Week 12 – Lecture notes

Special Matrices
Nilpotent Matrix
If A is a square matrix such that A n  0 where n
is a positive integer, then A is said to be nilpotent.
 4 2 
For example: If A=   then A 2
?
8 4 
 4 2   4 2  0 0 
A 
2
     0
8 4  8 4  0 0 
This implies that the given matrix A is nilpotent
matrix.

Idempotent Matrix
If A is a square matrix such that A2 =A×A=A
then A is said to be an idempotent matrix.
 1 0 
For example: If I    then I 2
?
0 1 
1 0  1 0  1 0 
I 
2
     I
0 1  0 1  0 1 
This implies that the unit matrix I is an
idempotent matrix.

Involutary Matrix
If A is a square matrix such that A 2 =I then A is
said to be involutary matrix.
-1 0  2
For example: If A=   then A =?
 0 -1
-1 0  -1 0  1 0 
2
A =      I
 0 -1  0 -1 0 1 
This implies that the unit matrix I is an
involutary matrix.
 Sub Matrix
Let A be any given matrix. If some rows or
columns or both of A are deleted from A, the
resulting matrix is called sub matrix of A.
4 3 2 1
For example: If A   1 0 3 4  then the
 
 3 5 1 2 
sub matrix by deleting 1st row and 1st column is
0 3 4
 5 1 2 
 

Check yourself on solving the questions given

below
  1 1 1
1. If A   3 3 3  then the matrix A is…
 
 5 5 5 
a) Nilpotent matrix b) Idempotent matrix
c) Involutary matrix d) none of these
 0 1 1
2. If A   4 3 4  then the matrix A is…
 
 3 3 4 
a) Nilpotent matrix b) Idempotent matrix
c) Involutary matrix d) none of these

1 1 3
3. If A   5 2 6  then the matrix A is…
 
 2 1 3
a) Nilpotent matrix b) Idempotent matrix
c) Involutary matrix d) unit matrix
 Introduction to R Language
R is a computer language which is processed
by a special program called an interpreter. This
program reads and evaluates R language
expressions, and prints the values determined
for the expressions. R includes a suite of
operators for calculations on arrays, in
particular matrices. R is Free Software, and
runs on a variety of platforms.
R can be downloaded from one of the mirror
sites in http://cran.r- project.org/mirrors.html.
You should pick your nearest locations.

Command line
Execution of commands in R is not menu
driven. (Not like Clicking over buttons to get
outcome). We need to type the commands

Prompt sign(>)
Once R is started, there is a console awaiting
for input. (>) is the prompt sign in R. We can
enter numbers and perform calculations.
>Welcome to this course
R as a calculator
> 2+3
[1] 5
> 2*3
[1] 6
> 2/3
[1] 0.6666667
> 2*5-4/6
[1] 9.333333
Pound sign#

All text after the pound sign "#" within the

same line is considered a comment.
> # Welcome to R
> 3+5 # Addition of numbers
[1] 8
The function c( ) is used to combine numeric
values into a vector
> x=c(1,2,3)
>x
[1] 1 2 3
If we add a and b, the sum would be a vector
whose members are the sum of the
corresponding elements of a and b.
> a=c(1,2,3)
> b=c(4,5,6)
> a+b
[1] 5 7 9
If we multiply a by 6, we get a vector with
each of its members multiplied by 6.
> a*6
[1] 6 12 18
Similarly for subtraction, multiplication and
division, we get new vectors via member wise
operations.
> a=c(1,2,3)
> b=c(4,5,6)
> a-b
[1] -3 -3 -3
> a=c(1,2,3)
> b=c(4,5,6)

> a*b
[1] 4 10 18
> a/b
[1] 0.25 0.40 0.50
If two vectors are of unequal length, the shorter
one will be recycled in order to match the
longer vector
> x=c(1,2,3)
> y=c(4,5,6,7,8)
> x+y
[1] 5 7 9 8 10
Warning message:
In x + y : longer object length is not a multiple
of shorter object length
seq() function generates a sequence of
numbers.
> seq(1:5)
[1] 1 2 3 4 5
Sequence with constant increment
> seq(from=20,to=25,by=2)
[1] 20 22 24
Sequence with constant decrement
> seq(from=25,to=20,by=-2)
[1] 25 23 21
> seq(to=20,length=14)
[1] 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
> seq(from=10,length=13)
[1] 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
rep() function replicates the values in x.
> rep(1,5)
[1] 1 1 1 1 1
> rep(1:3,5)
[1] 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
abs() function is to find absolute value
> abs(-10)
[1] 10
> abs(c(-2,-6,-8))
[1] 2 6 8

sqrt() function is to find square root

> sqrt(4)
[1] 2
> sqrt(c(2,3,4))
[1] 1.414214 1.732051 2.000000
sum() function is to find the addition of values
> sum(c(1,2,3,4))
[1] 10
prod() function is to find the product
> prod(c(1,2,3))
[1] 6
round() function is used to round the decimal
places
> round(4.56789123,3)
[1] 4.568
length() function gets the length of a vector.
> x=c(1,2,3,4,5,6,20,35,57)
> length(x)
[1] 9
R Matrix

A matrix is a rectangular array with m rows

and n columns. . R has a lot of operator and
functions that make matrix handling very
convenient.
Matrix row and column count:
nrow() function defines the row number of a
matrix
ncol() function defines the column number of
a matrix
data() function assigns specified values to the
matrix elements.
dim() function gives the dimension of a matrix
Create a matrix x of order 3  2 with elements
1,2,3,4,5,6
> x=matrix(nrow=3,ncol=2,data=c(1,2,3,4,5,6))
>x
[,1] [,2]
[1,] 1 4
[2,] 2 5
[3,] 3 6
Create a matrix x of order 3  2 with elements
1,2,3,4,5,6 where 1,2 as the elements of first
row, 3,4 as the elements of second row and 5,6
as the elements of third row.
> x=matrix(nrow=3,ncol=2,data=c(1,2,3,4,5,6),byrow=T)

>x
[,1] [,2]
[1,] 1 2
[2,] 3 4
[3,] 5 6
Find the number of rows, number of columns
and dimension of matrix x.
> x=matrix(nrow=3,ncol=2,data=c(1,2,3,4,5,6),byrow=T)

>x
[,1] [,2]
[1,] 1 2
[2,] 3 4
[3,] 5 6
> a=nrow(x)
>a
[1] 3
> b=ncol(x)
>b
[1] 2
> dim(x)
[1] 3 2
We can access a single element of a matrix
with x[i,j] function
Find the (2,2) entry in matrix x
> x=matrix(nrow=3,ncol=2,data=c(1,2,3,4,5,6),byrow=T)

>x
[,1] [,2]
[1,] 1 2
[2,] 3 4
[3,] 5 6
> x[2,2] #element of [2,2] in matrix x
[1] 4
Assigning a specified number to all matrix
elements
> y=matrix(nrow=3,ncol=4,data=5)
>y
[,1] [,2] [,3] [,4]
[1,] 5 5 5 5
[2,] 5 5 5 5
[3,] 5 5 5 5
diag() function defines the diagonal matrix
> x=diag(3,nrow=3,ncol=3)
>x
[,1] [,2] [,3]
[1,] 3 0 0
[2,] 0 3 0
[3,] 0 0 3
Create a matrix x=diag(1,2,3)
> x=diag(c(1,2,3),nrow=3,ncol=3)
>x
[,1] [,2] [,3]
[1,] 1 0 0
[2,] 0 2 0
[3,] 0 0 3
>
t() function returns a transpose matrix
Find the transpose of matrix x.
>x=matrix(nrow=3,ncol=4,data=c(1,2,3,4,5,6,
7,8,9,10,11,12))
>x
[,1] [,2] [,3] [,4]
[1,] 1 4 7 10
[2,] 2 5 8 11
[3,] 3 6 9 12
> t(x)
[,1] [,2] [,3]
[1,] 1 2 3
[2,] 4 5 6
[3,] 7 8 9
[4,] 10 11 12
Multiplication of a matrix with a constant
> x=matrix(nrow=2,ncol=3,data=c(1,2,3,4,5,6))
>x
[,1] [,2] [,3]
[1,] 1 3 5
[2,] 2 4 6
> 5*x
[,1] [,2] [,3]
[1,] 5 15 25
[2,] 10 20 30

Addition of matrices
> a=matrix(nrow=2,ncol=2,data=3)
>a
 [,1] [,2]
[1,] 3 3
[2,] 3 3
> b=matrix(nrow=2,ncol=2,data=c(1,2,3,4),byrow=T)

>b
[,1] [,2]
[1,] 1 2
[2,] 3 4
> a+b
[,1] [,2]
[1,] 4 5
[2,] 6 7
Subtraction of matrices
> a=matrix(nrow=2,ncol=2,data=3)
> b=matrix(nrow=2,ncol=2,data=c(1,2,3,4),byrow=T)

> a-b
 [,1] [,2]
[1,] 2 1
[2,] 0 -1
rbind() function add new row to a matrix
cbind()function add new column to a matrix
> a=matrix(c(2,3,3,4),nrow=2,ncol=2)
>a
[,1] [,2]
[1,] 2 3
[2,] 3 4
> a=rbind(a,5:6)
>a
[,1] [,2]
[1,] 2 3
[2,] 3 4
[3,] 5 6
> a=cbind(a,7:9)
>a
[,1] [,2] [,3]
[1,] 2 3 7
[2,] 3 4 8
[3,] 5 6 9
x[i,] function select a particular row from a
matrix
> a=matrix(data=c(2,3,5,3,4,6,7,8,9),nrow=3,ncol=3)
>a
[,1] [,2] [,3]
[1,] 2 3 7
[2,] 3 4 8
[3,] 5 6 9
> a=a[2,]
>a
[1] 3 4 8
x[-i,] function delete one row from a matrix
> a=matrix(c(1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12),nrow=3,ncol=4)
>a
[,1] [,2] [,3] [,4]
[1,] 1 4 7 10
[2,] 2 5 8 11
[3,] 3 6 9 12
> a=a[-2,]
>a
[,1] [,2] [,3] [,4]
[1,] 1 4 7 10
[2,] 3 6 9 12

x[,-j] function delete one column from a

matrix
>a
[,1] [,2] [,3] [,4]
[1,] 1 4 7 10
[2,] 3 6 9 12
> a=a[,-4]
>a
 [,1] [,2] [,3]
[1,] 1 4 7
[2,] 3 6 9

solve() function used to solve the

simultaneous equations
Solve 2x+3y=4; 3x+4y=4
> a=matrix(c(2,3,3,4),nrow=2,ncol=2)
> b=matrix(c(4,4),nrow=2,ncol=1)
> solve(a,b)
[,1]
[1,] -4
[2,] 4
Value of x=4, y=-4