0% found this document useful (0 votes)
72 views60 pages

EITN90 Lecture7

This document provides an overview of Doppler phenomenology and data acquisition in radar systems. It begins by introducing the Doppler shift that occurs due to relative motion between a radar transmitter and target. It then discusses the Fourier transform and how it can be used to analyze radar signals in the frequency domain. It describes the spectrum of pulsed radar signals and pulsed radar data acquisition using I/Q channels. Finally, it outlines how range-Doppler spectra can be obtained from stationary and moving radars, including examples of FMCW radar. The goal is to understand how Doppler effects can be measured from acquired radar data.

Uploaded by

wire010
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
0% found this document useful (0 votes)
72 views60 pages

EITN90 Lecture7

This document provides an overview of Doppler phenomenology and data acquisition in radar systems. It begins by introducing the Doppler shift that occurs due to relative motion between a radar transmitter and target. It then discusses the Fourier transform and how it can be used to analyze radar signals in the frequency domain. It describes the spectrum of pulsed radar signals and pulsed radar data acquisition using I/Q channels. Finally, it outlines how range-Doppler spectra can be obtained from stationary and moving radars, including examples of FMCW radar. The goal is to understand how Doppler effects can be measured from acquired radar data.

Uploaded by

wire010
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 60

EITN90 Radar and Remote Sensing

Lecture 7: Doppler phenomenology and data


acquisition
Daniel Sjöberg

Department of Electrical and Information Technology

Spring 2020
Outline

1 Doppler shift

2 The Fourier transform

3 Spectrum of a pulsed radar signal

4 Pulsed radar data acquisition

5 Doppler signal model

6 Range-Doppler spectrums
Stationary radar
Moving radar

7 FMCW radar

8 Conclusions

2 / 56
Learning outcomes of this lecture
In this lecture we will
I See how relative motion induces the Doppler frequency shift
I Introduce the Fourier transform to describe signals
I Study the spectrum of pulsed radar signals
I Understand I/Q channels for data acquisition
I See examples of range-Doppler spectra
Target
Transmit signal Antenna

Transmitter T/R

Receive
signal

Receiver
protector
switch Mixer/Preamplifier
Detection and
Signal
Detector A/D measurement
processor
results

Low noise Local


IF amplifier
amplifier oscillator
Receiver (Adapted from Fig. 1-1)

3 / 56
Outline

1 Doppler shift

2 The Fourier transform

3 Spectrum of a pulsed radar signal

4 Pulsed radar data acquisition

5 Doppler signal model

6 Range-Doppler spectrums
Stationary radar
Moving radar

7 FMCW radar

8 Conclusions

4 / 56
Doppler shift

2vr 2v
fd = f= cos ψ
c λ
Only the radial motion (towards/from the radar) matters.

5 / 56
Doppler shift, examples

2vr 2v
fd = f= cos ψ
c λ
Since most speeds v are very small compared to speed of light c,
the Doppler shift is small compared to the carrier frequency.

6 / 56
Outline

1 Doppler shift

2 The Fourier transform

3 Spectrum of a pulsed radar signal

4 Pulsed radar data acquisition

5 Doppler signal model

6 Range-Doppler spectrums
Stationary radar
Moving radar

7 FMCW radar

8 Conclusions

7 / 56
The Fourier transform
The Fourier transform is the archetypical method to consider a
time domain function in frequency domain:
Z ∞
X(f ) = x(t)e−j2πf t dt
Z−∞

x(t) = X(f )ej2πf t df
−∞

Often, the transform is instead expressed in terms of angular


frequency ω = 2πf :
Z ∞
X̂(ω) = x(t)e−jωt dt
−∞
Z ∞
1
x(t) = X̂(ω)ejωt dω
2π −∞
Discussion

8 / 56
Some explicit Fourier transforms

x(t) X(f )

1 δ(f )

ej2πf0 t δ(f − f0 )

1
cos(2πf0 t) 2 δ(f − f0 ) + 12 δ(f + f0 )
sin(πf τ )
rect(t/τ ) τ = τ sinc(πf τ )
πf τ
2 /2 √ 2
e−(t/τ ) τ 2πe−(2πf τ ) /2

9 / 56
Some properties of the Fourier transform
I Linearity:
x(t) = ax1 (t) + bx2 (t) ⇔ X(f ) = aX1 (f ) + bX2 (f )
I Time shifting:

x(t) = y(t − t0 ) ⇔ X(f ) = e−j2πf t0 Y (f )


I Frequency shifting:

x(t) = ej2πf0 t y(t) ⇔ X(f ) = Y (f − f0 )


I Scaling (a > 0 is a real number):
1
x(t) = y(at) ⇔ X(f ) = Y (f /a)
a
R
I Convolution vs product ([x1 ∗ x2 ](t) = x1 (t − τ )x2 (τ ) dτ ):
x(t) = [x1 ∗ x2 ](t) ⇔ X(f ) = X1 (f )X2 (f )
x(t) = x1 (t)x2 (t) ⇔ X(f ) = [X1 ∗ X2 ](f )
10 / 56
Discrete Fourier transform and FFT

The Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) is a discretization of the


continuous transform in time and frequency:

N
X −1
Xk = xn e−j2πkn/N
n=0
N −1
1 X
xn = Xk ej2πkn/N
N
k=0

The Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) is any implementation of the


DFT that can be considered “fast”.

The most known is the Cooley-Tukey radix-2 algorithm, requiring


the number of samples to be N = 2r for some integer r. If this is
not the case, zero-padding can be applied with little penalty.

11 / 56
The effect of zero-padding a DFT

−1
Assume a sampled signal x = {xn }N
n=0 is augmented by a number
of zeros,
(
−1 xn n = 0, 1, . . . , N − 1
y = {yn }M
n=0 , yn =
0 n = N, N + 1, . . . , M − 1 > N

The corresponding DFT is then


M
X −1 N
X −1
Yk = yn e−j2πkn/M = xn e−j2πkn/M
n=0 n=0

which can be seen as an interpolation in frequency since the step


length 1/M is smaller than the original 1/N .

12 / 56
The effect of zero-padding a DFT

1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
2.0 t

1.5
1.0 N=8
N=16
0.5 N=32
N=64
0.00.6 0.4 0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6
f

Original time-domain function (top graph) sampled at 8 points.


Augmented with zeros to 16, 32, and 64 points, makes the DFT
interpolate between the original points.
13 / 56
Outline

1 Doppler shift

2 The Fourier transform

3 Spectrum of a pulsed radar signal

4 Pulsed radar data acquisition

5 Doppler signal model

6 Range-Doppler spectrums
Stationary radar
Moving radar

7 FMCW radar

8 Conclusions

14 / 56
Pulsed radar signals

We intend to find out the spectrum of a pulsed radar signal:

x(t)

The strategy is to express the signal as a modulated carrier:

x(t) = ej2πf t p(t)

where ej2πf t is the carrier wave, and p(t) is the modulation


(change in amplitude).

15 / 56
Infinite length continuous wave

A
2 δ(f + f0 )

A j2πf0 t
x(t) = A cos(2πf0 t) = (e + e−j2πf0 t )
2
A A
X(f ) = δ(f − f0 ) + δ(f + f0 )
2 2
16 / 56
Single rectangular pulse

(
A, −τ /2 < t < τ /2
pτ (t) =
0, otherwise
Z τ /2
sin(πf τ )
Pτ (f ) = Ae−j2πf t dt = Aτ = Aτ sinc(πf τ )
−τ /2 πf τ
Note the contradictory definition of sinc(z) in the book’s (8.15). 17 / 56
Infinite pulse train

∞ ∞
" #
X X
pI (t) = pτ (t − nT ) = pτ (·) ∗ δ(· − nT ) (t)
n=−∞ n=−∞
 

1 X 
PI (f ) = {Aτ sinc(πf τ )} δ(f − k · PRF )
| {z } T | {z } 
k=−∞ =1/T
=Pτ (f )
18 / 56
Finite pulse train

(
1, −Td /2 < t < Td /2
pF (t) = pI (t) · pTd (t), pTd (t) =
0, otherwise

ATd τ X
PF (f ) = [PI (·) ∗ PTd (·)](f ) = sinc(πτ k · PRF) sinc[π(f − k · PRF)Td ]
T
k=−∞

19 / 56
End result: modulated finite pulse train

The carrier wave cos(2πf0 t) shifts the spectrum to ±f0 .


20 / 56
Frequency scales

Four frequency scales:


I Bandwidth of spectral lines (1/Td )
I Spacing of spectral lines (1/T )
I Rayleigh bandwidth of single pulse envelopes (1/τ )
I Center frequencies (±f0 )
Discussion

21 / 56
Pulsed waveform spectrum with moving targets

The stationary clutter stays centered at ±f0 , whereas a moving


target signal is shifted by fd . If the separation is large enough, the
stationary clutter can be filtered out, allowing detection of the
weaker target.

22 / 56
Doppler resolution

Since linewidth is proportional to 1/Td , Doppler resolution


improves with increasing dwell time Td . 23 / 56
Receiver bandwidth effects

I In principle, the signal carries power at all frequencies.


I About 91% of the total energy is inside the main lobe.
I Extending the bandwidth outside the main lobe increases
signal with at most additional 9%, but noise increases
proportionally to bandwidth.
I To maximize SNR, the receiver bandwidth should match
expected signal.
24 / 56
Why multiple pulses?

I Consider an X-band radar (10 GHz) with 10 µs pulses. A


target moving at Mach 1 (340 m/s), implies a Doppler shift of
22.7 kHz.
I Without Doppler shift, one pulse has
(10 · 10−6 ) · (10 · 109 ) = 100 000 cycles.
I With Doppler shift, one pulse has
(10 · 10−6 ) · (10 · 109 + 22.7 · 103 ) = 100 000.227 cycles, only
about a quarter of a cycle more.
I The Doppler resolution from one pulse is
1/τ = 1/(10 · 10−6 ) Hz = 100 kHz, not sufficient to resolve
the Doppler peak at 22.7 kHz shift.
I Using multiple pulses, the resolution becomes
1/Td = 1/(N · PRI) = PRF/N , which can be made small
enough.

25 / 56
Outline

1 Doppler shift

2 The Fourier transform

3 Spectrum of a pulsed radar signal

4 Pulsed radar data acquisition

5 Doppler signal model

6 Range-Doppler spectrums
Stationary radar
Moving radar

7 FMCW radar

8 Conclusions

26 / 56
Received signal

R0

Transmitted signal:
x(t) = A cos(2πf0 t + θ) = Re{Aej(2πf0 t+θ) } = Re{(Aejθ )ej2πf0 t }
Received signal:
 
2R0 n 4πR0
 o
y(t) ∼ x t − = Re Aej(θ− λ ) ej2πf0 t
c
  

Complex amplitude of received signal: A exp j θ − R0
λ
Discussion
27 / 56
Video detector

By mixing the received signal with a reference signal 2 cos(2πf0 t),


we obtain (writing θ − 4πR0 /λ = θ0 )

A cos(2πf0 t + θ0 ) · 2 cos(2πf0 t)
A h j(2πf0 t+θ0 ) 0
ih i
= e + e−j(2πf0 t+θ ) ej2πf0 t + e−j2πf0 t
2
A h j(4πf0 t+θ0 ) 0 0 0
i
= e + e−j(4πf0 t+θ ) + ejθ + e−jθ
2

After low pass filtering: A cos(θ0 ) = A cos(θ − 4πR0 /λ)

Not enough to determine both amplitude A and phase θ0 !


28 / 56
Coherent detector

I In-phase (I) channel, reference signal cos(2πf0 t).


I Quadrature (Q) channel, reference signal
cos(2πf0 t + π/2) = − sin(2πf0 t).
The I/Q channels can be combined to form the analytic signal
0
a = I + jQ = A cos θ0 + jA sin θ0 = Aejθ
from which both amplitude A and phase θ0 can be determined.
Requires an accurate phase difference between I and Q references.
29 / 56
Range bins, fast time

I For one transmitted pulse, sample the receiver output


(down-converted frequency, almost constant during sample
time).
I Each reflected pulse contributes to only one sample.
I Store the samples as a vector, with elements being called
range bins, range gates, range cells, or fast-time samples.
30 / 56
Slow time, datacube

31 / 56
Outline

1 Doppler shift

2 The Fourier transform

3 Spectrum of a pulsed radar signal

4 Pulsed radar data acquisition

5 Doppler signal model

6 Range-Doppler spectrums
Stationary radar
Moving radar

7 FMCW radar

8 Conclusions

32 / 56
Measuring Doppler with multiple pulses

y[m] = A exp {j[θ − (4π/λ)(R0 − vmT )]}


     
2v 4πR0
= A exp j 2π (mT ) + θ −
λ λ
0
= A exp[j(2πfd tm + θ )], 0 ≤ m ≤ M − 1
The Doppler shift fd can be found from a frequency analysis of the
received analytic signal!
33 / 56
Coherent pulses

If the pulses are non-coherent, the phase in consecutive pulses is


uncorrelated, and frequency analysis cannot be used.
34 / 56
Outline

1 Doppler shift

2 The Fourier transform

3 Spectrum of a pulsed radar signal

4 Pulsed radar data acquisition

5 Doppler signal model

6 Range-Doppler spectrums
Stationary radar
Moving radar

7 FMCW radar

8 Conclusions

35 / 56
Outline

1 Doppler shift

2 The Fourier transform

3 Spectrum of a pulsed radar signal

4 Pulsed radar data acquisition

5 Doppler signal model

6 Range-Doppler spectrums
Stationary radar
Moving radar

7 FMCW radar

8 Conclusions

36 / 56
Doppler spectrum in one range bin

The signal is sampled every PRI seconds, hence the Doppler


spectrum (DFT in slow time) is contained in [−PRF/2, PRF/2],
where PRF = 1/PRI.

Clutter and stationary targets are centered at fd = 0, moving


targets and noise appear throughout the spectrum.

37 / 56
Range-Doppler spectrum

The range-Doppler spectrum is obtained by plotting a radar signal


as function of both range (fast-time) and Doppler frequency
(Fourier transformed slow-time).
38 / 56
Range-Doppler spectrum, realistic data

Note the clutter ridge around fd ≈ 0, and targets in different range


bins.

39 / 56
Simulated data, http://radarsp.com
FRSP Demos/FRSP Non-GUI demos/Pulse Doppler/

RANGE-DOPPLER PLOT OF UNPROCESSED DATA RANGE-DOPPLER CONTOUR PLOT OF UNPROCESSED DATA


5.5

0 5

-20 4.5

-40

range (km)
4
-60
3.5
-80
3
-100
6
2.5
200
4
100
2 0 2
-100
range (km) 0 -200 velocity (m/s) -150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150
velocity (m/s)

Target extent in range corresponds to uncompressed pulse length


10 µs · c/2 = 1.5 km.
40 / 56
Simulated data, http://radarsp.com

Clutter cancellation through high-pass filtering.

RANGE-DOPPLER PLOT OF CLUTTER-CANCELLED DATA RANGE-DOPPLER CONTOUR PLOT OF CLUTTER-CANCELLED DATA


5.5

0 5

-20 4.5

range (km)
4
-40

3.5
-60

3
-80
6
2.5
200
4
100
2 0 2
-100
range (km) 0 -200 velocity (m/s) -150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150
velocity (m/s)

Note target on clutter ridge edge is almost deleted.

41 / 56
Simulated data, http://radarsp.com

Pulse compression (a chirped pulse is used, better range resolution,


covered in Chapter 20.)

RANGE-DOPPLER PLOT OF FULLY-PROCESSED DATA RANGE-DOPPLER CONTOUR PLOT OF FULLY-PROCESSED DATA

0 3.5

3
-50

range (km)
2.5

-100 2

1.5
-150
6
1
200
4
100
2 0 0.5
-100
range (km) 0 -200 velocity (m/s) -150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150
velocity (m/s)

42 / 56
Outline

1 Doppler shift

2 The Fourier transform

3 Spectrum of a pulsed radar signal

4 Pulsed radar data acquisition

5 Doppler signal model

6 Range-Doppler spectrums
Stationary radar
Moving radar

7 FMCW radar

8 Conclusions

43 / 56
Main lobe clutter spreading

The Doppler shift depends on squint angle ψ, which implies a


frequency broadening due to the beam width θ3 :
 
2v 4v θ3 2vθ3
fd = cos ψ ⇒ BMLC = sin sin ψ ≈ sin ψ
λ λ 2 λ

44 / 56
Clutter spectrum elements

The clutter spectrum of a moving platform has many elements,


induced by antenna sidelobes and different velocity components.
45 / 56
Example of range-Doppler clutter distribution

46 / 56
Outline

1 Doppler shift

2 The Fourier transform

3 Spectrum of a pulsed radar signal

4 Pulsed radar data acquisition

5 Doppler signal model

6 Range-Doppler spectrums
Stationary radar
Moving radar

7 FMCW radar

8 Conclusions

47 / 56
Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave (FMCW)
In a continuous wave system, the transmitter is always on. The
frequency can be tuned by a control signal.

transmitting
Vtune VCO antenna

90◦

I
receiving
antenna

This makes for a cheap system, where the range information is


obtained by frequency synthesis, rather than time-of-flight
measurements.
Discussion 48 / 56
Signal processing I
With a target at range R, the received signal is
r(t) = Aej2πf (t−2R/c)
After downconversion (removing ej2πf t ) the analytic signal is
a = I + jQ = Ae−j4πf R/c
Measure at discrete times tn with changing frequency fn :
tn = n∆t n = 0, 1, . . . , N − 1
fn = f0 + nB/N B = bandwidth
Rn = R0 − nv∆t v = radial velocity
The sampled signal is then (after

expansion of the product fn Rn )
2BR0 2vf ∆t n2 2Bv∆t
−j4πf0 R0 /c jn2π − + c0
an = Ae
| {z }e
Nc
ej2π Nc

=A0
The last term is a chirping effect, which can be neglected if the
target’s movement in one pulse (N v∆t) is much less than the
2
spatial resolution c/(2B): n 2Bv∆t
Nc
N v∆t
< c/(2B)  1. 49 / 56
Signal processing II

Using both up-chirped and down-chirped signals,


 
2BR0 2vf0 ∆t
0 jn2π − N c + c
an = A e (up-chirp, fn = f0 + nB/N )
 
2BR0 2vf ∆t
jn2π + c0
an = A0 e Nc
(down-chirp, fn = f0 + (N − n)B/N )

2BR0 2vf0 ∆t
we can use FFT to compute both Nc and c .

Conclusion:
I Both range R and velocity v can be detected by FMCW.
I Necessary to use I and Q signals, sweeping the frequency over
bandwidth B in N steps up and down. Dwell time is 2N ∆t.
I The technique will be used in the lab on Friday.

50 / 56
Outline

1 Doppler shift

2 The Fourier transform

3 Spectrum of a pulsed radar signal

4 Pulsed radar data acquisition

5 Doppler signal model

6 Range-Doppler spectrums
Stationary radar
Moving radar

7 FMCW radar

8 Conclusions

51 / 56
Conclusions

I The Doppler shift is due to relative motion between radar and


target.
I The Fourier transform can be used to compute frequency
domain data.
I The spectrum of a pulsed radar has been characterized,
having several frequency scales.
I The I/Q channels and analytic signal have been introduced.
I The range-Doppler spectrum provide information on both
range and velocity.
I Range and velocity can be extracted from FMCW data using
Fourier analysis.

52 / 56
Discussion

The Fourier transform is defined by


Z ∞
X(f ) = x(t)e−j2πf t dt
Z−∞

x(t) = X(f )ej2πf t df
−∞

If x(t) has units of volts (V), what unit does X(f ) have?

Go back

53 / 56
Discussion

The Fourier transform is defined by


Z ∞
X(f ) = x(t)e−j2πf t dt
Z−∞

x(t) = X(f )ej2πf t df
−∞

If x(t) has units of volts (V), what unit does X(f ) have?

Answer: [X(f )] = Vs (x(t) is multiplied by dt, having units of s).


Go back

53 / 56
Discussion

How does the spectrum look if 1) Td = T = τ , 2) Td > T = τ ?

Go back 54 / 56
Discussion

How does the spectrum look if 1) Td = T = τ , 2) Td > T = τ ?

Answer: 1) Equal to the dashed sinc envelope. This corresponds to


a single rectangular pulse of length Td = T = τ with carrier
frequency f0 . 2) With Td > T = τ , there is a single peak inside
the dashed sinc envelope (one long rectangular pulse). Go back 54 / 56
Discussion

The complex amplitude of the received signal is


  

Ac = A exp j θ − R0
λ

If we could measure Ac , how can we extract information on the


range R0 ?

Go back

55 / 56
Discussion

The complex amplitude of the received signal is


  

Ac = A exp j θ − R0
λ

If we could measure Ac , how can we extract information on the


range R0 ?

Answer: By varying the wavelength λ, we control the phase due to


R0 . For instance, using two wavelengths λ1 and λ2 we get
  
Ac1 1 1 arg(Ac1 /Ac2 )
= exp −j4πR0 − ⇒ R0 =  
Ac2 λ1 λ2 −j4π λ11 − λ12

(under the requirement that |4πR0 ( λ11 − 1


λ2 )| < π).
Go back

55 / 56
Discussion
Would a continuous wave radar be best for long or short ranges?

transmitting
Vtune VCO antenna

90◦

I
receiving
antenna

Go back

56 / 56
Discussion
Would a continuous wave radar be best for long or short ranges?

transmitting
Vtune VCO antenna

90◦

I
receiving
antenna

Answer: High duty cycle implies low peak power and short range.
Go back

56 / 56

You might also like