1.

Introduction to Data Communications 11/3/20

Communication Systems

Prof. Hesham Tolba

Alexandria University
Faculty of Engineering
Electrical Engineering Department
Alexandria
2020

Prof. Hesham Tolba Communication Systems 1

Introduction to
Data Communications

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Communication Systems
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Contents
Data Communications Categories of Networks
Interconnection of Networks
Sources of Information
Networks The Internet
Network Topology Protocols & Standards

Contents
q Data communications

q Networks

q Network topology

q Categories of Networks

q Interconnection of Networks

q The internet

q Protocols & standards

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Data Communications
The term telecommunication means communication at a
distance. The word data refers to information
presented in whatever form is agreed upon by the
parties creating and using the data. Data
communications are the exchange of data between two
devices via some form of transmission medium such as
a wire cable.
q Components
q Data Representation (texts, numbers,
images, audio & video)
q Data Flow

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Data Communications …
q Communication (sharing information) be local or remote.

q Local communication usually occurs face to face, while remote

communication takes place over distance.
q The term telecommunication (telephony, telegraphy, and television)
means communication at a distance (tele is Greek for far).
q Data refers to facts, concepts, and instructions presented in
whatever form is agreed upon by the parties creating and using the
data.
q In the context of computer information systems, data are represented
by binary information units (bits) produced and consumed in the form
of 0s and 1s.
q Data communication is the exchange of data between two devices via
some form of transmission medium (such as a wire cable).

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Data Communications …
q For data com. to occur, communicating devices must be part of a
communication system made up of a combination of hardware &
software.

q The effectiveness of a data communication system depends on:

1. Delivery:
q correct destination.
q Data must be received only by the intended device/user.

2. Accuracy:
q Accurate delivery of data.
q Altered transmitted data that left uncorrected are
unusable.
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Data Communications …
3. Timeliness:
q Data must be delivered in a timely manner.
q Data delivered late are useless.
q For Video, audio & voice data, timely delivery means
delivering data as they are produced, in the same order &
without significant delay.
q This kind of delivery is called real-time transmission.

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Data Communication Components

1. The message
q Information (data) to be communicated.
q Text, numbers, pictures, sound, or video—or any
combination of these.

2. The sender
q The device that sends the data message.
q Computer, workstation, telephone handset, video camera,
and so on.
3. The receiver
q The device that receives the message.
q Computer, workstation, telephone handset, video camera, …

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Data Communication Components …

4. The transmission Medium
q The physical path by which a message travels from sender
to receiver.
q Twisted pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable,
laser, or radio waves (terrestrial or satellite
microwave).

5. A Protocol
q A set of rules that govern data communication.
q An agreement between the communicating devices.
q Without a protocol, two devices may be connected but not
communicating

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Data Communication Components …

Five components of data communication

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Data Representation
q Information today comes in different forms such as text,
numbers, images, audio, and video.

q Text
q In data communications, text is represented as a bit
pattern (code consisting of a sequence of 0s & 1s).
q Today, the prevalent coding system is called Unicode,
which uses 32 bits to represent a symbol or character used
in any language in the world.
q The ASCII constitutes the first 127 characters in Unicode
and is also referred to as Basic Latin.

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Data Representation …
q Numbers
q Numbers are also represented by bit patterns.
q A code such as ASCII is not used to represent numbers; the
number is directly converted to a binary number to
simplify mathematical operations.

q Images
q Images are also represented by bit patterns.
q In its simplest form, an image is composed of a matrix of
pixels.
q Each pixel is assigned a bit pattern.

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Data Representation …
q Images …
q The size and the value of the pattern depend on the image.
q For an image made of only black-and-white dots (e.g., a
chessboard), 1-bit pattern is enough to represent a
pixel.
q If an image is not made of pure white and pure black
pixels, you can increase the size of the bit pattern to
include gray scale.
q Example: for 4 levels of gray scale, 2-bit
patterns/pixel are used (black: 00, dark gray: 01,
light gray: 10 & white: 11).

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Data Representation …
q Images …
q There are several methods to represent color images.
q RGB: (red, green & blue).
q Intensity of each color is measured & a bit pattern
is assigned to it.
q YCM: (a color is made of a combination of yellow, cyan
& magenta).

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Data Representation …
q Audio
q Audio refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound or
music.
q Audio is by nature different from text, numbers, or
images.
q It is continuous, not discrete.
q Even when we use a microphone to change voice or music to
an electric signal, we create a continuous signal.
q We can change sound or music to a digital or an analog
signal.

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Data Representation …
q Video
q Video refers to the recording or broadcasting of a picture
or movie.
q Video can either be produced as a continuous entity (e.g.,
by a TV camera), or it can be a combination of images,
each a discrete entity, arranged to convey the idea of
motion.
q Again we can change video to a digital or an analog
signal.

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Data Flow
q Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex,
or full-duplex as shown.

Data flow (simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex)

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Data Flow …
q Simplex
q In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional.
q Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit; the other
can only receive.
q Keyboards and traditional monitors are examples of simplex
devices.
q The keyboard can only introduce input; the monitor can only
accept output.
q The simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the channel
to send data in one direction.

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Data Flow …
q Half-Duplex
q In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and
receive, but not at the same time.
q When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and
vice versa.
q In a half-duplex transmission, the entire capacity of a
channel is taken over by whichever of the two devices is
transmitting at the time.
q Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band) radios are both half-
duplex systems.

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Data Flow …
q Half-Duplex …
q The half-duplex mode is used when
q there is no need for communication in both directions at
the same time;
q the entire capacity of the channel can be utilized for
each direction.

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Data Flow …
q Full-Duplex
q In full-duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive
simultaneously.
q In full-duplex mode, signals going in one direction share the
capacity of the link with signals going in the other
direction.
q This sharing can occur in two ways: Either the link must
contain two physically separate transmission paths, one for
sending and the other for receiving; or the capacity of the
channel is divided between signals traveling in both
directions.

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Data Flow …
q Full-Duplex …
q One common example of full-duplex communication is the
telephone network.
q The full-duplex mode is used when communication in both
directions is required all the time.
q The capacity of the channel must be divided between the two
directions.

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Networks
A network is a set of devices (often referred to as
nodes) connected by communication links. A node can be
a computer, printer, or any other device capable of
sending and/or receiving data generated by other nodes
on the network.
q Distributed Processing
q Network Criteria
q Physical Structures
q Network Models
q Categories of Networks
q Interconnection of Networks: Internetwork

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Distributed Processing
q Networks use distributed processing, in which a task is divided
among multiple computers.
q Instead of a single large machine being responsible for all
aspects of a process, each separate computer handles a subset.

q Advantages of Distributed Processing

q Security/encapsulation.
q Limiting the kinds of interactions that a given user can
have with the entire system.
q Example: a bank can allow users access their own accounts
through ATM without allowing them access to the bank’s
entire database.
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Distributed Processing …
q Distributed databases.
q No one system needs to provide storage capacity for the
entire database.
q Example: the World Wide Web gives users access to
information that may be actually stored and manipulated
anywhere on the Internet.
q Faster problem solving.
q Multiple computers working on parts of a problem
concurrently can solve the problem faster than a single
machine.
q Example: networks of PCs have broken encryption codes that
were presumed to be unbreakable because of the amount of
time it would take a single computer to crack them.
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Distributed Processing …
q Security through redundancy.
q Multiple computers running the same program at the same
time can provide security through redundancy.
q Example: in the space shuttle, three computers run the
same program so that if one has a hardware error, the
other two can override it.

q Collaborative processing.
q Both multiple computers & multiple users may interact on a
task.
q Example: in multiuser network games the actions of each
player are visible to and affect all the others.

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Network Criteria
q The most important criteria a network must be able to meet:
q Performance
q Performance can be measured in many ways, including
transit time and response time.
q Transit time: amount of time required for a message to
travel from one device to another.
q Response time: elapsed time between “inquiry” &
“response”
q The performance of a network depends on:
q the number of users,
q the type of transmission medium,
q the capabilities of the connected hardware, and
q the efficiency of the software.
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Network Criteria …
q Performance is often evaluated by two networking metrics:
throughput and delay.
q We often need more throughput and less delay.
q These two criteria are often contradictory.

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Network Criteria …
q Reliability
q In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability
is measured by
q the frequency of failure,
q the time it takes a link to recover from a failure, and
q the network's robustness in a catastrophe.

q Security
q Network security issues include
q protecting data from unauthorized access,
q protecting data from damage and development, and
q implementing policies and procedures for recovery from
breaches and data losses.
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Physical Structures
q Type of Connection
q A network is two or more devices
connected through links.
q A link is a communications pathway
that transfers data from one
device to another.
q For communication to occur, two
devices must be connected in some
way to the same link at the same
time.
q There are two possible types of
connections: point-to-point & point-to-point & multipoint
multipoint.
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Point-to-Point Connection
q This connection provides a dedicated link between two devices.

q The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission

between those two devices.

q Most point-to-point connections use an actual length of wire or

cable to connect the two ends, but other options, such as
microwave or satellite links, are also possible.

q Example:
q Changing television channels by infrared remote control ➞
establishing a point-to-point connection between the remote
control and the television's control system.
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Multipoint Connection
q A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in
which more than two specific devices share a single link.

q In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is

shared, either spatially or temporally.

q If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a

spatially shared connection.

q If users must take turns, it is a timeshared connection.

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Physical Topology
q The term physical topology refers to the way in which a network is
laid out physically.
q Two or more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a
topology.

q The topology of a network is

the geometric representation of
the relationship of all the
links and linking devices
(nodes) to one another.
q There are four basic topologies
possible: mesh, star, bus, and
ring Categories of topology

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Mesh Topology
q In a mesh topology, every device
has a dedicated point-to-point
link to every other device.

q The term dedicated means that the

link carries traffic only between
the two devices it connects.

q In a fully connected mesh network

with ! nodes, We need !(! − $)
physical links.

A fully connected mesh topology

(five devices)
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Mesh Topology …
q If each physical link allows
communication in both
directions (duplex mode), we
need !(! − $)/' duplex-mode
links in a mesh topology.
q To accommodate that many links,
every device on the network
must have ! − $ input/output
(VO) ports to be connected to
the other ! − $ stations as
shown.
A fully connected mesh topology
(five devices)
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Mesh Topology …
q Advantages of Mesh Topology
q The use of dedicated links guarantees that each connection can
carry its own data load, thus eliminating the traffic problems
that can occur when links must be shared.
q It is robust: If one link becomes unusable, it does not
incapacitate the entire system.
q It is private & secure: When every message travels along a
dedicated line, only the intended recipient sees it.
q Point-to-point links make fault identification/isolation easy.

q Traffic can be routed to avoid links with suspected problems.

q This facility enables to discover the precise location of the

fault is easier, and aids in finding its cause and solution.
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Mesh Topology …
q Disadvantages of Mesh Topology
q The main disadvantages are related to the amount of cabling
and the number of I/O ports required.

q Because every device must be connected to every other

device, installation and reconnection are difficult.
q The sheer bulk of the wiring can be greater than the
available space (in walls, ceilings, or floors) can
accommodate.

q The hardware required to connect each link (I/O ports and

cable) can be prohibitively expensive.

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Mesh Topology …
q Henceforth, it is usually implemented in a limited fashion,

q Examples:
q as a backbone connecting the main computers of a hybrid
network that can include several other topologies.

q Connection of telephone regional offices in which each

regional office needs to be connected to every other
regional office.

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Star Topology
q In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link
only to a central controller, usually called a hub.
q The devices are not directly linked to one another.

q Unlike a mesh topology, a star

topology does not allow direct
traffic between devices.
q The controller acts as an
exchange: If one device wants to
send data to another, it sends the
data to the controller, which then
relays the data to the other
connected device as shown.
A star topology connecting four stations
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Star Topology …
q A star topology is less expensive than a mesh topology.

q In a star, each device needs only one link and one I/O port to
connect it to any number of others.

q This makes it easy to install and reconfigure.

q Far less cabling needs to be housed, and additions, moves, and

deletions involve only one connection between that device & the
hub.

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Star Topology …
q Other advantages include robustness.
q If one link fails, only that link is affected. All other
links remain active.

q This factor also lends itself to easy fault identification

and fault isolation.

q As long as the hub is working, it can be used to monitor

link problems and bypass defective links.

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Star Topology …
q One big disadvantage of a star topology is the dependency of the
whole topology on one single point, the hub.

q If the hub goes down, the whole system is dead.

q Although a star requires far less cable than a mesh, each node must
be linked to a central hub ® more cabling is required in a star than
in some other topologies (such as ring or bus).

q The star topology is used in local-area networks (LANs).

q High-speed LANs often use a star topology with a central hub.

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Bus Topology
q A bus topology is multipoint.

q In such a topology, one long cable acts as a backbone to link

all the devices in a network as shown.

A bus topology connecting three stations

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Bus Topology …
q Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps.

q A drop line is a connection running between the device and the

main cable.

q A tap is a connector that either splices into the main cable or

punctures the sheathing of a cable to create a contact with the
metallic core.

q As a signal travels along the backbone, some of its energy is

transformed into heat, and becomes weaker and weaker as it
travels farther and farther; thus, there is a limit on the
number of taps a bus can support and on the distance between
those taps.
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Bus Topology …
q Advantages of a bus topology include ease of installation.
q Backbone cable can be laid along the most efficient path,
then connected to the nodes by drop lines of various
lengths.

q A bus uses less cabling than mesh or star topologies.

q In a star, for example, 4 network devices in the same room
require 4 lengths of cable reaching all the way to the hub.
q In a bus, this redundancy is eliminated.
q Only the backbone cable stretches through the entire
facility.
q Each drop line has to reach only as far as the nearest point
on the backbone.
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Bus Topology …
q Disadvantages include difficult reconnection and fault
isolation.
q A bus is usually designed to be optimally efficient at
installation but difficult to add new devices.
q Signal reflection at the taps can cause degradation in quality.

q This degradation can be controlled by limiting the number and

spacing of devices connected to a given length of cable.
q Adding new devices may require modification or replacement of
the backbone.

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Bus Topology …
q In addition, a fault or break in the bus cable stops all
transmission.
q The damaged area reflects signals back in the direction of
origin, creating noise in both directions.
q Bus topology was the one of the 1st topologies used in early
LANs’ design.

q Ethernet LANs can use a bus topology, but they are less popular
now.

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Ring Topology
q In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point
connection with only the two devices on either side of it.

q A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to

device, until it reaches its destination.
q Each device in the ring
incorporates a repeater.

q When a device receives a

signal intended for
another device, its
repeater regenerates the
bits and passes them
A ring topology connecting six stations
along as shown.
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Ring Topology …
q A ring is relatively easy to install and reconfigure.

q Each device is linked to only its immediate neighbors.

q Adding or deleting a device requires changing only two

connections.
q The only constraints are media and traffic considerations
(maximum ring length and number of devices).

q In addition, fault isolation is simplified.

q A signal is circulating at all times in a ring, if one device

does not receive a signal within a specified period, it can
issue an alarm.
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Ring Topology …
q The alarm alerts the network operator to the problem and its
location.
q However, unidirectional traffic can be a disadvantage.

q In a simple ring, a break in the ring (such as a disabled

station) can disable the entire network.
q This weakness can be solved by using a dual ring or a switch
capable of closing off the break.

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Hybrid Topology
q A network can be hybrid.

q An example is shown.

q A main star topology with

each branch connecting
several stations in a bus
topology.

A hybrid topology: a star backbone

with three bus networks
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Network Models
q Computer networks are created by different entities.

q Standards are needed so that these heterogeneous networks can

communicate with one another.

q The two best-known standards are the OSI model and the Internet
model.

q The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model defines a seven-layer

network;

q The Internet model defines a five-layer network.

q This course focuses on the Internet model with occasional references

to the OSI model.

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Categories of Networks
q The category into which a network falls is determined by its
size.

q A Local Area Network [LAN] normally covers an area less than 2

mi.

q A Worldwide Area Network [WAN] can be worldwide.

q Networks of a size in between are normally referred to as

metropolitan area networks [MANs] and span tens of miles.

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Local Area Networks [LANs]

q A LAN is usually privately owned and links the devices in a
single office, building, or campus.
q Depending on needs and type of
technology used,
q a LAN can be as simple as two
PCs and a printer in a home
office; or it can extend
throughout a company and
include audio and video
peripherals.

q Currently, LAN size is limited An isolated LAN connecting 12

computers to a hub in a closet
to a few kilometers.
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Local Area Networks [LANs] …

q LANs are designed to allow resources to be shared.
q These resources can include hardware (e.g., a printer),
software (e.g., an application program), or data.
q LAN Example: in many business environments, links a workgroup
of task-related computers, (engineering workstations or
accounting PCs).
q Software can be stored on this central server (One of the
computers having a large capacity disk drive) and used as
needed by the whole group.
q LAN’s size may be determined by licensing restrictions on the
number of users per copy of software, or by restrictions on the
number of users licensed to access the operating system.
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Local Area Networks [LANs] …

q In addition to size, LANs are distinguished from other types of
networks by their transmission media and topology.

q In general, a given LAN will use only one type of transmission

medium.

q The most common LAN topologies are bus, ring, and star.

q Early LANs’ data rates in the 4 to 16 Mbps range.

q Today: speeds are normally 100 or 1000 Mbps.

q Wireless LANs are the newest evolution in LAN technology.

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Wide Area Networks [WANs]

q A WAN provides long-distance
transmission of data, image, audio
& video information over large
geographic areas (a country, a
continent, the world)

q A WAN can be as complex as the

backbones that connect the
Internet [switched WAN] or as
simple as a dial-up line that
connects a home computer to the
Internet [point-to-point WAN].
WANs: a switched WAN and a point-to-point
WAN
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Wide Area Networks [WANs] …

q The switched WAN connects the end systems, which usually
comprise a router (internetworking connecting device) that
connects to another LAN or WAN.

q The point-to-point WAN is normally a line leased from a

telephone or cable TV provider that connects a home computer or
a small LAN to an Internet service provider (ISP).

q This type of WAN is often used to provide Internet access.

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Wide Area Networks [WANs] …

q An early example of a switched WAN is X.25, a network designed
to provide connectivity between end users.

q X.25 is being gradually replaced by a high-speed, more

efficient network called Frame Relay.

q Examples of a switched WAN:

q the asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) network, which is a
network with fixed-size data unit packets called cells.

q the wireless WAN that is becoming more and more popular.

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Metropolitan Area Networks [MANs]

q A MAN is a network with a size between a LAN and a WAN.
q It normally covers the area inside a town or a city.
q It is designed
q for customers who need a high-speed connectivity, normally
to the Internet, and
q have endpoints spread over a city or part of city.

q Examples:
q the part of the telephone company network that can provide a
high-speed DSL line to the customer.
q the cable TV network that originally was designed for cable
TV, but today can also be used for high-speed data
connection to the Internet.
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Interconnection of Networks: Internetwork

q When two or more networks (LAN, a MAN, or a LAN) are connected,
they become an internetwork, or internet.

q An example is shown in the next slide.

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Example
q An organization has two offices, one on east
(star topology LAN) & the other on west (bus
topology LAN); the president of the company
lives somewhere in the middle and needs to
have control over the company.
q To create a backbone WAN for connecting these
three entities, a switched WAN (operated by a
service provider such as a telecom company)
has been leased.
q To connect the LANs to this switched WAN,
three point-to-point WANs are required.
q These point-to-point WANs can be a high-speed
DSL line offered by a telephone company or a
cable modern line offered by a cable TV A heterogeneous network made
provider as shown. of four WANs and two LANs
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The Internet
The Internet has revolutionized many aspects of
our daily lives. It has affected the way we do
business as well as the way we spend our leisure
time. The Internet is a communication system that
has brought a wealth of information to our
fingertips and organized it for our use.

q A Brief History
q The Internet Today (ISPs)

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The Internet …
q An internet is two or more networks that can communicate with each
other.

q The most notable internet is called the “Internet”: a collaboration

of more than hundreds of thousands of interconnected networks.

q http://www.internet-story.com/index.htm

q ARPANET developed in 1969

q Designed to connect computers at four locations (UCLA, UCSB, SRI,
and the University of Utah) that were connected via the IMPs to
form a network.
q Designed to be resistant to disruption
q Software called the Network Control Protocol (NCP) provided
communication between the hosts.
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The Internet Today

q The Internet is a structured, organized system; made up of many
wide- and local-area networks; joined by connecting devices and
switching stations.
q Internet is continually changing: new networks are added,
existing networks adding addresses & networks of defunct
companies are being removed.
q Today most end users who want Internet connection use the
services of Internet service providers (ISPs).
q There are international, national, regional, and local ISPs.

q The Internet today is run by private companies, not the

government.
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The Internet Hierarchy

q At the top of the hierarchy are the international ISPs that connect
nations together.

q The national ISPs are backbone networks created and maintained by

specialized companies.

q There are many national ISPs operating in North America (e.g.,

SprintLink, PSINet, UUNet Technology, AGIS, and internet Mel).

q To provide connectivity between the end users, these backbone

networks are connected by complex switching stations (run by a 3rd
party) called network access points (NAPs).

q Some national ISP networks are also connected to one another by

private switching stations called peering points.
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The Internet Hierarchy …

q These normally operate at a high data rate (up to 600 Mb/s).

q Regional ISPs are smaller ISPs (with smaller data rate) that are
connected to one or more national ISPs.

q Local ISPs provide direct service to the end users; can be

connected to regional ISPs or directly to national ISPs.

q A local ISP can be a company that just provides Internet services,

a corporation with a network that supplies services to its own
employees, or a nonprofit organization, such as a college or a
university, that runs its own network.

q Most end users are connected to the local ISPs.

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The Internet Hierarchy …

Hierarchical organization of the

Internet

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Protocols & Standards

In this section, we define two widely used
terms: protocols and standards. First, we
define protocol, which is synonymous with
rule. Then we discuss standards, which are
agreed-upon rules.

q Protocols
q Standards
q Standards Organizations
q Internet Standards

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Protocols
q For communication to occur between entities in different
systems, entities must agree on a protocol.

q A protocol
q a set of rules that govern data communications.
q defines what is communicated, how it is communicated, and
when it is communicated.

q The key elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics, and

timing.

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Protocols …
q Syntax. The structure or format of the data, meaning the order
in which they are presented.

q Example: a simple protocol might expect the first 8 bits of

data to be the address of the sender, the second 8 bits to
be the address of the receiver, and the rest of the stream
to be the message itself.

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Protocols …
q Semantics. The meaning of each section of bits; How is a
particular pattern to be interpreted, and what action is to be
taken based on that interpretation?

q Example: does an address identify the route to be taken or

the final destination of the message?

q Timing. when data should be sent and how fast they can be sent.

q Example: if a sender produces data at 100 Mbps but the

receiver can process data at only 1 Mbps, the transmission
will overload the receiver and some data will be lost.
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Protocols Architecture
q Software structure that implements the communication function

q Consists of a layered set of protocols

q Separate layers or protocols implemented in separate modules

q Different applications have different requirements at each

layer

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Standards
q Standards are essential in creating and maintaining an open and
competitive market and international interoperability.

q Standards provide guidelines to manufacturers, vendors, government

agencies, and other service providers to ensure the kind of
interconnectivity necessary.

q Data communication standards fall into two categories:

q De facto. Standards that have not been approved by an organized
body but have been adopted as standards through widespread use.
q established originally by manufacturers who seek to define the
functionality of a new product or technology.
q De jure. Those standards that have been legislated by an
officially recognized body.
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Standards Organizations
q Standards are developed through the cooperation of standards
creation committees, forums, & government regulatory agencies.

q Standards Creation Committees

q International Organization for Standardization (ISO)

q International Telecommunication Union-Telecommunication

Standards Sector (ITU-T).
q The United Nations, as part of its International
Telecommunication Union (ITU), formed the Consultative
Committee for International Telegraphy & Telephony
(CCITT).
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Standards Organizations …
q On March 1, 1993, the name of this committee was changed
to the International Telecommunication Union
Telecommunication Standards Sector (ITU-T).
q American National Standards Institute (ANSI)

q Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)

q Electronic Industries Association (EIA)

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Forums
q To accommodate the need for working models and agreements and
to facilitate the standardization process, many special-
interest groups have developed forums made up of
representatives from interested corporations.

q The forums work with universities and users to test, evaluate,

and standardize new technologies.

q By concentrating their efforts on a particular technology, the

forums are able to speed acceptance and use of those
technologies in the telecommunications community.

q The forums present their conclusions to the standards bodies.

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Regulatory Agencies
q All communications technology is subject to regulation by
government agencies such as the Federal Communications
Commission (FCC) in the US.

q The purpose of these agencies is to protect the public interest

by regulating radio, television, and wire/cable communications.

q The FCC has authority over interstate and international

commerce as it relates to communications.

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Internet Standards
q An Internet standard is a thoroughly tested specification that
is useful to and adhered to by those who work with the
Internet.

q It is a formalized regulation that must be followed.

q There is a strict procedure by which a specification attains

Internet standard status.

q A specification begins as an Internet draft (work in progress)

with no official status and a 6-month lifetime.

q Upon recommendation from the Internet authorities, a draft may

be published as a Request for Comment (RFC).
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Internet Standards …
q Each RFC is edited, assigned a number & made available to
interested parties

q RFCs go through maturity levels and are categorized according

to their requirement level.

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