The Marine Sextant (see also pg 30 Orals Handbook)

Principle
When a ray of light is reflected twice in the same plane by 2 plane mirrors, the angle between the
first and last direction of the ray is twice the angle between the mirrors.

Adjustable Errors
1) Perpendicularity : The index mirror must be perpendicular to the plane of the
instrument. Set the Index Arm near the middle of the arc. Hold the sextant horizontally
with the arc away from you. View the true and reflecte images of the arc in the Index
Mirror. The arc should appear as one continuous line.Correct by adjusting screw on Index
Mirror.
2) Side Error : The Horizon Glass must be perpendicular to the plane of the instrument. Set
Index Arm at zero. Hold the sextant horizontally abd view the horizon. The true and
reflected images should form a continuous line. Adjust using screw on horizon glass.
3) Index Error : The horizon glass and index morror must be parallel when sextant reads
zero. Set Index arm to zero. Hold the sextant vertical and view horizon. True and
reflected images should form a continuous line. Correct using screw on horizon glass.
Error is named “on” or “off” the arc. If sextant reads less than zero it is off the arc. i.e if it
reads 28.6’, error is 60’ – 28.6’ = 31.4’ off the arc.

When Index Error is corrected, it may introduce Side Error again. If the error is small, it is
normal to apply the error rather than to continue trying to correct it.

Errors Which Cannot be Corrected by Obserever

Centring Error: The pivot of the Index Glass is not at the centre of curvature of the arc
Worm and Rack Error: Free movement between the worm of the micrometer and the rack of
the arc.
Optical Errors: Prismatic errors of the glasses, shades, mirrors and lenses
Graduation Error: Incorrectly cut graduations on the arc
Collimation Error: The axis of the telescope is not parallel to plane of instrument.
Description and Use
The marine sextant measures the angle between 2 points by bringing the direct ray from one
point and a double reflected ray from the other into coincidence. Its principle use is to measure
the altitude of celestial bodies above the visible sea horizon. It may also be used to measure
vertical angles to find the range from an object of known height. Sometimes it is turned on its
side and used for measuring the angular distance between two terrestrial objects.
A marine sextant can measure angles up to approximately 120o

Optical Principles of a Sextant

Fig 1

When a plane surface reflects a light ray, the angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence.
The angle between the first and final directions of a ray of light that has undergone double
reflection in the same plane is twice the angle the two reflecting surfaces make with each other.
In Fig 1, AB is a ray of light from a celestial body. The index mirror of the sextant is at B, the
horizon glass at C and the eye of the observer at D. Construction lines EF and CF are
perpendicular to the index mirror and horizon glass respectively. Lines BG and CG are parallel
to these mirrors.
Therefore angles BFC and BGC are equal because their sides are mutually perpendicular. Angle
BGC is the inclination of the 2 reflecting surfaces. The ray of light AB is reflected at mirror B
proceeds to mirror C, where it is again reflected, then continues to the eye of the observer at D.
Since the angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence:

ABE = EBC, and ABC = 2EBC

BCF = FCD, and BCD = 2BCF
Since an exterior angle of a triangle equals the sum of the 2 non adjacent interior angles,
ABC = BDC + BCD, and EBC = BFC + BCF
Transposing,
BDC = ABC – BCD, and BFC = EBC – BCF
Substituting 2EBC for ABC and 2BCF for BCD in the first of these equations,,

BDC = 2EBC – 2BCF, or BDC = 2(EBC – BCF)

Since BFC = EBC – BCF, and BFC = BGC therefore

BDC = 2BFC = 2BGC

BDC, the angle between the first and last directions of the ray of light, is equal to 2BGC, twice
the angle of inclination of the reflecting surfaces. Angle BDC is the altitude of the celestial body.
If the 2 mirrors are parallel, the incident ray from any observed body must be parallel to the
observers’ line of sight through the horizon glass. In that case the body’s altitude would be zero.
The angle that these two reflecting surfaces make with each other is half the observed angle. The
graduations on the arc reflect this half angle relationship between the angle observed and the
mirrors angle.

Micrometer Drum Sextant

 FIG 2

Fig 2 shows a modern marine sextant, called a micrometer drum sextant. In most marine
sextants, brass or aluminium comprise the frame A. Frames come in various designs, most are
similar to this. Teeth mark the outer edge of the limb B. Each tooth marks 1 degree of altitude.
The altitude graduations C along the limb mark the arc. Some sextants have an arc marked in a
strip of brass, silver or platinum inlaid in the limb.
The index arm D, is a moveable arm of the same material as the frame. It pivots about the centre
of curvature of the limb. The tangent screw E, is mounted is mounted perpendicularly on the
end of the index arm, where it engages the teeth of the limb. Because the observer can move the
index arm through the length of the arc by rotating the tangent screw, this is sometimes called an
endless tangent screw. The release F is a spring actuated clamp that keeps the tangent screw
engaged with the limbs teeth. The observer can disengage the tangent screw and move the index
arm along the limb for rough adjustment. The end of the tangent screw mounts a micrometer
drum G graduated in minutes of altitude. One complete turn of the drum moves the index arm 1
degree of altitude along the arc.
Next to the micrometer drum and fixed on the index arm is a vernier H that reads in fractions of
a minute. The vernier is graduated into 10 parts, permitting readings to 0.1 of a minute of arc.
The index mirror I is a piece of silvered plate glass mounted on the index arm, perpendicular to
the plane of the instrument, with the centre of the reflecting surface directly over the pivot of the
index arm. The horizon glass J is a piece of optical glass silvered on its half nearer the frame. It
is mounted on the frame, perpendicular to the plane of the sextant. The index mirror and horizon
glass are mounted so that their surfaces are parallel when the micrometer drum is set at zero.
Shade glasses K of varying darkness are mounted on the sextants frame in front of the index
mirror and horizon glass.
The telescope L screws into an adjustable collar in line with the horizon glass and parallel with
the plane of the sextant. Most modern sextants are supplied with only the 1 telescope.
Sextants are designed to be held in the right hand. Some have a small light on the index arm to
assist in reading altitudes.

Sextant Sun Sights

Hold the sextant vertically and direct the sight line at the horizon directly below the sun. After
moving suitable shade glasses into the line of sight, move the index arm outward along the arc
until the reflected image appears on the horizon glass near the direct view of the horizon. Rock
the sextant from left to right to ensure it is perpendicular. As the observer rocks the sextant, the
image of the sun appears to move in an arc and the observer may have to turn slightly to prevent
the image moving off the horizon glass.
The sextant is perpendicular when the sun appears at the bottom of the arc. This is the correct
position for making the observation.
The suns reflected image appears at the centre of the horizon glass. One half appears on the
silvered part, the other half appears on the clear part. Move the index arm with the drum or
vernier slowly until the sun appears to be resting exactly on the horizon, tangent to the lower
limb. The novice observer needs practise to determine the exact point of tangency. Beginners
often err by bringing the image down too far.
Some navigators get their most accurate observations by letting the body contact the horizon by
its own motion.
At the instant the horizon is tangent to the disk, the navigator notes the time. The sextant altitude
is the uncorrected reading of the sextant.
Sextant Moon Sights

Follow the same procedure as for the sun. Because of the phases of the moon, the upper limb is
observed more often than the lower limb. When the terminator (the line between the dark and
light areas) is near vertical, be careful in selecting the limb to shoot.
Sights of the moon are best made during daylight hours or that part of twilight in which the moon
is least luminous. At night, false horizons may appear below the moon because the moon
illuminates the water below it.

Sextant Star and Planet Sights

Use one of these three methods when making the initial altitude approximation of a star or
planet.
Method 1: Set the index arm and micrometer drum on 0o and direct the line of sight at the body
to be observed. Then, while keeping the reflected image in the mirrored part of the horizon glass,
swing the index arm out and rotate the frame of the sextant down. Keep the reflected image in
the mirror until the horizon appears in the clear part of the horizon glass. Then make the
observation.

Method 2: Direct the line of sight at the body while holding the sextant upside down. Slowly
move the index arm out until the horizon appears in the horizon glass. Then invert the sextant
and take the sight in the usual manner.

Method 3: Determine in advance the approximate altitude and azimuth of the body by a star
finder such as No.2102D. Set the sextant at the indicated altitude and face in the direction of the
azimuth. The image of the body should appear in the horizon glass without much searching.

When measuring the altitude of a star or planet, bring its centre down to the horizon. Stars and
planets have no discernible upper or lower limb; observe the centre of the point of light. As with
the sun and moon, rock the sextant to establish perpendicularity.
Taking a Sight

Predict expected altitudes and azimuths for up to 8 bodies when preparing to take celestial sights.
Choose the stars and planets that give the best bearing spread. Try to select bodies with a
predicted altitude between 30o and 70o. Take sights of the brightest stars first in the evening and
last in the morning.
Occasionally fog or haze may obscure the horizon directly below the body. If the arc of the
sextant is sufficiently long, a back sight may be obtained, using the opposite point of the horizon
as a reference. For this, the observer faces away from the body and observes the supplement of
the altitude. If the sun or the moon is observed in this manner, what appears as the lower limb in
the horizon glass is in fact the upper limb and vica versa.

Developing Observational Skill

The first fix a student plots is likely to be disappointing. Common sources of error are:
 The sextant may not be rocked properly
 Tangency may not be judged accurately
 A false horizon may be used
 Subnormal refraction (dip) may be present
 The height of eye may be wrong
 Time may be in error
 The index correction may have been determined incorrectly
 The sextant might be out of adjustment
 An error may have been made in the computation.
Care of the Sextant
Do not hold the sextant by the limb, index arm, index bar, arc or telescope. Lift it by the frame or
the handle.
Next to careless handling, moisture is the sextants greatest enemy. Wipe the mirrors and the arc
after each use. If the mirrors get dirty, wipe them with lens paper and a small amount of alcohol.
Clean the arc with ammonia. Never use a polishing compound.
Silica gel kept in the case will keep the sextant free from moisture and protect the mirrors.
Rinse the sextant with fresh water if salt water gets on it.
Frequently oil and clean the tangent screw and the teeth on the side of the limb. Occasionally, set
the index arm of an endless tangent screw at one extremity of the limb, oil it lightly and rotate it
along the length of the arc

Calculation of Angular Extension Between 2 Points (HSA + VSA)

In order to determine the angular extension between 2 points on land i.e. the summits of 2
mountains or 2 Navigational Aids, hold the sextant horizontally and swing the Index Arm so that
you bring the non- reflected image of one point in line with the reflected image of the other
point.
By taking several readings of angular extension to various landmarks, it is possible with the use
of a chart and protractor to calculate the distance

It must be understood that results from smaller distances and greater angles will be less exact.
The reason being the reflected line of vision intersects with the non- reflected line of vision at
different points depending on the position of the Index Arm, because it reaches the eye not
directly but through the 2 mirrors. The resulting displacement is called a PARALLAX.
When one is working with smaller angles and very distant objects such as stars, the differences
are minimal to non- existent.