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Reading and Writing

INTRODUCTION

READING is a cognitive process of decoding symbols to derive meaning from a

text. It is always an interaction between the text and the reader. Reading can be more
meaningful if it will be viewed as an interactive process between the writer and the
reader. We read to gain and share information and ideas, whether for academic,
personal, and professional purposes.

Reading is the act of getting the meaning of written or printed words.

Reading is also a skill that can be improved through constant practice. In order to
comprehend the text, we apply many skills simultaneously while we read: identifying the
author’s purpose, grasping the main idea of the text, locating important details, using
context clues to understand unfamiliar words, answering specific questions, analyzing
the text’s points, and critiquing the text. You do more than just read. These, and more,
are some of the strategies that we can use to help us become better readers.

THE READING PROCESS

Reading academic texts requires focus and understanding. You have to interact with
the text by questioning its assumptions, responding to its arguments, analyzing its
assertions, and connecting it to real-life experiences and applications (relating your
experiences to the message).

As a complex process, reading consists of the following stages:

1. Pre-reading – before reading a selection, you have to draw on your background

knowledge by looking at the title. This is the prereading stage. It aims to induce
the readers’ motivation to read and to activate their schema or background
knowledge. Activities done during this stage include previewing, making graphic
organizers, freewriting, surveying, questioning, making assumptions about the
author, identifying the purpose, and selecting a reading system such as SQ3R
(survey, question, read, recite, review) or KWL chart.

2. While-reading – in this stage, you may reread the text until you fully understand
its meaning. The specific skills in this stage include getting the meaning of words
through context clues, predicting, inferencing, monitoring comprehension, and
annotating the text.

3. Post-reading – in the last stage, you have to check your understanding of the
text. The skills include reflecting/relating, reacting, summarizing, paraphrasing,
drawing conclusions, making graphic organizers, and journal writing.

APPLYING EFFECTIVE READING STRATEGIES

Below are some reading strategies that you can use to increase your understanding of
the text.

Getting an Overview of the Text

At times, it may be a good idea to survey the text as a whole before delving deeper
into each part. Whenever you want to get the gist of the text’s content, you use
previewing, rapid reading (skimming and scanning).

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 1. Previewing means looking at the readily visible parts of the text, like titles and
subtitles, and also illustrations, visuals and graphs, pictures, and charts. This will
help you get an initial idea or overview of the text’s content. You can also browse
the introduction and conclusion of the text. Don’t forget to look at the visual
elements of the text. This is conducted during the pre-reading stage. Browsing,
or inspecting unhurriedly the table of contents, introduction, or summary, is also a
previewing technique.

2. Rapid Reading (or Speed Reading) aims to locate specific information or main
ideas in a very short span of time. Examples of this include skimming and
scanning, which are both pre-reading skills.
a. Skimming the text means you look for the main point/general idea of the
reading and to get an overview of the material. Skimming effectively means
physically moving your eyes rapidly along the page and tracing your finger
along the lines of the text to speed up your reading. This skill also involves
quickly going through beginning and concluding sentences of paragraphs
because they usually talk about the topic/main idea of the text. This is usually
done when reading newspapers, magazines, books, and letters.

b. Scanning the reading is looking for specific information (example: fact)

from a given text without necessarily reading everything in the text. In
scanning, the reader must be willing to skip over a large section of text
without reading or understanding them. To scan the text effectively, you need
to have an idea of the details you are looking for. In other words, be clear with
the information that you need. Check if you are looking for a date, person,
place, or event, and then focus on that specific information. The instructions
of your teacher or questions about the text may help you in knowing what to
scan for. This strategy also involves physically moving your eyes quickly
along the lines of a text. You do not have to read every word; just read
until you locate the details you are searching for. Scanning the text is
especially useful when doing research or taking examinations. Scanning is
useful in locating the specific name of a board passer or checking an old
email in your inbox. Develop this skill further by applying the following tips:

a. Avoid reading every word; focus only on what specific information you need.
b. Relax your eyes as you move them across the lines rapidly.

Check for the following information and look for the grade of Brutus. Do it as
quickly as you can.

Name Grade
Julius Caesar 90.5
Anthony 94
Pontius 98
Sophocles 76
Aristotle 93
Brutus 89
Archimedes 82

Since you are focused on getting only Brutus’ grade, you do not have to read
through the whole list.

Skimming and scanning, therefore, are related reading techniques. They

complement and supplement each other. To skim is to focus on knowing the general
idea of a reading material, while to scan, is to focus on its specific or particular
information that it conveys. They are both done hurriedly or quickly.

TYPES OF READING

People have different reasons why they read, but most of these reasons, if not
all, fall under three general purposes: to be informed, to be entertained, and to
be inspired. Some of the various types of reading are defined and classified
according to purpose. Read the following to learn about them.

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Ryan reads a long Karen reads her Philip reads a Francis reads a
text to improve his favorite book, college application pronunciation chart
reading Harry Potter, to form to understand with his teacher to
comprehension relax after a long how to fill it out. help him correct his
skills. day. pronunciation of
diphthongs.

Developmental Pleasure reading Functional reading Remedial reading

reading
a systematic a more passive type designed to help aims to correct the
instruction which of reading that students learn basic effects of poor
aims to develop the primarily aims to functional reading teaching and poor
students’ reading provide enjoyment ability learning
skills and entertainment

CONTEXT CLUES

One technique to improve your reading comprehension and reading pace is using
context clues.

Context clues are words, phrases, and sentences that surround an unfamiliar word
that can help you recognize the meaning of an unknown word because the text gives
you information about it. Thus, you can study how a word is used in a sentence and
discover an approximate definition. Getting the meaning of unfamiliar words through
context clues is a very useful process, because this allows you to read more fluently and
increases your vocabulary.

The common types of context clues are the following:

1. Synonyms are used when the text has words or phrases that are similar in
meaning to the unknown word. Though their meanings are similar, they are not
exactly the same because a word may have different associations with it.
Examples:
a. The loud, boisterous laughter of the students angered their teacher.
b. To obtain a college degree is an untiring, indefatigable quest.

2. Antonyms are words that reveal the opposite meaning in relation to the
unknown word. When you see words like “although,” “despite,” “instead,” “in
contrast,” “unlike,” “however,” “even though,” “on the contrary,” and “conversely,”
these usually precede antonyms because these are used to show contrasting
ideas.
Examples:
a. Contactless payment technologies, unlike traditional modes of payment,
make use of smart cards to connect wirelessly to e-readers for more efficient
payment.
b. I would rather have a simple lifestyle than flamboyant.

3. Examples are specific details in a text that are used to clarify the meaning of a
word.
a. The family, school, the government, business sectors, and church are
stakeholders of children’s education. (Stakeholder – any entity with interest
in human development)

4. Structure of a word – structure deals on the relation of part of a word as to its

prefix, suffix, or etymology, and in combination with other words in the sentence.
a. Christian marriage is monogamous. (Greek prefix: mono which means one.)
b. Civilian authority is supreme in democracy. (Latin prefix –civis which means
citizen.)

5. Explanations and definitions

Explanations may be given as clues to describe an unknown term. When
phrases like “because” or “that is” follow a word, these may be explanations.

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 a. Some parents are anti-vax—that is, anti-vaccinations—because they believe
these chemicals may trigger autism in students.

Meanwhile, definitions may follow an unfamiliar word. Terms like “is,” “means,”
“is defined as,” and “refers to” are used with definitions.

Example: A pest is defined as any animal or insect that damages crops, forests,
or property.

CONNOTATION and DENOTATION

Another way of improving your comprehension of a text is trying to understand the

different meanings that particular words can have. Words only make sense to us if we
understand what they mean. Two ways of describing the meaning of a word are called
denotation and connotation. Denotation is the basic, precise, literal meaning of the word
that can be found in a dictionary. Connotation, meanwhile, is the positive, negative, or
neutral feelings, attitudes, ideas, or associations with a word. These shades of meaning
are affected by social overtones, emotional meanings, or cultural implications.

Connotations portray more multifaceted definitions of a word whether these are

positive, negative, or neutral. Positive connotations are generally favorable
associations toward a word. Negative connotations, meanwhile, tend to have
unfavorable feelings or ideas toward a word. Neutral connotations bring up impartial
associations toward a word.

Let us apply these to the following example: Compare the associations with the
words “house,” “home,” and “shanty.” All of these words denote places where people
live. Which of these connotations is positive? Negative? Neutral? A “house” has a
neutral connotation because it is a “building in which someone lives.” A “home” has a
more positive connotation because it brings to mind “a place of warmth and comfort and
familiarity.” Finally, a “shanty” has a negative connotation because it is associated with
poverty; it is a “small, crudely built shack.”

Usually, your knowledge of how a word is used and the context clues in this text will
help you determine the type of connotation. To further illustrate this, let us look at the
following situation:

Archie has two aunts: Tita Jennifer and Tita Joanna. Tita Jennifer is proud of her
nephew; meanwhile, Tita Joanna does not favor him so much. This disposition may color
the language they use.

For example, Archie is a hardworker.

Tita Jennifer says: He is very focused on his job.

Tita Joanna says: He is very obsessed with his job.

Both words talk about paying close attention to the job; the difference is in their
connotation. “Focused” hints at Archie’s dedication and interest in his job, while
“obsessed” implies that he is a workaholic. The examples show that even two words
listed as synonyms are not exactly the same.

Analyzing the connotation and denotation of a word helps us to be sensitive to

the meaning it communicates. Your knowledge of context clues will help you see how a
word is used in a sentence; this analysis helps you to be sensitive to the word’s shades
of meaning because a word’s connotation can create different impressions for readers.

6. Analogy is likeness in some ways between things that are otherwise unlike.
Comparison of terms is used to establish similarity and becomes clue to the
meaning of a difficult term.
a. A parasite is similar to a lazy student who does not exert effort to learn by
himself/herself. (dependent)
b. A witness of probity is similar to an innocent child who tells all without mental
reservation. (integrity)

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ANNOTATION

Annotating the text simply means making notes on your copy of the reading. This
includes highlighting or underlying important passages and writing notes, comments,
questions, and reactions on the margins. By doing this, you are entering into a dialogue
with the author and not just passively reading the text.

3. Locating the Main Idea involves the identification of the central message of a
reading material. The main idea is usually found either or both the first and the
last sentences of a paragraph, but it may also appear in the middle or may simply
be implied and not explicitly stated in the text.

Below are some techniques in locating the main idea.

1. Identify the topic or the subject of a text.

2. Take note of transitional devices such as thus, therefore, to conclude, and to
sum up, as they may signal the main idea.
3. Validate your identified main idea by analyzing if all supporting details directly
or indirectly support it.

THE INTRODUCTION

A lead or attention-getter is the first statement in the essay which aims to hook the
readers. Introduction means bring in or leading into. It leads into what is necessary for
understanding the body. It is the first paragraph of your essay, and it introduces the main
idea. A good opening paragraph captures and arouses the interest of your reader and
tells why your topic is important.

In the introduction, write the thesis statement. The main idea of the essay is stated
in a single sentence called the thesis statement. You must limit your essay to the topic
you have introduced in your thesis statement. Provide some background information
about your topic. You can use interesting facts, startling statements, statistics,
quotations, provocative questions, humor, analogy, or anecdotes.

A. THESIS STATEMENT

A thesis statement is the central idea of a multiple-paragraph composition. It is a

one-sentence summary that guides, controls, and unifies ideas when a writing a paper.
In simple terms, all the other ideas present in an essay revolve around the thesis
statement.
Whatever your academic paper is about, it should always contain a central idea or a
thesis statement. A thesis statement is the main idea of a whole essay or article, which
all other ideas revolve. It expresses the main point of your paper. It is the one key
[declarative] sentence that you will have to prove all throughout your paper. It is the
stand or claim that you will defend in your paper. Your thesis statement must contain a
position that your readers can oppose. A thesis statement sets the focus of your paper. It
helps your reader understand your intent better. The thesis statement is very important
as
it gives direction to your writing. This also helps readers imagine or anticipate the
direction the rest of a paper will take. A thesis statement is usually placed in the
introduction so that the reader knows what to expect in reading your essay. Speech
coach Judith Humphrey says that one should “be able to state that message in a single
clear sentence. Everything else will support that single statement.” In one sentence, it
reveals and summarizes the argument you intend to develop and defend.

A thesis statement defines the scope and purpose of the paper. The thesis statement
provides the writer direction regarding the scope and limitations of his/her essay. The
thesis statement tells the reader what the rest of the paper is about. A thesis statement
is a fact you want to prove or a fact you want to explain. The rest of your paper’s job is
to prove or explain what you just wrote in your thesis statement.

The thesis statement reflects your purpose for writing. It is a constant reminder of
your main point and your stand, directing the entire flow of your writing.

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Beebe, Beebe, and Ivy (2007) provided a few guidelines to consider when writing your
thesis statement:

1. It should contain a single topic.

2. It should be stated in a complete, declarative sentence.
3. It should use direct, specific language.
4. It should offer a debatable claim that you can prove or disprove in your essay.
The claim should be debatable enough to let your readers agree or disagree with
you.

EXAMPLES of THESIS STATEMENT:

1. Getting a college degree is important because it will equip a student to become a

professional in his/her chosen field and it will widen his/her perspective of the
world.
2. Jogging is beneficial because it positively affects physical well-being and mental
fitness.
3. Tagaytay City is an enthralling city of the South because of its beautiful
landscape, amazing people, and sumptuous food.
4. The Commission on Elections and the voters have to deal with schedule conflicts
and large number of late registrants—the two major problems that come with the
voter registration system.

Notice from the examples above that each has one subject and at least two
arguments.

A work’s thesis statement is usually stated in the opening paragraphs of an

academic text. It is usually presented in the abstract or executive summary or found at
the last part of the introduction.

Strategies in Locating the Thesis Statement

The following strategies are also useful in helping you locate the thesis statement of a
text.
 If the text has no abstract or executive summary, read the first few paragraphs as
the thesis statement is usually located there.
 In other cases, you may also check the conclusion where authors sum up and
review their main points.

Formulating a Thesis Statement

1. Creating a thesis statement results from looking at your paper’s general subject
and narrowing it down to something specific.

2. Avoid making overly-opinionated stands. While a thesis statement needs to

reveal your attitude toward the topic, be careful not to go to the extremes and
write a thesis statement with an exaggerated claim. This is because you need to
prove your thesis statement first, and avoid imposing your opinion on the reader,
lest you affect their disposition toward you. For example, instead of saying, “The
officers of the Reserve Officers Training Corps are merciless slave drivers who
abuse their fellow students,” you might say, “The officers of the Reserve Officers
Training Corps should exercise more responsibility toward their authority by
being sensitive to how they lead their fellow students.” The way this statement is
worded makes the same point without coming on too strongly.

3. Avoid making announcements. Sometimes, it is easier just to tell your reader

what you intend to write about. You might say, “In this essay, I will be discussing
the benefits of joining the Reserve Officers Training Corps.” The problem with
this statement is that it does not specify what those benefits are or what are your
attitude toward the subject is.

4. Avoid stating facts only. If you rely only on facts in your thesis statements, you
will not have much room for discussion, because facts are generally not as
debatable as opinions. Your thesis statement must contain a position that
your readers can oppose. You should give your thesis tension by introducing
ideas that may challenge your reader’s views. Thus, a thesis statement like “The
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 Reserve Officers Training Corps is a program that prepares students to serve in
the military” or “Women and men are born to perform specific roles” do not invite
much debate from a reader because these statements are generally accepted.

THE BODY

The body is referred to the supporting paragraphs. It expounds the topic with
evidences.

The body is where the main ideas are explained and developed, where the
arguments are laid out and discussed; this is the “meat” of the paper.

The exposition is characterized by and written with unity, adequate

development, and coherence. Some people think that this is where the “real” writing
begins because this is where you will support your thesis statement and expound on it
as well. The body must highlight the key concepts in the thesis statement.

The supporting paragraphs make up the main body of your essay. You write the
main body by listing the points that develop the main idea. Place each supporting
statement in its own paragraph. Then, develop each supporting point with facts, details,
and examples. For the details, you may use 4-6 sentences. To connect your supporting
paragraphs, you should use transition words. Transition words link your paragraphs
together and make your essay easier to read. Use them anywhere in the essay.

Like all good paragraphs, each supporting paragraph should have a topic sentence,
supporting sentences, and a summary sentence.

PARAGRAPHS

A paragraph is a group of related sentences that deals with one particular idea.
Paragraphs are defined by the point that they support, the controlling idea, and not just
how long they are. This is the fundamental rule in writing paragraphs: only one major
idea should be discussed per paragraph. Paragraphs are the building blocks of
essays. They are put together to form a composition or essay. They function in order to
introduce a new idea.
B. TOPIC SENTENCE

Topic: Tagaytay City

Question: Why is Tagaytay City considered an enthralling city of the South?
Thesis Statement: Tagaytay City is an enthralling city of the South because of its beautiful
landscape, delicious food, and amazing people.
Topic Sentence 1: Tagaytay City attracts tourists with its magnificent landscape.
Topic Sentence 2: People go back to Tagaytay for its delicious foods.
Topic Sentence 3: The warmth of the city’s amazing people is also another reason why Tagaytay
is alluring.

The topic sentence presents or describes the point of the paragraph; in other
words, it is the main idea of a paragraph. It sums up the entire paragraph by echoing
the general idea of the paragraph. Basically, the topic sentence develops the details in
the thesis statement. To illustrate, if the thesis statement contains three details, then the
paper will have three topic sentences.

It reveals what you generally plan to propose, argue, or explain. The topic
sentence contains a main point that supports the thesis statement. Think of the topic
sentence as a mini thesis statement for the paragraph. It is a sentence that summarizes
the entire paragraph. It can be located or found anywhere in the paragraph: in the
beginning, middle, or last part of a paragraph. It is usually a good practice to include the
topic sentence near the start of paragraph so your readers have an idea of what you are
talking about early on. The topic sentence is supported by details. The details all point to
the main idea in the topic sentence. If you write a good topic sentence, you can refer
back to it as you continue writing to make sure that you have not drifted away from your
point. Remember that there should be no detail opposed to the main idea.

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 A topic sentence can be explicit, or clearly states the ideas that will be elaborated
on in the paragraph. It plainly reveals to the reader what the paragraph will be about.
However, a topic sentence can also be implied. It is implied if there is a clear controlling
idea of what the paragraph is about. The reader will be able to determine the focus of
the paragraph because all of the details are linked by an organizing theme.

Strategies in Locating the Topic Sentence

 Read the first sentence of the paragraph very carefully because most authors
state their topic sentence in the beginning of the paragraph.
 Browse the sentences in the paragraph to identify what they describe. The
sentence that best describes the topic of the paragraph is the topic sentence.
 Find the concept or idea being tackled, which in colloquial term is the “big word”
in the paragraph. The sentence that defines the big word is usually the topic
sentence.
 Identify the purpose of the paragraph. The sentence that presents or describes
the purpose is the topic sentence.

SUPPORTING DETAILS

Every paragraph needs supporting details to elaborate on the topic sentence. A

composition is incomplete without the supporting details. Supporting details are
sentences that clarify and prove the main idea. These details are pieces of
information necessary to better understand the main idea. These may range from facts,
statistics, testimonies, examples, or instances. Good supporting details expound on the
main idea and act as adequate support; they are specific and stem from the general idea
established by the topic sentence. How much detail you should include in a paragraph
depends on your purpose and the topic sentence. When you write supporting details,
organize them in the clearest, most logical order. This way, the reader can easily follow
your train of thought. Supporting details are divided into two levels: major details and
minor details. Major details directly support the topic sentence whereas minor details
directly support the major details.

Sample Paragraph

In the paragraph below, the thesis statement is in boldface, the supporting details
are underlined: major details are underlined once while the minor details are underlined
twice.

Tagaytay is an enthralling city of the South because of its stunning landscape, hospitable
people, and delicious foods. The city has a magnificent scenery that never fails to capture the awe
of its visitors. One major tourist spot that exudes the beauty of Tagaytay is Taal Volcano, the
smallest volcano in the world. The lake which surrounds it is another attraction that cannot be
missed. The city is also characterized by the warmth of its people, the Caviteños. They bring with
them their smiles as they welcome both local and foreign visitors. Aside from these, Tagaytay is also
known for its sumptuous native foods. Tourists who drop by the city make it a point to try
Tagaytay’s famous bulalo and other delicacies.

THE CONCLUSION

The conclusion constitutes the final part of any literary work. It is, otherwise, called
summary paragraph. It puts the viewpoint into a definite closure by synthesizing ideas
introduced and expounded. It persuades the readers to consider the message with
sense and act. You should bring together the points made in your paper and emphasize
your final point. Make sure not to introduce a new idea in the conclusion.

The conclusion is written by restating the strongest point of your essay that supports
your main idea. You conclude your essay by restating the main idea in different words.
You can give your opinion or suggest a plan of action. Here are methods for writing
conclusions: (1) end with a summary and a final thought, (2) end with a prediction for the
future, (3) end with a recommendation, (4) end with a thought-provoking question, (5)

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end with a call for action, (6) end with a significance of the subject, (7) end with an
emotional statement, and (8) end with a relevant quotation.

4. Literal Reading involves the understanding of ideas and facts that are directly
stated in the printed material. Skills under this category include paraphrasing
and summarizing. These are done in the post reading stage.

PLAGIARISM

What is plagiarism? When can you be accused of plagiarizing other people’s works?

Plagiarism could be any of the following:

 deliberate copying of somebody else’s work and claiming that work to be his/her
own;
 using somebody else’s work or ideas without proper acknowledgement or
citation; and
 copying the text without paraphrasing it

PRÉCIS WRITING (SUMMARIZING)

Another concept you need to be acquainted with is precis writing. Dadufalza

(2008, p. 323) says that “a precis is a condensation in one’s own words of a longer
piece of writing, following closely the general order/organizational pattern and proportion
of the original and keeping its tone as well. The tone of a piece of writing refers to the
attitude of the writer toward his subject matter and audience.”

“A summary is a condensation of significant facts from an original piece of

writing. A chapter condensed into a page, a page with a paragraph, or a paragraph into
a sentence retaining the essential facts of the original (Dapat, 2018, p. 29).

Summarizing is a way to take a large amount of material and trim it down to a

few key points. To summarize the information from a source, take the key points you
have noted and write a brief paraphrase of them (Steck-Vaughn, 2000).

It is essential that the thesis statement or the topic sentence is included in the
summary. In writing a summary, it is necessary to write the gist in one’s own words.
Composing a precis requires you to correctly identify the thesis statement of a text as
well as the ideas subordinate to it. Major details may also be mentioned, but they are
not required. A citation of the original source is always necessary. Ensure accuracy by
comparing your summary to the original text.

A summary restates in your own words only the author's main ideas, omitting all
the examples and evidence used in supporting and illustrating those points. The function
of a summary is to represent the focus and emphasis of a relatively large amount of
material in an efficient and concise form.

The purpose of summarizing is to check if a reader grasped or understood what

s/he has read. In addition, we summarize to simplify a complicated reading material.

Moreover, since you need to reduce the length of the original text, ideally one-
fourth or one-third of its original length, one needs to be able to distinguish which ideas
can be taken out without obscuring the central idea of the text. Hence, knowing how to
transform, join, and compress sentences is an essential skill we need to develop.

One of the ways you can make an effective precis is by making a sentence
outline first.

The online test-prep portal Bull’s Eye outlined some don’ts in writing your precis:

 Do not keep the same idea structure or sentence structure of the original
source.
 Do not express your own idea, opinion, wish, remark, reaction, or
criticism. Stick to the ideas the text presents.

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  Do not insert any question in your precis.
 Do not use abbreviations or contractions.
 Don’t forget to compare your summary with the original selection to
ensure accuracy.
 Don’t write down a summary that has the same length or is longer than
the original text.
 Do not forget to document the source of the original material.

Note: If you are summarizing a text with multiple paragraphs, get the main idea of each
paragraph and write them in your own words. Combine them into a coherent article or
paragraph using transitional devices. Summarizing is generally done after reading.
However, it can be done as well during reading a text.

Example:

Original Passage

In 1980, Michael Canale and Merill Swain published their seminal work titled
“Theoretical Base of Communicative Approaches to Second Language Teaching and
Testing” where they proposed a framework for communicative competence. Their paper
discusses three components of communicative competence: grammatical,
sociolinguistic, and strategic competence. Grammatical competence refers to the
knowledge about the rules and mechanics of a language. Sociolinguistic knowledge
includes the individual’s understanding of social relations and how it is used to
communicate properly. Strategic competence covers the way in which the speaker
improvises and overcome a communication problem.

Summarized Text

Michael Canale and Merill Swain discussed in their 1980 article titled “Theoretical
Base of Communicative Approaches to Second Language Teaching and Testing” the
three different components of communicative competence. These components are
grammatical, sociolinguistic, and strategic competence.

PARAPHRASING

A paraphrase is essentially a restatement that renders in a more transparent way

the full meaning of discourse. In simple words, to paraphrase is to restate the passage
using one’s own words.

Paraphrasing is writing a “new” version of the original material; it is restating all

ideas contained in the original material such that the original and the paraphrased
materials are substantially similar but structurally different.

Contrary to precis writing which is about condensing a text, the goal of paraphrasing
is clarification by using the writer’s own language. We paraphrase because we want to
simplify a certain text. We also paraphrase when the passage contains difficult, too
complicated, or too technical content. Since we are expected to translate a text in our
own words, the paraphrase usually turns out to be of the same length or even a bit
longer than the original passage. Similar to a summary, a paraphrased text also cites
and preserves the tone of the original text. In addition, a paraphrase is done to simplify a
complicated text.

Paraphrasing also has similar elements with precis writing such as the paraphrase
should maintain the tone of the original, despite being written in one’s own words. A
paraphrase should also not contain your own opinion, wish, remark, or criticism. An
excellent paraphrase is one that is more understandable and accessible than the
original. Remember that a paraphrase must retain the original logic or line of reasoning
of the passage and the sequence of ideas. When you paraphrase, it is advised that you
first understand what the text is about and then write your rendition of the text without
referring to it as you write. The tendency when you have the text in front of you is to copy
the structure of the text and just change some of the words, which still qualify as
plagiarism.

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 To paraphrase effectively, a writer must:

1. Read and reread the original text to understand its meaning. Read it repeatedly,
if necessary.
2. Write his or her rendition or understanding of the idea or concept. Check for
accuracy. Compare the original from your paraphrase.
3. Make sure that the ideas derived from the original idea never deviate from the
original one. Do not change the original thought of the text; change the way
it is conveyed. Retain the original idea of the author. Your paraphrase should
have the same meaning as the original text.
4. Never copy in verbatim a single sentence from the original text.
5. Do not confuse it with a summary. Focus on the details, not only on the main
idea alone.
6. Proofread and rewrite your final paraphrase.
7. Add in-text citation in the paraphrased text.

Example:

Original Passage

According to Conway and Clark (2003) in their article “The Journey Inward and
Outward: A Re-Examination of Fuller’s Concerns-Based Model of Teacher
Development,” teachers undergo three stages in their professional life. In the first stage,
teachers desire to project an ideal image and be liked by their students. In the next
stage, they are more concerned with classroom control and management. Both of these
stages cover a large part of teachers’ professional life. By the third stage, teachers
develop the needed confidence to sacrifice classroom popularity and focus more on
improving students’ learning outcomes. Teachers at this stage are able to formulate their
own teaching philosophies and strategies. This article indicates that teachers may have
different teaching principles, beliefs, and strategies based on the stage they are in.

Paraphrased Text

Conway and Clark (2003) discussed the three stages of teachers’ professional
journey in their article titled, “The Journey Inward and Outward: A Re-Examination of
Fuller’s Concerns-Based Model of Teacher Development.” The first two stages span
most of a teacher’s professional life; the former is characterized by teachers’ yearning
for the approval of students and their desire to be an ideal image, while the latter is
characterized by a shift in focus to the successful supervision of the class. As they
approach the last stage, they focus more on developing their students’ learning
capabilities rather than wanting to be well-liked. This phenomenon shows that teachers’
philosophies and strategies change as they move up to the stages of their career.

Other examples:

Source text Paraphrase

Literal paraphrasing is It is predicted that in the Li (2015) predicts that in the
changing only a word or two next ten years, many jobs future many jobs will not
from the original text. This is will not exist (Li, 2015). exist.
incorrect.
Free paraphrasing is It is predicted that in the Li (2015) believes that in
changing the structure of next ten years, many jobs the future many positions
the original text. will not exist (Li, 2015). will be obsolete.

Original Sentence: Many employers say that the most important skills for any employee
are the basic skills—reading, writing, and math.

Paraphrased Sentence: A lot of employers agree that an employee should be able to

read, write, and do math.

The best indicators to effective learning and measurement of reading comprehension

are summarizing and paraphrasing. When a reader understands what s/he reads, s/he is
able to summarize or paraphrase any type of literary creations (prose and poetry).

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 DIRECT QUOTING

The last skill you need to develop as young academic writers is quoting.

Quotation reproduces an author’s words exactly as they were spoken or written.

This refers to copying the author’s words directly from a source. Definition of a term
or a concept and specific claims from experts in the field can be copied verbatim to
lend authority in your writing. The use of quotations marks (“ ”) is necessary when
exact words of an author is copied. In other words, quotations must be identical to
the original text.

A writer uses direct quotation when s/he wants to show that an authority supports
his idea most especially in research. Although, a writer should bear in mind to use
parenthetical documentation or in-text citation to avoid plagiarism.

As a young academic writer, you need to know when to use an outline, a precis, a
paraphrase, and direct quotation to help us in our writing.

Reminder: Direct quotation should not be used to replace paraphrasing or

summarizing.

1. Copy exactly the part of the text that you want to use.
2. Use quotation marks to show the beginning and ending of the quote.
3. Format your quotation properly. If your direct quotation is at least 40 words, it
should be indented. Look at the example below.

In his article “Poverty in the Philippines: Income, Assets, and Access,” Scheliz (2005)
suggests a list of causes of poverty.

(1) low to moderate economic growth for the past 40 years; (2) low growth
elasticity of poverty reduction; (3) weakness in employment generation and
the quality of jobs generated; (4) failure to fully develop the agriculture sector;
(5) high inflation during crisis periods; (6) high levels of population growth; (7)
high and persistent levels of inequality (incomes and assets), which dampen
the positive impacts of economic expansion; and, (8) recurrent shocks and
exposure to risks such as economic crisis, conflicts, natural disasters, and
environmental poverty (p. 2).

However, when your direct quotation is below 40 words, it should be presented

as part of the text. check the example below.

To address economic issues, Scheliz (2005) recommended that there is a need to “(1)
enhance government’s strategy and involve key sectors for a collective and coordinated
response to poverty; and (2) sustain efforts for economic and institutional reforms” (pp.
80-81).

5. Inferential Reading refers to the process of deducing facts and ideas not directly
expressed in the text. It is also known as “reading between the lines.” This skill
includes making generalizations, inferences, and conclusions. This is applied
during the while-reading stage.

Read the following paragraph. Based on the details, say why the girl was acting
the way she did.

A girl returned home from her friend’s party. She carefully opened the
door of their house to avoid making a sound. It was dark inside, but she did not
turn on any of the lights. She warily checked if anyone was up. Satisfied that
everyone was asleep, she slowly tiptoed to her room and silently opened her
door so as not to wake her parents.

When you deduced why the girl was acting the way she did based on the
information stated in the text, you were making an inference. An inference is an
idea drawn from facts or details in a text. An inference is an educated guess. In
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 other words, to make an inference is to draw a conclusion or judgment from the
given pieces of evidence (textual evidence). An inference is an interpretation or
opinion reached after careful consideration and evaluation of evidences. Along
with the evidence in the text, prior knowledge and experiences, as well as
personal beliefs, are also used as bases in making an inference. Making
inferences is important so that the reader can fully understand the text, even
when some of the information is left out by the author.

Exercise: Determine whether the statement is implied or directly stated in the

paragraph.

Life can be absurd oftentimes. We can get confused and lost. But with the eyes
of faith, we can see God behind life’s absurdities. And if we look hard enough,
we will find beauty that can never be taken away from us. Not by a sudden blow
of pain or misery, not even a loss of someone very dear.

______________ 1. Hold on to God to bear the trials.

______________ 2. Life has many absurdities.
______________ 3. Absurdities make our life beautiful.
______________ 4. Loss of someone very dear to us is an example of
absurdities.
______________ 5. Many times we get confused and lost.

6. Critical Reading refers to the close and thorough evaluation of the claims in the
text in terms of relevance, validity, and logic. This skill includes distinguishing
facts from opinions and detecting logical fallacies. As with inferential reading,
critical reading happens in the while-reading stage.

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