“Fluid Mechanics Lecture Notes“ ‫ ياسر سعد‬/‫ د‬:‫اعداد‬

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Chapter Four
Finite Control Volume Analysis
 Control volume and system representation

The fluid is a type of matter that is free to move and interact with the
surrounding. Fluid’s behavior is governed by fundamental physical laws
which are approximated by an appropriate set of equations. There are
various ways that the governing laws can be applied to a fluid, including
the system approach and the control volume approach.

o A System
It is a collection of matter of fixed identity which may move, flow and
interact with its surrounding. It may change its shape or size but always
contains the same mass.
o A control volume
It is a volume in space through which fluid may flow.
 System representation
In fluid mechanics, it is often quite difficult to identify and keep track of a
specific quantity of matter. A finite portion of a fluid contains large number
of fluid particles that move quite freely, unlike a solid that may deform but
usually remains easy to identify its shape.
It may be often more interesting to determine the force put on a fan,
airplane or automobile by air flowing past the object which is very difficult
using the information obtained by following a given portion of the air (a
system) as it flows. For these situations it is more often to use the control
volume approach.

 Control volume representation

A specific volume in space can be identified and the fluid flow within,
through or around that volume can be analyzed. The matter and mass may
change within the control volume due to the flow of fluid through the
control volume. Examples of control volumes and control surfaces are
shown below:

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 The Reynold’s transport theorem
It is sometimes interesting to know what will happen to a particular part of
the fluid as it moves about. Other times it is of interest to know for case (a),
fluid flows through a pipe. The fixed control surface consists of the inside
surface of the pipe, the outlet at section (2) and a section across the pipe at
(1). One portion of the control surface is a physical surface (the pipe), while
the remainder is simply a surface in space (across the pipe) in this case fluid
flows across part of the control surface, but not across all of it.
Case (b) shows another control volume, which is a rectangular volume,
surrounding the jet engine shown. If the airplane to which this engine is not
moving, air flows through this control volume because of the action of the
air moving by the engine. If the airplane is moving, this control volume is
fixed relative to an observer on the airplane, but it is moving control
volume relative to an observer on the ground.
Case (c) shows a balloon while being emptied from air. By time the control
volume (whose surface is the inner surface of the balloon) decreases in size.
In this case the control volume is called deforming control volume. If the
balloon was not fixed it becomes a moving and deformable control volume.
What effect the fluid has on a particular object or volume in space as fluid
interacts with it? thus it is desirable to know the laws governing fluid
motion using both system concepts and control volume concepts. To do
this, an analytical tool is needed to shift from one representation to the
other. The Reynold’s transport theorem provides this tool.

Since all physical laws are stated in terms of various physical parameters as
mass (m), velocity (v), acceleration (a) and temperature (T), let B represent
any of these fluid parameters and b represent the amount of that parameter
per unit mass, thus:
B=mb
B and b may be scalar or vectors.
The parameter B is termed extensive property and b is termed intensive
property. The amount of an extensive property that a system possesses at a
given instant, Bsys, can be determined by adding up the amount of that
property associated with each fluid particle in the system. Therefore:
❑
Bsys= lim ∑ b i ( ρ i δ V i ) =∫ ρbdV
δV → 0 i sys

Since most of the laws governing fluid motion involve the time rate of
change of an extensive property of the fluid system, thus;
❑

dBsys
=
d (∫ )
sys
ρbdV

dt dt
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To formulate the laws into a control volume approach an expression for the
extensive property within the control volume BcV must be obtained as:
❑

dBc v
=
cv
(
d ∫ ρbdV )
dt dt
 Derivation of the Reynold’s transport theorem
A simple version of the Reynold’s transport theorem relating system
concepts to control volume concepts can be obtained easily for one
dimensional flow through a fixed control volume as shown.

The control volume is considered to be that stationary volume within the

pipe or duct between sections (1) and (2) as indicated. The system is
considered as the fluid occupying the control volume at the same initial
time (t). A short time later, at time t +δt, the system has moved slightly to
the right. The fluid particles that coincided with section (2) of the control
surface at time (t) have moved a distance δl2 = v2δt to the right, where v2 is
the velocity of the fluid as it passes section (2). Similarly, the fluid initially
at section (1) has moved a distance δl1 = v1δt, where v1 is the fluid velocity
at section (1). It is assumed that the fluid flows across sections (1) and (2)
in a direction normal to these surfaces and that v1 and v2 are constant across
sections (1) and (2). From figure (b) the outflow from the control volume
from time t to t + δt is denoted as volume II and the inflow as volume I
and the control volume itself as CV. Thus, the system at time t consists of
the fluid in section CV (i.e: Sys = CV at time (t)), while at time t + δt the
system consists of the same fluid that now occupies sections (CV – I) + II.
That is, Sys = CV – I +II at time t + δt. The control volume remains as
section CV for all time. Therefore by understanding the previous discussion
the Reynold’s transport theorem which allows the system approach to be
converted to the control volume approach can be derived;

Bsys ( t ) =B c v ( t )

Bsys ( t+ δt )=Bc v ( t +δt ) −B I ( t+ δt )+ B II ( t + δt )

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δ Bsys B sys ( t +δt ) −B sys ( t ) B ( t+ δt )−BI ( t+ δt ) +B II ( t+ δt )−B sys ( t )
= = cv
δt δt ❑ δt

δ Bsys B c v ( t+ δt )−Bc v ( t ) B ( t+δt ) B II ( t+ δt )

= − I +
δt δt ❑ δt δt
❑

lim c v
B ( t+δt ) −B c v ( t ) ∂ Bc v
= =
∂ (∫ )
cv
ρbdV

δt → 0 δt ∂t ∂t

BII ( t +δt )= ( ρ2 b2 )( δ V II )= ρ2 b 2 A2 v 2 δt

B II ( t+ δt )
Ḃout = lim =ρ2 b 2 A 2 v 2
δt→ 0 δt

BI ( t+ δt )=( ρ1 b 1) ( δ V I ) =ρ 1 b1 A 1 v 1 δt

B I ( t+ δt )
Ḃ¿ =lim =ρ1 b1 A1 v 1
δt →0 δt

D Bsys ∂ B c v
= + Ḃout − Ḃ¿
Dt ∂t

Therefore the Reynold’s transport theorem in its general form is given by:
D Bsys ∂ B c v
= + ρ2 b2 A 2 v 2−ρ1 b1 A 1 v 1
Dt ∂t

 The general conditions of the Reynold’s transport theorem

In case where the velocity is in a direction which is not perpendicular to the
flow area the Reynold’s transport theorem can be derived according to this
condition as follows:

ρbdV ( ρb v cos θ δt ) δA
δ Ḃout =lim =lim =ρb v cos θδA
δt →0 δt δt →0 δt

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❑ ❑
Ḃout = ∫ d Ḃout = ∫ ρb v cos θdA
cs out csout

❑
Ḃout = ∫ ρb v . n^ dA
cs out

❑ ❑
Ḃ¿ =−∫ ρb v cos θdA=−∫ ρb v . n^ dA
cs¿ cs¿

❑
Ḃout − Ḃ¿ =∫ ρb v . n^ dA
cs❑

D Bsys ∂ B c v ❑
= + ∫ ρb v . n^ dA
Dt ∂ t cs ❑

D Bsys ∂ ❑ ❑
= ∫ ρbdV + ∫ ρb v . n^ dA
Dt ∂t cv cs ❑

 Applications on Reynold's transport theory

Many practical problems in fluid mechanics require the analysis of the

behavior of the contents of a finite region in space (the control volume). To
give examples:

 Sometimes it is required to calculate the force required to hold a bended

pipe in its place due to force exerted on the bend due to momentum
change of the fluid flowing inside the pipe.
 Another interesting application is the calculation of time required to fill or
discharge a tank with a fluid.
 Also the estimation of the power required to move water from one place to
another if these two places are at different elevations and several
kilometers away from each other.
 Estimation of the available power in a fluid in order to rotate the rotor of a
turbine or the fluid power produced when water is rotated by the pump
rotor.

The control volume formulas the Eulerian view are derived from the
equations representing basic laws applied to a collection of mass (a system) as
mentioned earlier. However the control volume or the Eulerian view is more
easy and more convenient to deal with than the system or Lagrangian view.

The concept of a control volume and system occupying the same region of
space at an instant (coincident conditions) and by using the Reynold’s

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transport theorem are the key elements in the derivation of the control volume
equations.

In the equations of the control volume analysis Volume integrals are used to
account for variations of the material properties in the co ordinate system of
the contents of a control volume. Control surface area integrals allow for
surface distributions of flow variables.

In the analysis of the flow to derive the governing equations the flow is
assumed to be one dimensional and steady.

 Conservation of mass - The continuity equation

The continuity equation is one of the important equations used in fluid

mechanics. In order to find a form of this equation applicable to variant
situations of flow the following approach is considered:

Since time rate of change of the system mass = 0.

D M sys
=0
Dt

Where the system mass can be expressed as:

❑
M sys=∫ ρdV
sys

Applying the Reynold’s transport theorem with B = mass and b = 1:

❑ ❑ ❑
D
∫ ρdV = ∂∂t ∫ ρdV +∫ ρ v . n^ dA
Dt sys cv cs

Or

Time rate of
Time rate of
change of the Net rate of flow
change of the
mass of the of mass
mass of the = +
contents of the through the
coincident
coincident control control surface
system
volume

The general form of continuity equation can be expressed in the following

form:
❑ ❑
∂
∫ ρdV +∫ ρ v . n^ dA=0
∂t cv cs

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When the flow is steady:
❑
∂
∫ ρdV =0
∂t cv

Therefore it can be found that the continuity equation can simply be written as:
❑

∫ ρ v . n^ dA=0=∑ ṁout −∑ ṁ¿

cs

Or
∑ ṁout =∑ ṁ¿
Also we can write (∵ Q = Av):
ṁ=ρQ =ρA v

The average flow velocity can be found from:

❑

∫ ρ v . n^ dA
v́= A
ρA

If the velocity is uniformly distributed,

❑

∫ ρ v . n^ dA
v́= A =v
ρA

Therefore at steady state:

ṁ=ρ 1 A1 v́ 1=ρ2 A2 v́ 2

This means that; the mass flow rate at any section in the flow system is
constant in case of steady flow.

For incompressible flow ( ρ1= ρ2=constant ):

Q= A 1 v́ 1=A 2 v́ 2

For a control volume where multiple inputs and outputs exist:

∑ ṁ¿=∑ ṁout

 Newton’s second law – the linear momentum equation

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The following analysis shows the relation between fluid change of momentum
and forces exerted by the fluid on its boundaries. This will be derived
according to Newton's law which states:

Time rate of change of the Sum of external forces

linear momentum of the = acting on the system
system

Since momentum is a mass times velocity, the momentum of a small particle

of mass ρdV is vρdV, therefore for the whole system:
❑
D
∫ v ρdV =∑ F sys
Dt sys
Using the Reynold’s transport theorem with b = v
❑ ❑ ❑
D ∂
∫ v ρdV = ∫ v ρdV +∫ v ρ v . n^ dA
Dt sys ∂t cv cs

Time rate of change Net rate of flow

Time rate of
of the linear of linear
change of the
= momentum of the + momentum
linear momentum
contents of the through the
of the system
control volume control surface

As particles of mass move into or out of a control volume through the control
surface, they carry linear momentum in or out. Thus, linear momentum flow
can be considered and treated as mass flow.
❑ ❑
∂
∫ v ρdV +∫ v ρ v . n^ dA=∑ F acting on the contents
∂t cv cs of the
control volume

The previous equation can be written in a simple algebraic form as:

∑ ṁout v out−∑ ṁ¿ v ¿=∑ F acting on the contents

of the
control volume

Where ΣF is the sum of external forces acting on the control volume. It is

important in such problems to consider the signs(+ or -) of all terms of the
equation.
 The moment of momentum equation
In many engineering applications the moment of a force with respect to the
axis, namely torque is important. By using the linear momentum equation and
the resultant force associated with each fluid particle with respect to a point in
a moving co-ordinate system the moment of momentum equation will be
developed which relates the torque and angular momentum.

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❑ ❑ ❑
D
∫ ( r × v ) ρdV = ∂t∂ ∫ ( r × v ) ρdV +∫ ( r × v ) ρ v . n^ dA
Dt sys cv cs

Time rate of
Time rate of Net rate of flow
change of the
change of the of the moment of
moment of
moment of = + momentum
momentum of the
momentum of the through the
contents of the
system control surface
control volume
❑ ❑
∂
∫ ( r × v ) ρdV +∫ ( r × v ) ρ v . n^ dA=∑ ¿¿
∂t cv cs

Or under steady state we can write:

∑ ṁout v out r out −∑ ṁ¿ v ¿ r ¿ =∑ F × r acting on the contents
of the
control volume

Where Σ(r×F) is the sum of external torques acting on the control volume. It
should be remembered that the power produced is calculated from:
P=τ × ω
 First law of thermodynamics – the energy equation
As the fluid flows, some of its properties may change and this fluid may
produce work or exchange heat with its surrounding. The equation that relates
the variation of fluid flow variables with work done and heat exchanged is the
energy equation. Therefore this equation will be derived as follows:

Time rate of
Net time rate of Net time rate of
increase of the
energy addition by energy addition
total stored = +
heat transfer into by work transfer
energy of the
the system into the system
system
❑
D
∫ eρdV =(∑ Q̇¿ −∑ Q̇out )sys +(∑ Ẇ ¿−∑ Ẇ out )sys
Dt sys
❑
D
∫ eρdV =¿ ¿
Dt sys

v2
e=u+ + gz
2
❑ ❑ ❑
D
∫ eρdV = ∂t∂ ∫ eρdV +∫ eρ v . n^ dA
Dt sys cv cs

The time rate of = The time rate of + The net rate of

increase of the increase of the total flow of the total
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stored energy out

total stored stored energy of the of the control
energy of the contents of the volume through
system control volume the control
surface

Therefore:
❑ ❑
∂
∫ eρdV +∫ eρ v . n^ dA=¿ ¿
∂t cv cs

Since the net work done by a shaft can be given by:

Ẇ shaft=Ṫ shaft × ω

Also the work done by normal stress to move the fluid can be written in terms
of pressure:

σ =− p

δ Ẇ normal stress =σ n^ δA . v =−p n^ δA . v=− p v . n^ δA

❑ ❑
Ẇ normal stress =∫ σ v . n^ δA=∫ − p v . n^ δA
cs cs

Therefore after substituting the previous, the energy equation takes the form:

p v2
❑ ❑
∂
∂t cv cs
( )
∫ eρdV +∫ u+ ρ + 2 + gz ρ v . n^ dA=Q̇ net∈ ¿+Ẇ shaft
net∈ ¿
¿¿

At steady state the first term of the previous equation is zero and the energy
flow from the system boundaries can be given by:

p v2 p v2 p v2
❑

∫
cs
( ρ 2 ) Flow ρ 2
out
(
u+ + +gz ρ v . n^ dA= ∑ u+ + +gz ṁ - ∑ u+ + +gz ṁ
Flow ρ 2 ) in
( )
If the properties are evenly distributed across the control surface we can write
the energy equation in the following form:

v 2out −v 2¿
[
ṁ uout −u ¿ +
p
() ()
ρ out
−
p
ρ ¿
+
2 ]
+ g ( z out −z ¿ ) =Q̇net ∈¿+Ẇ shaft
net ∈¿
¿
¿

Since:
p
h=u+
ρ
Where h is the enthalpy, then we can write the energy equation in the simple
following form:
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v 2out −v 2¿
[
ṁ hout −h¿ +
2 ]
+g ( z out −z ¿ ) =Q̇net ∈¿+Ẇ ¿
shaft
net ∈¿
¿

The previous equation is the energy equation known as the first law of
thermodynamics which will be used in order to derive one of the important
equations in fluid mechanics which is the Bernoulli equation.

 Bernoulli’s equation
Starting from the energy equation the relation between the energies at two
different points in the flow can be found by applying the energy equation
between these two points assuming no shaft work:
2 2
v −v
[
ṁ uout −u ¿ +
p
ρ() ()out
−
p
ρ ¿ 2 ]
+ out ¿ + g ( z out −z ¿ ) =Q̇net ∈¿ ¿

Which can be written per unit mass after rearrangment as follows:

2
p ¿ v 2¿ p v
+ + g z ¿= out + out + g z out − uout −u¿ −q net
ρ 2 ρ 2 ( ¿
)
Assuming that there is no change in fluid temperature while flowing and no
heat is added or rejected therefore:

u¿ −uout + qnet =0
¿

Then the energy equation reduces to:

2
p ¿ v 2¿ pout v out
+ + g z ¿= + + g z out
ρ 2 ρ 2

The previous equation is the ideal form of Bernoulli equation as it assumes

that no losses occur when the fluid flows from inlet section to the outlet
section of the control volume. To take account of the losses that occurs due to
fluid flow between the inlet and outlet sections consider that:
u¿ −uout + qnet =loss
¿
Then:
p ¿ v 2¿ pout v 2out
+ + g z ¿= + + g z out +loss
ρ 2 ρ 2
or in full form as:
p ¿ v 2¿ p out v 2out
+ + z¿= + + z ± h +h
γ 2g γ 2 g out shaft l
where (+hshaft )for a turbine and ( –hshaft) for a pump.

Where the units of each single term of the previous equation is in meters. The
equivalent to shaft work can be calculated from:

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Ẇ shaft
h shaft=
γQ
 Static, Stagnation, Dynamic and Total pressures

A useful application of the Bernoulli equation is the determination of the

stagnation and dynamic pressures. These pressure terms arise from the
conversion of kienetic energy of the flowing fluid to a pressure rise when the
fluid is brought to rest or when it is flowing. The Bernoulli equation can be
written in the form:
ρ v2
P+ + γZ=constant
2
Each term of the Bernoulli equation has the dimensions of force per unit area
(N/m2). The first term is the actual thermodynamic pressure of the fluid as it
flows. To measure its value one could move along with the fluid, thus being
static relative to the moving fluid. Therefore it is termed the static pressure.
By considering the following figure one can measure this static pressure by
drilling a hole in the tube and inserting a piezometer tube as indicated by the
location of point (3).

Therefore:
P1=γh
ρ v2
The second term in the Bernoulli equation is termed the dynamic
2
pressure, while the third term in the Bernoulli equation z is termed the
hydrostatic pressure due to the change in elevation from one section of flow
to the other which will result in a change of the potential energy of the fluid.
The pressure at the end of the small tube inserted into the flow and pointing
upstream at point (2) will fill the tube to a height H. The fluid in the tube is
stationary, thus v = 0, or point (2) is called a stagnation point.

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By applying Bernoulli equation between points (1) and (2) using v2 = 0 and
assuming that Z1 = Z2,
ρ v 21
P2=P1 +
2
Which show that the pressure at the stagnation point is greater than the static
pressure P1 by an amount ρv12/2 called the dynamic pressure. The sum of
static, dynamic and hydrostatic pressure and is called the total pressure.
Thus the Bernoulli equation states that the total pressure along a stream
line remains constant in the ideal case.

 Measurement of fluid velocity using principles of Bernoulli equation

Using the previous concepts a simple device to measure the velocity of a

flowing fluid can be found. This device is shown in the following figure and
known as the Pitot – static tube. As shown in the following figure, two
concentric tubes are attached to two pressure gages so that the values of P3 and
P4 (or the difference P3 – P4) can be determined.

The center tube measures the stagnation pressure:

ρ v2
P3=P2 =P+
2

P and v are the pressure and velocity of the fluid upstream point (2). The outer
tube is made with several holes at an appropriate distance from the tip in order
to measure static pressure. If the effect of the elevation difference between (1)
and (4) is negligible:

P4 =P1=P

Then, by combining these two equations:

ρ v2
P3−P 4=
2
Arranging the previous equation in order to calculate the fluid velocity gives:

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2(P3 −P4 )
v=
√ ρ
Where ρ is the density of the flowing fluid not the manometer fluid.

 Effect of change in cross sectional area on the pressure – velocity

relation
Since ṁ=ρA v , at steady state ṁ is constant, therefore increasing the cross
sectional area of the flow decreases the velocity of flow and vice versa
provided that the density is constant.

From Bernoulli equation:

ρ v2
P+ + γZ=constant
2
from which it can be found that increasing the pressure must be accompanied
by a decrease in velocity in order that the left hand side of the Bernoulli
equation remains constant (assuming that Z does not change). Therefore an
increase in fluid velocity is accompanied by a decrease in pressure and vice
versa.
As discussed in chapter (1) that the vapor pressure Pv is the pressure at which
vapor bubbles form in a liquid. One way to make a liquid reaches its vapor
pressure can be found by using Bernoulli's equation i.e, if the fluid velocity is
increased by making a reduction in the flow area as shown in the following
figure, the pressure will decrease till it can reach its vapor pressure.

The pressure decrease can be large enough so that the pressure in the liquid is
reduced to its vapor pressure, this phenomenon is called cavitation.

In such situation when vapor bubbles form and then collapse as the fluid move
to a region of higher pressure (lower velocity), this causes dynamic effects that
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cause very large pressure transients near the bubbles. If the bubbles collapse
close to a physical boundary, they can over a period of time, cause damage to
the surface in the cavitation area.

 Siphon flow

It is normal that a liquid flows from a place of higher elevation to a place of

lower elevation, but can the opposite happen without using a pump?

Consider the following figure where a pipe is immersed in a tank full of liquid
which rises up to point 2 and then descends down to point 3:

applying Bernoulli equation along the stream line passing from (1) to (2) to (3)

ρ v 21 ρ v 22 ρ v 23
P1 + + γ Z 1=P2 + + γ Z 2=P 3+ +γ Z 3
2 2 2

taking the datum passing by point (3) and by considering v1 = 0 (large tank)
and P1 = 0 (open tank).
From continuity equation:
A2 v 2= A 3 v 3
And since the pipe has a constant cross sectional area, therefore:
v 2=v 3
Therefore the velocity of the fluid in the pipe can be determined by applying
Bernoulli's equation between points 1 and 3:
v=√ 2 g ( Z 1−Z 3 ) −hlosses
Then by applying the Bernoulli equation between points (1) and (2) the
pressure P2 at the top (the siphon summit) can be determined from:
ρ v 22
P2=γ ( Z ¿ ¿ 1−Z2 )− −hlosses ¿
2
The pressure P2 is always below atmospheric pressure in siphon flow systems
and in order to maintain a flow between (1) and (3) with no cavitation, P2
must be greater than the vapor pressure of the liquid.

 Applying Bernoulli equation for flow measurement

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From the following figure the flow area when restricted the pressure at the
restricted section will be lower than that at a section upstream.

If pressure was measured at points (1) and (2) (by using a manometer for
example) for the three different restrictions shown in the above figure and by
applying Bernoulli's equation:

ρ v 21 ρ v 22
P1 + + γ Z 1=P2 + + γ Z2
2 2

By using the continuity equation:

Q= A 1 v 1=A 2 v 2

Therefore the flow rate Q can be determined from:

2( P 1−P2)
Q= A 2

√ ( ( ))
ρ 1−
A2
A1
2

Therefore these devices are used in order to measure the flow rate (m3/s) of a
fluid flowing in a pipe.

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