The College: A Guide To Thinking, Writing, and Researching

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The College
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A Guide to Thinking, Writing, and Researching
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Chapter 1
Critical Thinking Through (tl
Reading, Viewing, and Writing
In many respects, critical thinking defines your college work. When you think
critically, you examine ideas fully and logically, weigh multiple perspectives on issues,
and draw reasonable conclusions. In the process, you carry on an in-depth dialogue
with information and evidence.
In various courses your instructors will ask you to undertake critical thinking
through reading, viewing, and writing. You might have to analyze Flannery
O'Connor's short story "Good Country People," identify the comic conventions in the
film Sideways, or analyze data gathered about the fermentation of ethanol. In all of
these assignments you are being pressed to think critically, using reading, viewing, and
writing-connected as they are-to make sense of things. And your training in critical
thinking prepares you for work in your profession and in the public square.
Thoughtful reading and viewing, then, lie at the heart of critical thinking and-feed
into thoughtful writing. These natural reading-viewing-thinking-writing connections
are this chapter's focus.
What's Ahead
• Critical Thinking Through Reading
• Reading Actively
• Responding to a Text
• Summarizing a Text
• Critical Thinking Through Viewing
• Interpreting an Image
• Evaluating an Image
• Critical Thinking Through Writing
• Practicing Modes of Thinking in
Your Writing
• Critical Thinking Checklist and
Writing Activities
Reading, Thinking, Viewing, and Writing
Critical Thinking Through Reading

Reading is basic to writing the way that eating is basic to cooking. Just as
creating food worth tasting and digesting is at the heart of cooking, so is
making words worth reading at the heart of writing. And while the cook must
plan the meal around the tastes of his or her guests, the writer must always
develop his or her text with awareness of readers' perspectives. To appeal to a
reader, in other words, the writer has to know firsthand what good reading is.
Use a reading strategy: SQ3R.

Obviously, reading a novel, a textbook, and a webpage are all different activities.
Nevertheless, all college reading assignments can be approached systematically,
especially when your goal is to absorb and engage the text. One such strategy for
critical reading, especially of information-rich texts, is called SQ3R: Survey, Question,
Read, Recite, and Review. Here is how SQ3R works.
Survey
The first step in SQ3R is to preview the material. Try to spot main ideas. These
will serve as reference points during the reading that follows. Perhaps you've been
given questions or a study guide. Read those first. Then read the introductory and
concluding paragraphs and glance at each page in between. Pay special attention to
headings, chapter titles, illustrations, and boldfaced type. Also check out any
graphics-charts, maps, diagrams, illustrations-that visually reinforce key points.
Benefits: Surveying serves three important purposes: ( 1) it gives you the big picture,
(2) it stabilizes and directs your thoughts, and (3) it gets you over the starting hump.
Question
As you survey, begin to ask questions that you hope to answer as you read.
• Turn the headings and subheadings into questions. For example, if the
subhead says "Methods," ask, "What methods did the researcher use?"
• Imagine a specific test question covering each major point in your reading.
For example, if the reading addresses the media and the ethics of cloning,
as shown on page 7, you might imagine this test question: "What can
the media do to foster productive public debate on cloning?"
• Be thorough by asking the journalist's questions: who, what, when, where,
why, and how. Examples: Who are the media? What's the popular
understanding of cloning? How have the media presented cloning? Why
does the author see the media's treatment of cloning as an ethical issue?
• Look over any questions found at the end of the text or the chapter.
Benefits: Asking questions will keep you actively thinking about what is coming up
and will help you to maintain an appropriate critical distance.
CRITICAL TH INKING TH ROUGH READING, VIEWING, AND WRITING
Read
As you encounter facts and ideas, ask these questions: What does this mean? How
do the ideas relate to each other and to what I know? What's coming next?
Keep track of your answers by taking notes, annotating the text, mapping, or out-
lining. (See pages 6-9 for more on these active-reading techniques.) Read difficult
parts slowly; reread them if necessary. Look up unfamiliar words or ideas, and use
your senses to imagine the events, people, places, or things you are reading about.
Imagine talking with the writer. Express agreement, lodge complaints, ask for
proof-and imagine the writer's response or look for it in the text.
Benefits: Engaging actively with the text in this way will draw you deeper into the
world of the writing. You'll trigger memories and make surprising connections.
Recite
After finishing a page, section, or chapter, recite the key points aloud. Answering
Who? What? When? Where? Why? and How? questions is a quick way of testing your-
self on how well you understand what you have read. You can also recite by listing the
key points or writing a summary (see page 11 ).
Benefits: Reciting tests your comprehension, drives the material deeper into your
long-term memory, and helps you connect the content with what you already know.
Review
As soon as you finish reading the material, double-check the questions you posed
in the "question" stage of SQ3R. Can you answer them? Glance over any notes you
made as well. But don't stop there if the reading is especially important. You will
remember it much better by spacing out your reviews; spend a few minutes review-
ing on each of the next few days. Consider the following helpful memory techniques:
• Visualize the concepts in concrete ways. Example: If a text discusses
media sound bites about cloning, imagine a television panel discussing
the topic.
• Draw diagrams, or clusters. Example: See the cluster on page 34.
• Put the material in your own words. Example: see the summary on page 11.
• Teach it to someone. Example: For a text on cloning, explain the main
points to a friend or relative-in person, on the phone, or by e-mail.
• Use acronyms or rhymes. Example: "i before e except after c."
Benefits: Research shows that reviewing within 24 hours helps considerably to move
information from your short-term to your long-term memory. You will also improve
your memory if you create a network of associations with the information you want
to remember, if you link the memory to two or more senses, or if you reorganize the
material while still retaining the substance with accuracy.
~
Reading Actively
Truly active reading requires more than highlighting every line in yellow
or pink. Active reading is really inter-active, a kind of mental dialogue with the
writer. Certain practical techniques will help you stay alert for active reading:
• Pace yourself. Read in stretches of thirty to forty-five minutes,
followed by short breaks. As you read, slow down in tough spots,
respond to the text, ask questions, and note your reactions.
• Project. Based on where you've been and where you are in the text,
anticipate what will come next and why.
• Speak the text. Read difficult parts out loud, or take turns reading
aloud with a partner.
• Track the text. Record your dialogue with the text through writing
strategies such as note taking, annotating, mapping, and outlining
( all of which are explored on the following pages).
Take thoughtful notes.

Find a note-taking system that suits you, using legal tablets, note cards, laptop
software, or a palm device. Your system should allow you to distinguish clearly among
facts, quotations, paraphrases, summaries, and personal remarks. It is good to include
a reference number or topic word at the top of each note to help you organize your
notes later.
e Although effective note taking is crucial for typical reading assignments

in your courses, it's especially important for any research-based writing.
On pages 440-443 you'll find more instruction on note-taking systems.
Annotate the text.

Annotating involves marking up the text itself. If you own the book you're reading
or you are reading a photocopy, write notes in the margins. Writing activates your
thinking and records your insights. Try these techniques, shown in the sample passage
on the next page:
• Write a question-or a simple "?" -next to anything that concerns or
puzzles you. See if the text eventually answers your question.
• Link related passages by drawing circles, lines, or arrows, or by making
notes such as "see page 36."
• Add personal observations. Keep track of your reactions without worrying
about them initially. You can analyze these reactions later.
• Create a marginal index. Write key words in the margin or at the top of
the page to identify important themes, names, or patterns. For books, list
these key words, with page numbers, on f blank page at the end. By
doing so, you'll create an index for future use.
Annotating in Action
The excerpt below is from an article written by Leigh Turner, an academic and
medical professional who has studied, worked, and taught in both the United States
and Canada. Written in the wake of the first successful animal cloning, of Dolly the
sheep, this reading might be assigned in a communication, philosophy, biology,
environmental studies, political science, or agriculture course for class discussion, a
written response, a test, or a research writing. This excerpt shows how a student
reader engages the text and comments on key ideas. (The full essay appears on
pages 309-313.)
What'@ the connection?

/ \
The Media and the Ethics of Cloning
If the contemporary debate on cloning has a patron saint, surely it is
ncty Warho . Not only did Warhol assert that everyone would have 15 eee
minutes o ame-witness the lawyers, philosophers, theologians, and textbook
bioethicists who found their expertise in hot demand on the nightly __!:-} 75
morality plays of network television following Ian Wilmut's cloning oft~
sheep Dolly-but he also placed "clones," multiple copies of the samL____
phenomenon, at the heart of popular culture. Instead of multiple images of good
Marilyn Monroe and Campbell's sou cans, we now have cloned sheep. definit~on
Re rettabl , it is Warhol's ca acit for hyperbole rather than his intelligence of cloning
mean@ d . . . . h h d b 1 .
extreme an iromc v1s1011 t at permeates t e current e ate on c 011mg.
exaggeration It would be unfair to judge hastily written op-ed pieces, popular talk
shows, and late-night radio programs by the same standards that one would d'
ap_ply to a sustained piec~IJhilo~2hical or legal analysis. But the popular} n:1e~ 1
6 0
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~edia could do more to foster thoughtful public debate on the legal, moral, coneider
political, medical, and scientific dimensions of the cloning of humans and cloning
nonhuman animals. thought-
As did many of my colleagues at the Hastings Center, I participated in fully
several interviews with the media following Ian Wilmut's announcement in
Nature that he had succeeded in cloning Dolly from a mammary cell of an
adult sheep. After clearly stating to one Los Angeles radio broadcaster before
our interview that I was not a theologian and did not represent a religious
organization, I was rather breathlessly asked during the taping what God's
view on cloning is and whether cloning is "against creation." Predictably, the
broadcaster didn't want to discuss how religious ethicists are contributing to
the nascent public discourse about the ethics of cloning. Instead, he ...
INSIGHT: Underlining or highlighting key words or phrases can be helpful, but

don't overdo it. If you're not careful, too much highlighting or underlining becomes a
means of evading rather than engaging the text. Excessive highlighting might be your
brain saying "I'll learn this later." Moreover, excessive highlighting can make the text
difficult to reread and hence tough to review.
Map the text.

If you are visually oriented, you may understand a text best by mapping out its
important parts. One way to do so is by "clustering." Start by naming the main topic
in a circle at the center of the page. Then branch out using lines and "balloons;' each
balloon containing a word or phrase for one major subtopic. Branch out in further
layers of balloons to show even more subpoints. If you wish, add graphics, arrows,
drawings-anything that helps you visualize the relationships among ideas.
Attitude that
Mieconceptiom; Scientiete and ethiciete
about "DNA ae need to better underetend
one snotner'e work
Little attention
to etnice of cloning Forume ehou/d
animate ae oppoeed be created to
to humane ioeter healthy
public debate
outline the text.

Outlining is the traditional way of showing all the major parts, points, and sub-
points in a text. An outline uses parallel structure to show main points and
subordinate points. See pages 44-45 for more on outlines.
Sample outline for "The Media and the Ethics of Cloning"
1. Introduction: The debate about cloning is filled with exaggeration.
2. The mass media have confused the debate:
• Bombarding the public with sound bites
• Focusing on human cloning and ignoring animal cloning
• Wrongly stressing that people are products of their genes
• Promoting the idea that scientific "progress" can't be stopped
3. Thesis: The discussion can be improved in three ways:
• Scientists and ethicists must learn to understand one another's work.
• Ethicists need to improve how they communicate to the mass media.
• Public debate about scientific topics must be expanded to forums
and outreach programs.
4. Conclusion: We need more intelligent discussion so that the public is
not misled by the mass media.
Evaluate the text.

Critical reading does not mean disproving the text or disapproving of it. It means
thoughtfully inspecting, weighing, and evaluating the writer's ideas. To strengthen
your reading skills, learn to evaluate texts using the criteria below.
1. Judge the reading's credibility. Where was it published? How reliable is the
author? How current is theinformation? How accurate and complete does it seem to
be? In addition, consider the author's tone of voice, attitude, and apparent biases.
Discussion Leigh Turner, the author of "The Media and the Ethics of Cloning"
on pages 309-313, tells us that he is a member of the Hastings Center, a nonprofit
research institute. How does this information build or break his credibility? Within
the article, how does he build credibility?
2. Put the reading in a larger context. How do the text's ideas match what you
know from other sources? What details of background, history, and social context
help you understand this text's perspective? How have things changed or remained the
same since the text's publication? What allusions (references to people, events, and so
on) does the writer use? Why?
Discussion The topic of cloning belongs to the broader subjects of genetic
research and ethics. In addition, the topic relates to debates over the nature of human
identity, and cloning research has advanced and expanded dramatically since the
article's publication. As for allusions, Turner refers to the artist Andy Warhol and the
cloning of the sheep Dolly. What else is part of this context?
3. Evaluate the reasoning and support. Is the reasoning clear and logical? Are the
examples and other supporting details appropriate and enlightening? Are inferences
(what the text implies) consistent with the tone and message? (Look especially for
hidden logic and irony that undercut what is said explicitly.)
Discussion Turner uses examples and illustrations extensively in his article. He
analyzes the problem by breaking it down, and he systematically presents a three-part
solution. Is his reasoning sound?
4. Reflect on how the reading challenges you. Which of your beliefs and values
does the reading call into question? What discomfort does it create? Does your own
perspective skew your evaluation?
Discussion The article may make us feel uncomfortable about several issues:
our lack of concern for animals, our inability to see past the media's treatment of
cloning, and the application of cloning to several areas of life (including replication
of ourselves). What other challenges does the article raise?
e For additional help evaluating texts, see pages 434-437. For information
on detecting logical fallacies often used in texts by writers, see pages
255-258.
Responding to a Text
In a sense, when you read a text you enter into a dialogue with it. Your
response expresses your turn in the dialogue. Such a response can take varied
forms, from a journal entry to a blog to a discussion-group posting.
Follow these guidelines for response writing.

On the surface, responding to a text seems perfectly natural-just let it happen.
But it can be a bit more complicated. A written response typically is not the same as )
a private diary entry but is instead shared with other readers, whether your instructor
or a class. You develop your response keeping in mind your instructor's requirements
and the response's role in the course. Therefore, follow these guidelines:
1. Be honest. Although you want to remain sensitive to the context in which you will
share your response, be bold enough to be honest about your reaction to the text-
what it makes you think, feel, and question. To that end, a response usually allows you
to express yourself directly using the pronoun "I."
2. Be fluid. Let the flow of your thoughts and feelings guide you in what you write.
Don't stop to worry about grammar, punctuation, mechanics, and spelling. If
required, these can be quickly cleaned up before you share or submit your response.
3. Be reflective. Generally, the goal of a response is to offer thoughtful reflection as
opposed to knee-jerk reaction. Show, then, that you are engaging the text's ideas,
relating them to your own experience, looking both inward and outward. Avoid a
shallow reaction that comes from skimming the text or misreading it.
4. Be selective. By nature, a response must limit its focus; it cannot exhaust all your
reactions to the text. So zero in on one or two elements of your response, and run with
those to see where they take you in your dialogue with the text.
Sample Response
Here is part of a student's response to Leigh Turner's "The Media and the Ethics of
Cloning;' on pages 309-313. Note the informality and exploratory tone.
Turner seems dead right about the treatment of cloning in the media,
based on some news stories I've recently heard about food from cloned
cows. The media just don't go very deep, especially on science issues, which
most people find too tough to understand anyway.
Like most people, I've focused on the (scary?) idea of human cloning,
afraid of what it could lead to, but I'm also curious about it. Cloning animals
is an issue that hasn't been on my radar screen much. Cloning animals just
for the benefit of people, is that right? Would I approve of human cloning
if it benefited me, if it helped someone I loved or saved my own life?
INSIGHT: A response does not simply summarize the text. See the next page to
understand the difference between a response and a summary.
CRITICAL THINKING THROUGH READING, VIEWING, AND WRITING
summarizing a Text
four Writing a summary disciplines you by making you pull only essentials
ried from a reading-the main points, the thread of the argument. By doing so,
you not only create a brief record of the text's contents but also exercise your
ability to comprehend, analyze, and synthesize information.
use these guidelines for summary writing.

: happen.
~ same as Writing a summary requires sifting out the least important points, sorting the
nstructor ) essential ones to show their logical relationships, and putting those points in your
iirernents own words. Follow these guidelines:
1. Skim first; then read closely. First, get a sense of the whole, including the main
1 you will
idea and strategies for support. Then read carefully, taking notes as you do.
he text- 2. Capture the text's argument. Review your notes and annotations, looking for
llows you main points and clear connections. State these briefly and clearly, in your own words.
Include only what is essential, excluding most examples and details. Don't say simply
'OU write. that the text talks about its subject; tell what it says about that subject.
elling. If 3. Test your summary. Aim to objectively provide the heart of the text; avoid
·esponse. interjecting your own opinions and presence as a writer. Similarly, don't confuse an
lection as objective summary of a text with a response to it (shown on the previous page).
ct's ideas, Finally, check your summary against the original text for accuracy and consistency.
. Avoid a Sample Summary
Below is a student's summary of Leigh Turner's article, "The Media and the Ethics
st all your of Cloning;' on pages 309-313. Note how the summary writer includes only main
. run with points and phrases them in terms she understands. She departs from the precise order
of ideas in the original but communicates their sense accurately.
Popular media cover the topic of cloning inadequately. They offer
unfocused and one-sided coverage, typically ignoring animal cloning,
Ethics of
especially the ethics of cloning animals to create "pharmaceutical
factories:' By stressing "genetic essentlalism," the idea that people are
iedia, simply products of their genes, they ignore the complexity of growth. And
oned last, the media make it sound as though the advance of cloning is
vhich unstoppable. How can this problem be resolved? First, through training,
scientists and ethicists need to understand one another's work better.
ning, Second, ethicists need to be better communicators in the media, especially
imals by publishing in journals that non-scientists can understand. Finally, public
s just institutions need to sponsor debates so that views can be expressed at the
ming grassroots level.
INSIGHT: Writing formal summaries-whether as part of literature reviews or as

~t page to abstracts-is an important skill, especially in the social and natural sciences. For help,
go to <http://www.thecollegewriter.com>.
Critical Thinking Through Viewing

A flood of visual images-magazine covers, movie trailers, webpages, cell
phones with flip-up video screens-affect the way we think. Images quicken
our work, provoke ideas, and often trigger our emotions. Moreover, images
included in written texts can grab viewers' attention, convey persuasive ideas,
simplify complex concepts, and dramatize important points.
But images have drawbacks, too. They can distort facts, manipulate
emotions, and shortcut reasoning. As a writer, you must learn to think
critically through viewing-to "read" images actively; to interpret what is
meant by an image, not just what is shown; and to evaluate the quality and
value of an image. These challenges are addressed on the following pages.
consider these guidelines for viewing images.

Good readers approach words and visual images as part of the same message,
reading both while noting how each complements or completes the message. Use the
guidelines below to become a more active viewer of images in a text. (See page 13.)
View actively. Give the image your active attention.
• Question the image. Remember the journalist's questions (page 4)? Who
made the image? What does it show? When was it made? Where in the text
does the image appear? Why was it placed there?
• Inspect all of it. Let your sight "touch" every part of the image, as if you
were reading Braille. Hints of its meaning may lurk in the tiny details.
View with a purpose. The purpose for reading needs to be appropriate to the type
of image. Is the image meant to ...
• arouse curiosity? Open your imagination, but stay on guard.
• inform? Search for key information; note what's left out.
• illustrate? Relate the image to the words it illustrates; does it clarify
their meaning or distort it?
• persuade? Critique the appeals that the image uses, looking for
elements that are manipulative, cliched, or fallacious.
• summarize? Look for the main points to remember.
View with a plan. Here's a viewing plan for understanding an image:
1. Survey the image. What is your general impression? What intrigues you?
2. Question the image as shown above.
3. Relate the image's parts to one another.
4. Relate the image to the surrounding text, to other images, and to the
world as you know it.
5. Decide what to do with the information it offers.
View an image.
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Discussion
The drawing "Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening" by Chris Krenzke fits
perfectly with the poem it illustrates. The illustration depicts a man on a farm wagon
pausing on a country lane to stare at the snow-covered pines. The overall shape of the
illustration is circular, a shape that gives the piece a serene feeling. The artist repeats
this circular pattern elsewhere in the composition-in the distant snowy hills, in the
wagon wheels, even in the pair of milk canisters. The top of the illustration is blue-
black, with faint snowflakes wafting downward. The middle section of the drawing
contains subtle shades of brown, green, and gray. The lowest part of the illustration
bleeds into white snow, extending the visual circle down into the page. The drawing
has a clear direction, from the back of the wagon on the left toward the little village
crouched on the hill in the far right, suggesting the farmer's return home.
Mr. Krenzke uses the posture of the farmer and the horse to tell the story. Both
of these travelers are turned away from the viewer, both with their hearts pointed
toward the snowy houses in the distance. Their heads, though, look to the woods
beside the road. Simply by turning their heads in partial profile, Mr. Krenzke has
paused the motion of the wagon and captured this moment of gentle reflection.
Perhaps the greatest success of this illustration, however, is its poetic nature. It
captures in line, texture, and color the same serene moment that Frost captures in
words. The houses and the trees all rhyme in shape, much like the wheels, the
canisters, and the overall form of the illustration. This drawing does more than
illustrate the poem-it transforms it into an image.
Interpreting an Image
Viewing for general understanding is simply the first step in working with
an image. Interpreting means figuring out what the visual image or graphic
design is really meant to do, say, or show. If the meaning were fixed, like the
number of jellybeans in a jar, interpreting would be easy. But the meaning is
something you have to gather for yourself by considering all the evidence.
Understand the elements of interpretation.

// Medium
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Message
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Context
Keep in mind the following elements as you interpret an image. The designer of
the image (for example, a cartoonist or webpage editor) uses an image to get some
kind of message across to a viewer. The image offers a certain view of a certain
subject in a certain medium. All of this is set in a certain context-a page of a
textbook, an annual report, or a webpage. When you interpret the image, you
consider each of these elements to arrive at an overall sense of meaning.
Understand the complications in interpretation.

Each of the elements in the chart above may offer special challenges to the reader:
Image: It might be strange, deceiving, very detailed, or highly technical.
Designer: He or she might be unknown or representing someone else, or it
might be a team of people.
Viewer: You might be uninterested in the subject, unfamiliar with the visual
"language" used by the designer, or biased toward the subject.
Subject: It might be vague, unfamiliar, complex, or disturbing.
Message: It might be mixed, implied, ironic, unwelcome, or distorted.
Context: It might be disconnected from the image, changing, or
multilayered.
Medium: It might be multiple, awkward, or "the message."
INSIGHT: Like words, visuals can be cliches=-trite, misleading, or worn-out

expressions of concepts or ideas. For example, TV ads for weight-loss drugs
commonly picture scantily clad, fit young people, incorrectly suggesting that using the
drugs will produce fit, youthful bodies.
Interpret an image.
Discussion
In this black-and-white photo, the
Designer: Unknown photographer
words "Beauty Shop" contrast starkly
with the appearance of the building. Medium: Black-and-white
The photo evokes the old saying, photograph
"Beauty is only skin deep;' and in this Subject: A rundown beauty shop
case, the skin of the old building has Message: Beauty fades
certainly lost its beauty. Dingy stucco, Context: A writing handbook
peeling paint, weed-filled alleys, cracked
Viewer: The reader
sidewalks-these details mock the
shop's name.
This irony creates opposing feelings in the viewer: amusement and sadness. The
viewer is amused that the beauty shop has so little beauty. However, the cracks and
grime tell the viewer that the ugliness results from a battle against age and cultural
changes. The further irony is that this shop once was beautiful. Perhaps it was a local
gathering point, though all of that loveliness now is gone.
The photographer apparently intends to create this feeling. The black-and-white
medium creates' a grave appearance, and the darkened corners make the photo itself
seem older than it is. The formal symmetry of the shot suggests that the photographer
wants the viewer to pause, to think, and to feel just slightly haunted by the message:
beauty fades.
Evaluating an Image Ev
When you encounter an image, you must do more than understand and
interpret it: You have to decide whether it is worth your time and attention. In
other words, you have to evaluate it. When you have done that well, you can
fairly say you have thought it through. The following questions will guide you.
Consider the purpose.

What purpose does the visual image best seem to serve?
• Ornamentation: Makes the page more pleasing to the eye
• Illustration: Supports points made in the accompanying text
• Revelation: Gives an inside look at something or presents new data
• Explanation: Uses imagery or graphics to clarify a complex subject
• Instruction: Guides the viewer through a complex process
• Persuasion: Influences feelings or beliefs
• Entertainment: Amuses the reader
Evaluate the quality.

Essentially, how good is the image?
• Is the image done with skill? A map, for example, should be accurately and
attractively drawn, should use color effectively, and should be complete
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enough to serve its purpose.
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• Does the image measure up to standards of quality?
See <www.thecollegewriter.com> for design tips for a variety of visuals. Pre:!1
• Is it backed by authority? Does the designer have a good reputation? for ,I
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Does the publication or institution have good credentials? enc

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• How does the image compare to other images like it? Are clearer or more a p,~
wis/j
accurate images available?
• What are its shortcomings? Are there gaps in its coverage? Does it twist
the evidence? Does it convey cliched or fallacious information? (See pages mo:j
thisl
255-258 for a discussion of logical fallacies.)
ima
• Could you think of a better way to approach the image's subject? If you
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were to produce the visual, what might you improve?
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Determine the value. hel1j
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What is the image's tangible and intangible worth? Its benefits and drawbacks? mai
• Is the visual worth viewing? Does it enrich the document by clarifying and
or otherwise enhancing its message? imr
• Does the visual appeal to you? Listen to authorities and peers, but also bus1
consider your own perspective. loo}
Evaluate images.
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Press. Below the company logo, a large rectangular image promotes a product-Write
for Business. The text on the left of this image tells the viewer about the book and
encourages links to find out more. The image on the right shows a hand writing with
a pen-the same image that appears on the cover of the book. This business has
wisely connected the cover graphic to the title to create product recognition.
The choice of showing pen-and-paper writing is interesting, especially given that
most business writing takes place on the computer. Upwrite Press seems to be using
this traditional type of writing to create the impression of stability and tradition. The
images below the pen and paper help to balance out the traditional writing model.
One image shows a man giving a presentation, and it shows a hand in the foreground,
holding a pen much like the one above. The implication is that Write for Business can
help with presentations. Rounding out the set of images is an open laptop with more
writing hands and the word "NEW!" emblazoned in red on the picture. While the
main image connotes stability and tradition, this image connotes modern technology
and innovation. By connecting these three separate images, Upwrite Press creates an
immediate impression of respectability, adaptability, and applicability to different
business environments. Visually, this is a storefront that would appeal to individuals
looking for help with their writing skills.
Critical Thinking Through Writing

In college your writing often must show your ability to think critically
about topics and issues by analyzing complex processes, synthesizing distinct
concepts, weighing the value of opposing perspectives, and practicing new
applications of existing principles. To hone your critical-thinking skills you
need to develop sound critical-thinking habits, sharpen your reasoning skills,
and distinguish inductive and deductive logic.
Develop sound critical-thinking habits.

Like everything worthwhile, improving your critical-thinking skills takes time and
practice. But cultivating the habits below will pay off in sound, thoughtful writing.
1. Be curious. Ask "why?" Cultivate your ability to wonder; question what
you see, hear, and read-both inside and outside the classroom.
2. Be creative. Don't settle for obvious answers. Look at things in a fresh way,
asking "what-if" questions such as, "What if the earth's axis tipped at 25
degrees instead of 23.5 degrees?"
3. Be open to new ideas. Approach thinking as you would approach a road
trip-looking for the unexpected and musing over mysteries.
4. Value others' points of view. Look at issues from another person's
perspective and weigh that against your own. Honestly examine how the core
of her or his perspective compares to the core of your perspective, and how
each basis for thought might lead to different conclusions.
5. Get involved. Read books, journals, and newspapers. Watch documentaries.
Join book clubs, film clubs, or political and social-action activities.
6. Focus. Sharpen your concentration, looking for details that distinguish a
topic and reveal key questions related to its nature, function, and impact.
7. Be rational. Choose logical thinking patterns like those discussed in this
chapter, and then ;01·k through the steps to deepen and develop your
understanding of a topic.
8. Make connections. Use writing to explore how and why topics or issues
are related. Use comparisons to identify and name these relationships.
9. Tolerate ambiguity. Respectfully analyze issues not readily resolved-and
acknowledge when your position requires further research or thought.
10. Test the evidence. Be properly skeptical about all claims (see pages
252-254). Look for corroboration (or verification) in other sources.
11. Develop research-based conclusions. Focus on understanding issues,
assessing their history, development, function, and impact. During the
process, gather details that lead to and support a reasonable conclusion.
12. Expect results. Consider each paper a benchmark that reflects your progress
in developing your thinking and writing skills. Save your papers for periodic
analyses of your progress and revision of the writing.
e For more help with thinking skills such as making and supporting claims,
recognizing logical fallacies, and dealing with opposition, see "Strategies
for Argumentation and Persuasion," pages 247-262.
Ask probing questions.

Every field uses questions to trigger critical thinking. For example, scientific
questions generate hypotheses, sociological questions lead to studies, mathematical
and questions call for proofs, and literary criticism questions call for interpretations. A
1g. good question opens up a problem and guides you all the way to its solution. But not
all questions are created equal. Consider the differences:
• "Rhetorical" questions aren't meant to be answered. They're asked for effect.
Example: Who would want to be caught in an earthquake?
V, • Closed questions seek a limited response and can be answered with a "yes:'
"no," or a simple fact. Example: Would I feel an earthquake measuring 3.0
on the Richter scale?
• Open questions invite brainstorming and discussion. Example: How might
a major earthquake affect this urban area?
• Theoretical questions call for organization and explanation of an entire field
ire of knowledge. Example: What might cause a sudden fracturing of Earth's
crust along fault lines?
To improve the critical thinking in your writing, ask better questions. The
strategies below will help you think freely, respond to reading, study for a test, or
~s.
collect your thoughts for an essay.
Ask open questions. Closed questions sometimes choke off thinking. Use open
questions to trigger a flow of ideas.
Ask "educated" questions. Compare these questions: (A) What's wrong with
television? (B) Does the 16.3 percent rise in televised acts of violence during the
past three years signal a rising tolerance for violence in the viewing audience? You
have a better chance of expanding the "educated" question-question B-into an
essay because the question is clearer and suggests debatable issues.
Keep a question journal. Divide a blank notebook page or split a computer
screen. On one side write down any questions that come to mind regarding the
topic that you want to explore. On the other side write down answers and any
thoughts that flow from them.
Write Q & A drafts. To write a thoughtful first draft, write quickly, then look it
over. Turn the main idea into a question and write again, answering your question.
For example, if your main idea is that TV viewers watch far more violence than
they did ten years ago, ask Which viewers? Why? and What's the result? Go on that
way until you find a key idea to serve as the main point of your next draft.
Practice inductive and deductive logic.

Questions invite thinking; reasoning responds to that challenge in an organized
way. Will the organization of your thoughts be inductive or deductive? Inductive logic
reasons from specific information toward general conclusions. Deductive logic
reasons from general principles toward specific applications. Notice in the diagram
below that inductive reasoning starts with specific details or observations (as shown
at the base) and then moves "up" to broader ideas and eventually to a concluding
generalization. In contrast, deduction starts with general principles at the top and
works down, applying the principles to explain particular instances.
/'1~~ o Generalization/Conclusion
&o o~I~
/ , \ r, ·~
§ o o
Qrz,'?S Main Ideas !I
.iSYV /1\ /1\ /1\ o o o o o o o o o
. .
Specific Details
I
~I
Sentences, paragraphs, and entire essays can be organized either inductively or

deductively. Use induction when you want to postpone your conclusions. Use
deduction for logical clarity, directness, and strength, or to apply what is already
agreed on to what is still under dispute. Narrative or personal essays tend toward
inductive organization, whereas analytical essays (particularly those written in the
social or natural sciences) typically use both induction and deduction.
Example: Read through the paragraphs below from the student essay "If We Are What
We Wear, What Are We?" by Allison Young <http://www.thecollegewriter.com>. The
first paragraph works deductively, the second paragraph inductively. Note how each
approach affects the message.
The American excuse for owning multiples is that clothing styles

Deduction: change so rapidly. At the end of the '80s, trends in high fashion changed
general-
- - every two and a half months (During 95). Even for those of us who don't
ization to
keep up with high fashion, styles change often enough that our clothing
specific
details itself lasts much longer than the current trend. Perhaps this is one of the
reasons the average American spent $997 on clothing in 1996 (U.S.
Department of Commerce).
Induction: - - - - - - While Americans are spending a thousand dollars on clothing a year,
specific people in Ethiopia make an average of only $96 a year, those in Bangladesh
details to $280, and the average Filipino worker makes $1,052 (United Nations
general- Statistics Division). I, on the other hand, made over $5,000 last year, and
ization that job was only part-time. When an American college student can earn
more money at her part-time job than three billion people each make for a
living, it's time to question our culture and ask, as Alan During did, "How
much is enough?"
Practicing Modes of
Thinking in Your Writing
In your various writing assignments, you will need to practice specific modes of
thinking. The table below maps out these modes (from elementary to complex) and the
tasks each requires. The more complex modes are then fleshed out on the following pages.
When you are asked to be ready to

'
Know call to mind what you have learned
define memorize ■ Recall information
identify name ■ List details
list recall ■ Define key terms
match recognize ■ Identify main points
Understand show what you have learned

comprehend interpret ■ Connect related examples
connect restate ■ Summarize important details
explain summarize ■ Explain how something works
grasp ■ Interpret what something means
Analyze break down information
characterize contrast ■ Divide a whole into its parts
classify divide ■ Group things into categories
compare examine ■ Analyze causes and effects
■ Examine similarities and differences
Synthesize shape information into a new form
assemble imagine ■ Bring together a body of evidence
combine invent ■ Blend the old with the new
construct link ■ Predict or hypothesize
formulate ■ Construct a new way of looking at
something
Evaluate determine the worth of information

assess measure ■ Point out a subject's strengths and
check monitor weaknesses
critique rank ■ Evaluate its clarity, accuracy, logic, value,
judge rate and so on
■ Convince others of its value/worth
MIDY use what you have learned
anticipate propose ■ Propose a better way of doing something
choose select ■ Generate a plan of action
generate ■ Offer solutions to a problem
Think by using analysis.

The word analyze literally means "to loosen or undo." When you analyze some-
thing, you break it down into parts and examine each part separately. You classify
information, compare objects, trace a process, or explain causes.
As you analyze, think about the questions listed below. Note that each type of
thinking answers certain kinds of questions. Remember, too, that thinking tasks often
require two or more kinds of analysis that support one another.
• Composition: What elements does it contain? What is not part of it?
• Categories: How are things grouped, divided, or classified?
• Structures: What are the parts or elements? How are they related?
• Comparisons/
contrasts: How are things similar? How are they different?
• Causes/effects: Why did this happen? What are the results?
• Processes: How does it work or happen? What are the stages?
Example: Read through the passage below, from "A Fear Born of Sorrow" (pages ~
189-190). Note how the writer compares and contrasts the September 11, 2001,
attack on the World Trade Center with the Oklahoma City bombing in 1995, and then
analyzes the causes and effects of the emotions triggered by both events.
The Oklahoma City bombing was grievous and alarming, but

The writer localized. The bomber was soon arrested, his motives deduced, and justice
develops served. While lives were changed and a nation was shaken, the world
contrasts - - community remained composed. However, the September 11 attack
signaled by unsettled us more, in part because the World Trade Center stood for so
"however."
much more than the Oklahoma City Federal Building did. The Twin Towers
While doing
symbolized American domination of world finances: They were a major
so, she also
center for the Internet, a hub for international business, and an emblem of
analyzes
American life. The fall of the towers struck violently at the nation's psyche, The,
causes and
and the manner in which they were destroyed-with America's own LISI
explains
airplanes filled with passengers-has raised questions about America's analo
effects.
introduc
security and future. Threatened to their core, Americans have demanded
process
retaliation-but against whom? The terrorists' identity is not clear, and
dlsttn,
evidence seems elusive. In a sense, an unknown offender has injured its s
Americans, and they beat the air in the dark. In such a case, terrorism is
aptly named, for America's outcry expresses more than sorrow-it also
expresses fear.
He exp
the ""
I
1
i
Think by using synthesis.

Synthesis is the opposite of analyzing. Where analysis breaks things down into
parts, synthesis combines elements into a new whole. In your writing, when you pull
together things that are normally separate, you are synthesizing. Common ways of
synthesizing are predicting, inventing, redesigning, and imagining a whole new way
of looking at something.
Working with synthesis involves both reason and imagination. Start by looking
closely at two or more items that you want to synthesize, and then think of fresh ways
they can be related. Don't be afraid to see your subjects in a new way. In other words,
think "sideways" rather than straight ahead. For example, to explain how hair grows
on a scalp, consider how grass might grow in a field. Then consider parallel traits,
such as that both hair and grass have roots, both grow in spurts, both need cutting,
and so on.
The following kinds of questions may get you started:
• Applying: What can I do with both? What will be the outcome?
• Bridging: How can I build a connection between the two?
• Combining: How can I connect, associate, or blend the two?
• Conflicting: Which is good, better, or best? What strength does
each offer the other?
• Inventing: What parts could these two play in a drama?
• Proposing: What do you suggest doing with both?
• Sequencing: Which comes first? Is one an extension of the other?
Example: Read through the passage below, from "Hair Today, Gone Tomorrow"
(pages 222-223), in which Verne Meyer describes how hair grows. He asks readers
to imagine the scalp as a field of grass.
The writer Imagine a field covered with two layers of soil: first a layer of clay, and
uses an on top of that a layer of rich, black dirt. Then imagine that 100,000 little
analogy to holes have been poked through the black dirt and into the clay, and at the
introduce the bottom of each hole lies one grass seed.
process and Slowly each seed produces a stem that grows up through the clay, out
distinguish of the dirt, and up toward the sky. Now and then each stem stops for awhile,
its steps. rests, and then starts growing again. At any time about 90 percent of the
stems are growing and the others are resting. Because the field gets shaggy,
sometimes a gardener comes along and cuts the grass.
He explai~ Your skull is like that field, and your scalp (common skin) is like the
the analo~ two layers of soil. The top layer of the scalp is the epidermis, and the bot-
tom layer is the dermis. About 100,000 tiny holes (called follicles) extend
through the epidermis into the dermis.
Think by using evaluation.

Movies, proposals, arguments-anything can be evaluated. Evaluation measures the
value or worth of things. For example, when you express your judgment about an issue II
or discuss the weak and strong points of what someone else has said, you are evaluating. 0
Many kinds of writing are evaluative. e,
To evaluate a topic, start by learning as much about it as possible. Then consider ir
what criteria or standards are appropriate. Next, judge how it measures up according
to those criteria. You can compare the topic (such as a movie based on a book) to a ir
standard (the movie carefully follows the book) or to something else (whether the se
book and movie each have their own qualities). Along the way, support your own a1
judgment with concrete details, examples, illustrations, and comparisons. I
Questions like these will help you evaluate things in writing:
• Aspects: What elements of the topic will you evaluate?
• Vantage Point: What are your experience and point of view?
• Criteria: On what standards will you base your judgment?
• Assessment: How does the topic measure up by those standards?
fa
• Comparison: How does it compare to and contrast with
Sa
similar things?
Wt
• Recommendation: Based on your evaluation, what do you advise? p,
Example: The paragraphs below are from a student essay in which the writer calls
readers to abandon cute as a worn-out word. She begins evaluating, through a playful
critique, the word's current use.
Using th!
wor,,
"egalitarian
If there's one word that deserves to be hauled into a back alley and to refer to ;
dismembered letter by letter, it's CUTE. Just looking at the word brings up key principle
The writer
images of pink, frilly dresses; Veggie Tales; and helpless puppies. And the the write
forcefully
points ou
states her word brings up my breakfast. But why do I want to deface pictures of babies
the rea
claim about sitting in flowers? Why do I want to smash Precious Moments figurines into inequaliti1
the word's smithereens? And why do I want to put big black X's over stylized hearts? and argue:
lack of
For as long as I can remember, cute has inspired nothing in me but for a change
meaning.
contempt. It's a cop-out descriptor. Whenever I hear it, I think, "What? Can
She calls
cute a you find no better adjective? With so many options, how could you choose
"cop-out cute?" Because cute is used so often and so carelessly, it means so little. She back
descriptor" "Your shirt is sooo cute!" up he
and backs conclusloi
"They make such a cute couple!"
her claim with hlstorica
"What a cute idea!" context aru
with vivid
Soon we'll be calling Jesse Ventura cute, or Fidel Castro, or nuclear presse
examples.
warfare. Just recently I heard a girl squeal about a plain-faced education readers t,
prof, "Oh, Dr. O'Reilly is so cute!" Get me a bucket so I can throw up. agree
Cutely, of course.
CRITICAL THINKING TH ROUGH READING, VIEWING, AND WRITING
Think by using application.

Thinking by application defines the practical implications of something. It
involves using what you know to demonstrate, show, relate, or extend ideas in view
of their outcomes. For example, using what you have learned about the
ecology of forest fires to examine the effects of a particular fire-that's application
in action.
Applying involves moving from ideas to possible action. First, understand the
information you have. Second, relate this information to a given situation. Third,
select those facts and details that clarify and support the application. Fourth, test the
application to see whether it has been reasonable.
When applying ideas, let questions like these guide your writing:
• Purpose: What is something designed to be or do?
• Benefits: What would this idea make clearer, better, or more complete?
• Solutions: What problems are solved by application of this idea?
• Outcomes: What results can be expected? Where could we go from there?
Example: Read the paragraphs below, from Anna Quindlen's "Uncle Sam and Aunt
Samantha" (pages 306-308). In this essay, Quindlen argues that in the United States,
women- as well as men-should be eligible to be drafted for military service. In the
passage below, she applies the concept of equal rights to this specific situation.
,_ - - - - - - Parents face a series of unique new challenges in this more egalitarian

Using the
world, not the least of which would be sending a daughter off to war. But
word
parents all over this country are doing that right now, with daughters who
"egalitarian"
enlisted; some have even expressed surprise that young women, in this day
to refer to a
key principle,
and age, are not required to register alongside their brothers and friends.
the writer While all involved in this debate over the years have invoked the assumed
points out opposition of the people, even 10 years ago more than half of all Americans
the real polled believed women should be made eligible for the draft. Besides, this is
inequality not about comfort but about fairness. My son has to register with the
and argues Selective Service this year, and if his sister does not when she turns 18, it
for a change. makes a mockery not only of the standards of this household but of the
standards of this nation.
It is possible in Afghanistan for women to be treated like little more
She backs than fecund pack animals precisely because gender fear and ignorance and
up her hatred have been codified and permitted to hold sway. In this country,
conclusion largely because of the concerted efforts of those allied with the women's
with historical movement over a century of struggle, much of that bigotry has been beaten
context and back, even buried. Yet in improbable places the creaky old ways surface, the
presses
ways suggesting that we women were made of finer stuff. The finer stuff was
readers to
usually porcelain, decorative and on the shelf, suitable for meals and show.
agree.
Happily, the finer stuff has been transmuted into the right stuff. But with
rights come responsibilities, as teachers like to tell their students ...
Critical Thinking Checklist

Use these questions as you work to improve your critical-thinking skills as
they relate to reading, viewing, and writing.
__ How can I improve my active reading skills and strategies?
How can I use them to improve my writing? (See pages 4-9.)
__ How can I strengthen my response writing? (See page 10.)
__ Do I understand the characteristics of an accurate summary? (See page 11.)
__ What strategies should I use to be a more active, purposeful viewer of
visual images? (See page 12.)
__ Do I effectively interpret images by analyzing the context, subject,
medium, message, designer, and viewer? (See page 14-15.)
__ Am I able to evaluate the purpose, quality, and value of images?
(See page 16.)
__ How can I strengthen my critical thinking habits and questioning
abilities? (See pages 18-25.)
__ Which of the thinking modes in the chart on page 21 can I do well
in my writing? Which do I need to strengthen, and how?
__ Which of my reading, viewing, and writing habits do or do not help
my critical-thinking skills?
II Writing Activities
1. What thinking, reading, viewing, and writing skills are required in
your field of study? Reflect on those possibilities.
2. Explore how different texts require different reading strategies. Select a
novel chapter, a textbook chapter, a magazine article, and a webpage:
Engage each text and take appropriate notes. Then reflect on how the
different texts call for both similar and different strategies.
3. Using this chapter's guidelines on viewing, interpreting, and evaluating
visual imagery, examine a visual image for its meaning. Develop a
written analysis and evaluation of the image.
4. Choose a subject you know something about. Practice thinking
about that subject both inductively and deductively. Then write two
paragraphs-one developed through inductive reasoning, the other
developed through deductive reasoning.
5. Select a sample essay from the "Strategies and Models" section. Read
the piece carefully and identify where and how the writer uses
different thinking modes. Do the same analysis on a recent sample
of your own writing, rating your analysis, synthesis, evaluation,
and application.
Chapter 2
Beginning the
Writing Process UI
College instructors assign essays for a variety of reasons. One reason is that they
want to encourage you to think and figure things out for yourself. This emphasis on
clear and logical thought distinguishes college writing from writing you may have
done earlier. Fortunately, writing results from a process that can be learned, practiced,
ll
and improved. Once you understand the writing process-from forming a clear sense
of the assignment to submitting the final draft-you will be able to produce essays
and papers that reflect your best thinking.
However, before you begin writing a paper, it's important that you understand
the following points about the writing process:
• Writing never follows a straight path. Don't expect to move neatly
through the steps in the writing process. Many times you will have to
repeat a step, such as drafting a new paragraph during the editing stage.
• Each writer works differently. For example, some writers do extensive
prewriting, while others do not. Expect to adapt writing-process guidelines
to your own personality and style.
• Each assignment presents challenges. While a lab report may require
research, a personal essay may require clustering or freewriting.
What's Ahead
;,°/_
~ • Understanding the Rhetorical
Situation: Subject, Audience,
and Purpose
Understanding the Assignment
• Selecting a Subject
• Collecting Information
• Beginning the Process Checklist
and Writing Activities
~
Chapter 32
Drafting a Paper with
Documented Research
"That's incredible!" is normally a positive exclamation of amazement. But maybe
it's an exclamation you DON'T want to hear about your writing, if incredible means
unbelievable. Think about it:
• A poor paper reads like a recitation of unconnected facts, a set of
unsupported opinions, or a string of undigested quotations. Sources are
absent, or sources dominate and the writer disappears. At its worst,
it's plagiarism.
• A strong paper centers on the writer's ideas, ideas advanced through
thoughtful engagement with and crediting of sources.
Obviously, you want to draft a strongly documented paper-a credible discussion
of your carefully researched topic. This chapter will help you achieve that goal.
What's Ahead
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Avoiding Other source Abuses
• Organizing and Synthesizing Your
Findings
• Developing Your First Draft
• Using source Material
in Your Writing
• Checklist and Writing Activities
Research and Writing
ll Avoiding Plagiarism
The road to plagiarism may be paved with the best intentions-or the
worst. Either way, the result is still a serious academic offense. As you write
your research paper, do everything you can to stay off that road! Start by
studying your school's and your instructor's guidelines on plagiarism and
other academic offenses. Then study the following pages.
What is plagiarism?
Plagiarism is using someone else's words, ideas, or images (what's called
intellectual property) so they appear to be your own. When you plagiarize, you use
source material-whether published in print or online-without acknowledging the
source. In this sense, plagiarism refers to a range of thefts:
• Submitting a paper you didn't write yourself.
• Pasting large chunks of a source into your paper and passing it off as your
·~
own work.
• Using summaries, paraphrases, or quotations without documentation.
• Using the exact phrasing of a source without quotation marks.
• Mixing up source material and your own ideas-failing to distinguish
between the two.
e
ji
Plagiarism refers to more than "word theft." Because plagiarism is really
about failing to credit ideas and information, the rules also apply to visual
images, tables, graphs, charts, maps, music, and so on.
In other words, plagiarism refers to a range of source abuses. What exactly do
these violations look like? Read the passage below, which comes from a scholarly
article about the 1990s United Nations economic sanctions against Iraq. Then review
the five types of plagiarism that follow, noting how each misuses the source.
Original Article
The paragraph below is from pages 7 48-749 of "Are Sanctions
Just? The Problematic Case of Iraq;' by David Cortright and George
A. Lopez, published in the Journal of International Affairs ( Spring
1999, Volume 52:2): 735-755.
As noted earlier, sanctions can help to encourage a process of
dialogue and negotiation, but they cannot by themselves remove a
targeted regime or force a drastic change in policy. Sanctions should
not be used in a purely punitive manner to starve an opponent into
submission. Sanctions work best in combination with incentives and
other forms of external influence as part of a carrot-and-stick
diplomacy designed to resolve a conflict through negotiation.
DRAFTING A PAPER WITH DOCUMENTED RESEARCH
Submitting Another Writer's Paper

The most blatant plagiarism is taking an entire piece of writing and claiming it as
your own work. Examples:
• Downloading, reformatting, and submitting an article as your own work.
• Buying a paper from a "paper mill" or taking a "free" paper off the Internet.
• Turning in another student's work as your own (see "Falstaffing" on
page 483).
A
V Just as it's easy to plagiarize using the Internet, it's easy for your
professors to recognize and track down plagiarism using Internet tools.
Using Copy and Paste
It is unethical to take chunks of material from another source and splice them
into your paper without acknowledgment. In the example below, the writer pastes in
a sentence from the original article (boldfaced) without using quotation marks or a
citation. Even if the writer changed some words, it would still be plagiarism.
For sanctions to work, we need to understand their value and their limits.
Sanctions can help to encourage a process of dialogue and negotiation,
but they cannot by themselves remove a targeted regime or force a
drastic change in policy.
Failing to Cite a Source

Borrowed material must be documented. Even if you use information accurately
and fairly, don't neglect to cite the source. Below, the writer correctly summarizes the
passage's idea but offers no citation.
Sanctions alone do not force unjust governments to change. Instead,
sanctions should be combined with other tactics rooted in carrot-and-stick
negotiation.
Neglecting Necessary Quotation Marks

Whether it's a paragraph or a phrase, if you use the exact wording of a source,
that material must be enclosed in quotation marks. In the example below, the writer
cites the source but doesn't use quotation marks around a phrase taken from the
original (boldfaced).
Sanctions fail when they are used in a purely punitive manner (Cortright
and Lopez 749).
Confusing Borrowed Material with Your Own Ideas

Through carelessness (often in note taking), you may confuse source material
with your own thinking. Below, the writer indicates that he borrowed material in the
first sentence, but fails to indicate that he also borrowed the next sentence.
Sanctions work best "to encourage a process of dialogue and negotiation"
(Cortright and Lopez 748). By themselves, they cannot remove a targeted
regime or force a drastic change in policy.
Why is plagiarism serious?

Perhaps the answer is obvious. But some people operate with the notion that
material on the Internet (whether text, graphics, or sound) is "free" and therefore fair
game for research writing. After all, a lot of stuff on the web doesn't even list an
author, so what's the harm? Here's some food for thought:
Academic Dishonesty
At its heart, plagiarism is cheating-stealing intellectual property and passing it
off as one's own work. Colleges take such dishonesty seriously. Plagiarism, whether
intentional or unintentional, will likely be punished in one or more ways:
• Failing grade for the assignment
• Failing grade for the course
• A note on your academic transcript (often seen by potential employers) that
failure resulted from academic dishonesty
• Expulsion from college
Theft from the Academic Community
D
The research paper represents your dialogue with other members of the academic
pa
community-classmates, the instructor, others in your major, and so on. When you
gr~;I
plagiarize, you short-circuit the dialogue:
un
• You gain an unfair advantage over your classmates who follow the rules and
earn their grades.
• You disrespect other writers, researchers, and scholars.
• You disrespect your readers by passing off others' ideas as your own.
• You insult your instructor, a person whose respect you need.
• You harm your college by risking its reputation and its academic integrity.
Now and in the Future
Because research projects help you master course-related concepts and writing
skills, plagiarism robs you of an opportunity to learn either. Moreover, you rob your-
self of your integrity and reputation. After all, as a student you are seeking to build
your credibility within the broader academic community, your major, and your future
profession.
In addition, research projects often train you for your future work in terms of
research, thinking, and writing skills, skills that you will need to succeed in the work- WO
!
place. If you do not learn the skills now, you will enter the workplace without on·
them-a situation that your employer will, at some point, find out.
How do I avoid plagiarism?

Preventing plagiarism begins the moment you get an assignment. Essentially,
prevention requires your commitment and diligence throughout the project.
Resist temptation. With the Internet, plagiarism is a mouse click away. Avoid last-
minute all-nighters that make you desperate; start research projects early. Note: It's
better to ask for an extension or accept a penalty for lateness than to plagiarize.
Play by the rules. Become familiar with your college's definition, guidelines, and
policies regarding plagiarism so that you don't unknowingly violate them. When in
doubt, ask your instructor for clarification.
Take orderly, accurate notes. From the start, carefully keep track of source material
and distinguish it from your own thinking. Specifically, do the following:
• Maintain an accurate working bibliography (pages 438-439).
• Adopt a decent note-taking system (pages 440-443).
• Accurately summarize, paraphrase, and quote sources in your notes
(pages 444-446).
Document borrowed material. Credit information that you have summarized,
paraphrased, or quoted from any source, whether that information is statistics, facts,
graphics, phrases, or ideas. Readers can then see what's borrowed and what's yours,
understand your support, and do their own follow-up research.
Common Knowledge Exception: Common knowledge is information-a basic
fact, for instance-that is generally known to readers or easily found in several
sources, particularly reference works. Such knowledge need NOT be cited.
However, when you go beyond common knowledge into research findings,
interpretations of the facts, theories, explanations, claims, arguments, and
graphics, you MUST document the source. Study the examples below, but
whenever you are in doubt, document.
Examples:
• The fact that automakers are developing hybrid electric cars is
common knowledge, whereas the precise details of GM's AUTOnomy
project are not.
• The fact that Shakespeare wrote Hamlet is common knowledge,
whereas the details of his sources are not.
work carefully with source material in your paper. See pages 488-491 for more
on integrating and documenting sources, but here, briefly, are your responsibilities:
• Distinguish borrowed material from your own thinking by signaling where
source material begins and ends.
• Indicate the source's origin with an attributive phrase and a citation
(parenthetical reference or footnote).
• Provide full source information in a works-cited or references page.
Avoiding Other source Abuses

Plagiarism, though the most serious offense, is not the only source abuse
to avoid when writing a paper with documented research. Consider these
pitfalls, which refer again to the sample passage on page 478.
Using Sources Inaccurately

When you get a quotation wrong, botch a summary, paraphrase poorly, or
misstate a statistic, you misrepresent the original. Example: In this quotation, the
writer carelessly drops the important word "not" and replaces "starve" with "bully."
According to Cortright and Lopez, "sanctions should be used in a purely
punitive fashion to bully an opponent into submission" (749).
Using Source Material Out of Context

By ripping a statement out of its context and forcing it into yours, you can make
a source seem to say something that it didn't really say. Example: This writer uses part
of a statement to say the opposite of the original.
The example of Iraq proves the failure of "carrot-and-stick diplomacy
designed to resolve a conflict through negotiation" (Cortright and Lopez 749).
Overusing Source Material

When your paper reads like a string of references, especially quotations, your own
thinking disappears. Example: The writer takes the source passage, chops it up, and
splices it together.
It is important to understand that "sanctions can help to encourage a
process of dialogue and negotiation, but they cannot by themselves remove
a targeted regime or force a drastic change in policy." Moreover, "Sanctions
should not be used in a purely punitive manner to starve an opponent into
submission." Instead, say the authors, "Sanctions work best in combination
with incentives and other forms of external influence as part of a carrot-and-
stick diplomacy" (Cortright and Lopez 748-749).
"Plunking" Quotations
When you "plunk" quotations into your paper by failing to prepare the reader for
them and follow them up, the discussion becomes choppy and disconnected.
Example: The writer interrupts the flow of ideas with a quotation "out of the blue."
In addition, the quotation hangs at the end of a paragraph with no follow-up
or transition.
In Iraq, the UN sanctions failed to bring results. "As noted earlier, sanctions can
help to encourage a process of dialogue and negotiation" (Cortright and
Lopez 748).
Saddam Hussein continued to seek ways to rebuild his military ....
Using "Blanket" Citations

Your reader shouldn't have to guess where borrowed material begins and ends.
For example, if you place a parenthetical citation at the end of a paragraph, does that
citation cover the whole paragraph or just the final sentence?
Relying Heavily on One Source
If your writing is dominated by one source, readers may doubt the depth and
integrity of your research.
>r Failing to Match In-Text Citations to Bibliographic Entries

te All in-text citations must clearly refer to accurate entries in the works-cited,
references, or endnotes page. Mismatching occurs when
• an in-text citation refers to a source that is not listed in the bibliography.
• a bibliographic resource is never actually referenced anywhere in the paper.
Related Academic Offenses

~e Beyond plagiarism and related source abuses, steer clear of these academic
rt offenses:
Double-Dipping ■ When you submit one paper in two different classes without
permission from both instructors, you take double credit for one project.
Falstaffing ■ This practice refers to a particular type of plagiarism where one
student submits another student's work. Know that you are guilty of Falstaffing if you
n let another student submit your paper.
.d Copyright Violations ■ When you copy, distribute, and/or post in whole or in part
any intellectual property without permission from or payment to the copyright
holder, you commit a copyright infringement, especially when you profit from this
use. To avoid copyright violations in your research projects, do the following:
• Observe fair use guidelines: Quote small portions of a document for limited
purposes, such as education or research. Avoid copying large portions for
your own gain.
• Understand what's in the public domain: You need not obtain permission
to copy and use public domain materials-primarily documents created by
the government.
>r • Observe intellectual property and copyright laws: First, know your college's
i. policies on copying documents. Second, realize that copyright protects the
expression of ideas in a range of materials-writings, videos, songs,
p photographs, drawings, computer software, and so on. Always obtain
permission to copy and distribute copyrighted materials.
• Avoid changing a source ( a photo) without permission of the creator or
copyright holder.
Organizing and Synthesizing
Your Findings
Your research may generate a mass of notes, printouts, photocopies,
electronic files, and more. The challenge is to move from this mass to a
coherent structure for the paper you need to write. If you have systematically
taken good notes (see pages 440-443), you are well on the way. In addition,
the tips below and on the next page will help you move toward order.
Develop your ideas.

Good thinking is foundational to good research writing. To develop ideas for
your research project, follow these steps: u
Refocus on your research questions and working thesis. Has research changed k
your perspective and position? ~
y,I
Study the evidence. Review your materials once, twice, or more-as long as it takes
for ideas to percolate and information to make sense. Consider these questions:
• Is the information complete or at least sufficient for the project?
• Does the information seem reliable and accurate?
• How does the information relate to the topic?
• What connections exist among different pieces of evidence?
• Does the information gathered fall naturally into patterns?
Develop sound conclusions through analysis and synthesis. Practice these
strategies (and check pages 18-25 for more on sound thinking):
• Work against personal biases that create blind spots to what the evidence is
saying. Be open to different angles provided by all the evidence. Think
through both pros and cons.
• Practice logic in your analysis, but also tap into your intuition, creativity,
and imagination.
• Interpret statistical data carefully and correctly.
• Logically distinguish between causes and effects; carefully link them.
• If you are comparing, make sure that the items can logically be compared,
and make sure that you think through both similarities and differences.
• Avoid either/or and black-and-white thinking, as well as circular arguments,
slippery slope claims, and sweeping generalizations. (See logical fallacies at
pages 255-258.)
• Check your conclusions against counterarguments, your experience, and
common sense. For example, what are the limits of hybrid vehicle
technology? What does your experience with cars and with culture tell you
about how technological changes happen and get accepted?
Develop a structure for delivering

research results.
Using your research questions and conclusions as guides, sift through and order
your information. Consider these strategies:
Follow assignment recommendations: A pattern for your paper may be built into
the assignment. For example, you may be asked to write a comparison/contrast paper.
Shape your outline within that framework.
Clump and split: Using key ideas as main headings, arrange support and evidence
under the most fitting heading. Depending on the note-taking system you used,
separate and pile note cards, sketch out the structure on paper, use a graphic organizer
for (see pages 46-47), use a code system, copy and paste material electronically, or cut
up your note pages. After categorizing information, decide how best to sequence the
ged
key ideas.
Rely on tested patterns: The patterns below offer sound methods for developing
your thinking. Each choice offers a basic structure for your paper, but several patterns
.kes
may be useful within your paper's body.
• Argumentation asserts and supports a claim, counters any opposition, and
then reasserts the claim (perhaps in a modified form). See pages 247-300.
• Cause/effect can ( 1) explore the factors that led to an event, or
(2) explore the consequences of a specific event. See pages 175-186.
• Chronological order puts items in a sequence ( order of events, steps in
a process). See pages 217-230.
iese • Classification groups details based on their common traits or qualities.
See pages 203-216.
is • Comparison/contrast shows similarities and/or differences between specific
elements of a topic. See pages 187-202.
• Description orders details in terms of spatial relationships, color, form,
texture, etc. See pages 131-17 2.
• Explanation clarifies how something works by breaking the object or
phenomenon into parts or phases and then showing how they work
together. See pages 217-230.
I, • Order of importance arranges items from most to least important, or least
to most.
its, • Partitioning breaks down an object, space, or location into ordered parts;
rt or a process into steps or phases.
• Problem/solution states a problem, explores its causes and effects, and
presents solutions. See pages 301-316.
e
• Question/answer moves back and forth from questions to answers in
1U a sequence that logically clarifies a topic
For more help developing a structure, see pages 44-4 7.

g Developing Your First Draft

As you write your paper, your first goal is to develop and support your
ideas-referring to sources, not being dominated by them. The discussion
that follows will help you achieve this goal. Your second goal is to respect
sources by integrating them naturally and providing correct documentation;
that goal is addressed on pages 488-491.
Choose a drafting method.

yourse
Before starting your draft, choose a drafting method that makes sense for your
comm1
project and your writing style. Consider these two options or something in between:
Draft
Writing Systematically resear
1. Develop a detailed outline, including supporting evidence. points
closind:
2. Arrange your notes in precise order. the pa
3. Write methodically, following your thesis, outline, and notes. Creat
4. Cite your sources as you write. that c
words
Writing Freely create
1. Review your working thesis and notes. Then set them aside.
2. If you need to, jot down a brief outline. TUI
3. Write away-get all your research-based thinking down on paper.
4. Going back to your research notes, develop your draft further and integrate
your citations.
Shape your first draft.

To successfully complete your paper's first draft, develop the following parts. Note
that you can draft the parts in any order. For more on drafting, see pages 49-62.
Draft an introduction. The introduction should do two things. The first part should
say something interesting, surprising, or personal about your subject to gain your
readers' attention. The second part should identify the specific focus, or thesis, of
your research. Consider these options:
• Begin with a revealing story or quotation.
• Give important background information.
• Offer a series of interesting or surprising facts.
• Cite details showing the topic's relevance.
• Provide important definitions.
• Identify your focus or thesis.
Draft the body. How do you develop a complete and insightful research paper? How
do you add dimension and depth to your writing? For starters, you make sure that
you have carefully explored and reflected on your specific topic. You also make sure
that you have gathered plenty of compelling evidence to support your thesis.
It's in the main part of your paper-in the body-that you develop your thesis.
The process usually works in this way: You present each main point, expand on it
by including supporting facts or examples, and offer additional analysis or
documentation as needed.
Another way to approach your writing is to envision it as a series of paragraph
clusters-one cluster of paragraphs for each main point. As you write, you imagine
yourself conversing with your readers, telling them what they need to know, and
r
communicating it as clearly and interestingly as you can.
Draft a conclusion. An effective closing adds to the reader's understanding of a
research paper. The first part of the closing usually reviews ( or ties together) important
points in the paper, reinforces or reasserts the thesis, and/or draws a conclusion. The
closing's final lines may expand the scope of the text by making a connection between
the paper and the reader's experience, or between the paper and life in general.
Create a working title. At any point in the writing process, jot down possible titles
that capture your paper's focused topic, research discoveries, and spirit. Consider key
words and phrases that hint at your paper's thesis. For some papers, you may want to
create a main title and a subtitle, separated by a colon.
~
TIPS FOR RESEARCH WRITING
• As you draft your paper, keep the focus on your own thoughts. You
don't want your paper to read like a strung-together series of references
to other sources.
• Present your own ideas honestly and clearly. Although you will be
considering the research of others, be sure to analyze this information
yourself and relate your sources to one another. Work at offering your
personal perspective on the topic.
r • Your instructor may want your thesis in a specific location (perhaps

f in the last sentence of your first paragraph). Follow his or her wishes.
• Don't try to cram everything you've learned into your draft. Select
material that is truly needed to develop your thesis.
• Avoid overusing one particular source; also avoid using too many direct
quotations.
• To avoid accidental plagiarism, indicate the sources of all borrowed
facts as you write your draft. (See "Avoiding Plagiarism;' pages
478-481.)
Research and W riting
using source Material in Your Writing

After you've found good sources and taken good notes on them, you want
to use that research effectively in your writing. Specifically, you want to show
(1) what information you are borrowing, and (2) where you got it. By doing
so, you create credibility. This section shows you how to develop credibility by
integrating and documenting sources so as to avoid plagiarism and other
abuses. Note: For a full treatment of documentation, see Chapter 33 (MLA)
and Chapter 34 (APA).
Integrate source material carefully.

Source material-whether a summary, a paraphrase, or a quotation-should be
integrated smoothly into your discussion. Follow these strategies:
The Right Reasons
Focus on what you want to say, not on all the source material you've collected.
Use sources to do the following:
• Support your point with facts, statistics, and details.
• Give credibility to your point with an expert's supporting statement.
• Bring your point to life with an example, observation, or illustration.
• Address a counterargument or an alternative.
Quotation Restraint
In most research documents, restrict your quoting to nuggets:
• Key statements by authorities ( the main point that a respected Shakespeare
scholar makes about the role of Ophelia in Hamlet)
wrlteri
• Well-phrased claims and conclusions (a powerful conclusion by an ethicist
about the problem with the media's coverage of cloning debates and att
technological developments)
• Passages where careful word-by-word analysis and interpretation are para
important to your argument (an excerpt from a speech made by a politician quota
about the future of the NASA space shuttle program-a passage that sui
..
requires a careful analysis for the between-the-lines message)
01
Quotations, especially long ones, must pull their weight, so generally paraphrase
or summarize source material instead.
Primary Document Exception: When a primary text (a novel, a piece oflegislation, con
a speech) is a key piece of evidence or the actual focus of your project, careful analysis
of quoted excerpts is required. See pages 454-455 for more.
Smooth Integration
When you use quotations, work them into your writing as smoothly as possible.
To do so, you need to pay attention to style, punctuation, and syntax. (See pages
490-491.)
Use enough of the quotation to make your point without changing the meaning
of the original. Use quotation marks around key phrases taken from the source.
Example: Ogden, Williams, and Larson also conclude that the hydrogen fuel-
cell vehicle is "a strong candidate for becoming the Car of the Future;' given
the trend toward "tighter environmental constraints" and the "intense efforts
underway" by automakers to develop commercially viable versions of such
vehicles (25).
Integrate all sources thoughtfully. Fold source material into your discussion
by relating it to your own thinking. Let your ideas guide the way, not your sources, by
using this pattern:
1. State and explain your idea, creating a context for the source.
2. Identify and introduce the source, linking it to your discussion.
3. Summarize, paraphrase, or quote the source, providing a citation in an
appropriate spot.
4. Use the source by explaining, expanding, or refuting it.
5. When appropriate, refer back to a source to further develop the ideas
it contains.
Sample Passage: Note the integration of sources in the paragraph below.
The motivation and urgency to create and improve hybrid-electric

writer's ideas
technology comes from a range of complex forces. Some of these forces are
attributive economic, others environmental, and still others social. In "Societal lifestyle
phrase
costs of cars with alternative fuels/engines;' Joan Ogden, Robert Williams,
paraphrase, and Eric Larson argue that "[cjontinued reliance on current transportation
quotation, or
fuels and technologies poses serious oil supply insecurity, climate change,
summary
and urban air pollution risks" (7). Because of the nonrenewable nature of
citation fossil fuels as well as their negative side effects, the transportation industry
commentary is confronted with making the most radical changes since the introduction
of the internal-combustion automobile more than 100 years ago. Hybrid-
conclusion
electric vehicles are one response to this pressure.
Effectively document your sources.

Just as you need to integrate source material carefully into your writing, you must
also carefully document where that source material comes from. From your first word
to your last, readers should be able to recognize what material is yours and what facts
and ideas come from other sources.
Identify clearly where source material begins. Your discussion must offer a
smooth transition to source material. To achieve such a transition, follow these
guidelines below:
For first references to a specific source, use an attributive statement that indicates
some of the following information: the author's name and credentials, the title of the
source, the nature of the study or research, and helpful background.
Example: Joan Ogden, Robert Williams, and Eric Larson, members of the
Princeton Environmental Institute, explain that modest improvements in energy
efficiency and emissions reductions will not be enough over the next century
because of anticipated transportation increases (7).
For subsequent references to a source, use a simplified attributive phrase, such as
the author's last name(s) or a shortened version of the title.
Example: Ogden, Williams, and Larson go on to argue that "[e]ffectively
addressing environmental and oil supply concerns will probably require
radical changes in automotive engine/fuel technologies" (7).
In some situations, such as quoting straightforward facts, simply skip the
attributive phrase. The parenthetical citation supplies sufficient attribution.
Example: Various types of transportation are by far the main consumers of oil
(3/4 of world oil imports); moreover, these same technologies are responsible
for 1/4 of all greenhouse gas sources (Ogden, Williams, and Larson 7).
The verb you use to introduce source material is a key part of the attribution.
Use fitting verbs, such as those in the table below. Normally, use the present tense. Use
the past tense only when you want to stress the "pastness" of a source.
Example: In their 2004 study, "Societal Lifecycle Costs of Cars with Alternative
Fuels/Engines;' Ogden, Williams, and Larson present a method for comparing
and contrasting alternatives to the traditional internal-combustion engine. In
an earlier study, these authors had made preliminary steps toward this
analysis ....
accepts considers explains rejects acknowledges

contradicts highlights reminds adds contrasts
identifies responds affirms criticizes insists
shares argues declares interprets shows
asserts defends lists states believes
denies maintains stresses cautions describes
outlines suggests claims disagrees points out
Indicate where source material ends. Closing quotation marks and a citation, as
st shown below, indicate the end of a source quotation. Generally, place the citation
·d immediately after any quotation, paraphrase, or summary. However, you may also
ts place the citation early in the sentence or at the end if the parenthetical note is
obviously obtrusive. When you discuss several details from a page in a source, use an
attributive phrase at the beginning of your discussion and a single citation at the end.
a
;e Example: As the "Lifestyle Costs" study concludes, when greenhouse gases, air
pollution, and oil insecurity are factored into the analysis, alternative-fuel vehicles
!S
"offer lower LCCs than typical new cars" (Ogden, Williams, and Larson 25).
le Set off longer quotations. If a quotation is longer than four typed lines, set it off
from the main text. Generally, introduce the quotation with a complete sentence and
a colon. Indent the quotation one inch (10 spaces) and double-space it, but don't put
quotation marks around it. Put the citation outside the final punctuation mark.
Example: Toward the end of the study, Ogden, Williams, and Larson argue that
changes to the fuel delivery and filling system must be factored into planning:
rs In charting a course to the Car of the Future, societal LCC
comparisons should be complemented by considerations of fuel
infrastructure requirements. Because fuel infrastructure changes are
costly, the number of major changes made over time should be
minimized. The bifurcated strategy advanced here-of focusing on
the H2 FCV for the long term and advanced liquid hydrocarbon-
e
fueled ICEVs and ICE/HEVs for the near term-would reduce the
number of such infrastructure change to one (an eventual shift
to H2). (25)
Marking Changes to Quotations

I, You may shorten or change a quotation so that it fits more smoothly into your
e sentence-but don't alter the original meaning. Use an ellipsis within square brackets
to indicate that you have omitted words from the original. An ellipsis is three periods
with a space before and after each period.
Example: In their projections of where fuel-cell vehicles are heading, Ogden,
Williams, and Larson discuss GM's AUTOnomy vehicle, with its "radical
redesign of the entire car. [ ... ] In these cars, steering, braking, and other
vehicle systems are controlled electronically rather than mechanically" (24).
Use square brackets to indicate a clarification or to change a pronoun or verb
tense or to switch around uppercase and lowercase.
Example: As Ogden, Williams, and Larson explain, "[elven if such barriers [the
high cost of fuel cells and the lack of an H2 fuel infrastructure) can be
overcome, decades would be required before this embryonic technology
could make major contributions in reducing the major externalities that
characterize today's cars" (25).
Writing Checklist
Use the seven-traits checklist below to review any paper that contains
documented research.
Ideas:
• The thesis is clear, sharp, and thoughtful; the support strong and balanced.
• Researched data are accurate, complete, and properly credited.
Organization:
• Information is delivered in a structured chain of ideas.
• The opening presents the purpose and scope of the research, the middle
provides complete discussion, and the closing focuses on conclusions.
Voice:
• The tone is confident but also sincere, measured, and objective.
• "I" and "you" are avoided unless directed by the instructor.
Words:
• Precise, clear phrasing is used throughout the paper.
• Terms are defined as needed.
Sentences:
• The prose contains a good blend of sentence lengths and patterns.
• Source material is carefully integrated.
Copy:
• Grammar, punctuation, mechanics, usage, and spelling are correct.
• Documentation is complete, correct, and consistent.
Design:
• The format, page layout, and typography are all reader friendly.
• Data are effectively presented in discussion, lists, tables, graphs, etc.
1. Good research papers grow out of a writer's "burning questions." In
a 10- to 15-minute brainstorming session, list your burning questions.
2. Choose a short article or passage from one of your sources. Restate
(paraphrase) what you have read using your own words, but put
quotation marks around anything taken directly from the text.
Chapter 15
Process Writing (I
Process writing is practical writing that answers the kinds of questions we face
every day at home, in college, or on the job: "How do I remove these ugly stains?" or
"How does cancer spread?" or "How do I install this software?" Writing that answers
these types of questions analyzes the process in which we're interested, breaks it down
into steps, and shows how the process works.
The three basic forms of process writing include describing a process, explaining
a process, and giving instructions. This chapter distinguishes among these forms and
shows how to write each. In addition, the chapter includes models of how writers
have used the forms to accomplish their writing goals.
Study this chapter for tips that will help you choose a topic, break it into steps,
and explain it clearly in writing.
What's Ahead
• overview: Writing About I
a Process
- student Model i
I
1
11
1
- Professional Models
• Guidelines
! I
q- • Writing Checklist and Activities
I II
1 I
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I
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+ n n 1,
Analytical Writing
overview
Writing About a Process
Writer's Goal
Your goal is to analyze a process, break it into specific steps, and write about it
using one of the following forms: a description of a process, an explanation of the
process, or instructions on how to carry out the process.
Keys for Success
Think logically. ■ To write one of these forms, you must study the process
until you understand it, and then write clearly about it. In other words, you
must know-and show-how each step leads logically to the next, and how
all the steps together complete the process.
Know your purpose and your audience. ■ Decide what your writing should
do and choose the form that fits your purpose and audience:
• To inform a broad audience how something happens naturally, describe the
process in an essay that tells how the process unfolds: e.g., how cancer cells
multiply (pages 219-220) or how hair grows (pages 222-223).
• To help readers who want to know how something is done or made, explain
the process in an essay that tells how someone would complete each step:
e.g., how to deal with campus racism (pages 224-227).
• To help readers who wish to perform the process themselves, provide how-to
information in brief, clear instructions: e.g., how to download photos onto
your computer (page 221 ).
Note: While descriptions and explanations are usually formatted as essays,
instructions are formatted somewhat differently. Instructions include a
summary of the process, a list of materials and tools, and a numbered list of
steps organized chronologically and stated using clear, imperative verbs.
Consider all of your readers. ■ Regardless of the form that you choose, make
your writing accessible to all of your readers by addressing the reader who
knows the least about your topic. Include all the information that this person
needs to have, and use language that everyone can understand.
Topics to Consider
• A course-related process • A process in the news
• A process that keeps you healthy • A process that helps you get a job
• A process that you've mastered • A process in your planned occupation
Next Step Read the model essays and perform the activities that follow. As you 'J
read, observe how each writer approaches the task of explaining, describing,
or instructing.
PROCESS WRITING
Process: Description
Student writer Kerri Mertz wrote this essay to help nonscientists understand how
cancer cells multiply and affect the body.
rtl
Wayward Cells
The writer
uses the title Imagine a room containing a large group of people all working hard
and an toward the same goal. Each person knows his or her job, does it carefully,
analogy and cooperates with other group members. Together, they function effi-
to introduce ciently and smoothly-like a well-oiled machine.
the topic. Then something goes wrong. One guy suddenly drops his task, steps
into another person's workstation, grabs the material that she's working
with, and begins something very different-he uses the material to make lit-
tle reproductions of himself, thousands of them. These look-alikes imitate
him-grabbing material and making reproductions of themselves. Soon the
bunch gets so big that they spill into other people's workstations, getting in
their way, and interrupting their work. As the number oflook-alikes grows,
the work group's activity slows, stutters, and finally stops.
She uses - - - - - - A human body is like this room, and the body's cells are like these
D
simile workers. If the body is healthy, each cell has a necessary job and does it cor-
explain th reedy. For example, right now red blood cells are running throughout your
analog body carrying oxygen to each body part. Other cells are digesting that steak
sandwich that you had for lunch, and others are patching up that cut on I 11
your left hand. Each cell knows what to do because its genetic code-or I 11,I
DNA-tells it what to do. When a cell begins to function abnormally, it can \!
initiate a process that results in cancer. I
She describes - - - - - - The problem starts when one cell "forgets" what it should do. Scientists
the first step call this "undifferentiating"-meaning that the cell loses its identity within jl
in the the body (Pierce 75). Just like the guy in the group who decided to do his
process and own thing, the cell forgets its job. Why this happens is somewhat unclear.
cites a The problem could be caused by a defect in the cell's DNA code or by some-
potential thing in the environment, such as cigarette smoke or asbestos (German 21).
cause. Causes from inside the body are called genetic, whereas causes from outside
the body are called carcinogens, meaning "any substance that causes cancer"
(Neufeldt and Sparks 90). In either case, an undifferentiated cell can disrupt
the function of healthy cells in two ways: by not doing its job as specified in
She describ its DNA and by not reproducing at the rate noted in its DNA.
the next ste - - - _ - _ Most healthy cells reproduce rather quickly, but their reproduction rate
and its resu is controlled. For example, your blood cells completely die off and replace
~ themselves within a matter of weeks, but existing cells make only as many
new cells as the body needs. The DNA codes in healthy cells tell them how
')
many new cells to produce. However, cancer cells don't have this control, so
they reproduce quickly with no stopping point, a characteristic called
I I 11111
ii I I
·1 !I
Analytical Writing
"autonomy" (Braun 3). What's more, all their "offspring" have the same
qualities as their messed-up parent, and the resulting overpopulation pro-
duces growths called tumors.
Tumor cells can hurt the body in a number of ways. First, a tumor can 6
She grow so big that it takes up space needed by other organs. Second, some
describes the cells may detach from the original tumor and spread throughout the body,
third step- creating new tumors elsewhere. This happens with lymphatic cancer-a
how tumors cancer that's hard to control because it spreads so quickly. A third way that
damage tumor cells can hurt the body is by doing work not called for in their DNA.
the body.
For example, a gland cell's DNA code may tell the cell to produce a neces-
sary hormone in the endocrine system. However, if cancer damages or
distorts that code, sick cells may produce more of the hormone than the
body can use-or even tolerate (Braun 4). Cancer cells seem to have minds
of their own, and this is why cancer is such a serious disease.
A transition - - - - - - Fortunately, there is hope. Scientific research is already helping doctors
signals a do amazing things for people suffering with cancer. One treatment that has
shift in focus been used for some time is chemotherapy, or the use of chemicals to kill off
from the all fast-growing cells, including cancer cells. (Unfortunately, chemotherapy
illness to can't distinguish between healthy and unhealthy cells, so it may cause nega-
treatments. tive side effects such as damaging fast-growing hair follicles, resulting in hair
loss.) Another common treatment is radiation, or the use oflight rays to kill
cancer cells. One of the newest and most promising treatments is gene ther-
apy-an effort to identify and treat chromosomes that carry a "wrong code"
in their DNA. A treatment like gene therapy is promising because it treats
the cause of cancer, not just the effect. Year by year, research is helping doc-
tors better understand what cancer is and how to treat it.
The writer - - - - - - Much of life involves dealing with problems like wayward workers,
reuses the broken machines, or dysfunctional organizations. Dealing with wayward
analogy cells is just another problem. While the problem is painful and deadly, there
to review is hope. Medical specialists and other scientists are making progress, and
main points. some day they will help us win our battle against wayward cells. ■
Note: The Works Cited page is not shown. For sample pages, see MLA
(pages 534-535) and APA (page 564 ).
II Reading for Better Writing

1. Review the opening four-paragraph analogy used to introduce and,
describe the process. Explain why the analogy is or is not effective.
2. Review the three steps cited by the writer, and note the transitions used
to lead into and out of each step. Are the transitions effective?
3. Review the guidelines on page 228 to identify and list traits of a
description of a process. Explain why this essay does or does not exemplify
these traits.
PROCESS W RITING
Process: Instructions
These instructions, like those for many technical devices, include both written
and visual elements.
Opening
Use a Downloading Photographs
descriptive from the MC-150 Digital Camera
title. Note or
list materials
needed. Note: MC-150 software must be loaded on your computer to download
photographs from the camera.
Middle
1. Turn your computer on.
Give steps
and photos in 2. Plug the camera's
chronological USB cable into your
order.
computer.
Add graphics 3. Turn the camera's mode
(such as dial to the data transfer
the arrow)
setting (Figure 1).
to create
a quick 4. Open the camera's flash-
visual cue.
card door and plug the
Boldface other end of the USB
words that cable into the camera
need special port (Figure 2).
attention.
5. Select USB transfer from
To show an the camera screen menu.
object's size, The MC-150 software
use a
will then launch on
reference
(such as
your computer.
the fingers). 6. Follow the instructions
on the computer
Use only
well-focused screen to download
Figure 2: Camera Port
photographs. all of your photos
or specific photos.
Closing
I
7. When your download is complete, turn the camera off and unplug I'
Note the USB cable from the camera and the computer.
common
problems Note: If MC-150 software doesn't launch, disconnect the camera (step 7),
that are and then restart the computer and continue on from step 2. ■
easily solved.
Analytical Writing
Process: Description
Verne Meyer, an educator and a contributing editor to The College Writer, wrote
this description of a process to help nonscientists understand how hair grows. The'
analog
thos~
illus
Hair Today, Gone Tomorrow
The writer !- - - - - - Imagine a field of grass covered with two layers of soil: first a layer of
uses an clay, and on top of that a layer of rich, black dirt. Then imagine that 100,000
analogy to little holes have been poked through the black dirt and into the clay, and at
introduce the the bottom of each hole lies one grass seed.
process and Slowly each seed produces a stem that grows up through the clay, out
distinguish
of the dirt, and up toward the sky. Now and then every stem stops for a
its steps.
while, rests, and then starts growing again. At any time about 90 percent of He',
the stems are growing and the others are resting. Because the field gets with1·1
shaggy, sometimes a gardener comes along and cuts the grass. SU·''
He explai - - - - - - Your skull is like that field of grass, and your scalp ( common skin) is and
the analog like the two layers of soil. The top layer of the scalp is the epidermis, and the
~
bottom layer is the dermis. About 100,000 tiny holes (called follicles) extend
through the epidermis into the dermis.
Shaft of hair~
+-,
An illustratio
fil
shows parts
of a hair
stem. Dermis
PROCESS WRITING
At the base of each follicle lies a seed-like thing called a papilla. At the
The writer
bottom of the papilla, a small blood vessel drops like a root into the dermis.
explains
steps This vessel carries food through the dermis into the papilla, which works
analogous to like a little factory using the food to build hair cells. As the papilla makes
those in the cells, a hair strand grows up through the dermis past an oil gland. Tl11c .oil
illustration. gland greases the strand with a coating that keeps the hair soft and;d,'iciist:. ;;
When the strand reaches the top of the dermis, it continues up W~~ugr1,1 s
the epidermis into the open air above. Now and then the papilla s'.\:ci,pS''
making new cells, rests awhile, and then goes back to work again. '
6
Most of the hairs on your scalp grow about one-half inch each month.
If a strand stays healthy, doesn't break off, and no barber snips it, the hair
will grow about 25 inches in four years. At that point hair strands turn
brittle and fall out. Every day between 25 and 250 hairs fall out of your
follicles, but nearly every follicle grows a new one.
He closes Around the clock, day after day, this process goes on ... unless your
with a brief papillas decide to retire. In that case you reach the stage in your life-let's
summary call it "maturity" -that others call "baldness." ■
and humor.

1. The writer uses an analogy to describe the process of how hair grows.
List elements of the analogy, along with corresponding elements
of the process. Then explain why the analogy is or is not effective.
2. The writer uses an illustration to show parts of a hair stem. Study
the illustration and explain why it does or does not help clarify
the message.
3. Review the introduction to the essay, noting the author's purpose for
writing. Then describe his voice and explain why it does or does not
help achieve his purpose.
Analytical Writing
Process: Explanation
Nikki Giovanni is an acclaimed poet and essayist; you can learn more about her
work by visiting her webpage at <http:/ /nikki-giovanni.com/index.shtml>. In this
piece, first published in Essence in 1991, Giovanni advises African American students
on how to succeed in colleges where the majority of students are white.
Campus Racism 101

The title There is a bumper sticker that reads: TOO BAD IGNORANCE ISN'T
reminds us of PAINFUL. I like that. But ignorance is. We just seldom attribute the pain to
the names of it or even recognize it when we see it. Like the postcard on my corkboard.
college It shows a young man in a very hip jacket
courses. pa
smoking a cigarette. In the background is a
addre,
high school with the American flag waving. Where can you
The caption says: "Too cool for school. Yet
too stupid for the real world." Out of the
go and what writ~
mouth of the young man is a bubble enclos- can you do

ing the words "Maybe I'll start a band." that frees
There could be a postcard showing a jock in
a uniform saying, "I don't need school. I'm you from
going to the NFL or NBA." Or one showing interacting
a young man or woman studying and a
group of young people saying, "So you want
with the white
to be white." Or something equally demean- American
ing. We need to quit it. mentality?
I am a professor of English at Virginia
Tech. I've been here for four years, though
for only two years with academic rank. I am tenured, which means I have a
teaching position for life, a rarity on a predominantly white campus.
Whether from malice or ignorance, people who think I should be at a pre-
The writer dominantly Black institution will ask, "Why are you at Tech?" Because it's
raises
here. And so are Black students. But even if Black students weren't here, it's
a question
painfully obvious that this nation and this world cannot allow white stu-
and then
dents to go through higher education without interacting with Blacks in
provides
a list of
authoritative positions. It is equally clear that predominantly Black colleges ar
answers. cannot accommodate the numbers of Black students who want and need an and Cl
education.
Is it difficult to attend a predominantly white college? Compared with
The series of what? Being passed over for promotion because you lack credentials? Being
questions turned down for jobs because you are not college-educated? Joining the
contributes
armed forces or going to jail because you cannot find an alternative to the
to a
streets? Let's have a little perspective here. Where can you go and what can
conversational
you do that frees you from interacting with the white American mentality?
tone.
You're going to interact; the only question is, will you be in some control of
PROCESS WRITING
yourself and your actions, or will you be controlled by others? I'm going to
Repeated use
recommend self-control.
of you also What's the difference between prison and college? They both prescribe
adds to the your behavior for a given period of time. They both allow you to read books
conversational and develop your writing. They both give you time alone to think and time
feel. with your peers to talk about issues. But four years of prison doesn't give
you a passport to greater opportunities. Most likely that time only gives you
greater knowledge of how to get back in. Four years of college gives you an
opportunity not only to lift yourself but to serve your people effectively.
What's the difference when you are called nigger in college from when you
are called nigger in prison? In college you can, though I admit with effort,
After a
follow procedures to have those students who called you nigger kicked out
paragraph
or suspended. You can bring issues to public attention without risking your
addressed to
- - - life. But mostly, college is and always has been the future. We, neither less
you, the
writer shifts
nor more than other people, need knowledge. There are discomforts
to we. attached to attending predominantly white colleges, though no more so
than living in a racist world. Here are some rules to follow that may help:
Go to class. No matter how you feel. No matter how you think the pro-
fessor feels about you. It's important to have a consistent presence in the
Each rule classroom. If nothing else, the professor will know you care enough and are
is discussed serious enough to be there.
in a new Meet your professors. Extend your hand (give a firm handshake) and tell 6
paragraph them your name. Ask them what you need to do to make an A. You may
and is never make an A, but you have put them on notice that you are serious
marked about getting good grades.
with italics.
Do assignments on time. Typed or computer-generated. You have the
syllabus. Follow it, and turn those papers in. If for some reason you can't
complete an assignment on time, let your professor know before it is due
and work out a new due date-then meet it.
Go back to see your professor. Tell him or her your name again. If an
assignment received less than an A, ask why, and find out what you need to
do to improve the next assignment.
Yes, your professor is busy. So are you. So are your parents who are
The writer
anticipates working to pay or help with your tuition. Ask early what you need to do if
arguments you feel you are starting to get into academic trouble. Do not wait until you
and counters are failing.
them. Understand that there will be professors who do not like you; there may 10
even be professors who are racist or sexist or both. You must discriminate
among your professors to see who will give you the help you need. You may
not simply say, "They are all against me." They aren't. They mostly don't
care. Since you are the one who wants to be educated, find the people who
want to help.
Analytical Writing
Don't defeat yourself. Cultivate your friends. Know your enemies. You 11
Imperative cannot undo hundreds of years of prejudicial

statements thinking. Think for yourself and speak up.
begin with Raise your hand in class. Say what you Cultivate
verbs, while
supporting
believe no matter how awkward you may your friends.
think it sounds. You will improve in your
explanations articulation and confidence. Know your
begin
Participate in some campus activity. Join I enemies. 12
with you.
the newspaper staff. Run for office. Join a
dorm council. Do something that involves
you on campus. You are going to be there for four years, so let your pres-
ence be known, if not felt.
You will inevitably run into some white classmates who are troubling 13
The question- because they often say stupid things, ask stupid questions-and expect an
and-answer answer. Here are some comebacks to some of the most common inquiries
format deals and comments:
efficiently Q: What's it like to grow up in a ghetto? 14
with a large A: I don't know. 15
number of Q (from the teacher): Can you give us the Black perspective on Toni 16
problem Morrison, Huck Finn, slavery, Martin Luther King, Jr., and others?
situations. A: I can give you my perspective. (Do not take the burden of 22 mil- 17
lion people on your shoulders. Remind everyone that you are an individual,
and don't speak for the race or any other individual within it.)
Question- Q: Why do all the Black people sit together in the dining hall? 18
answer sets A: Why do all the white students sit together? 19
are grouped Q: Why should there be an African-American studies course? 20

in one A: Because white Americans have not adequately studied the contribu- 21
cluster; tions of Africans and African-Americans. Both Black and white students
comment-
need to know our total common history.
comeback
Q: Why are there so many scholarships for "minority" students? 22
sets in
A: Because they wouldn't give my great-grandparents their forty acres 23
another.
and the mule.
Q: How can whites understand Black history, culture, literature, and 24
so forth?
A: The same way we understand white history, culture, literature, and 25
so forth. That is why we're in school: to learn.

Q: Should whites take African-American studies courses? 26
A: Of course. We take white-studies courses, though the universities 27
The don't call them that.
comebacks Comment: When I see groups of Black people on campus, it's really 28
flip the intimidating.
intent of
Comeback: I understand what you mean. I'm frightened when I see 29
language
white students congregating.
from the
orlglnal
comments.
PROCESS WRITING
30
Comment: It's not fair. It's easier for you guys to get into college than
for other people.
1
Comeback: If it's so easy, why aren't there more of us? 3
32
Comment: It's not our fault that America is the way it is.
33
Comeback: It's not our fault, either, but both of us have a responsibil-
ity to make changes.
34
It's really very simple. Educational progress is a national concern; edu-
cation is a private one. Your job is not to educate white people; it is to obtain
an education. If you take the racial world on your shoulders, you will not
get the job done. Deal with yourself as an individual worthy of respect, and
make everyone else deal with you the same way. College is a little like play-
ing grown-up. Practice what you want to be. You have been telling your
The final li~
e
uses the
parents you are grown. Now is your chance to act like it. ■
positive word
chance.

1. Summarize Giovanni's key points. What details suggest that this essay
was highly relevant when it was first published in 1991? Why might
textbook and anthology editors continue to republish this essay several
years later?
2. Essence magazine (in which this essay was first published) has been
described by its editors as the "preeminent lifestyle magazine for today's
African American woman." How does the Essence audience differ from
the target audience for texts such as The College Writer? In what ways
does Giovanni's essay speak to multiple audiences? In what ways might
the piece have relevance for you and your campus?
3. Comment on Giovanni's title: Why might she have chosen it? How
effective is it, and why?
4. Describe the tone of the essay. How does the writer achieve this tone,
and what is the effect for you as a reader? Imagine the piece with a tone
that contrasts starkly with the existing feel. How might this change the
effect of the piece, and when/where might such a tone be appropriate?
5. The writer gives direct instructions to readers through the final two-
thirds of the essay. Why isn't the last line an imperative or command?
Analytical Writing
Guidelines
Writing About a Process
1. Select a topic. Choose a topic from the list that you generated under
"Topics to Consider" on page 218. If you're stuck, review your notes and
textbooks to generate more course-related topics.
1/
2. Review the process. Use your knowledge of Process Analysls
the topic to fill out an organizer like the one on Subject:
1l1
the right. List the subject at the top, each of the • Step #1
steps in chronological order, and the outcome at • Step #2
the bottom. Review the organizer to find issues • Step #3
Outcome:
you need to research.
3. Research as needed. Find information that spells out the process: what it
is, what steps are required, what order the steps should follow, how to do the
steps, what outcome the process should produce, and what safety precautions
are needed. If possible, observe the process in action or perform it yourself.
Carefully record correct names, materials, tools, and safety or legal issues.
4. Organize information. After conducting your research, revise the organizer
by adding or reordering steps as needed. Then develop an outline, including
steps listed in the organizer, as well as supporting details from your research.
5. Draft the document. Write the document using the guidelines below.
-- - r - - -
Describing
a Process
·I Explaining
a Process
r Writing
Instructions
I
Opening: Introduce the Opening: Introduce the Opening: Name the
topic, stating its import- topic and give an process in the title;
ance and giving an overview of the process. summarize the process
overview of the steps. Middle: Explain what and list any materials
Middle: Describe each each step involves and and tools needed.
1
step clearly (usually in how to do it (typically Middle: Present each
separate paragraphs), using a separate step in a separate-
and link steps with paragraph for each). usually one- or
transitions like first, Use transitions such as two-sentence-
second, next, finally, first, second, and next to paragraph. Number the
and while. Describe link the steps. Explain steps and state each
the outcome and its the outcome. clearly, using commands
importance. Closing: Explain follow- directed to the reader.
Closing: Describe the up activity and restate Closing: In a short IN:
process as a whole and I w
key points. paragraph, explain any
restate key points. ! follow-up action. cd
PROCESS WRITING
6. Revise the writing. Check for the following and revise as needed:
• A clear opening that identifies the process
• Steps that are stated clearly and in the correct order
For explanations and instructions:
• Clear details explaining how to perform each step
• A closing that includes necessary follow-up activity
For instructions:
• Clear and correct safety cautions in boldface type
7. Test the writing. Read the writing for organization and completeness. For
explanations and instructions, perform the process yourself using the writing
as a guide. For each step, do only what you're told to do and how you're told
to do it. Note where the writing is incomplete, out of order, and/or lacking
adequate safety precautions. Revise as needed.
8. Get feedback. Ask a classmate who is unfamiliar with the process to read
the writing for clarity, completeness, and correctness. For instructions, have
the person use the writing as a guide to perform the process, noting where
details are incomplete or unclear, and noting where word choice is either
imprecise or too technical. Use the feedback to guide further revision.
9. Edit the writing by looking for the following:

• Word choice appropriate for your least-informed reader
• Clear transitions between steps
• Consistent verb tense in all steps
• For instructions-verbs that give clear commands
• Correct, consistent terminology
• Informed, respectful voice
• Proper format (particularly for instructions-adequate white space)
10. Publish the essay. Share your writing with others:

• Offer it to instructors or students working with the process.
• Offer explanations and instructions to people on campus or at non-
profit agencies who can use the writing to do their work.
• Post the writing on a suitable website. I
11
INSIGHT: The mood of a verb (see 629.2) indicates the tone or attitude with
which a statement is made. For instructions, writers use the imperative mood (or
command form) to communicate a firm, direct, and informed tone.
Analytical Writing
Writing Checklist
Use these six traits to check your essay, then revise as needed:
The ideas describe or explain the process clearly and completely.
The organization sequence helps clarify the process. In explanations
and instructions, the organization is chronological and helps the
reader work through the process.
The voice matches the writer's purpose. Cautions regarding safety
or legal issues sound serious but are not alarming.
The words are precise, and technical terms are defined.
The sentences are smooth, varied in structure, and engaging.
In instructions, sentences are shaped as clear, brief, no-nonsense q
commands.
The material is correct and formatted properly as an essay or set
of instructions.
1. Review the topics that you listed under "Topics to Consider" on
page 218. Choose a topic and write about it, letting the writing
take any one of these forms: description, explanation, or instructions.
2. Review the "Wayward Cells" and "Hair Today, Gone Tomorrow"
models. List similar scientific or technical processes that interest
you. Choose one and write about it as a description.
3. Review the process instructions titled "Downloading Photographs
from the MC-150 Digital Camera," considering how the written
and visual elements on the page work together. Draft or revise a
piece in which visual elements are essential to effectively communicate
your ideas. Integrate relevant, high-quality visuals (photos,
illustrations, diagrams) that will help readers to better understand
your ideas.
4. Review Nikki Giovanni's essay, "Campus Racism 101;' watching for
places where she uses the understood "you" and begins directive
statements with verbs. Draft or edit a set of instructions, starting each .)~Ir
new directive with a verb and separating each step into a new
paragraph, bullet, or numbered line.
5. Using Giovanni's "Campus Racism 101" as a model, write a process
essay based on your own experience in which you give advice about
how to succeed in a difficult situation.

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Critical Thinking Through Reading

Use a reading strategy: SQ3R.

Take thoughtful notes.

e Although effective note taking is crucial for typical reading assignments

Annotate the text.

What'@ the connection?

INSIGHT: Underlining or highlighting key words or phrases can be helpful, but

Map the text.

outline the text.

Evaluate the text.

Follow these guidelines for response writing.

use these guidelines for summary writing.

INSIGHT: Writing formal summaries-whether as part of literature reviews or as

Critical Thinking Through Viewing

consider these guidelines for viewing images.

Understand the elements of interpretation.

Understand the complications in interpretation.

INSIGHT: Like words, visuals can be cliches=-trite, misleading, or worn-out

Consider the purpose.

Evaluate the quality.

Does the publication or institution have good credentials? enc

Critical Thinking Through Writing

Develop sound critical-thinking habits.

Ask probing questions.

Practice inductive and deductive logic.

Sentences, paragraphs, and entire essays can be organized either inductively or

The American excuse for owning multiples is that clothing styles

When you are asked to be ready to

Understand show what you have learned

Evaluate determine the worth of information

Think by using analysis.

The Oklahoma City bombing was grievous and alarming, but

Think by using synthesis.

Think by using evaluation.

Think by using application.

,_ - - - - - - Parents face a series of unique new challenges in this more egalitarian

Critical Thinking Checklist

Submitting Another Writer's Paper

Failing to Cite a Source

Neglecting Necessary Quotation Marks

Confusing Borrowed Material with Your Own Ideas

Why is plagiarism serious?

How do I avoid plagiarism?

Avoiding Other source Abuses

Using Sources Inaccurately

Using Source Material Out of Context

Overusing Source Material

Using "Blanket" Citations

>r Failing to Match In-Text Citations to Bibliographic Entries

Related Academic Offenses

Develop your ideas.

Develop a structure for delivering

For more help developing a structure, see pages 44-4 7.

g Developing Your First Draft

Choose a drafting method.

Shape your first draft.

r • Your instructor may want your thesis in a specific location (perhaps

using source Material in Your Writing