder =
10
❖ Diameter of the cylinder (D) is obtained Example
as: In an experiment to estimate the height of
𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒎𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 a tree in Nyabururu Girls’ Secondary School
𝑫=
𝝅 compound, Grace recorded the following
data.
Exercise

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I. Length of shadow of the tree= 1000cm

Theoretical II. Length of shadow of the rod = 200cm
1. A length 550cm of a thin thread wraps III. Height of the rod = 100cm
around a cylinder exactly 25 times. IV. Determine the height of the tree
Calculate the circumference and the
𝟐𝟐 Solution
radius of the cylinder. (Take 𝝅 = ).
𝟕 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑒, 𝑥
2. Philip found that the perimeter of his
farming plot was approximately 500 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑑
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑑𝑜𝑤 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑒
strides. His stride was 1.1 m long. What =
was the perimeter of the plot? 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑑𝑜𝑤 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑑
𝑥 1000
=
Experimental 100 200
𝑥 = 5.0𝑚
1. Estimate the width of your desk by
counting how many of your palm
AREA
lengths are there
❖ Area refers to the measure of surface.
2. Describe a method you can use to
❖ The SI unit of area is the square
estimate the thickness width of one
meter(𝒎𝟐 ).
sheet of paper of your book.
3. Describe a method that can be used to
Multiples and sub-multiples of the square
estimate the thickness of a razor blade.
metre
I. 1 m2 = 1000 000 mm2
Estimation of Length
II. 1 m2 = 10 000 cm2
Experiment 2.2
III. 1 km2 = 1000 000 m2
Aim /objective: To estimate the height of a
a)
tree
Exercise
Apparatus
1. Express the following in square
• A rod of length 2 meters
centimeter
• A meter rule.
a) 0.00027 km2
Procedure
b) 4.5 m2
1. Hold the rod upright and measure its
2. Express the following in SI units
length. b) 9000 cm2
2. Measure the length of its shadow.
c) 0.009 cm2
3. Measure the length of the shadow of a
d) 25 km2
tree in the school compound.

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Measurement of Area Example

Area of Regularly –Shaped Objects Estimate the area of the irregular surface
❖ Area of irregular-shaped objects is shown in the figure below by counting the
obtained using appropriate formulae. small squares. The area of one complete
A. Rectangle square is 1cm2.

𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 × 𝒘𝒊𝒅𝒕𝒉

Solution
B. Circle o 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 =
(𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒕𝒆 𝒔𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒔 +
𝟏
×
𝟐
𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒕𝒆 𝒔𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒔) 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒐
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝝅𝒓𝟐 , 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒓 = 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔 𝟏
o 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 = (𝟒 + × 𝟐𝟐 ) × 𝟏 𝒄𝒎𝟐
𝟐
C. Triangle o 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝟏𝟓 𝒄𝒎𝟐

Exercise
1) Trace the outline of your palm on a
graph paper and estimate the area of
𝟏 the shape obtained.
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 = (𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆
𝟐 2) Determine the area of the top of your
× 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 desk.
3) The diameter of the bore of a capillary
D. Trapezium tube is 2.0mm. Calculate the cross-
section area of the bore in cm 2(take
π=3.142)
4) A sheet of paper measures 25cm by
15cm. Calculate its area in mm2

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𝟏 Volume
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 = (𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒍 𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒔)
𝟐 ❖ Volume refers to the amount of space
× 𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 occupied by matter.
❖ It is a derived quantity of length.
Area of Irregularly-Shaped Surfaces ❖ The SI unit of volume is the cubic meter
❖ Area of irregularly shaped surface can be (m3)
estimated by sub-dividing the surface into Multiples and Sub- Multiples of the Cubic
small equal squares and the area Metre
obtained as: (a)
1𝑚3 = 1000000 𝑐𝑚3
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 (b)
1𝑚3 = 1000 000 000 𝑚𝑚3
(c) 1𝑘𝑚 3 = 1000 000 000 𝑚 3
= (𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒕𝒆 𝒔𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒔
(d) 1𝑚3 = 1000 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
𝟏
+ (e) 1 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1000𝑚𝑙
𝟐 (f) 1𝑙 = 1𝑑𝑚3
× 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒕𝒆 𝒔𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒔) 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 Exercise 𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒔𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒓𝒆
Convert each of the following volumes to SI
unit
I. 1500 000 000 cm3
II. 20.0 liters
III. 1.0 ml
IV. 9000 000 000 mm3
V. 1000 000 l

Volume of Regular – Shaped Solids

❖ Volume of regularly – shaped solids is
obtained by applying an appropriate
formula.

1. Cuboid Examples

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Volume = cross-section area x height 1) A rim of foolscaps contains 500 papers

𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 = 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 × 𝒃𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒕𝒉 and has a mass of 2kg. The size is
× 𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 300mm by 200mm by 50mm. find:
I. The thickness of one sheet of paper.
200𝑚𝑚
= 0.4𝑚𝑚
500 𝑝𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠
= 0.0004 𝑚
II. The mass of one sheet of paper.
2. Triangular prism
o 500 papers = 2kg
2𝑘𝑔
▪ 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 1𝑝𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑟 =
500
o = 0.004𝑘𝑔
III. The volume of the rim.
o 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝐿 × 𝑊 × ℎ
o 300 𝑚𝑚 𝑥 200 𝑚𝑚 𝑥 50 𝑚𝑚
Volume = cross-section area x length = 3 000 000 𝑚𝑚3
𝟏
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 = 𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆 × 𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 × 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 = 0.003 𝑚3
𝟐 IV. The volume of one sheet of paper
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 500 𝑝𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠 = 0.003 𝑚3
3. cylinder 0.003 𝑚3
o 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 1 𝑝𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑟 =
500
= 0.000006 𝑚3
2) A block of glass is 50cm long, 4.0cm thick
and 2.5cm high. Calculate its volume
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘
= 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ × 𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑡ℎ
Volume= cross section area x height × ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝟐
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 = 𝝅𝒓 h
= 5.0 𝑐𝑚 × 4.0 𝑐𝑚
4. Sphere e.g. foot ball × 2.5 𝑐𝑚
= 50𝑐𝑚2

= 0.000050 𝑚3
3) Find the volume of the cylindrical tin of
radius 7.0cm and height 3.0cm.
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑖𝑛 = 𝜋𝑟 2
𝟒 𝟑
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 = 𝝅𝒓
𝟑
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22
= × 7 𝑐𝑚 × 7 𝑐𝑚
5. Cone 7
× 3 𝑐𝑚
= 462.0𝑐𝑚3
= 0.0004620 𝑚3
4) Find the volume of a triangular prism if
base = 6.0cm, height =5.0cm and length
𝟏 𝟐
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 = 𝝅𝒓 𝒉 =12.0cm
𝟑
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠
− 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 × 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
1
= ( × 6.0 𝑐𝑚 × 5.0 𝑐𝑚)
2
× 12.0 𝑐𝑚
= 180.0 𝑐𝑚3
= 0.0001800 𝑚3
5) Find the volume of a sphere whose
radius is 3.0cm
4
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 = 𝜋𝑟 3
3
4 22
= × × 3.0 𝑐𝑚
3 7
× 3.0 𝑐𝑚 × 3.0 𝑐𝑚
= 113.14 𝑐𝑚3
= 0.00011314 𝑚3
6) A sphere of diameter 6.0 mm is molded
into a uniform wire of diameter 0.2mm.
Calculate the length of the wire.
𝟐𝟐
(𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝝅 = )
𝟕
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒
= 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒
4 3
𝜋𝑅 = 𝜋𝑟 2𝑙
3

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4 22
× × 3.0 𝑚𝑚 × 3.0 𝑚𝑚
3 7
× 3.0 𝑚𝑚
22
= × 0.1 𝑚𝑚
7
× 0.1 𝑚𝑚 × 𝑙
36 𝑚𝑚 = 0.01 𝑚𝑚2 𝑙
3

36 𝑚𝑚3
𝑙= = 3600 𝑚𝑚
0.01 𝑚𝑚2
= 3.6 00 𝑚𝑙

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Measurement of Volume of Liquids Solution

i. Using a Container with Uniform Cross- 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 1 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 = 0.12 𝑐𝑚3
Section Area. 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 100 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑠 = 1000 × 0.12𝑐𝑚3
❖ The liquid is poured into the container = 12 𝑐𝑚3
and the height of the liquid in the 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 = 24 𝑐𝑚3
container is measured. The volume of the 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 = (24 + 12)𝑐𝑚3
liquid is calculated using the expression: = 36 𝑐𝑚3
Note:
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 ❖ When using a measuring vessel the
= 𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒓 reading of the volume is taken with the
× 𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 eye positioned in level with the bottom
of the meniscus (for liquids which curve
upwards) as in (a) or top of the meniscus
(for liquids which curve downwards) as in
(b) below.
Measuring Volume of Irregular- Shaped
Solids
❖ The method used in this case is called
ii. Using a suitable volume measuring displacement method since the solid
apparatus displaces some liquid when immersed.
❖ The following apparatus are used to Conditions under which displacement
measure volume accurately of liquids in method works:
laboratory: For displacement method to work best, the
a) Pipette solid whose volume is to be determined
b) Burette should:
c) Volumetric flask (a) not be soluble in the liquid being used,
d) Syringe (b) not react with the liquid,
❖ Pipette and volumetric flask measure (c) sink in the liquid and,
fixed volumes of liquids. (d) not absorb the liquid.
❖ The following apparatus are used to
approximately measure volume of liquids Experiments
in laboratory: Aim: To measure volume of irregularly –
a) Measuring cylinders shaped solid
b) Graduated beakers Requirements: stone, thread, measuring
c) Conical flasks cylinder, water, Eureka can (also called
displacement or overflow can), floater and
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The Burette a sinker.

Method 1: Using measuring cylinder

Procedure

The scale of the burette is marked such that

zero cm3 mark is at the top and the
maximum value mark at the bottom.
1. Partly fill the measuring cylinder with
water and not the volume 𝑉1 of the water
2. Tie the stone with a thread and lower it
gently in the cylinder until it is fully
submerged
3. Note the new volume of water V2
Results and calculations
The volume of the stone can be calculated
as:
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 = 𝑽𝟐 − 𝑽𝟏

Example
Water level in a burette is 24 cm3. If 100
drops of water fall from the burette and the
average volume of one drop is 0.12 cm3.
What is the final water level in the burette?
Method 2: Using Eureka can Example

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Procedure
1. Fill Eureka can with water until it 1) Determine the volume of water in the
overflows cylinder shown below.
2. Wait for the water to stop coming out of
the spout
3. Place a measuring cylinder under the
spout
4. Tie the stone with a thread and lower it
gently into water until it is fully
submerged
5. Collect the water coming out of the spout
using a measuring cylinder. Solution:
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 33 𝑐𝑚3
(Remember that accuracy of the scale shown
above is 1 𝑐𝑚3)

2) If a stone of volume 6cm3is inserted to

sink in water in the above cylinder what
will be the new water level?
Solution
Results and calculations
𝑁𝑒𝑤 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 = 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙
The volume of water collected in the + 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑒
measuring cylinder is the volume of the 𝑁𝑒𝑤 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 = 33 𝑐𝑚3 + 6 𝑐𝑚3
stone. = 39 𝑐𝑚3
Mass
❖ Mass is the quantity of matter in an
Method 3: Measuring volume of an object.
irregular-shaped floater using Eureka can ❖ The SI unit of mass is the kilogram (kg).
Procedure
1. Fill the Eureka can with water until it Multiples and Submultiples of the kilogram
overflows ❖ 1𝑘𝑔 = 1000𝑔
2. Wait for the water to stop coming out of ❖ 1𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒 = 1000𝑘𝑔
the spout ❖ 1𝑔 = 1000𝑚𝑔
3. Lower the sinker tied with a thread ❖ 1𝑘𝑔 = 1000000𝑚𝑔
gently into the can ❖ 1 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒 = 1000000𝑔
4. Measure the volume V1that flows into 1.

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the measuring cylinder Exercise

5. Remove the sinker and tie it to the cork 2. Convert 39.6mg into kg (answer:
as you fill Eureka can again and allow it 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟗𝟔𝒌𝒈)
to overflow. Then place the measuring 3. Change 50 tonnes into g (answer:
cylinder under the spout. 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒈)
6. Lower the sinker and cork tied together 4. 340 kg into tonnes (answer:
gently and measure V2that overflows 𝟎. 𝟑𝟒𝟎 𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒏𝒆𝒔)
into the measuring cylinder. 5. 20 g into kg (answer: 0.020 kg)
6. 100g into kg (answer : 0.100 kg)

Measurement of Mass
❖ There are three instruments that can be
used used:
I. Top pan balance (electrical type)
Results and calculations II. Beam balance (mechanical type)
The volume of the stone can be calculated III. Lever balance (mechanical type)
as: 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 = 𝑽𝟐 − 𝑽𝟏
Advantages of Electrical Balance (Top Pan
Balance) Over the Beam Balance
(Mechanical Type)
1. Electrical balance is accurate.
2. It is easy to use than beam balance.

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𝑉 =𝐿×𝑊×ℎ
= 6 𝑐𝑚 × 4 𝑐𝑚 × 3 𝑐𝑚
𝑉 = 72 𝑐𝑚3
𝑚 200𝑔
𝜌= ; 3 = 2.7777𝑔/𝑐𝑚3
𝑣 72𝑐𝑚
1𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 = 1000𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
2.7777 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 = 2.777 × 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
= 2778𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

1. The density of a substance is 15g/cm3.

Density Express this in SI units
❖ It is defined as the mass per unit volume 1𝑔1𝑐𝑚3 = 1000𝑘𝑔𝑙𝑚3
of a substance. 3
15𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 × 1000𝑘𝑔𝑙𝑚3
15𝑔𝑙𝑐𝑚 =
❖ Density is denoted by a Greek 1𝑔𝑐𝑚3
letter 𝒓𝒉𝒐 (𝝆) = 15000𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔
𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 =
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 2. The figure alongside shows a measuring
cylinder which contains water initially at
𝒎 𝒎
𝝆= ; 𝒗= ; 𝒎=𝝆×𝒗 level A. When a solid of mass 11g is
𝒗 𝝆 immersed in water the level raises to B.
Determine the density of the solid.
❖ Since mass is measured in kg and
volume in m3 then the SI unit of density
is the kilogram per cubic meter (kg/m3
or kgm-3)

1g/cm3= 1000kg/m3

Examples 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 = 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴

3. Show that 1g/cm3= 1000kg/m3 48 𝑐𝑚3 − 33 𝑐𝑚3 = 15 𝑐𝑚3
1𝑔 𝑚
𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 = 𝜌=
1𝑐𝑚3 𝑣
0.001 𝑘𝑔 30 𝑔 𝑔
= = 3
= 2.000 3
0.000001 𝑚3 15 𝑐𝑚 𝑐𝑚
= 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 = 2000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

Exercise

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4. Determine the density in kg/m3 of a solid 1. The diagram below shows the change in
whose mass is 40g and whose volume of water in a measuring cylinder
dimensions in cm are 𝟑𝟎 × 𝟒𝟎 × 𝟑 when an irregular solid is immersed in
𝑉 = 𝐿×𝑊×ℎ it.
𝑉 = 30 × 3 × 4 = 360𝑐𝑚3
𝑚
𝜌=
𝑣
40𝑔
3
= 0.11111 𝑔𝑐𝑚3
360𝑐𝑚
o 1𝑔1𝑐𝑚3 = 1000𝑘𝑔𝑙𝑚3
Given that the mass of the solid is 56.7g
0.1111 𝑔𝑙𝑐𝑚3
determine the density of the solid in g/cm 3
0.1111 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 × 1000𝑘𝑔𝑙𝑚3
= (give answer correct to 2decimal places
1𝑔𝑐𝑚3
2. Complete the table
= 111.1 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
mass volume Density
0.012kg 20cm3 0.6glcm3
5. A wooden block of mass 200g is 4.0 cm
200g ….….…c 800kglm3
wide 3.0 cm thick and 6.0 cm long.
m3
Calculate the density of the wooden
……….ton 125m3 ….…..glc
block in kg/m3
nes m3
Density Bottle 𝑚
𝑉=
❖ It is a small glass bottle fitted with glass 𝜌
stopper (made of ground glass) which has 0.080 𝑘𝑔
=
a hole through which excess liquid flows 1000𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
out. = 0.00008 𝑚3
i) Volume of the density bottle
Precautions When Using a Density Bottle 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒
1. The bottle should be held by the neck = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑡.
when wiping it. This is to prevent it from 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒
expanding due to body warmth when held = 0.000008 𝑚3
by sides by using hands.
2. The outside of the bottle must be wiped ii) Mass of solid D in part b)
dry carefully. iii) 96 − 8𝑔
3. There should be no air bubbles when the = 48𝑔
bottle is filled with liquid. = 0.088 𝑘𝑔
iv) Density of solid D
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𝑚
𝜌=
𝑣
0.088 𝑘𝑔
=
0.00008 𝑚3
= 1100 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

N/B Density bottle is used measure the v) Volume of water in c)

density of either liquid or solid. 𝑚
𝑉=
𝜌
0.030 𝑘𝑔
=
1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
= 0.000030𝑚3
vi) Mass of solid D in d).
𝑚=𝜌×𝑣
𝑚 = 1100
× (0.000080
− 0.000030)
Examples 𝑚 = 0.055 𝑘
1. The mass of a density bottle is 20.0g
when empty, 70.0g when full of water

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and 55.0g when full of a second liquid x. Exercise

Calculate the density of the liquid (take
density of water to be 1g/cm3) A density bottle has a mass of 17.5g when
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 empty. When full of water its mass is 37.5g.
✓ 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒 = When full of liquid x its mass is 35 g. If the
20.0𝑔 density of water is 1000kg/m3, find the
✓ 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒 + 𝑤𝑎𝑡 = density of liquid x.
70.0𝑔
✓ 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑙 = Density of Mixtures
50.0𝑔 ❖ A mixture is obtained by putting two or
𝑚
✓ 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒 = = more substance such that they do not
𝜌
50.0 𝑔
= 50𝑐𝑚 3 react with one another.
1𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 ❖ The density of the mixture lies between
✓ 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒 + 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 = the densities of its constituent
55.0𝑔 substances and depends on their
✓ 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒
proportions.
= 55.0 − 20.0 = 35.0𝑔
𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒊𝒙𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆
✓ 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒊𝒙𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒 =
= 50 𝑐𝑚3 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒊𝒙𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆
𝑚
✓ 𝜌 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑥 =
𝑣 Example
35.0 0.7𝑔 1. A mixture consists of 40cm3 of water and
= = 3
50 𝑐𝑚 60cm3 of liquid X. if the densities of
= 700𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 water and liquid X are 1.0g/cm 3 and
2. In an experiment to determine the
0.8g/cm3 respectively, calculate the
density of a certain solid D, the following
density of the mixture.
readings were obtained using a density
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝜌𝑤 × 𝑉𝑤
bottle
a) Mass of empty density bottle = 8g = 1.0𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 × 40𝑐𝑚3
b) Mass of a density bottle and solid D =96g = 40 𝑔
c) Mass of density bottle +30g water +solid 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑥 = 𝜌𝑥 × 𝑉𝑥
D= 132g
d) Mass of density bottle +water =88 g = 0.8 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 × 60𝑐𝑚3
Calculate = 48 𝑔
vii) Mass of water in density bottle in part
d).

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88 𝑔 − 8 𝑔 = 80 𝑔 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
= 0.080 𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 + 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑋
=
viii) Volume of water in d) (take density of 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 + 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑋
water be 1000kg/m ). 3

𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 Simple Pendulum

40 𝑔 + 48 𝑔 ❖ It is a device that can be used to
=
40 𝑐𝑚3 + 60 𝑐𝑚3 determine time intervals.
88 𝑔 ❖ It makes oscillations when displaced
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 =
100 𝑐𝑚3 slightly.
= 0.880 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 ❖ An oscillation is a complete to and fro
2. A solution contains 40cm3 by volume of motion.
alcohol and 60cm3 water. If the density of
the alcohol is 0.79g/cm3 and water is Experiment
1.0g/cm3. Calculate the density of the Aim: To determine time taken to complete
solution. given oscillations
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝜌𝑤× 𝑉𝑤 Apparatus: Pendulum bob, thread, stop
watch, clamp, boss and retort stand.
= 1𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 × 60𝑐𝑚3
Procedure
= 60𝑔
i) Set your apparatus as shown below.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑜ℎ𝑜𝑙 = 𝜌𝑎 × 𝑉𝑎

= 0.79 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 × 40𝑐𝑚3

= 31.6𝑔
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𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 + 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑜ℎ𝑜𝑙
=
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 + 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑜ℎ𝑜𝑙
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
60 𝑔 + 31.6 𝑔
=
60 𝑐𝑚3 + 40 𝑐𝑚3
91.6 𝑔
=
100 𝑐𝑚3

= 0.916 𝑔/ 𝑐𝑚3 i) Slightly displace the bob and

determine the time taken to make 3
oscillations
Time
ii) Repeat the procedure for the
❖ Time is the measure of duration.
following number of oscillations and
❖ SI unit is the second (s).
fill the table below.
No. of Time (s) Time for 1
Multiples and sub- multiples of second
oscillations oscillation,
1𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒 = 60𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
T (s)
1ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 = 3600 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
1𝑑𝑎𝑦 = 24 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 = 86400 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 2
1𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = 100 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 4
1𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = 1000 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 (𝑚𝑠) 6
1𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = 8
1000 000 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 (µ𝑠) Calculations
Time for 1 oscillation can be calculated as:
Measurement of Time 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑇=
❖ Time is measured using either the stop 𝑛
watch or a stop clock depending on level
Revision Exercise

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of accuracy required. 1) Identify the mistake in the following SI

units and hence write them correctly.
Advantages of Stop Watch Over Stop Clock (a) Amperes(a)
1.) Stop watch is easy to handle and read (b)Candela(cand)
than stop clock. (c) Metres(M)
(d)Kalvin
2.) It is more accurate than stop clock.
(e) Seconds
(f) Kilograms
Example (g) Pascals
Express the time shown on the stop watch (h)newtons
screen below in SI. 2) convert the following into derived SI
units
(a) 0.01cm
(b)100cm2
(c) 20days
(d)3.625g
(e) 324tonnes
(f) 5dm3
(g) 400ml
= 10 × 60 + 22 + 34 × 0.01
= 600 + 22 + 0.34
= 622.343 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠

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3) Estimate the length of the curve shown.

4) Define density and give its SI units.

5) A burette shows a liquid level as 20cm 3.

Ten drops of the same liquid each of
If the initial reading was at 0cm mark,
volume 0.5cm3 are added. Calculate the determine the volume of one drop.
new liquid level.
6) An empty density bottle has a mass of
15g. When full of alcohol of density
14. A mixture is made up of two metals X
0.8g/cm3, its mass is 47g. Calculate:-
and Y. The mass of the mixture is 30 g and
i) The volume of the bottle.
ii) Its mass when full of water. the volume of the mixture is 4.5 cm3.
iii) It mass when full of mercury of Determine the mass of metal X in the
density 13.6g/cm3. mixture. (Density of metal X is 6 000 Kgm-3
7) A measuring cylinder contains 8 cm3 of and density of metal Y is 7 900 Kgm-3)
water. A small piece of brass of mass
24g is lowered carefully into a
measuring cylinder so that it is carefully
submerged, if the density of the brass is
8g/cm3, what is the new reading of the
level of water in the cylinder in m3.
8) A Eureka can of mass 60g and cross
sectional area of 60cm2 is filled with
water of density 1g/cm3. Apiece of steel
of mass 20g and density 8g/cm3 is
lowered carefully into the can as shown

.
Calculate;
a) The total mass of water and the
Eureka can before the metal was
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lowered.
b) The volume of water that over
flowered.
c) The final mass of the eureka can
and its contents
d) In finding the density of liquid,
why is the method of using
density bottle more accurate than
the one of using a measuring
cylinder.
9) 25cm of a liquid x of density 1.2g/cm3
3

is mixed with liquid of volume 30 cm3

and 0.9g/cm3 without change in
volume. Calculate the density of the
mixture.

10) The mass of an empty density bottle is

25.0g. Its mass when filled with water is
50.0g and when filled formalin its mass
is 60.0g. Calculate.
a) Mass of water
b) Volume of water.
c) Volume of bottle.
d) Mass of formalin.
e) Volume of formalin.
f) Density of formalin.

11) A butcher has a beam balance and

masses 0.5 kg and 2 kg. How would he
measure 1.5 kg of meat on the balance at
once?
12) Determine the density in kg/m3 of a
solid whose mass is 40g and whose
dimensions in cm are 30 x 4 x 3
13) Figure below shows the reading on a
burette after 55 drops of a liquid have
been used.

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Chapter Three 𝐅𝐎𝐑𝐂𝐄

Definition of Force c) The figure below shows two objects
❖ Force refers to a push or a pull that result of mass m1and m2 acted upon by a
from interaction of bodies. force F
❖ It is that which changes the state of motion
of a body.
❖ The SI unit of force is the newton (N).
❖ Force has both magnitude and direction Identify force F
and is represented by a straight line with Gravitational force
an arrow as shown below. 2. Centripetal Force
❖ This is a force which maintains a body
❖ The length of the line shows the magnitude to move in a circular orbit or path.
of the force while the arrow head shows ❖ It is directed towards the centre of the
the direction of the force. circular orbit / track.
Effects of Force Examples of situations in which
i. Force can make stationary object centripetal force acts include:
move. • Whirling a stone tied to a string.
ii. It can increase speed of moving object.
iii. It can stop a moving object.
iv. It can decrease speed of moving
object.
v. It can change shape of an object (i.e.
can deform an object).
vi. It can make an object turn about a
fixed point (pivot). This is called
turning effect of force. • The earth revolving around the sun
vii. It can change the direction of a moving along it is orbit.
object. • Centrifuge used to separate ghee from
milk.
Exercise
• A car moving round a circular track or
Which of the effects above can be caused by: road (corner).
a) A push only? 3. Magnetic force
b) A pull only? ❖ Magnetic force is the force of attraction
c) A push or a pull?

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Types of force or repulsion due to a magnet.

❖ It is non-contact force.
1. Gravitational Force ❖ Magnetic attraction occurs between a
❖ It refers to the force of attraction between magnet and a magnetic material or
any two bodies e.g. force of attraction between unlike poles of a magnet while
between the earth and the moon. repulsion occurs between like poles of
❖ Gravitational force is a non-contact force. magnet.
Gravitational Force of the Earth
❖ It is the force of attraction on bodies
toward the centre of the earth.
Factors affecting gravitational force
I. Masses of the objects - The larger the
masses the stronger the gravitational 4. Upthrust force
force. ❖ Upthrust is an upward force acting on
II. Distance of separation between the two objects immersed in fluids (liquids or
objects. The longer the distance of gases).
separation the weaker gravitational force. ❖ Upthrust can also be defined as the
apparent loss in weight of a body
Examples immersed in a liquid or gas.
a) What are non-contact forces?
❖ There are forces which act even if objects
are not in contact with one another.
b) Explain why a ball thrown upwards
returns back to the ground
❖ It is due to attraction by earth’s
gravitational force

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𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 𝒐𝒏 𝒂 𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚 f) Smoothening surfaces.

= 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚 𝒊𝒏 𝒂𝒊𝒓 g) Using ball bearings.
− 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚 𝒊𝒏 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 h) Air cushioning
❖ Upthrust is a contact force.
6. Electrostatic Force
❖ Electrostatic force is the force of
attraction or repulsion between
electrically charged bodies.
❖ It is non-contact force. There are two
Examples of situations in which upthrust types of electrical charges (positive and
force acts include: negative).
• Balloons to rising ❖ Attraction occurs between unlike
• Swimmers and boats floating charges i.e. positive and negative while
• Bodies immersed in liquids weighing less repulsion occurs between like charges.
than their weight in air.

Numerical Example
A body weighs 100 N in air and 80 N when
submerged in water. Calculate the upthrust
acting on it. Examples of situations in which
𝑢𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 = 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 electrostatic force acts include:
= 100𝑁 − 80𝑁 = 20𝑁 a) A plastic ruler or pen rubbed with
piece of dry cloth or hair attracts
5. Frictional Force pieces of paper.
❖ This is a force that opposes motion b) A wiped glass window rapidly attracts
between two surfaces that are in contact. dust due to charges left on them
❖ Frictional force in fluids (liquid and gases) is during wiping.
called viscous drag (viscosity). c) Polished shoes rapidly attract dust due
❖ Frictional force is a contact force and it to charges left on them during
acts in the direction opposite to that of brushing.
motion of the body. d) A nylon cloth produces crackling
sound and sticks on the body when
being removed etc.

7. Action and Reaction Forces

❖ Action and reaction are two equal
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Advantages of Frictional Force forces acting in opposite directions.

Frictional force helps in: ❖ They are contact forces.
a) Writing. ❖ When a block of wood is placed on a
b) Braking. table, its weight (action) acts on the
c) Walking. table. The reaction of the table
d) Erasing. (opposite force) acts on the block.
e) Lighting a match stick etc

Disadvantages of Frictional Force

a) Causes wear and tear.
b) Hinders motion.
c) Produces unwanted heat.
d) Produces unwanted sound.
Methods of Reducing Frictional Force
i) Oiling and greasing.
j) Using rollers. 8. Nuclear Force
k) Streamlining bodies. ❖ This is a force that binds protons and
neutrons in atomic nuclei.
❖ Nuclear force is a contact force.

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9. Tension Force iii) Bristles of a brush spread in water

❖ It is a force which acts on stretched but cling together when the brush is
bodies. retrieved out of water. The clinging
❖ Tension is as a result of two opposing together of bristles is due to surface
forces applied one at each end of a body. tension of water on the surface of
❖ It is a contact force. bristles.

iv) A drop of water from a burette or

water tap grows and stretches out
before it falls off due to surface
tension on the surface of the drop.

10. Surface Tension Note: Surface tension acts along the

❖ Surface tension is defined as the force per surface of a liquid so as to reduce surface
area. This can be illustrated by the
unit length in the plane of a liquid surface
acting at right angles on either side of anfollowing observations:
imaginary line drawn in that surface. i) When bubble of soap is blown to the
wide end of the funnel and the left
Molecular Explanation of Surface Tension with the upper end, the bubble
❖ A molecule deep in the liquid is surrounded recedes slowly until it flattens to a
by liquid on all sides so that the net force film. It therefore makes its surface as
on it is zero. A molecule on the surface has small as possible.
fewer molecules on the vapour side and
therefore will experience a resultant
inward force, causing the surface of the
liquid to be in tension.

Examples of situations in which surface

ii) When a film of a soap contained in a
tension force acts include:
wire loop is punctured or pierced at
i) A steel razor blade or needle floats
point X as shown below, the
when carefully placed on water
remaining part of the film acquires a
although steel is denser than water.
minimum area. The thread is
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therefore pulled from one side

making a perfect curve. This is
because of forces of surface tension
from one side only.
ii) A glass of water can be filled with water
above the brim without water pouring
out. This is due to surface tension on
the surface of water.
Factors Affecting Surface Tension
i) Impurities
❖ Impurities reduce surface tension of a
liquid. Soap (detergent) weakens the
cohesive forces between surface liquid
molecules and therefore reducing
surface tension.
ii) Temperature
❖ Temperature reduces surface tension of
the liquid because it weakens cohesive
force of attraction between liquid
molecules.

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Exercise ❖ The level of mercury in capillary tubes is

Explain the following observations: lower than that of mercury in the basin.
a) A steel needle placed carefully on the Being lowest in the narrow tube.
surface of water does not sink. ❖ In both capillary tubes mercury curves
b) When a small drop of detergents is placed downwards at the edge (does not wet
on water, the floating needle moves glass). This is due to stronger cohesive
rapidly away from it and sinks when more force between mercury molecules than
detergent is added adhesive forces between mercury and
c) A match stick wrapped at one end with glass molecules.
soap starts moving immediately in one ❖ The downward curve is called convex
direction when placed on the surface of meniscus
water.

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11.Adhesion (adhesive force) Water on Clean and Waxed glass surfaces

❖ Adhesion refers to the force of attraction
between molecules of different kind e.g.
force of attraction between water and glass
molecules. ❖ When water is dropped on a clean piece
Examples of situations in which adhesive of glass, it spreads because adhesive
force acts include: forces between glass and water
1) Liquid wetting glass. molecules are stronger than cohesive
2) Paint sticking on wall. forces between water molecules.
3) Ink sticking on paper. ❖ When water is dropped on waxed glass
4) Chalk mark sticking on the board. surface, it rolls into small droplets. This
is because waxing reduces adhesive
12.Cohesion (Cohesive Force) force between water and glass
❖ Cohesion refers to the force of attraction molecules. Cohesive force becomes
between molecules of same kind e.g. force greater than adhesive force.
of attraction between water molecules.
Some Effects of Adhesive and Cohesive Forces Mass and Weight
a) Capillary Tubes Dipped in Water ❖ Mass is defined as the quantity of
matter in a body.
❖ Weight is the gravitational pull on a
body. It is a force and therefore its SI
unit is Newton (N).
❖ The direction of action of weight on
earth is towards the centre of the earth
Relationship between Mass and Weight
❖ In both capillary tubes water curves ❖ Mass and weight are related as follows:
upwards at the edge (wets glass).The rise 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
of water up the tube is due to adhesive = 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔
forces between glass and water molecules × 𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒅𝒖𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚
being stronger than cohesive force of (𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉)
attraction between water molecules. 𝑾 = 𝑴𝒈
❖ The upward curve is called concave
meniscus. Definition of acceleration due to gravity
(g)
b) Capillary Tubes Dipped in Mercury ❖ It is defined as the gravitational force
acting on a unit mass at a place.

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❖ The SI unit of g (gravitational field

strength) is the newton per kilogram
(N/kg)
❖ Note: A graph of weight versus mass is
a straight line through the origin and
the slope of the graph gives
acceleration due to gravity, g i.e.

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Differences between Mass and Weight a) Time

b) Temperature
Mass weight c) Energy
The quantity of Gravitational pull on d) Speed
matter in an an object e) Area
object body f) Volume
The SI unit kg SI unit is the newton g) Length
(kilogram) h) Mass
Constant Varies from place to i) Distance.
everywhere place 1)
A scalar quantity A vector quantity 2) Vector Quantity
A vector quantity is one with both
Measured using a Measured using a magnitude and direction e.g.
beam balance spring balance i) Weight
ii) Force
Examples iii) Velocity
1. State a reason as to why weight of a body iv) Momentum
varies from place to place on the earth’s v) Acceleration
surface. vi) Displacement

Gravitational field strength varies from one ❖ If the weight of a car is 8000 N, 8000
place to another on the earth’s surface being gives magnitude of the weight, N is the
strong at the poles and weak at the equator. SI unit and direction is towards the
centre of the earth.
2. An object weighs 1000N on earth’s surface
(𝒈 = 𝟏𝟎𝑵/𝒌𝒈) Resultant vector
a) Calculate its mass. ❖ This is the sum of two or more vectors
𝑤 = 𝑚𝑔 taking into account the direction of the
𝑁 vectors.
1000 𝑁 = 𝑚 × 10
𝑘𝑔 Example

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1000 𝑁 Find the resultant force of the forces

𝑚= = 100 𝑘𝑔
10 𝑁/𝑘𝑔 acting on a point object shown below.

b) If the same object weighs 160N on the

(a)
moon surface, find the gravitational field
strength of the moon.
Solution
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔
160 = 100 × 𝑔 (+4 𝑁) + (+ 5 𝑁) = +9 𝑁
160
𝑔= = 1.60 𝑁/𝑘𝑔
100
3. A mass of 7.5kg has a weight of 30N on a
certain planet. Calculate the acceleration (b)
due to gravity on this planet.
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔 Solution
30 = 7.5 × 𝑔 (−7 𝑁) + (−3 𝑁) + (+2 𝑁) + (+4
30 =−4𝑁
𝑔= = 4𝑁/𝑘𝑔
7.5
4. A man has a mass of 70kg. calculate :
a) His weight on earth where the
gravitational field strength is 10N/kg.
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔
70 × 10 = 700 𝑁

b) His weight on moon where the

gravitational field strength is
1.7N/kg.
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔
70 × 1.7 = 119 𝑁
Scalar and Vector Quantities
1) Scalar Quantity
❖ A scalar quantity is one with magnitude
only but no direction e.g.

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Examples 11) Define the terms.

1) The figure below shows two glass tubes of a) Mass
different diameter dipped in water. b) Weight.
12) The mass of a lump of gold is constant
everywhere, but its weight is not.
Explain this.
13) A man has a mass of 70kg. Calculate:
a) His weight on earth, where the
Explain why h2 is greater than h1 gravitational field strength is
i) Adhesive force in narrow tube is 10N/kg.
greater than adhesive force in wider b) His weight on the moon, where the
tube. gravitational field strength is
ii) Volume of water in both tubes is the 1.7N/kg.
14) A mass of 7.5kg has weight of 30N on
same hence the column of water in
a certain planet. Calculate the
narrow tube h2 is greater. acceleration due to gravity on this
2) Name two forces that determine the planet.
shape of liquid drop on the solid surface 15) Define the following terms, giving
Cohesive and adhesive forces examples.
3) Give a reason why weight of the body a) Vector quantity
varies from place to place. b) Scalar quantity
The gravitational field strength varies from 16) (a) Define a resultant vector.
place to place. (a) Find the resultant of a force of
4) A metal bin was observed to float on the 4N and a force of 8N acting at
surface of pure water. However the pin the same point on an object if:
sank when a few drops of soap solution
i) The force act in the same direction
in the same straight line.
were added to the water. Explain this
ii) The force act in the opposite
observation. directions but in the same straight
Soap solution is an impurity. When added to line.
water, it lowers the surface tension 17) Show diagrammatically how forces of
(by dissolving) of water making the needle to 7N and 9N can be combined to give a
sink. resultant to give a resultant force of:
(a) 16N (b) 2N
Revision Exercise
1) By considering action-reaction forces,
identify why water rises up a thin
capillary tube.
2) Give two examples of contact force and
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non-contact force.
3) Sketch how a vector quantity is
represented on a diagram.
4) Define force and give SI unit.
5) Name all the forces acting on the
following bodies:
(a) A box placed on a table
(b) A mass suspended from a spring
balance.
(c) A moving car negotiating a bend.
6) Define cohesive force and adhesive force.
7) Explain why a man using a parachute
falls through air slowly while a stone fall
through air very fast.
8) A spring stretches by 6cm when
supporting a load of 15N.
(b) By how much would it stretch when
supporting a load of 5kg?
(c) What load would make the spring
extend by 25mm?
9) Explain each of the following, using the
behaviour of molecules where possible:
(a) A steel needle placed carefully on the
surface of water does not sink.
(b) When a small drop of detergent is
placed on water, the needle moves
rapidly away from it and sinks when
more detergent is added. ( assume that
detergent does not affect the density of
water)
(c) A match –stick rubbed at one end with
soap starts moving immediately in one
direction when placed on the surface
of water.
10) Define surface tension.
a) How does temperature rise and
impurities affect the surface tension of
water?
b) How would the surface tension of
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water be increased?

Chapter Four 𝐏𝐑𝐄𝐒𝐒𝐔𝐑𝐄

Definition of Pressure 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

𝑎) 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 =
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
❖ Pressure refers to force acting
perpendicularly per unit area. 48 × 10
=
❖ Since force is measured in newtons and 4×3
area in square meter, then the SI unit of 480
= = 40𝑁/𝑚2
pressure is the newton per square meter 12
(N/m2) or the pascal (Pa). 1 newton per
square meter (N/m2) = 1 pascal (Pa) 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
b) 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = =
𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
480
𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑭 = 𝑷×𝑨
2×3
𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆
= = 80𝑁/𝑚2
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂
𝑭 𝑭
𝑷= 𝑨= 5. An object whose area of contact with the
𝑨 𝑷
floor is 5m2 exerts a pressure of 900
pascal. Calculate its mass
𝐹(𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡) = 𝑃 × 𝐴
Pressure in Solids
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 900 𝑁/𝑚2 × 5 𝑚2
𝑤
Force exerted by a solid resting on a surface is 𝑚=
equal to the weight the object. 𝑔

𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆(𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅) 4500 𝑁

𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 = = = 450𝑘𝑔.
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒄𝒕 10𝑁/𝑘𝑔
6. Tracks which carry heavy loads have many
𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅 wheels. Explain.
𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 = Many wheels increase the area of contact
𝑴𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂
with the ground thereby reducing pressure
𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅 exerted on the road. This prevents damage
𝑴𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 = of the roads by tracks.
𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂
7. A block of copper of density 9g/cm 3

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Factors Affecting Pressure in Solids measures 5cm by 3cm by 2cm. Given that
g is 10N/kg, determine:
1. Weight of the solid (force)
❖ If the area of contact between solid and
surface is constant, pressure increases with
weight. a) The maximum pressure
2. Area of contact of the solid with surface. 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
❖ The smaller the area, the higher the 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
pressure if same force is applied. Therefore =
𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
pressure can be reduced by increasing the
area of contact. 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝜌𝑉𝑔
=
𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

𝑘𝑔
9000 3 × (30 × 10−6𝑚3) × 10𝑁/𝑘𝑔
= 𝑚
6 × 10−4 𝑚2
= 4500𝑁/𝑚2
b) The minimum pressure that it can exert
on a horizontal surface.
𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡, 𝑊
=
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
2.7𝑁
=
15 × 10−4𝑚2
2.7𝑁
= = 1800 𝑁/𝑚2
0.0015𝑚2
8. It is painful if one tries to lift a heavy load
Examples by a thin string.
There is a small area of contact with the
1. A block of a soap stone of dimension 4m by fingers when a thin string is used. As a
2m by 3m is 48kg and is made to rest on a result, more pressure is generated and this
smooth horizontal surface is painful.
2. Calculate the minimum pressure it exerts on
the surface.
3. Calculate the maximum pressure it will
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exert on the surface

Exercise 2. Density of the Liquid

1. A pick up carrying stones weighs 40,000N. ❖ Pressure in liquids increases with density of
The weight is evenly spread across the 4 the liquid.
types. The area of contact of each tire with ❖ Consider two identical cylinders filled with
the ground is 0.05m2. Calculate the water (of density 1000kg/m3) and glycerine
pressure exerted by each tire on the (of density 1260kg/m3) respectively.
ground. ❖ Pressure at point B is greater than pressure
2. A thumb is used to push a thumb pin into a at point A because glycerine is denser than
piece of wood. Explain in terms of pressure water and therefore exerts more pressure
why the pressure on wood is greater than than water.
the pressure on the thumb.
3. An elephant of mass 2800kg has feet of
average area of 200 cm2. A vulture of mass
12 kg walks beside the elephant on a
muddy area, the average area of the feet of
the vulture is 2.0 cm2. Which one is likely to
sink? Explain your answer showing any
necessary calculations.
4. A girl standing upright exerts a pressure of
To Demonstrate Variation of Pressure with
15000 N/m2 on the floor. Given that the
total area of contact of shoes and the floor Depth of Liquids
is 0.02m2. ❖ Consider a tall tin with holes A, B and C
a) Determine the mass of the girl. equally spaced on one side along a vertical
b) Determine the pressure she would exert line as shown below.
on the floor if she stood on one foot. ❖ When the tin is filled with water, the water
5. A block of copper of density 8.9 g/cm 3 jets out of the holes with that from hole A
measures 𝟏𝟎 𝒄𝒎 × 𝟔 𝒄𝒎 × 𝟒 𝒄𝒎. Given thrown farthest followed by that from hole
that the force of gravity is 10Nkg -1, B and lastly from hole C.
determine: ❖ This means that pressure of water at A is
a) The maximum pressure. greater than pressure at B and pressure at
b) The minimum pressure that it can exert B is greater than pressure at C. Hence,
on a horizontal surface. Pressure in liquids increases with depth.

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Pressure in Liquids
Factors Affecting Pressure in Liquids
1. Depth of the Liquid
❖ Pressure in liquids increases with depth.
❖ This is the reason as to why walls of a dam To Demonstrate Variation of Pressure with
are thicker at the bottom than at the top as
Depth and Density of Liquids
shown below. Thick walls at the bottom of
the dam withstand high pressure due to ❖ Consider a transparent glass vessel filled
water at the bottom. with water and a thistle funnel connected
❖ Pressure increasing with depth of liquid to a u-tube filled with colored water to
explains why a diver at the bottom of the some level dipped into it.
sea experiences more pressure due to more ❖ It is observed that the deeper the funnel
weight of water above him than a diver near goes below the surface of water, the
the top/ surface of the sea. greater the difference in levels of water in
the two limbs of the u- tube, h. This is due
to increase in pressure with depth.

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❖ When glycerine is used in place of water it is ❖ The pressure p, exerted at the bottom
observed that at the same depth the (base) of the container by the weight of the
difference in levels, h is greater than when liquid above it is given by:
water is used. This is because glycerin is 𝑭
𝑷=
denser than water and therefore it is 𝑨
pressure at same depth is higher than that = 𝒘(𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅)
of water. 𝑨(𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔 − 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒓)
𝑩𝒖𝒕 𝒘
= 𝝆𝑨𝒉𝒈
𝑾𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝑨𝒉
= 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅
𝑨𝒉𝝆𝒈
∴𝑷=
𝑨
𝑷
= 𝒉𝝆𝒈. 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒂.
❖ From the formula it is clear that pressure in
fluids does not depend on cross- section
To Demonstrate that Pressure at Equal Depth, area of the container holding the liquid.
Acts Equally in All Directions
Examples
❖ Consider a tin with two similar holes on its
side at same height as shown alongside.
1.) A diver working under water is 15 m
❖ When the tin is filled with water, it is
below the surface of the sea. Calculate the
observed that water travels out of the holes
pressure due to water experienced by the
equal horizontal distances from the can.
diver (take g=10N/kg) and density of sea
Therefore pressure exerted at equal depth is
water to be equal to 1.03g/cm3.
same in all directions.
𝑃 = ℎ𝜌𝑔
= 15 𝑚 × 1030 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 × 10 𝑁/𝑘𝑔
= 154500 𝑁/𝑚2
2.) The figure below shows a liquid in a pail.

Fluid Pressure Formula

❖ Consider a container with cross- section
area, A, filled with a liquid of density, ρ, to

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the height, h, as shown alongside. If the liquid has a density of 0.79 g/cm 3,
determine the pressure exerted at the bottom
of the pail by the liquid.
o 𝑃 = ℎ𝜌𝑔
= 0.45 𝑚 × 790 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 × 10𝑁
/𝑘𝑔
= 3555 𝑁/𝑚2
b) Suggest a reason why pail
manufactures prefer the shape shown
to other shapes
To reduce the height of the pail but
maintain the capacity. This reduces the
pressure exerted by the liquid at the
bottom of the pail.
3.) Calculate the pressure exerted by 76 mm
column of mercury given that its density is
13.6g/cm3
o 𝑝 = ℎ𝜌𝑔
𝑘𝑔
o = 0.76 𝑚 × 13600 3 ×
𝑚
10 𝑁/𝑘𝑔
o = 103360𝑁/𝑚2
4.) A column of glycerin 8.20m high, a column
of sea water 10.08m high, a column of
mercury 0.76m high and column of fresh
water 10.34 m high exert the same
pressure at the bottom of a container.
Arrange these substances in decreasing
order of their densities.
Mercury, glycerine, sea water, fresh
water

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Pascal’s Principle (The Principle of ❖ Pressure exerted on the liquid by piston, S

Transmission of Pressure in Liquids) due to force, FS, is PS.
❖ Pascal’s principle states that pressure 𝑭𝑺
𝑷𝑺 =
applied at one part in a liquid is 𝑨𝑺
transmitted equally to all other parts of the
❖ By Pascal’s principle this pressure PS is
enlarged liquid.
equal to pressure PL exerted by liquid on
Demonstrating Pascal’s Principle
❖ Consider a liquid under pressure due to piston, L.
force, F, acting on the plunger as shown 𝑷𝑺 = 𝑷𝑳
below.
❖ Note: The holes are of equal diameter. 𝑭𝒔 𝑭𝑳
=
𝑨𝒔 𝑨𝑳
Examples

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1. The figure below shows two masses

placed on light pistons. The pistons are
held stationary by the liquid whose
density 0.8g/cm3. Determine the force F .

❖ When the plunger is pushed in, water squirts

out of the holes with equal force. This shows
that pressure generated by the piston on the
water is transmitted equally to all other
parts of the liquid.
Applications of Pascal’s Principle
𝑭𝑩 𝑭𝑨 (𝒊.𝒆.𝒘=𝒎𝒈)
❖ Pascal’s Principle is applied in the working of o 𝒉𝝆𝒈 + =
𝑨𝑩 𝑨𝑨
the hydraulic machines. These machines 𝟔𝟎×𝟏𝟎 𝑵 𝒌𝒈
o = 𝟏. 𝟖 𝒎 × 𝟖𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝑵/
include: 𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟖 𝒎𝟐 𝒎𝟑
𝑭𝑩
a) Hydraulic press used to compress textile 𝑲𝒈 +
𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟓 𝒎𝟐
products like blankets for packing. 𝑵 𝑭𝑩
o 𝟕𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏𝟒𝟒𝟎 𝑵/𝒎𝟐 +
b) Hydraulic lift used to hoist cars in 𝒎𝟐 𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟓
𝑵
garages. o 𝑭𝑩 = (𝟕𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 −
𝒎𝟐
c) Hydraulic brake system used for braking 𝑵
𝟏𝟒𝟒𝟎 ) 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟓 𝒎𝟐
𝒎𝟐
in cars.
= 𝟏𝟖𝟕. 𝟏𝟒 𝑵
Pressure Transmission in Hydraulic Machines
2. The area of the large syringe in an
❖ Note that pressure at same level in the experiment is 18cm2 and that of the
liquid is the same as seen earlier. smaller one is 3.0cm2. A force of 2N is
❖ Consider the hydraulic machine below applied on the smaller piston. Find the
consisting of a small piston, S, and a large force produced on the larger piston.
piston, L, of cross- section as shown
alongside.

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𝑭𝒔 𝑭𝑳 Properties of the Hydraulic Brake Fluid

o =
𝑨𝒔 𝑨𝑳
𝟐𝑵 𝑭𝑳
o = (a) It should not corrode parts of the system
𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟑 𝒎𝟐 𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟖 𝒎𝟐
(b) It should be highly incompressible
𝟐 𝑵 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟖 𝒎𝟐 (c) It should have a low freezing point and
𝑭𝑳 = = 𝟏𝟐 𝑵
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟑 𝒎𝟐 high boiling point.
4. The diagram below shows a u- tube filled Atmospheric Pressure
two liquids, x and y. If the density of liquid y
is 1.00 g/cm3, determine the density of ❖ This is the pressure exerted on the earth’s
liquid x. surface by the column of air around it.

To Demonstrate Existence of Atmospheric

Pressure(Crushing Can Experiment)
❖ Consider a tin container with some water
o 𝒉𝒙 𝝆𝒙 𝒈 = 𝒉𝒚 𝝆𝒚 𝒈 in it. The container is heated for some time
𝑵 while open and closed after withdrawing
o 𝟎. 𝟒𝟎 𝒎 × 𝝆𝒙 × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟎 𝒎 ×
𝒌𝒈 heating. Cold water is then poured on it
𝒌𝒈
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 𝑵/𝒌𝒈 immediately.
𝒎𝟑
𝟒.𝟎𝑵𝒎 𝑵
o × 𝝆𝒙 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝒌𝒈 𝒎𝟐
𝒌𝒈
o 𝝆𝒙 = 𝟕𝟓𝟎
𝒎𝟑

Hydraulic Brake System

❖ The hydraulic brake system uses the
principle of transmission of pressure in
liquids (Pascal’s principle) in its operation.

❖ It is observed that the container crushes

inwards when cold water is poured on it.
This is because steam from boiling water
drives out the air inside the container and a
partial vacuum is created when the
container is cooled. The higher
atmospheric pressure from the outside
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Mode of Operation of Hydraulic Brake System crushes the container inwards.

❖ When a small force is applied on the brake
pedal, it pushes the piston of the master
cylinder inwards. This produces a pressure
that is equally transmitted to the pistons in
the slave cylinders. The pressure generates
a force which pushes the pistons of the slave
cylinder outwards. The pistons then push
the brake shoes and therefore the brake
lining outwards. The brake lining touches
and stops rotating wheel drum.
❖ The return spring returns the brake shoes
into their original position after force on
brake pedal has been removed.

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Example
A sea diver is 18 m below the surface of sea
water. If the density of sea water is
1.03g/cm3 and g is 10N/ kg, determine the
total pressure on him. (Take atmospheric
pressure pa = 103 000N/m2).
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = ℎ𝜌𝑔 + 𝑃𝑎
𝑘𝑔 𝑁
= 18 𝑚 × 1030 × 10
𝑚3 𝑘𝑔
2
+ 103 000 𝑁/𝑚
= 288 400 𝑁/𝑚2
Measurement of Pressure 2) The diagram below show a mercury
manometer. Some dry gas is present in the
1) U- Tube Monometer closed space. If the atmospheric pressure
❖ It is used to measure gas pressure. is 105000N/m2 and density of mercury
❖ It consists of u- tube filled with suitable
13600kg/m3, determine pressure of the
liquid to some level.
gas (take g=10N/kg).
❖ Consider u-tube manometer below in which
one limb is connected to gas supply.

o ℎ𝜌𝑔 + 𝑃𝑔 = 𝑃𝑎
𝑘𝑔 𝑁
o 0.25 𝑚 × 13600 3
× 10 + 𝑃𝑔 =
𝑚 𝑘𝑔
105000𝑁/𝑚2
o 34000𝑁/𝑚2 + 𝑃𝑔 = 105000𝑁/𝑚2
𝑁 𝑁
❖ A and B are at the same horizontal level and o 𝑃𝑔 = 105000 2 − 34000
𝑚 𝑚2
therefore pressure at A is equal to pressure o = 71000 𝑁/𝑚2
at B.
❖ Pressure at A is due to the gas, p g while
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pressure at B is due to the column of liquid 2) Mercury Barometer

and atmospheric pressure. ❖ It is used to measure atmospheric pressure.
𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒂𝒕 𝑨, 𝑷𝑨 = 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒂𝒕 𝑩, 𝑷𝑩 ❖ It employs the fact that atmospheric
𝑷𝒈 = 𝒉𝝆𝒈 + 𝑷𝒂 pressure supports a column of liquid in a
❖ Where ρ is the density of liquid in the u- tube.
tube.
Construction of Mercury Barometer
Examples ❖ It is made of a thick- walled glass tube of
1) The height, h of a water manometer is 20 about 1m long sealed at one end.
cm when used to measure pressure of a ❖ The tube is then filled carefully with
gas. mercury to the top.
❖ Any bubbles of air in the tube are removed
by closing the open end and inverting the
tube severally.
❖ The tube is then inverted into a dish filled
with mercury.
❖ Mercury is preferred in the construction of
a) Determine the pressure due to gas, If
barometer to other liquids because its very
atmospheric pressure is 103000N/m2.
high density.
o 𝑃𝑔 = ℎ𝜌𝑔 + 𝑃𝑎
o = 0.20 𝑚 × 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 × 10𝑁/𝑘𝑔 +
103000𝑁/𝑚2
o = 105000𝑁/𝑚2
b) What would be the height if the liquid used
is glycerin of density 1.26g/cm3
o 𝑃𝑔 = ℎ𝜌𝑔 + 𝑃𝑎 ❖
𝑁
o 105000 2 = ℎ × 1260𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 × 10𝑁/
𝑚
𝑘𝑔 + 103000𝑁/𝑚2
o 105000𝑁/𝑚2 = 12600𝑁/𝑚3 × ℎ +
103000𝑁/𝑚2
o 2000𝑁/𝑚2 = 12600𝑁/𝑚3 × ℎ
2000𝑁/𝑚2
ℎ= = 0.16 𝑚
12600𝑁/𝑚3

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Using Mercury Barometer

❖ The height h, of the mercury column is the
measure of atmospheric pressure.
❖ The column of mercury h, at sea level is
76cmHg.In SI unit it is:
𝑷𝒂 = 𝒉𝝆𝒈 Siphon
𝟎. 𝟕𝟔 𝒎 × 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎 𝑵
/𝒌𝒈 = 𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟑𝟔𝟎𝑵/𝒎𝟐 ❖ Siphon is used to transfer liquid from one
❖ The atmospheric pressure at sea level is container to another.
called one atmosphere or standard ❖ The use of siphon to transfer liquid due to
atmospheric pressure (76cmHg or pressure difference is called siphoning.
103360N/m )2 Consider the siphoning arrangement
shown below.
Examples
1) A student in a place where the mercury
barometer reads 75cm wanted to make an
alcohol barometer. If alcohol has a density
of 800 kg/m3, what is the minimum length
of the tube that could be used?
𝑃𝑎 = ℎ𝐻𝑔 𝜌𝐻𝑔 𝑔 = ℎ𝑎𝑙 𝜌𝑎𝑙 𝑔
0.75 𝑚 × 13600 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 × 10𝑁/𝑘𝑔
❖ Pressure at A is equal to pressure at B and
= ℎ𝑎𝑙 × 800𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 × 10𝑁/𝑘𝑔
10200 it is the atmospheric pressure, Pa
ℎ𝑎𝑙 = = 12.75 𝑚 ❖ Pressure at c is equal to pressure at B plus
8000
2) The barometric height in a town is 70cm pressure due to water column , h, i.e. 𝑷𝑪 =
mercury. Given that the standard 𝑷𝑩 + 𝒉𝝆𝒈
atmospheric pressure is 76cm mercury and ❖ Pressure difference between B and C (i.e.
the density of mercury is 13600kg/m 3, 𝑷𝑪 − 𝑷𝑩 = 𝒉𝝆𝒈) is what makes the liquid
determine the altitude of the town. to flow from the upper container to the
(Density of air is 1.25kg/m3). lower one.
(Note: Standard pressure refers to the Conditions under which Siphon Works
atmospheric pressure at sea level).
𝑃 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 a) The tube must be filled with the liquid first.
= 𝑃 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑎 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 − 𝑃 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑛 This creates a pressure difference.
b) There must be a difference in levels of

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(ℎ𝐻𝑔 𝑠𝑙 − ℎ𝐻𝑔 𝑡𝑛 ) × 𝜌𝐻𝑔 × 𝑔 liquid in the two containers.

= ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑟 × 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 × 𝑔 c) The end of the tube must remain below the
(0.76 − 0.70) 𝑚 × 13600𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 × 10𝑁 liquid surface of the upper container.
/𝑘𝑔
= ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑟 × 1.25𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 × 10 𝑁 Example
/𝑘𝑔 The figure below shows how to empty water
8160
ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑟 = from a large tank into a low lying tank using
12.50 rubber tubing.
= 652.8 𝑚(𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑛)
3) The figure below shows a person sucking
water using a straw. Explain how sucking is
made possible.

When one sucks pressure inside the straw

reduces below the atmospheric pressure. The
pressure difference causes water to go into the
straw and rise up to the mouth.
Testing the Vacuum in the Barometer
❖ The vacuum is tested by tilting the tube. If
the tube is fully filled then the space is a
vacuum but if the tube is not fully filled then
the space is not a vacuum; it has some air
occupying it and therefore, the barometer is
faulty.

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2) The Bicycle Pump

❖ The leather washer acts as both a valve

and piston inside the pump barrel.
❖ When the pump handle is drawn out as
a) Explain why the tube must be filled with shown, air in the barrel expands and its
water before the emptying process starts. pressure reduces below the atmospheric
pressure. Air from outside the pump then
To create pressure difference between C and D flows past the leather washer into the
this will lead to continuous flow of water from barrel. At the same time, the higher air
the upper tank to the lower tank. pressure in the tyre closes the tyre valve.
❖ When the pump handle is pushed in, the air
b) Soon after the tank begins to empty the
is forced into the tyre through the tyre
lower end is momentarily blocked by
valve which now opens.
placing a finger at end D.
Note: There is an increase in temperature
I. Determine pressure difference between
of the pump barrel during pumping this is
point A and D.
because of the work done in compressing
o 𝑃𝐴𝐷 = ℎ𝜌𝑔
𝑘𝑔 𝑁 air.
o 𝑃𝐴𝐷 = 2𝑚 × 1000 3 × 10
𝑚 𝑘𝑔
2
o 𝑃𝐴𝐷 = 20 000 𝑁/𝑚 3) The Lift Pump
II. what will be the pressure experienced by
the finger at point D. (take density of
water= 1000kg/m3 and pa= 100,000N/m2
o 𝑃𝐷 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + ℎ𝜌𝑔
𝑁 𝑁2
o 𝑃𝐷 = 100000 2 + 20 000
𝑚 𝑚
o = 120000 𝑁𝑚−2
Applications of Pressure in Liquids and Gases
1) A Syringe
❖ To start the pump, water is poured on top
of the piston so that good air tight seal is

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made round the piston and in valve P the

pump is operated by means of a lever
Upstroke
❖ When the plunger moves up during the
upstroke, valve R closes due to its weight
and pressure of water above it. At the
same time, air above valve expands and its
❖ When the piston is pulled upwards (during
pressure reduces below atmospheric
upstroke), space is created in the barrel thus
pressure. The atmospheric pressure on the
lowering the pressure inside below
water in the well below thus pushes water
atmospheric pressure. The higher
up to past valve into the barrel.
atmospheric pressure acting on the liquid
❖ The plunger is moved up and downhill the
pushes the liquid into the barrel.
space between R and S is filled with water.
❖ During a down stroke, the pressure inside
Down stroke
increases above atmospheric pressure and
❖ During down stroke, valve S closes due to
the liquid is expelled from the barrel.
its weight and pressure of water above it.

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Limitations of the Lift Pump Exercise on applications of pressure

❖ In practical, the possible height of water that (a) The figure below shows a lift pump
can be raised by this pump is less than 10m
because of
i) Low atmospheric pressure in
places high above sea level,
ii) Leakage at the valves and
pistons
4) The Force Pump
Explain why, when the piston is;
This pump is used to raise water to heights of
(b) Pulled upwards, valve A opens while valve
more than 10m.
B closes.
(c) Pushed downwards, valve A closes while
valve B opens
(d) After several strokes, water rises above
the piston as shown below.

State how water is removed from the cylinder

through the spout.
(e) A lift pump can lift water up to a
Upstroke
❖ During upstroke, air above the valve F maximum height of 10m. determine the
expands and its pressure reduces below maximum height to which the pump can
atmospheric pressure. The atmospheric raise paraffin.(take density of paraffin as
pressure on water in the well pushes water 800kgm-3and density of water as
up past valve F into the barrel. Pressure 1000kgm-3)
above valve G is atmospheric. Hence, this (f) State one factor that determines the
valve does not open in this stroke. height to which a force pump can lift
Down stroke water.
❖ During the down stroke, the valve F closes.
Increase in pressure due to water in the
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barrel opens valve G and forces water into

chamber S so that as water fills the
chamber, air is trapped and compressed at
the upper part. During the next upstroke,
valve G closes and the compressed air
expands ensuring a continuous flow.
Advantage of Force Pump over the lift
pump
a) It enables a continuous flow of water.
b) The height to which it can raise does not
depend on atmospheric.
Factors Affecting Working of the Force
Pump
a) Amount of force applied during the down
stroke.
❖ Ability of the pump and its working parts to
withstand pressure of the column of water
in chamber c.

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Revision Exercise 15.The figure below shows a hydraulic press

1. A piston whose diameter is 1.4m is pushed
into a cylinder containing a fluid, If the
pressure produced in the cylinder is 4.0 x
105 pa, Calculate the force applied on the
piston.
2. An octopus is resting in the ocean. If the
octopus is at a depth of 47m in sea whose
water has a density of 1200 kg/m3,
calculate the pressure experienced by the The two pistons are of areas10mm2 and
octopus (Take atmospheric pressure = 20mm2 respectively. A force of 100N is
1.0125 x 105 Pa) applied on the smaller piston, find the load
3. Explain why if air gets in the brake system that can be lifted on the larger piston if:
would reduce the efficiency of the brakes.
(2marks) a. The piston has negligible weight and no
4. A concrete block of mass 50kg rests on the frictional forces exist.
surface of the table as shown below. b. The pistons have negligible weight and
frictional10N and 40N respectively.
The smaller piston has the weight 5N the
larger piston has a weight of 10N and the
frictional forces are negligible.
What is the maximum pressure that can
be exerted on the bench by the block?

5. A hole of area 4.0cm² at the bottom of a

tank 5m deep is closed with a cork.
Determine the force on the cork when the
tank is filled with water. (Take g = 10msˉ²
and density of water = 1000kgmˉ³).
6. A measuring cylinder of height 25cm is
filled to a height of 15cm with water and
the rest is occupied by kerosene. Determine
the pressure acting on its base (density of
water = 1gcmˉ³ density of kerosene =
0.8gcmˉ³ and atmospheric pressure =

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103,000pa).
7. State one advantage of hydraulic brakes
over mechanical brakes.
8. Explain why a lady wearing sharp heeled
shoes is not likely to skid on a slippery
muddy road.
9. Why does atmospheric pressure decrease
towards higher altitude?
10. Show that Pressure in fluids is given by P=
hρg
11.Give a reason why nose bleeding is likely to
occur at the top of a mountain.
12. A block of glass of density 2.5g/cm 3 has
dimensions 8 cm by 10cm by 15cm. It is
placed on one of its faces on a horizontal
surface. Calculate:-
a) The weight of the block
b) The greatest pressure it can exert on
the horizontal surface.
c) The least pressure it can exert on the
horizontal surface.
13.The reading of a mercury barometer is
75.58 cm at the base of a mountain and
66.37cm at the summit. Calculate the
height of the mountain (Density of mercury
= 13.6g/m3 and density of air= 1.25kg/m3
14.In a hydraulic brake, the master piston has
an area of4mm2 and the wheel piston each
has an area of 4 cm2. Find the forces
applied to the wheel when a force of 10N is
applied on the master piston.

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Chapter Five 𝐏𝐀𝐑𝐓𝐈𝐂𝐔𝐋𝐀𝐓𝐄 𝐍𝐀𝐓𝐔𝐑𝐄 𝐎𝐅 𝐌𝐀𝐓𝐓𝐄𝐑

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Introduction
❖ Matter is anything that occupies space and
has mass.
❖ Matter is not continuous but it is made up of
every tiny particles hence participate nature
of matter.
❖ Particulate nature of matter therefore refers
to the existence of matter in very tiny ❖ The chalk dust is observed to be in
particles. constant random motion. This is due to
the continuous collision of chalk dust
Experiment to demonstrate that Matter is made particles with the water molecules which
up of Tiny Particles are in continuous random motion.
i) Use of a Piece of Paper To Demonstrate Brownian motion in Gases
❖ A piece of paper can be cut continuously until (The Smoke Cell Experiment)
when the small pieces cannot be cut into
pieces any further. This suggests that the ❖ Consider the set up below for the smoke
sheet of paper is made of tiny pieces of cell experiment.
paper. Hence matter is made up of tiny
particles.

ii) Diluting Potassium Permanganate ❖ Note: The smoke is introduced into the
Solution smoke cell by burning the straw and
❖ The process of diluting purple potassium letting the smoke fill the smoke cell from
manganese (VII) can continue until the the other end. Smoke is used here
solution appears colorless. because smoke particles are light and
❖ This suggests that the particles of potassium bright.
permanganate are spread evenly in water and ❖ The converging lens is used to focus/
each dilution process spread them further. concentrate converge the light to the
This is a proof that matter is made up of tiny smoke cell thereby illuminating the
particles which can be separated. smoke. The microscope assists the
observer see the illuminated smoke
Explain why it is possible to dissolve sugar in particles clearly.
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water without any noticeable increases in ❖ The bright specks are observed moving
volume of water. The sugar particles occupy the randomly in the smoke cell. The bright
small intermolecular spaces of water molecules. specks are the smoke particles which
This behaviour of sugar suggests that matter is scatter / reflect light shining on them.
made up of very tiny particles. They move randomly due to continuous
collision with invisible air particles which
Brownian motion are in continuous random motion.
❖ Brownian motion refers to the random
movement of liquid and gas particles.
To Demonstrate Brownian motion in Liquids
❖ Consider the set- up alongside in which chalk
dust is sprinkled on the surface of water in
the beaker and the beaker covered using a
transparent lid. The behaviour of chalk dust is
then observed with the help of a hand lens as
shown below.

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The Kinetic Theory of Matter Example

❖ The above experiments on Brownian motion Using a block diagram and correct
constitute the kinetic theory of matter which terminology show how one state of matter
states that matter is made up of tiny particles changes to the other when the temperature
which are in continuous random motion. is changed. Define all terminologies used.
Arrangement of Particles in Matter i) Melting- is the process by which a solid
changes to a liquid at fixed
Solids temperature.
❖ Particles are closely packed together in an ii) Evaporation - is the process by
organized manner and in fixed position. which a liquid changes to a gas at any
❖ Particles in solid do not move randomly but temperature.
instead vibrate about their fixed positions iii) Condensation - is the process by
(vibratory motion) because of very strong which a gas changes to a liquid at fixed
intermolecular force (cohesive force).This temperature.
explains why solids have fixed volume and iv) Freezing - is the process by which
definite shape. a liquid changes to a solid at fixed
temperature.
v) Sublimation - is the process by which
a solid changes to gas directly without
passing the liquid state.
vi) Deposition - is the process by which
a gas changes to solid directly without
Liquids passing the liquid state.
❖ Particles in liquids are not closely fixed as in Diffusion
solids but move about randomly (Brownian
motion). This is because the intermolecular ❖ Diffusion refers to the process by which
forces in liquids are weaker than those in particles spread from region of high
solids. concentration to a region of low
❖ The same reason explains why liquids have no concentration. Noticeable diffusion takes
fixed shape but assume the shape of the place in liquids and gases due to their
container. continuous random motion.
❖ The intermolecular force in liquids is stronger
Demonstrating Diffusion in Liquids
than in gases a reason as to why liquids have
fixed volume but gases don’t. ❖ Consider the set up below used to

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investigate diffusion in liquids.

Concentrated copper (II) sulphate (blue in
colour) is carefully and slowly introduced
into the beaker through a funnel to obtain
two layers.
Gases
❖ Particles in gases are further apart and have
an increased random motion compared to
liquid particles.
❖ This is because of very weak intermolecular
forces in gases particles as compared to
liquids and solids. The same reason explains
why gases have no definite shape and volume.
❖ After some time, it is observed that the
boundary between the two liquids
disappears and a homogenous pale blue
mixture is obtained. This is because there
is a greater rate of movement of water
particles from the water layer to copper
(II) sulphate layer. At the same time there
is greater movement of copper (II)
sulphate particles from the copper (II)
sulphate layer to the water layer.
❖ Note: If hot liquids are used, formation of
the mixture will be faster because the
particles move faster due to increased
kinetic energy.

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Demonstrating Diffusion in Gases (b) On the diagram, show the observation

(c) If the experiment was performed at a
❖ Consider the set up below used to
high temperature will you expect it to
demonstrate diffusion in gases
take longer or shorter time to form white
deposit? Explain.
Shorter time. This is because an increase
in temperature increases the kinetic
energy of the particles of the gases and
hence increased rate of diffusion of the
❖ When the cardboard is removed and the two gases.
jars pressed together, it is observed that a Diffusion through Porous Materials
homogenous pale brown mixture forms in the
two jars. This is because bromine gas spreads
into gas jar containing air at a greater rate. At
the same time air spreads into gas jar
containing bromine at a greater rate.
❖ Note: Diffusion in gases is faster than in
liquids because:
(a) Gases have low density.
(b) Gases have high kinetic energy.
(c) Gases very weak cohesive forces.
❖ Initially, hydrogen gas diffuses into the
Rates of Diffusion of Gases
porous pots at a faster rate than air
❖ Different gases have different rates of diffusing out. As a result, air bubbles out
diffusion depending on their density or of water as shown in figure i).
relative masses. ❖ When the gas supply is stopped hydrogen
❖ A gas with a higher density has heavier gas diffuse out of the pot through the fine
particles and therefore its rate of diffusion is holes at a faster rate than air gets back
lower than the gas with lower density. into the pot. This decreases the gas
pressure in the pot and as a result the
Example higher atmospheric pressure acting on
the water surface in the beaker to pushes
❖ In the figure below, ammonia gas and
water up the tube as in figure ii).
hydrochloric acid gas diffuse and react.
Note: The beaker is used to confine the
hydrogen gas around the porous pot. It is

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obvious that air is denser than hydrogen

gas.

(a) State and explain the observation made

after sometime.
❖ A white deposit is formed near the cotton wool
soaked in concentrated in hydrochloric acid. The
ammonia gas is less dense and has light
particles thus it will diffuse faster than the
hydrochloric gas which is dense.

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Revision Exercise

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1. What is matter?
2. With the aid of a diagram, describe an
experiment that you would use to show that
matter is made up of tiny particles.
3. During a class discussion, Emmanuel
observed that Brownian motion was only
exhibited by small particles.
(a) Is this observation correct?
(b) Explain your answer in (a) above.
4. State the kinetic theory of matter.
5. Distinguish between the three states of
matter in terms of the intermolecular forces.
6. What factor determines the state of matter?
7. Explain why solids are not compressible
while gases are.
8. Define Brownian motion.
9. During Brownian motion experiment, the
smoke particles must be small and light.
Explain why it is necessary that the particles
be light.
10.Smoke is introduced into smoke cell which is
then viewed under a microscope.
(a) What do you observe through the
microscope?
(b) What conclusion can be drawn from this
observation?
11.Temperature affects Brownian motion.
Explain.
12.Lycopodium powder is lightly sprinkled on a
clean water surface in a large tray. A red hot
needle is plunged into the centre of the
water surface. State and explain what is
observed.
13. Define diffusion.
14.Describe an experiment to demonstrate the
process of diffusion in;
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(i) Liquids
(ii) Gases.
15.Name and explain the factors that affect the
rate of diffusion in gases.

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Chapter Six 𝐓𝐇𝐄𝐑𝐌𝐀𝐋 𝐄𝐗𝐏𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐈𝐎𝐍

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Definition Thermometric Liquids

❖ Thermal expansion refers to increase in ❖ They include:
volume of a body when heated. a) Mercury
b) Alcohol
c) Oil of creosote
Temperature
Properties of a Good Thermometric Liquid
❖ Temperature is the degree (extent) of hotness
or coldness of a body on some chosen scale. a) It should not wet glass.
❖ Temperature is measured using a b) It should expand uniformly (regularly).
thermometer and it is a basic quantity whose c) It should be a good conductor of heat.
SI unit is the Kelvin. d) It should be visible.
❖ Degree Celsius ( C) is another unit in which e) It should have high boiling point.
0

temperatures can be measured. f) It should have low freezing point.

❖ Temperature is a scalar quantity. ❖ Note: Water cannot be used as a
thermometer liquid because:
Thermometers (a) It wets glass,
❖ A thermometer is an instrument used to (b) It expands irregularly (anomalously),
measure temperature. There are many types (c) It is a bad conductor of heat,
of thermometers, each designed for a specific (d) It is invisible (colourless),
use. (e) It has a relatively high freezing point.

Liquid-in-Glass Thermometer (Common Comparison between Mercury and Alcohol

Thermometer) as Thermometric Liquids

❖ The liquid commonly used in a liquid – in – Mercury Alcohol

glass thermometer is mercury. Alcohol can It has a high It has a low boiling
also be used. boiling point point (780C).
0
❖ Note: A liquid used in thermometer is (357 C).
commonly known as thermometric liquid. It has a relatively It has a low
higher melting melting point (-
Features of a Liquid –In – Glass Thermometer 0
point (– 39 C). 1150C).
It is a good It is a poor thermal
thermal conductor.
conductor.
(a) It expands Its expansion is
A Bulb regularly. slightly irregular.
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❖ Contains the thermometric liquid. It is thin It does not wet It wets glass.
walled to increase sensitivity of the glass.
thermometer (i.e. allow quick transfer of It is opaque and It is transparent
heat). silvery. and therefore has
(b) Capillary Bore to be coloured to
❖ It allows the liquid in the bulb to rise and fall make it visible.
when temperature changes. ❖ Notes
❖ It has a small diameter to increase its I. Alcohol thermometer is the best for use
accuracy so that a small change in in very cold conditions because its
temperature can easily be measured. freezing point is very low (-1150c) but
(c) Glass Stem cannot be used in a very high
❖ It is made up of thick glass to strengthen the temperature because its boiling point is
thermometer and therefore protect the liquid relatively low (78 0C).
inside. II. Mercury thermometers is best for use in
❖ Thick glass also acts as a magnifying glass to high temperature because of its high
magnify the liquid thread. boiling points (3570c) but cannot be used
in very low temperature because it has a
relatively high freezing point (-390c).

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Calibrating Liquid-in –Glass Thermometer 1) An uncalibrated mercury thermometer is

attached to a cm scale which reads 14 cm
❖ A thermometer has two main fixed points:
in pure melting ice and 30cm in steam. If
I. The upper fixed point (1000c)
it reads 10 cm in freezing mixture, what
II. The lower fixed point (0c)
is the temperature of the freezing
❖ The upper fixed point is marked by putting the
mixture?
bulb of the thermometer in steam of water
o 𝐼𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑐𝑒, 14𝑐𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑡𝑜 00 𝐶
boiling at standard atmospheric pressure of
o 𝐼𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚, 30𝑐𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑡𝑜 1000 𝐶
76 cmHg. o ∴ 1000 𝐶 −
❖ The lower fixed point is marked by putting the 00 𝐶 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑡𝑜 30 𝑐𝑚 − 14 𝑐𝑚
bulb of the thermometer in pure melting ice. o 1000 𝐶 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 16 𝑐𝑚 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
❖ The range between upper fixed point and 1 𝑐𝑚×1000 𝐶
o 1 𝑐𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑡𝑜 =
lower fixed point is sub divided into equal 16 𝑐𝑚
divisions of 10C each. 6.250 𝐶
o 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑧𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑖𝑠:
The Celsius (Centigrade) and Kelvin 00 𝐶 + (10 − 14) × 6.250 𝐶 = −250 𝐶
(Thermodynamic Temperature) Scale
2) A faulty thermometer reads 𝟏𝟖℃ at ice
❖ The Celsius scale has fixed points at 00C and
point and 𝟖𝟎℃ at steam point.
1000C while the Kelvin scale has fixed points
Determine the correct temperature when
at 273 K for pure melting ice and 373 K for
it reads 𝟔𝟎℃.
steam or pure boiling water at standard
o 𝐴𝑡 𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡, 18 0𝐶 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦
atmospheric pressure.
o 𝐴𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡, 80 0 𝐶 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎
❖ Temperature on Celsius scale and Kelvin scale
o (800 𝐶 −
are related by: 𝑻(𝑲) = 𝜽(℃) + 𝟐𝟕𝟑.
180 𝐶) 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 (1000 𝐶 −
Absolute Zero Temperature 00 𝐶)
o 620 𝐶 𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 1000 𝐶
❖ This is the lowest temperature on Kelvin scale 10 𝐶×100
o 10 𝐶 𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦
in which the energy of the particles in a 620 𝐶
0
material is zero. 1.6 𝐶
❖ Its value is zero Kelvin (-2730C). o 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎
0℃ + (60 − 18) × 1.6℃ = 67.2 ℃

Exercise

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1) A faulty mercury thermometer reads

𝟏𝟓℃ when dipped into melting ice and
𝟗𝟓℃ when in steam at normal
atmospheric pressure. What would this
Examples thermometer read when dipped into a
3) Convert each of the following from Celsius to liquid at 𝟐𝟓℃
Kelvin (𝑯𝒊𝒏𝒕: 𝒖𝒔𝒆 𝑻(𝑲) = 𝜽(℃) + 𝟐𝟕𝟑. ) 2) When marking the fixed points on a
a) -200C thermometer it is observed that at 𝟎 ℃
𝑇 = −20 + 273 = 253𝐾 the mercury thread is of length 2cm and
b) 00C 9 cm at𝟏𝟎𝟎℃. What temperature would
𝑇 = 0 + 273 = 273𝐾 correspond to a length of 4cm?
c) 100C
Clinical Thermometer
𝑇 = 10 + 273 = 283𝐾
d) -2730C ❖ It is a special type of thermometer used
for measuring human body temperature
𝑇 = −273 + 273 = 0𝐾
whose temperature range is about 350C-
4) Convert each of the following from Kelvin to 430C.
0
C (𝑯𝒊𝒏𝒕: 𝒖𝒔𝒆 𝜽(℃) = 𝑻(𝑲) − 𝟐𝟕𝟑. )
a) 0K
𝜃 = 0 − 273 = −2730 𝐶
b) 167K
❖ The tube has a constriction which breaks
𝜃 = 167 − 273 = −1060 𝐶
the mercury thread for temperature
c) 283K
reading to be taken.
𝜃 = 283 − 273 = 10℃
❖ After the thermometer has been read the
d) 3450K
mercury is returned to bulb by a lightly
𝜃 = 3450 − 273 = 3177℃ shaking the thermometer.
❖ Methylated spirit is used to sterilize the
thermometer after use.
❖ Note: clinical thermometer cannot be
sterilized by boiling water because it will
break since the boiling point of water is
far above the temperature range of the
thermometer.

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Six’s Maximum and Minimum Thermometer

❖ This thermometer records the maximum and
minimum temperature reached in a place
during a specified period of time, say a day.

Observation: When the ball is heated, it

does not pass through the ring but when
it is left on the ring for sometimes it
passes through. Explanation: When
heated, the ball expands and so cannot go
through the ring. When it is left on the
ring for some time the temperature of the
ball decreases and the ball contracts. At
the same time the ring absorbs some heat
from the ball its temperature increases
and so it expands allowing the ball to pass
through.
Mode of Operation of the Six’s Thermometer
❖ When temperature rises, the alcohol in bulb R 2. The Bar and Gauge Experiment
expands and pushes the mercury up the right
limb of the u- tube. The mercury pushes index Question
Y upwards. The lower end of this index In the figure below, at room temperature,
indicates the maximum temperature reached the bar fits into the gauge.
during the specified period.
❖ When temperature falls, the alcohol in bulb R
contracts and mercury is pulled back, rising
up in the left limb. The index X is therefore
pushed upwards. During contraction of
alcohol, the index Y is left behind in the
alcohol by the falling mercury. The minimum
temperature is read from the lower end of
index X. (a) Explain what would happen when the
To reset the thermometer, a magnet is used bar is heated and you try to fit it in the
to return the steel indices to the mercury gauge.
The bar does not fit into the gauge

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surfaces. because it expands when heated.

(b) Consider a case where the bar is slightly
Expansion and Contraction of Solids bigger than the gauge at room
❖ When solids are heated they expand temperature. Explain what you will do
(increase in size/ volume) and when cooled to make the bar fit into the gauge.
they contract (decrease in size/ volume). Heat the gauge so that it expands and the
Mass of the solid does not change when it bar will fit.
contracts or expands.
❖ Density of the solid increases when the body
Comparing Expansion and Contraction of
is cooled (because volume decreases) and it
Different Metals
decreases when the body is heated (because
volume increases). Question
Experiments to Demonstrate Expansion and An experiment was set to compare the
Contraction of Solids expansion of different metals as shown
below.
1. The Ball and Ring Experiment
❖ The ball and ring experiment apparatus are as
shown in the figure below. The ball just
passes through the ring at room temperature
and pressure.

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Example

The figure below shows a bimetallic strip at

(a) Explain how the experiment works a room temperature (250C)
o When the metal bar is heated it expands
and pushes the pivoted pointer and the
reading is taken on the scale. Metal bars of
the same size made of different materials i) Draw the same bimetallic strip when
are attached to the clamp one at a time and at 900c. Explain the observation.
heated for the same length of time. The
readings on the scale are recorded and
compared.
(b) What precautions should be taken to ensure
fair result
i) The metals should be of same length and When temperature increases above room
diameter. temperature aluminum expands at a
ii) The metals should be heated using same faster rate than copper.
burner.
The metal should be heated for same length ii) Draw the bimetallic strip when at -
of time. 250C. Explain the observation.

Linear Expansivity
❖ Linear expansivity is the tendency of a
material to expand when heated. Different When temperature decreases below room
materials have different linear expansivities temperature aluminum contracts at a
meaning that their rates of expansion or faster rate than copper.
contraction are not the same except a few
materials.
❖ The unit of linear expansivity is measured in Applications of Expansion and Contraction
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per Kelvin. The following are some examples; of Solids

1) Expansion joints in Steam Pipes
Material Linear Expansivity (K-
1 ❖ Pipes carrying steam are fitted with loops
)
or expansion joints to allow for expansion
Aluminum 26 x10-6
when steam is passing through them and
Brass 19x10-6
contraction when they are cooled.
Copper 16.8x10-6
Without the loop the force of expansion
Iron 12x10-6
and contraction will cause breakage of the
Concrete 11x10-6
pipes.
Steel 11x10-6

The Bimetallic Strip

❖ Bimetallic strip is made by riveting together

two metals of different linear expansivities.
The metal which expands at a higher rate
when heated contracts faster when cooled.
❖ Consider a bimetallic strip made of iron and
brass at room temperature and pressure in
figure (a) below. Brass has a higher linear
expansivity than iron and therefore expands
at a faster rate than iron. When the strip is
heated to a temperature greater than room
temperature it bends towards iron as shown
in figure (b) and when the strip is cooled, it
bends towards brass as shown in figure (c)
below.

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2. Fixing of Railway Line 5. Installation of Telephone/ Electric Wires

❖ Railway lines are constructed in sections with ❖ They are loosely fixed to allow for
expansion gaps and the sections held contraction. Telephone or electric wires
together by fishplates. The bolt holes in the appear to be shorter and taut in the
rails are oval to allow free expansion and morning. When it is hot, the wires appear
contraction of rails as the bolts move freely in longer and slackened.
the holes.
❖ A modern method of allowing for expansion
and contraction in railways is to plane slant
the rails so that they overlap.

6. The Bimetallic Metal Application

❖ One of the most common application of a
bimetallic strip is in the in the thermostat.
A thermostat is a device for maintaining a
3. Fixing of Steel Bridges steady temperature. The thermostat
❖ In bridges made of steel girders, one end is shown below is used for controlling the
fixed and the other end placed on rollers to temperature of an iron box. A heater
allow for expansion and contraction. circuit is connected through the electrical
terminals.

4. Rivets
❖ Thick metal plates in ships and other ❖ If the iron box becomes too hot the
structures are joined together by means of bimetallic strip bends curving away from
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rivets. A rivet is fitted when hot and then the lower contact. This breaks the
hammered flat. On cooling it contracts pulling contacts and switches off the heater.
the two plates firmly together. When it cools, the bimetallic strip bends
closing up the gap between the contacts
and the heater is switched on again.
❖ If the iron box is required to be very hot
(i.e. high temperature), the setting knob is
adjusted to push the metal K such that
the contacts are tight together. For low
temperature range the adjusting knob is
released so that the position K is lowered.
❖ Thermostat is also used to control the
temperature of electric cookers, electric
heaters for warming rooms, and fridges.

Expansion and Contraction of Liquids

To Demonstrate Expansion of Liquids
❖ Consider the flask below filled with colored
water as shown below.

Effects of Anomalous Expansion of Water

1) Support Aquatic Life in Polar Countries
During Winter
❖ During winter water freezers into ice. Ice
being less dense than water floats on
water. Since ice is a poor conductor of
heat, it insulates the water below against
heat loss to air above it.
❖ When the flask is heated it is observed that
water in the glass tube falls slightly and then
starts rising.
❖ The initial fall of the water level in the tube is
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due to expansion of the flask which gets

heated first. The water starts expanding when
heat finally reaches it and it rises up the tube
since liquids expand faster than solids.
❖ Note: Different liquids expand differently (i.e.
they have different rates of expansion)
❖ If the above experiment was repeated using 2) Anomalous expansion of water leads to
alcohol and then methylated spirit for the formation of ice bags which pose a great
same length of time and using same heater, it danger to ships.
would have been noted that methylated spirit 3) It causes weathering of rocks since when
expands most followed by alcohol and finally water trapped in freezes; it expands thus
water. breaking rocks into small pieces.
4) It causes bursting of water pipes when
Anomalous Expansion of Water water freezers in them.
❖ Anomalous expansion of water is defined as Expansion of Gases
the unusual behavior of water in which it
contracts when heated and expands when Experiment to Demonstrate Expansion and
cooled between 0 and 40C. Contraction of Gases
❖ Consider heating ice from -80C until it changes ❖ Consider the set up below which can be
to water and its temperature increases to used to demonstrate expansion and
80C. A plot of volume verses temperature for contraction of gases.
the water is as in figure (a) while density
verses temperature is as in figure (b) below.

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❖ When the flask is warmed, it is observed that 7) The figure below represents a bimetallic
the level of water column inside the glass strip of metals X and Y at room
tube drops indicating that the air has temperature
expanded. When the flask is warmed further,
some bubbles are seen at the end of the tube
in water as air escapes from the flask.
❖ When the flask is cooled, water level is The figure below shows its shape when
observed to rise up the glass tube because dipped into crushed ice
the air inside the flask contracts to create
space.
Examples
Sketch a diagram in the space given below
1) The figure below shows a beam balance
to show the shape when the strip is heated
made out of concrete and reinforced with
to a temperature above the room
steel
temperature

Use a diagram to explain the behaviour of the

shape of the beam when heated up.
8) Give a reason why a concrete beam
reinforced with steel does not crack
when subjected to Changes in
The beam expands linearly. The beam remains temperature.
straight but longer than before heating. Both Both concrete and steel have same rates
concrete and steel have same rates of expansion. of expansion. Their value of linear
-6
Their value of linear expansivity is 11x10 K expansivity is 11x10-6K
2) State two liquids which are used in 9) Aquatic animals and plants are observed
thermometer. Alcohol and Mercury. to survive in frozen ponds. Explain this
observation.
3) With a reason, state which of the two liquids Water freezes and the ice formed floats
in 3 (a) above is used to measure in water because its density is less than
temperature in areas where temperatures that of water, insulating water below it.
are: Temperatures increases down the pond
0
(i) Below -40 C alcohol, because it has a low because of anomalous expansion of
water.
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freezing point of –115oC.

(ii) 1500C, mercury, because it has a high boiling
point of 357oC,
4) What do you understand by the statement
‘lower fixed point’ on a temperature scale?
This is the temperature of pure melting ice at
standard/normal atmospheric pressure;
5) Name two adaptations that can be made to
a mercury thermometer to make it more
sensitive.
Using a thin walled bulb
Using a narrower capillary tube

6) The figure below shows a bimetallic strip

made of brass and iron. A marble is placed at
end A of the bimetallic strip as shown
below:-

State and explain what will be observed

when the bimetallic strip is strongly cooled
On cooling, the brass contracts more than iron,
hence become shorter than iron and forms
upwards curve, making the marble to roll and
settle at the centre of the curve.

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Revision Exercise Explain how rise in temperature

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1. One property of a liquid that is considered causes the pointer to move in the
while constructing a liquid in glass direction shown.
thermometer is that the liquid expands more 9. In the set up shown in figure below, it is
than the glass for the same temperature observed that the level of water initially
change. State any other two properties of drops before starting to rise. Explain.
the liquids that are considered.
2. Give a reason why a concrete beam
reinforced with steel does not crack when
subjected to change in temperature
3. Explain why a glass container with thick
walls is more likely to crack than one with a
thin wall when a very hot liquid is poured
into it.
4. Figure below shows a circuit diagram for
controlling the temperature of a room.
10.Give a reason why water is not suitable
liquid for use in a thermometer.
11.The temperature of water in a measuring
cylinder is lowered from about 200c to
i) State and explain the purpose of the 00c. Sketch a graph of volume against
bimetallic strip. temperature assuming that water does
ii) Describe how the circuit controls the not freeze.
temperature when the switch S is 12.Figure below shows a flask filled with
closed. water. The flask is fitted with a cork
5. Figure below shows a fire alarm circuit. through which a tube is inserted. When
the flask is cooled the water level rises
slightly and then falls steadily. Explain.

Explain how the alarm functions

6. Figure below shows a bimetallic strip at
room temperature. Brass expands more than
invar when heated equally.
13.A clinical thermometer has a constriction
Sketch the bimetallic strip after being in the bore just above the bulb. State the
cooled several degrees below room use of this constriction.
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temperature 14.Figure below shows an aluminum tube

7. Figure below shows a bimetallic tightly stuck in a steel tube.
thermometer.

Explain how the two tubes can be

separated by applying a temperature
change at the same junction given
8. Figure below shows a flat bottomed flask
that aluminum expands more than
containing some water. It is heated directly
steel for the same temperature rise.
with a very hot flame. Explain why the flask
15.In an experiment to investigate the
is likely to crack.
unusual expansion of water a fixed mass
of water at 00C was heated until its
temperature reached 200C. On the axis
provided, sketch a graph of density
against temperature of the water from
00c to 200C.

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Chapter Seven 𝐇𝐄𝐀𝐓 𝐓𝐑𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐅𝐄𝐑

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Definition of Heat • Wood

• Air
❖ Heat is a form of energy which flows from a
• Water
point of higher temperature to another point
• Rubber
of low temperature.
• Plastic
Differences between Heat and Temperature • Glass
HEAT TEMPERATURE Example
Form of energy that Degree of hotness
flows due to or coldness of a The figure below shows pieces of wood and
temperature body in some iron of equal length and diameter
difference. chosen scale. maintained in contact by a sheet of paper. A
flame is then passed over the paper several
The flow of heat Can be measured
cannot be accurately using a
measured precisely. thermometer. times.
SI unit and joules SI unit is Kelvin (k).
(J). State and explain the observation made:
The paper gets blacked on the region
Modes of Heat Transfer covering the wooden rod. This is because
wood is a poor conductor of heat and
❖ There are three modes of heat transfer: therefore does not conduct heat from the
conduction, convection and radiation. paper and therefore the paper burns. Iron is a
Conduction good conductor of heat and conducts heat
away from the paper.
❖ Conduction is the transfer of heat within an
object without the movement of the object as Factors Affecting Thermal Conductivity
a whole. 1. Nature of Materials
Mechanisms of Heat Conduction ❖ Nature of material means what the
material is made of.
(a) Vibration of molecules ❖ Consider the set up below.
(b) Through free electrons
Classification of Materials In Terms of
Conduction
❖ Materials can be classified as good or poor
conductors in terms of heat conduction.

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(a) Good Conductors

Good conductors are materials that can allow
heat to pass through them e.g.
• Copper
• Silver
• Aluminium
• Brass ❖ It is observed that the wax attached to
• Mercury copper drops first followed by that on
• Iron aluminum, iron lead and that of wood did
• Zinc not drop since wood is a poor conductor.
• Tin
Precautions
• Lead etc.
(b) Poor Conductors (Insulators) (a) Rods of same diameter to be used.
❖ These are materials which do not readily (b) Rods equal length to be used.
allow heat to pass through them e.g. (c) Wax of the same size to be used.

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2. The Thickness/ Diameter/ Cross Section Area ❖ It is observed that wax on rod B dropped
of the Conductor first. Therefore, thermal conductivity
❖ Consider the set up below; increases with decrease in length of the
conductor.
Precautions
❖ It is observed that the wax on the thicker iron (a) Rods placed at equal distance from heat
rod drops first. This is because more heat source.
flows through a thicker conductor per unit (b) Rods of same material used.
time. (c) Wax of the same size used.
❖ Therefore, conductivity of conductors (d) Rods of same thickness used.
increases with thickness of the conductor. Lagging
Precautions
(a) Equal time of exposure of the rods to heat. ❖ Lagging refers to the covering of a good
(b) Equal length and type of rods used. conductor of heat with an insulating
(c) Same size of wax used. material to reduce heat loss through
(d) Rods placed at equal distances from the heat surface effects.
source. ❖ Consider the set up below;

3. Temperature Difference
❖ Consider the set ups A and B below.

❖ Plots of temperature variation from the

hot end to the cold end with lagging and
without lagging on same axes will be as
follows;

❖ It is observed that wax in set up B dropped

first because of greater temperature different
than in A. Therefore, heat is transferred faster
when temperature difference is greater.

Precautions
(a) The rods of equal diameter used.
(b) Rods of equal length used.
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(c) Wax of same size used. Applications of Lagging

(d) Wax placed at equal distance from one end of
❖ Iron pipes carrying steam from boilers or
the rod in each case.
steam wells are covered with thick
(e) Rods of same material used.
asbestos material which is an insulator to
5. Length of the Conductor reduce heat loss from steam.
❖ Consider the set up below; Thermal conductivity In Liquids
❖
❖ Liquids are generally poor conductors of
heat.

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To Demonstrate that Water is a Poor Applications of Good and Poor

Conductor Conductors of Heat
Experiment 1 (a) Cooking utensils and boilers are made of
❖ Consider the set up below for demonstrating metals that conduct heat rapidly while
that water is a poor conductor of heat. their handles are made of insulators (poor
❖ conductors).
(b) Modern buildings are made of double
walls with an insulator between the walls
to minimize heat loss from the house and
therefore maintain stable temperature.
(c) Fire fighters put on suits made of asbestos
❖ After sometimes it is observed that water at which is a poor conductor of heat to keep
the top of the tube boils while the ice them safe while putting off fire.
remained unmelted. Water is a poor (d) Birds flap their wings after getting wet to
conductor of heat. Glass used for making test introduce air pockets within their feathers
tube is also a poor conductor of heat. this helps to minimize heat loss from their
bodies.
Experiment 2 (e) In experiments involving heating liquids in
❖ Another experiment than can be used to glass vessel. The vessel is placed on a wire
show that water is a poor conductor of heat is gauge because the gauge is a good
as shown below. conductor of heat it therefore spreads the
heat to a large area of the vessel.
Convection
❖ Convection is the process by which heat is
transferred through fluids.
To Demonstrate Convection in Liquids
❖ It is observed that the wax coating on beaker Experiment 1
containing mercury melted while that on
❖ Consider the diagram below in which
beaker containing water did not melt. This is
potassium permanganate crystal is put at
because mercury is a good conductor of heat
one corner in a beaker containing water
while water is a poor conductor heat.
and the beaker heated at that point.
Thermal Conductivity in Gases

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❖ Gases are poor conductors of heat. The set up

below can be used to support this fact.

❖ After sometime, it is observed that a

❖ It is observed that the match stick held within
purple coloration rises up from potassium
the unburnt gas region does not get ignited
permanganate forming a circular loop.
because gas is a poor conductor of heat.
This is due to creation of convection
currents in water.
Experiment 2
Consider the set up below

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❖ It is observed that the purple colouration of 2. Engine Cooling System

potassium permanganate moves in the anti- ❖ Engine cooling is enhanced by both
clockwise direction in the tube. This is due to conduction and convection processes.
creation of convection current by heat whose
direction is anti-clockwise

Convection in Gases
❖ Consider the set up shown below.

❖ The metal surface conducts away heat

from engine. This heats up the water
setting up convection currents which
circulates as shown in the diagram.
❖ The hot water is pumped into the radiator
❖ It is observed that the smoke is sucked into which has thin copper fins that conduct
the box through chimney P and exits through away heat from the water.
chimney Q. This is due to convection currents ❖ The fins are made of copper because it is
which are set up when the air in the box is the best conductor of heat. They are
heated. painted black because a black surface is a
good absorber of heat.
APPLICATIONS OF CONVECTION IN FLUIDS
❖ Fast flowing air past fins speeds up the
1. Ventilation cooling process.
❖ Ventilation refers to the supply of fresh air to
the room. 3. Domestic Hot Water System

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❖ Warm air exhaled by the occupants of the

room rises and gets out through ventilators
since it is less dense. Fresh cold air flows into
the room through windows and doors. This
way convection current is set up and there is
always supply of fresh air.

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❖ Hot water rises up because of the lowering of Application of Thermal Radiation

its density when heated.
❖ Cold water move down from the cold water 1. Solar Heater
tank to the boiler because it is relatively
heavier.
❖ The expansion pipe has an outlet for excess
water that could have resulted from
overheating
❖ The pipe that conveys the hot water and the
cylinder are lagged to minimize heat losses.

Thermal Radiation
❖ Thermal radiation is the process by which
heat is transferred through vacuum. In
thermal radiation therefore matter is not
involved in transfer of heat
❖ It is through this process of radiation that
radiant heat reaches the earth’s surface from
the sun.
❖ The higher the temperature of a body the
more the amount of thermal radiation.
Absorption and Emission of Radiant Heat
❖ Copper pipe is used because it is a good
❖ A good absorber of radiant heat is also a good conductor of heat and will conduct heat
emitter of radiant heat while a poor absorber into the water inside the pipe. It is
of radiant heat is also a poor emitter of the painted black colour is a good absorber of
heat. heat.
❖ Consider the set up below. ❖ The glass cover allow radiant heat from
the sun to pass through and prevents the
weaker energy emitted after.
❖ The black copper collector absorbs heat
energy and conducts it to copper pipes
which transmit it to the water.
❖ The insulating material prevents heat
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from being lost from the pipe.

❖ The copper pipe is coiled severally to
increase surface area for absorption of
heat.

❖ It is observed that water level in limb A rises

up while that in limb B falls. This is because
boiling tube B receives more heat than boiling
tube A warming the air inside it more. The air
expands and therefore pushes down the
water in limb B. As a result water level in limb
A rises.

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2. Thermos Flask 6. Houses in hot areas have their walls and

roofs painted with bright colours to
reflect away heat while those in cold
areas have walls and roofs painted silvery
bright to reflect as much heat as possible
back to the house.
7. Kettle, cooking pans and iron boxes have
polished surfaces to reduce heat loss
through thermal radiation
Revision Exercise
❖ The stopper rubber pad and rubber ring pad
prevent heat loss through conduction since 1. Two similar open tins with equal
rubber is a poor conductor of heat amounts of water at 800c were left to
❖ Silvered wall prevents heat loss through cool. If tin A is shiny and tin B is
radiation since the shinny surface is a poor blackened, sketch on the same axes the
radiator and emitter of heat. graphs of temperature against time for
❖ Vacuum prevent heat loss through the two tins.
conduction and convection since the two 2. The figure below shows a box with two
modes of heat transfer require material glass tubes A and B projecting from the
medium for transfer of heat. top of a rectangular wooden box with
❖ Shock absorber prevents breaking of the glass removable glass front.
walls due to pressure from the outside.
❖ Vacuum seal prevents air from reoccupying
the vacuum. It is through the vacuum seal
that air was sucked out.

3. Green House Effect (Heat Trap)

❖ Green house effect is a phenomenon in which
(i) What will be the direction of the
heat is allowed to pass through a transparent
smoke through the box?
material but does not penetrate to the
outside. This way heat accumulates in the
(ii) What conclusion can be made from
green house continuously.
the observation?
❖ Green houses are used to provide
(iii) Why are the ventilations for a room
appropriate conditions in plants especially in
made high up the roof?
cold areas.

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3. Study the set up below and use it to

4. Solar Concentrators answer the questions that follows:

❖ Concave reflector is used to reflect radiant

heat from the sun into a common point (a) What does the experiment illustrates?
(focus). Temperature at this point is very high (b) What two factors should one consider
therefore the concentrated heat can be used when selecting the rod to be used?
for purposes like heating water.
(c) State the observations made in this
experiment.
4. Explain the Greenhouse effect.
5. Name two examples of greenhouse
gases.

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1. The diagram below shows the essential

features of a solar heating panel. A small
electric pump circulates the liquid through
the pipes.

State briefly why:

i. The pipes and metal plates are blackened.

ii. There is a material fibre glass on the panel.

2. The figure below shows an electric iron.

Two metal plates A and B are riveted to form a

bimetal strip as used above.

(i) Which metal expands more

(ii) Explain how the electric iron works

when the power is on

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Chapter Eight 𝐄𝐋𝐄𝐂𝐓𝐑𝐎𝐒𝐓𝐀𝐓𝐈𝐂𝐒 𝐈

Introduction Exercise

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❖ Electrostatics is a branch of physics that 1. Two balloons inflated with air are tied
deals with static electricity which is a non- with strings and held 1 metre apart. Both
moving electric charge on the surface of an balloons are rubbed with fur. Why do the
object. balloons move apart when brought close
❖ All substances are made of atoms .Atoms together?
have three sub- atomic particles namely: 2. For each situation below state whether
✓ Protons the force between them is repulsive or
✓ Neutrons attractive.
✓ Electrons
❖ Protons have a positive charge. Electrons
have a negative charge. Neutrons do not
have any charge (i.e. they are neutral).
Types of Charges
✓ Positive charge(s). These charge(s) are
obtained when an atom loses an
electron(s).
✓ Negative charge(s). These charge(s) are
a) Conductors and Insulators.
obtained when an atom gains an
❖ Substances which do not allow electrons
electron(s)
to pass through them are called
❖ The SI unit of charge is the coulomb, C.
insulators.
❖ A charged atom (positively or negatively) is
❖ Substances which allow electrons to pass
called an ion.
easily through them are called
❖ A body that has neither a negative charge
conductors. The reasons why they
nor a positive charge contains an equal
(metals) conduct easily is because within
number of protons and electrons (Neutral
any metal some electrons are not
atom). When these charges are equal in
attached to specific atoms but are free to
number, a body is electrically neutral.
wander about.
Electrostatic Charges of a Material
❖ If you were to hold a metal rod and rub it
❖ A hard rubber rod gains millions of electrons
with wool would it be charged? NO
when it is rubbed with a wool cloth. The
However if you fit polythene handle onto
cloth loses electrons to the rod and becomes
the metal rod it can be charged by
positively charged. The rubber becomes
rubbing it. We explain this by saying that
negatively charged.
the polythene is an insulator and will not
❖ When glass rod is rubbed with fur, the fur
allow electrons to move through it on
loses electrons to the glass rod. Glass rod
along its surface. When an insulator is
becomes negatively charged and fur
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becomes positively charged. rubbed, the electrons which are

❖ A body is said to be positively charged if it transferred come from atoms on the
has an excess of positive charges or it has surface. The metals become charged by
lost some electrons. electrons from the wool. But if the metal
❖ A body is said to be negatively charged if it is directly held, these electrons
has an excess of electrons i.e. If it has immediately ‘leak’ away to the earth
gained some electrons. through the hand on the body whereas
❖ The following materials becomes negatively when the handle is insulated they remain
charged by friction when rubbed: on the metal because they cannot pass
✓ Polythene through the insulating handle.
✓ Most plastics Charging Methods
✓ Ebonite The following methods are used to charge
❖ The following on the other hand becomes materials:
posyitively charged when rubbed: (a) Induction
✓ Acetate (b) Contact
✓ Perspex (c) Separation
✓ Glass
✓ Fur
The Basic Law of Electrostatics
❖ It states that like charges repel, unlike
charges attract.

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(a) Induction (b) Contact method

Charging polystyrene ball negatively by ❖ Suspend the polystyrene ball coated with
induction aluminium using dry silk thread.
❖ Suspend the polystyrene ball coated with ❖ Bring a charged glass rod close to but not
aluminium using dry silk thread. touching the suspended ball.
❖ Bring apositively charged glass rod close to
but not touching the suspended ball.

❖ Bring a charged glass rod in contact with

Note: The positive charges are repelled while the the ball, rolling it over the surface.
negative charges are attracted to the rod.
❖ Touch the side of the ball away from the glass
rod with the finger.

❖ Withdraw the charged rod.

Note: Electrons flow from the earth to neutralize

the positive charge on the ball.
❖ While holding the glass rod near the ball,
withdraw the finger and then the glass rod. Notes
a) When a positive rod is rolled on the ball,
some of the negative charges induced in
the ball are neutralized by some positive
charges on the rod.
Note: The remaining negative charges b) When the rod is withdrawn, the positive
redistribute themselves uniformly on the ball. charges redistribute themselves all over
❖ When a body is charged by induction, it the surface of the rod.
acquires the charges that are opposite to the c) When a body is charged by contact
inducing charge. method, it acquires charges that are
similar to the ones on the charging rod.
Question: Question: Explain how a material is charged
Explain by use of diagrams how the above negatively by contact method
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material can be charged positively by induction

method. (c) Separation Method
❖ Place two spheres A and B together so
that they form a single conductor.
❖ Bring a charged polythene rod close to
but not touching sphere A.

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❖ Move sphere B away so as to break the ❖ It consists essentially of a metal cap

contact, while holding the charged rod in (brass) and rod (boast) at which is
position. connected a piece of very thin metal foil
called the leaf (sometimes gold foil,
aluminum) supported with a piece of
insulating material (could be cork,
cellulose acetate) which forms part of a
box with glass slides.
❖ The metal casing protects the leaf from
❖ Withdraw the charged rod and test the two the effect of the draught.
spheres using a negatively charged rod for ❖ The glass window is transparent for
the presence and type of charge in each observation to be made.
sphere. ❖ The rod is supported by a plug of good
insulators which stops charges given to
the cap from spreading to the case and
hence leaking away.
❖ The cap is circular to ensure uniform
distribution of charge on it.

• Earthing-Process of losing charges to or

Exercise gaining charges from the earth through a

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When a charged rod is held close to a metal conductor. Represented by the symbol:
sphere placed on an insulated stand, the charge
distribution on the sphere is as shown below. Charging a Gold Leaf Electroscope by
Contact
❖ An electroscope is charged negatively by
bringing a charged polythene strip up to
the electroscope and roll it over the
electroscope cap. The negatively charged
(a) What is the sign of charge on the rod? polythene rod repels the negative charge
(b) Describe a simple method to charge the which spreads on the plate and the leaf,
rod. making them repel each other hence leaf
(c) Explain why the far side of the metal divergence. If the process is repeated
sphere has a positive charge. several times the leaf divergence will
(d) What happens to the charges on the keeps increasing until it reaches the
metal sphere, if the charged rod is moved maximum point. This way the
away from the sphere? electroscope is said to have been
The Gold Leaf Electroscope charged by contact.
❖ The metal cap, leaf and rod will therefore
remain diverged.
❖ In damp weather, this process may be
difficult. It is helped if a razor blade is
cello taped on to the cap so that it
projects over the edge. The razor edge
will then be found to gather the charge
more readily than the cap alone.
❖ To charge an electroscope positively, a
charge cellulose acetate strip is rubbed
along the edge of the cap. Electrons are
accepted from the cap to the strip which
means that the cap and leaf gain a net
positive charge.
❖ The leaf therefore diverges again.

Charging a Gold Leaf Electroscope Positively

by Induction
❖ Touch the cap of the electroscope with
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your finger to ensure that it is fully

discharged.
❖ Bring a charged rod (-) close to the cap of
the uncharged electroscope.
❖ While the rod remains in its position,
touch the cap.
❖ Withdraw the finger and subsequently
remove the rod.
Observations
• When the charged rod (-) is brought close
to the cap, the leaf rises.
• When the cap is touched while the rod is
in position, the leaf divergence decreases.

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• When the finger is withdrawn and the then

the rod, the leaf diverges.
Charge on Charge Effect on
Explanation
electrosc brought leaf
When the rod is brought close to the cap,
ope near the divergenc
electrons are repelled to the plate and the
cap e
leaf making the leaf to diverge.
+ + Increase
When the cap is touched, electrons flow to
- - Increase
the earth through the body.
When the earth connection is broken by + - Decrease
removing the finger and the rod, the positive - + Decrease
charges redistributes onto the leaf and the +or- Uncharg Decrease
plate. The leaf as a result diverges and the ed body
electroscope becomes positively charged.
Uses of Electroscope
1. Detecting the presence of charge on a body
❖ Charged bodies brought near the cap will Charges in Air
cause the leaf to rise (diverge). If the leaf Air can be charged by:
doesn’t diverge the body is uncharged. ✓ Heating
2. Measuring the insulating properties of an ✓ Radiations
object(material) Applications of Electrostatic Charges
❖ Charge the electroscope and bring the • Electrostatics precipitators
object to the top of the electroscope and • Finger printing
earth the electroscope. The rate at which • Spray painting
the leaf fall is the measure of the • photocopying
conducting ability of the object.
3. To measure the quantity of charge on a Danger of Electrostatics
charged body ❖ Rubbing liquid molecules can be charged.
❖ If a body being tested has little charge on If the liquid is inflammable, it can spark
it the leaf of the electroscope will diverge and explode. It is advisable to store fuels
a little and if the body has much charge on in metal cans so that any charges
it the leaf will diverge more. generated continually leak out. This is the
4. testing the sign of charge on a charged body reason behind the presence of loose chain
❖ If a charged body is brought near the cap in tankers carrying inflammable liquids.
of a charged electroscope, the leaf of the
electroscope will diverge more if the body Assignment
and the electroscope have similar charges 1. A nylon dress sticks on the body and
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and the leaf divergence will decrease if the crackles when removed. Explain.
two have different charges.
Testing for charges 2. You are given a positively charged
a) Charge an electroscope negatively. Bring a electroscope and a charged body. Explain
negatively charged polythene strip close to how you will determine the type of the
the cap. Notice that the leaf diverges further. charge on the charged body.
b) Bring up a positive charge cellulose acetate
3. You are provided with the following:
strip close to the same negatively charged
polythene rod, duster and a uncharged
electroscope. Notice that this time the leaf
electroscope. Explain how you will charge
collapses (decrease in divergence.)
the electroscope negatively.
c) Place your hand on any uncharged metal
close to the charged electroscope. Notice
again that the leaf collapses.
✓ Note that the results in experiments ( b) and
(c) were the same hence the collapsing of the
leaf is not evidence for the presence of a
charged body. We can therefore state the
rule for testing a charge as follows :
1) If the leaf of charge electroscope diverges
further when a body brought close to the cap
then that body is charged.
2) The sign of the charge on the body is the
same as that on the electroscope.
❖ Increase in divergence is the only sure way of
testing the sign of charge on a body. Note
that charging by contact is not a sure way
but induction is.

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Chapter Nine 𝐂𝐄𝐋𝐋𝐒 𝐀𝐍𝐃 𝐒𝐈𝐌𝐏𝐋𝐄 𝐂𝐈𝐑𝐂𝐔𝐈𝐓𝐒

Introduction Notes
❖ Electrical energy is used for lighting, Heating a) A circuit that allows charges to move in a
and operating electronic devices such as T.V, complete path when the switch is closed
computers, high speed trains etc. This energy is said to be a closed circuit.
is carried through conductors like wires. b) A circuit that does not allow charges to
move in a complete path such a circuit is
Electric Current said to be an open (broken circuit). Open
❖ Electric current is the rate of flow of charge circuit can also be as a result of loose
(flow of charge per unit time). SI unit is the connection of wires.
ampere (A) c) For clarity and neatness, symbols are
❖ From the definition above, used in representing an electrical circuit.
Charge ,Q
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝐼 =
Time ,t

𝑄
𝐼= , 𝑄 = 𝐼𝑡
𝑡
Example
Calculate the amount of current flowing Direction of the Flow of Electric Current
through a bulb if 360 coulombs of charge flows
through it in 3.5 minutes. ❖ Conventionally, the flow of current is
from the positive terminal to the negative
Solution terminal of the cell. It is opposite to the
Q direction of flow of electrons.
I= ❖ The instrument for measuring electric
t
current is called an ammeter while
360
I= electric current flow is controlled by a
3.5x60 variable resistor.
= 1.714 A

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Types of Electric Current Device Symbol

Cell
a) Direct current(d.c) – which flows in one
Battery
direction only
Switch
b) Alternating current(a.c) – which reverses
direction with a given frequency
Bulb/filament
Simple Electric Circuits lamp
Wires crossing
❖ A simple electric circuit consist of a cell, a with no
bulb and connecting wires. connection
Wires crossing
with
connection
Fixed resistor
Potential
divider

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The table below Cells in Parallel

shows some of the
❖ Two or more cells are placed side by side,
electrical symbols
the positive terminals joined together and
used in drawing
the negative terminals also connected
circuits. Fuse
together.
Capacitor
❖ When cells are in parallel arrangement
their e.m.f. is the same as the e.m.f. of
Rheostat one cell.
❖ Current is supplied for a longer time in
parallel connection of cells.
Ammeter

Voltmeter

Galvanometer
Note: Cells should should be arranged in
Electromotive Force (E.m.f) and Potential parallel only when they have the same e.m.f
Difference otherwise one will drain the other.

❖ Electromotive force (E.m.f) refers to voltage Bulbs in Series and Parallel Connection
across the terminals of a battery in an open Bubs in Parallel
circuit (when no current flows in the circuit).
❖ Potential difference (Pd) refers to the ❖ Each bulb functions independently. If one
voltage across the terminals of a battery in a goes off, others continue lighting.
closed circuit (when current is flowing in the ❖ There’s decreased resistance as the
circuit). current has many alternative loops
❖ Potential difference and E.m.f are measured (complete paths) through which to flow.
in volts by an instrument called voltmeter. A ❖ Bulbs in parallel have the same potential
voltmeter is always connected in parallel difference but different amounts of
(across). current.
❖ The difference between Potential difference
and E.m.f is known as lost voltage
𝒆. 𝒎. 𝒇 = 𝑷. 𝒅 +
𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆
Bulbs in Series
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𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 = 𝒆. 𝒎. 𝒇 − 𝑷. 𝒅 ❖ If one bulb goes off, others also go off.

❖ There’s increased resistance thus the
❖ This voltage is lost because of the opposition
bulbs might not be as bright as those in
to the flow of charges within the cell (internal
parallel connection.
resistance)
❖ Bulbs in series have the same current but
Connecting Cells in Series and Parallel different potential difference.

Cells in Series
❖ Two or more cells are connected such that
the positive terminal of one is joined to the
negative terminal of another one.
Note: Bulbs in parallel arrangement light
❖ Two or more cells connected in series make a
brighter than those in series arrangement.
battery

Note: Connecting cells in series increases the

e.m.f and current in the circuit is higher.

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Example Note:
An electrician installed electric wiring in a house
1) Materials whose electrical properties fall
and connected the bulbs and the switches as
between those of conductors and
shown in the below.C
insulators are referred to as semi-
conductors e.g. silicon and germanium.
2) Some liquids such as dilute sulphuric acid,
sodium chloride solution and potassium
hydroxide conduct electricity. They are
referred to as electrolytes.
Sources of Electricity
(a) Explain what happens when switch: ❖ Main sources:
(i) S1 is closed. • Chemical cells
Only bulb B1 will light; • Generators
• Solar cells
(ii) S2 is closed. ❖ Other sources include:
Bulb B1 and B2 lights but with less • Thermocouples
brightness because of increase in • Piezo electricity
resistance.
(iii) S3 is closed. Chemical Cells
Bulb B1B2 and B3 will all light but with much
These are cells that produce an E.m.f as a
less brightness compared to a (ii)
result of a chemical reactions. They are
categorized into two:
(b) (i) Using a redrawn diagram show the
best position the bulbs should be I. Primary cells
installed. ❖ These are cells which cannot be recharged
for use again e.g. simple cell.
Simple Cell

(ii) Explain why you consider the

arrangement in (b) (i) above to be the best.

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When the bulbs are connected such that they are

in parallel, the circuit résistance is significantly
reduced; and hence more current flow, the bulb
lights with equal brightness since the operation
voltage is the same;

Defects of a simple cell

• Polarization – accumulation of bubbles
around the copper plate (positive plate).
This defect provides insulation to the flow
of current and also sets up some “local”
cells with copper whose electron flow
tends to oppose the flow of electrons
from the zinc plate. The overall effect is
increase in the internal resistance of the
cell, which reduces the flow of current.
• Local action – the zinc plate is depleted
(eaten away) as it reacts with dilute
sulphuric acid. Impurities in zinc promote
local action.

Conductors and Insulators

❖ Conductors are materials that allow electric
current to flow through them e.g. copper,
silver, graphite and aluminium.
❖ Insulators are materials that do not allow
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flow of electric current through them e.g.

plastic, paper and rubber.

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Ways of correcting Polarization defect: The Dry Cell

• Addition of potassium dichromate
(depolarizer). Oxygen from the depolarizer
combines with the hydrogen atoms to
produce water.
• Removing copper plate and brushing off the
gas bubbles.
Ways of correcting Local action defect:
• Use of pure zinc.
• Coating zinc with mercury (amalgamation).
The Leclanche’ cell • It is referred to as dry cell because it has
no liquid.
Local action and Polarization have been • The ammonium chloride solution in the
minimized in this cell. Leclanche’ cell is replaced with the
ammonium chloride jelly or paste which is
used as the electrolyte.
• Manganese (IV) oxide and act as the
depolarizer.
• carbon powder increases the surface area
of the positive electrode (carbon Rod)
• The zinc case acting as the negative
electrode gets depleted by the
ammonium chloride and changes to zinc
chloride. Local action is still a defect in
this cell.
• The cell cannot be renewed once the
• The carbon rod (positive terminal) is chemical action stops. A new dry cell has
surrounded with manganese (IV) oxide mixed an e.m.f of about 1.5 V.
with carbon powder.
Care for the dry cell
• Carbon powder increases the effective area of
the plates hence reduced resistance. • Large currents should not be drawn from
• The manganese (IV) oxide acts as a the dry cell within a short time.
depolarizer (depolarization is slow thus large • The terminals should not be shorted.
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currents cannot be drawn out of this cell • The cells must be stored in dry places.
steadily for a long time).
• Local action is still a defect in this cell. Uses of the dry cells
• The cell is used for purposes where current is • Dry cells are used in torches, calculators
not drawn from it for a very long time, like and radios.
operating bells and telephone boxes. It has a
longer life span than the simple cell. II. Secondary Cells:
• These are rechargeable cells.
• They are also called storage cells as they
can store electrical energy as chemical
energy.
• Examples are the Lead-acid accumulator
and the Nickel-alkaline accumulator.

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Lead – acid accumulator Maintenance of the Accumulators

• Consist of positive and negative plates which 1) The level of the electrolyte should be
are made of lead-antimony alloy. checked regularly and maintained above
• The plates are dipped in sulphuric acid the plates. Topping should be done by
solution which is an electrolyte. distilled water; NOT ACID!
• The caps have small vent holes which allow 2) The accumulator should be charged when
gases to escape(02 and H2) the e.m.f of the cell drops below 1.8 V
• If the density of the acid becomes too low the and when the relative density of the acid
accumulator is said to be discharged. is falls below 1.12 (using a hydrometer).
• It is charged by connecting a d.c source as 3) Large currents should not be drawn from
shown below. the battery for a long time.
4) Should not be left in a discharged
condition for a long period as sulphation
may take place. (the lead (II) sulphate
deposits on the plates harden up and
cannot be converted back to lead (II)
oxide and lead.)
5) Shorting/ overcharging of the
accumulator should be avoided.
6) The terminals should always be kept clean
• This is the most reliable, long lasting and cost- and greased.
effective of the secondary cells. A 12 V lead- 7) The accumulator should not be directly
acid accumulator has six cells connected in placed on the ground during storage. It
series. should be rested on some insulator like a
wooden block.
Capacity of an Accumulator
Alkaline Accumulators:
• This is the amount of current that can be
drawn in a given time from the battery. ❖ The electrolyte in this case is an alkaline
• It is expressed in ampere-hours (Ah). solution, such as potassium hydroxide.
❖ The common types are nickel-cadmium
Examples
and nickel-iron accumulators.
1. A battery is rated 120 AH. How long will it
work if it steadily supplies a current of 4A?

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𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠

× 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
120 𝐴𝐻 = 4 𝐴 × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
120 𝐴𝐻
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = = 30 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
4𝐴
2. The current capacity of an accumulator is
40Ah. Find the amount of current flowing if the
Advantages of Alkaline Accumulators over
accumulator is used for 600 minutes.
Lead – Acid Accumulators
𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠 × 1. Large currents can be drawn from them
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 over a short period of time.
600 2. They require very little attention to
40 𝐴𝐻 = 𝐼 × maintain.
60
40 𝐴𝐻 3. They are lighter (more portable) than the
𝐼= =4𝐴 Lead – acid accumulators.
10 𝐻
4. They can be kept in a discharged
condition for a very long time before the
cells are ruined.

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Disadvantages 1. You are provided with a car battery, a

switch and two headlights of a car. Draw
1. They are very expensive.
a possible circuit diagram for the
2. They have a lower e.m.f per cell.
arrangement that will allow the driver to
Uses of Accumulators switch on the two lights simultaneously.
2. (a) Draw a well-labelled diagram of a dry
They are used in ships, hospitals and buildings cell and explain how it works.
where large currents might be needed for
emergency. (b) What are the defects and the
remedies in the working of a dry cell?
Differences between primary and secondary
cells (c) How are dry cells maintained?

Primary cells Secondary cells 3. Eight dry cells can be arranged to

Cannot be Are rechargeable produce a total e.m.f of 12V, just like a
recharged after use car battery.
Small current can be Large current can be a. What is e.m.f of an individual cell?
drawn from them drawn from them b. Why is it possible to start the car with
Revision Exercise the lead-acid accumulator, but not

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9. In terms of electrons, distinguish between with eight dry cells in series?

good conductors, poor conductors of 4. (a) Draw two separate diagrams
electricity and insulators. showing a lead-acid accumulator when
10.(a) Define current and state its SI unit. it is:
a) Charging
(b)(i) A charge of 180 coulombs flow
b) Discharging.
through a lamp every minute. Calculate
the current flowing through the lamp. (b) Describe the changes that can observed
during the two processes above.
(ii) Calculate the number of electrons
involved (charge of electron is 1.6x10-19 C) (c) Why is it dangerous to light a cigarette
near a charging car battery?
11.A battery circulates charge round a circuit
for 1.5 minutes. If the current is held at 2.5A, 5. (a) What do you understand by the term
what quantity of charge passes the wire? capacity of a lead-acid accumulator?
12.Define electromotive force and distinguish it
(b)Why is it effective to charge a car battery
from potential difference of a cell.
over a long time with a very small current
13.(a) Draw a circuit diagram of three-cell
rather than a big current within a short
torch.
time?
(b) What do you understand by?
(c) A car battery is rated 40Ah and it is
(i) Open circuit? expected to supply a constant current for
120 minutes. What is the strength of current
(ii) Closed circuit?
delivered?
14.Explain why lights in a house are wired in
6. State at least five precautions that you
parallel and not in series.
would take to maintain accumulators in
15.(a) Give three differences between primary
your laboratory.
and secondary cells.
7. State the advantage and disadvantage of
(b) In making a simple cell, the two
lead-acid accumulators over the alkaline
electrodes used are not of the same kind. accumulators.
Explain. 8. The figure below shows the set up for a
simple cell.

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a) Name the Electrode A and the solution B

b) State two reasons why the bulb goes off after

a short time
16.State one advantage of a lead-acid
accumulator over a dry cell
17.State one defect of a simple cell and explain
how it can be corrected.
18.The diagram below shows a simple cell:-

a. Name z and solution y

b. Name and explain the defect that

occurs at plate z
c. Give one method of preventing the
defect that occurs at the copper plate

19.Explain why eight 1.5V cells arranged in

series to give a total of 12V cannot be used
to start a car. But car battery of 12V starts a
car
20.Define the term topping as used in simple
cells and circuits.
21. I) A girl opened up a used up dry cell and
found the following:
a. The zinc casing was depleted
b. The cell was watery
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II) Name the cell defect

III) Three identical bulbs are connected in series
with a battery of dry cells. At first the bulbs
shine brightly but gradually become dimmer.
Using the same cells, explain how you would
increase the brilliance of the bulbs
22.A car battery requires topping up with
distilled water occasionally. Explain why this
is necessary and why distilled water is used

23.State one advantage of:

a. A lead-acid accumulative over a dry cell

b. A dry cell over lead-acid accumulator

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Chapter Ten 𝐑𝐄𝐂𝐓𝐈𝐋𝐈𝐍𝐄𝐀𝐑 𝐏𝐑𝐎𝐏𝐀𝐆𝐀𝐓𝐈𝐎𝐍 𝐎𝐅 𝐋𝐈𝐆𝐇𝐓

𝐀𝐍𝐃
𝐑𝐄𝐅𝐋𝐄𝐂𝐓𝐈𝐎𝐍 𝐀𝐓 𝐏𝐋𝐀𝐍𝐄 𝐒𝐔𝐑𝐅𝐀𝐂𝐄𝐒
Introduction ❖ Make a small hole in each of the three
card boards ensuring that all the holes are
❖ Optics is a branch of physics which studies
at the same height.
the behaviour of light as it traverses various ❖ The lamps positioned in such a way that a
media.
ray of light passes through all the holes.
❖ Optical instruments such as cameras,
❖ When the cardboard is displaced by
microscopes, periscopes and laws governing
moving it slightly to the one side, the eye
their working form a major part of this branch will not see the lamp. This shows that light
of physics.
travels in a straight line.
❖ Light is a form of energy. Light regulates your
daily life. You need light to see the size, shape
Rays of Light and Beam of Light
and colour of things around you.
❖ A ray is a narrow stream of light of
negligible thickness while a beam of light
Sources of Light is a collection of rays of light.
❖ There are two : luminous (incandescent) and
non-luminous Types of beams
❖ Luminous objects are those which produce ❖ A beam in which rays are parallel to each
their own light e.g. sun, candles, electric other is called parallel beam.
lamps, glowing worms etc.
❖ Non-luminous objects are those which don’t
give their own light but reflect light that
comes from a luminous object. These are
objects. Examples are: the moon, paper, you
etc. ❖ A beam in which the rays converge at a
❖ You can see an object clearly if light from it point is called a convergent beam.
enters your eyes.

Transparent, Translucent and Opaque Objects

❖ Transparent objects are those which allow
light to pass through them e.g. a glass
window, clear water, the air around you. All
these substances let light pass through them.
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❖ Opaque objects are those which cannot allow

light to pass through them e.g. wool, steel,
Brick.
❖ Translucent bodies are those which let light
pass through them, but scatter in all
directions e.g. lamp shades, frosted glass,
some plastic etc.
• A beam in which the rays spreads out
from a point is a divergent beam
Rectilinear Propagation of Light
❖ This is the property of light to travel in a
straight line in a medium of homogeneous
propagation density.
❖ Light does not travel around corners. The
formation of shadows shows that light travels
in a straight line. When an opaque body is
placed in a beam of light, a shadow is formed.
Demonstrating Rectilinear Propagation of Light

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The Pinhole Camera

❖ A pin-hole camera is made using a small

rectangular box with a pin hole at one end, a
large rectangular hole at one end, a large
rectangular hole at the other end.
ho=object height
❖ The rectangular hole at the back is covered
hi=image height
with a screen of special paper like grease
u=object distance
proof paper which lets some light pass
v=image distance from pinhole
through it (i.e. it is translucent).
Given that magnification is m, then
ℎ 𝑣 ℎ 𝑣
Advantage 𝑚 = 𝑖 or 𝑚 = and so 𝑖
=
ℎ𝑜 𝑢 ℎ𝑜 𝑢
❖ It is able to form focused images on the film
of objects both near and far from the camera. Examples
1. A pinhole camera of length 15 cm forms
Image Formation by a Pinhole Camera an image 3cm high of a man standing 9m
in front of the camera what is the height
of the man?
ℎ𝑖 𝑣
=
ℎ𝑜 𝑢
0.03 𝑚 0.15 𝑚
=
ℎ𝑜 9𝑚
0.03 𝑚 × 9 𝑚
ℎ𝑜 = = 1.8 𝑚
0.15 𝑚
The Length (Size) Of Image 2. Lamp A of height 6cm stands in front of
❖ The length of the image formed depends on: a pinhole camera at a distance of 24 cm.
a) The distance of the object from the The camera screen is 8cm from the
pinhole pinhole. What is the height of the image?
b) The length of the camera box ℎ𝑖 𝑣
=
ℎ𝑜 𝑢
MAGNIFICATION ℎ𝑖 0.08 𝑚
=
❖ This is the ratio of the image size to the 0.06 𝑚 0.24 𝑚
object size or the ratio of the image distance 0.08 𝑚
ℎ𝑖 = × 0.06 𝑚
0.24 𝑚
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to the object distance. ℎ𝑖 = 2 𝑚

𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒
𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒

𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
=
𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

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Exercise Shadow Formed by a Point Source

1. An image 100mm long of a man 2m tall is
pinned on top of a pin-hole camera. The
distance of pin hole from the screen if the
man is standing 6cm from the pinhole.
2. An object 1m tall forms an image 5 cm tall
from the screen of a pinhole camera. Find
the distance of the object from the pin hole
of the object if the length of the camera box ❖ A point source of light is one which is
is 40 cm. small enough for all the rays of light to
come effectively from a single point.
Effect on the Image Formed by the Pinhole ❖ The shadow is uniformly and totally dark
Camera On: all over and is called umbra. The
(a) Many pin holes umbrella shape edges on the shadow
❖ Each pinhole will form its image resulting into shows that light travels on a straight
brighter but blurred image. line.
(b) Large pinhole
❖ A large hole is equivalent to several holes and Shadows Formed by an Extended Source of
will produce brighter but blurred image. Light.
❖ However, a sharp image can be produced
where a wide hole or several holes have been
used by simply placing a converging lens in
front of the many holes and in contact with
the box. The convex lens brings all rays from
a point on object to unique point on the
screen.
❖ An extended source of light is large
The pin-hole camera can be modified as follows enough for rays to be seen to come from
in order to take photographs: many points.
❖ Should be painted black on the inside to ❖ The shadow is larger and has a central
eliminate reflection of light. dark region called umbra surrounded a
❖ Translucent screen to be replaced by light- ring of partial shadow called penumbra.
tight lid with photographic film fitted on the
inside. Application of extended light sources
❖ Should be covered with a thin black card a) Lampshades are used at home to
which acts as a shutter. provide a more pleasant kind of
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The exposure time of a pin-hole camera depends lightning.

on: b) Fluorescent tubes are usually
• Size of the pin-hole surrounded by a frosted diffuse to
• Lighting conditions scatter the light & reduce shadow
• Sensitivity of the film sharpness.
• Length of the camera
Eclipses
Advantage of the Pinhole Camera over the Lens An eclipse is the total or partial
Camera disappearance of sun rays as seen from the
❖ The pinhole camera is preferred to the lens earth.
camera because it does not produce
distortion. The Solar Eclipse or Eclipse of the Sun
The disadvantages of using a pin hole camera:
a) It takes a long time for image to be formed
since the amount of light passing through the
hole is small.
b) It cannot be used to take photographs of
moving objects.

Shadows
❖ A shadow is a shade cast by an object
blocking direct rays of light. The formation of
shadows depends on the fact that light
travels in a straight line
The size of the shadow formed depends on:
a) Size of sources of light.
b) Size of opaque object.
c) Distance between the object and source of
light.

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❖ The ray from the source AO is called the

❖ The solar eclipse occurs when the moon incident ray. The ray that bounces off
comes between the sun and the earth from the Mirror O is called the reflected
ray. ON is the normal.
The Annular Eclipse of the Sun ❖ The angle between incident ray and the
normal is called Angle of incident angle, I
between the normal and the Reflected ray
is called angle of reflection.

The Laws of Reflection

1. The angle of incidence is equal to the
❖ It occurs when the distance of separation angle of reflection.
between the earth and the moon is great. 2. The incident ray, normal and reflected ray
The umbra of the moon does not totally at the point of incidence all lie on the
cover the sun edge of the dark disk of the same plane.
moon.
Types of Reflection
a) Regular or Specular Reflection
Lunar Eclipse or Eclipse of the Moon It occurs when parallel incident rays are
reflected parallel to each other when
reflecting surface is smooth.

❖ The eclipse of the moon occurs when the

b) Irregular or Diffuse Reflection
earth comes between the sun and the moon.
Parallel incident rays are reflected in
❖ When the lunar eclipse occurs, it lasts longer
different directions for
(about 1hr) than the solar eclipse because the
moon is much smaller than the earth.
❖ During a total lunar eclipse some light
reaches the moon due to refraction by the
earth’s atmosphere& make it look a coppery
colour.

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REFLECTION BY PLANE MIRRORS.

❖ When a ray of light meets a plane mirror it is
reflection.
❖ An ordinary mirror is made by depositing a
thin layer of metal, often silver paint at the
back of the glass which acts as the reflecting
surface. Image Formation by a Plane Mirror.
❖ The image of an object seen in a plane
mirror is formed by rays of light travelling
in straight lines which are reflected
according to the laws of reflection.

Exercise

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From the above diagram one can see that the 1. Find the number of images formed when
image formed in a plane mirror is always: mirrors are inclined at 20o
a) Erect (Upright) 2. Find the angle between two mirrors if 35
b) As far behind the mirror as object is in front of images are formed
it. 3. At what angle would two mirrors be
c) Virtual. inclined if the number of images formed
A virtual image is one: are (i) 17 (ii) 29?
• which cannot be received on the
Rotation of a Mirror
screen
• which is formed by the intersection ❖ When a mirror is rotated through an angle
of virtual rays. 𝜃 the reflected ray turns through 2𝜃.
c) Laterally inverted i.e. left appears on the right ❖ Hence, the reflected ray always turns
& vice versa through twice the angle through which
d) The same size as the object. the mirror is rotated.

Image Formation in Parallel in Mirrors Exercise

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1. A mirror is rotated through an angle of

15o through what angle does the
reflected ray turn?
2. A mirror is rotated through a certain
angle and the reflected ray turned
through 40o what angle had the mirror
been turned?
3. An incident ray makes an angle of 25o
with the normal. If the mirror is turned
❖ When an object is placed between two through 9o in the anticlockwise direction
parallel mirrors as shown above an infinite from the horizontal, through what angle
number of images are formed. is the reflected ray rotated?
❖ Each image seen in one mirror acts as a Application of Plane Mirrors
virtual object which in turn forms an image in
the other mirror. (a) The Periscope
❖ The image becomes fainter because light
energy is absorbed by the mirror at each
successive reflection.
❖ The number of images formed by two mirrors
inclined at an angle is given by the formula.
𝟑𝟔𝟎
𝒏 = –𝟏
𝜭

❖ A periscope consists of a plane mirrors

parallel to one another and inclined at
angle of 45o to the horizontal.
❖ They are used to help one see over an
obstacle.

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❖ Periscopes in submarines use prisms instead b) The length of the camera is made
of plane mirrors because. longer.
1. The silver part of the mirror easily gets c) The single hole is replaced by four
damaged pinholes close together.
2. Thick mirrors produce multiple refractions 5. Define the term reflection of light.
3. There is no lateral inversion with prisms.
6. State the Laws of reflection of light.
(b) Use of plane mirrors in instrument scales
❖ Plane mirrors are often used behind pointers 7. The mirror AB and CD are at right angles
as instruments to improve the reading to each other.
accuracy.
❖ When the pointer is viewed at an angle its
image will be seen through the plane mirror.
❖ The image seen will enable the reader to
know that reading being taken will have an
error due to parallax. The reader will
therefore position the eye vertically so that
the image of the pointer is not seen and
hence a correct reading will be taken. a) What is the value of the angle of
❖ The sports galvanometer uses a ray of light as incidence of the ray PQ on the
a pointer instead. mirror AB?
(c) The kaleidoscope b) Complete the diagram to show
❖ It applies the principle of mirrors inclined at the path taken by the ray PQ after
an angle. reflection at both mirrors.
❖ It consists of two mirrors M1 and M2 placed to c) Determine:
each other at 600 to each other inside a tube. I. Angle of reflection on AB.
❖ The instrument is used by designers to obtain II. Angle incidence on CD.
ideas on systematic patterns. III. Angle of reflection on CD.

Revision Exercise 8. If a girl walks away from a plane mirror

at a speed of 2m per second,
1. (a) Sally went to Mary salon to have her hair
I. In what direction does her
dressed. The salon had two parallel mirrors
image move?
placed on the walls which are 3 meters
II. With what speed does her
apart. While waiting to be attended to, she
image move?
sat at a distance of 1 meter from one of the
9. The figure below shows mirrors AB and
walls and noticed that there were multiple
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of her in each mirror. Determine the distance CD inclined at right angles. A ray PO
between the two nearest images formed in makes an angle of 30o with mirror AB has
the two mirrors. as shown.
(b) Two plane mirrors are placed at an angle of
600 as shown below. A ray of light makes an
angle of 400 with mirror m1 and goes to strike
mirror M2. Find the angle of reflection of Mirror
M2

(i) Show the path of the ray after

reflection from both mirrors.

(ii) What is the angle of incidence on

the mirror CD?

2. What is rectilinear propagation of light?

3. Draw a ray diagram to show how a pinhole

camera forms an image.
4. State the changes that would occur in the
size and brightness of the image formed if
a) The object distance is made large.

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