Electric Vehicle Types

• Electric Trains and Trolleys

• Battery Electric Vehicles*
• Hybrid Electric Vehicles*
• Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles*

*Utilize batteries for energy storage

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 Commercial Electric Vehicles

• Wheel Chairs
• Fork Lifts
• Airport Tugs
• Golf Carts
• Milk Floats (UK)
• Neighborhood EVs
• Mining Vehicles

• Subway Cars
• Electric Trolleys
• Electric Trains 3
 Battery Electric Vehicle

Definition: Vehicle where traction power is provided

by an electric motor using electrical energy stored in
a battery…rather than utilizing a heat engine
Wheel

Power Electric
Transmission
Converter Motor

Wheel

Battery Charger

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 Battery Electrical Power and Energy
Power = voltage x current (P = V x I)
Energy = power x time (E = P x t)
Charge = current x time (q = I x t)
Energy = voltage x charge (E = V x q)

Units:
Power: watts (W) or kilowatts (kW)
Energy: watt-hours (Wh) or joules (1 Wh = 3600 J)
Voltage: volts (V)
Charge: ampere-hours (Ah) or coulombs (1 Ah = 3600 C)*

* Charge stored in battery also called Electrochemical Capacity

Examples:
AA primary alkaline cell 1.5V x 3 Ah = 4.5 Wh
Li Ion Laptop Battery 10 V x 5 Ah = 50 Wh
Lead Acid SLI Battery 12 V x 50 Ah = 600 Wh
Prius NiMH Battery 288V x 6 Ah = 1.7 kWh
EV1 NiMH Battery Pack 350V x 90 Ah = 32 kWh
Tank of Gasoline 600 kWh

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Example:

3.6-volt Lithium-ion battery rated at 850 mAh will maintain a voltage of 3.6
volts with little variation during discharge. Find the energy delivered by this
battery.

3.6 volts x 850 mAh = 3060 mA-volt-hours, or 3060 milliwatt-hours.

3.06 Wh = 11016 watt-seconds or J.

Note: 1 Wh = 3600 J, 1 h = 3600 s

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 Battery Cost
Wh/kg Joules/kg Wh/liter
Type $ per Wh

Lead-acid $0.17 41 146,000 100

Alkaline long-
$0.19 110 400,000 320
life

Carbon-zinc $0.31 36 130,000 92

NiMH $0.99 95 340,000 300

NiCad $1.50 39 140,000 140

Lithium-ion $0.47 128 460,000 230

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 Battery Electric Vehicle - Advantages

• Higher energy efficiency than conventional vehicles

– Internal combustion engines <30% efficient
– Rechargeable batteries >85% efficient
– Additional EV efficiency advantage from regenerative braking
• Petroleum not required
• No emissions (at least locally at vehicle)
• Improved fire and toxicity safety vs. gasoline vehicles
• Design simplicity and flexibility
• Reduced maintenance

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Battery Electric Vehicle - Disadvantages
• Low Range
– Batteries are big and heavy
– Battery energy density ~1% that of gasoline
• Battery specific energy 35-200 Wh/kg
• Gasoline specific energy 13,000 Wh/kg

• Slow Refueling
– Electric recharge of batteries takes hours
– Refilling a tank of gasoline takes minutes

• Cost
– Electric vehicles cost about twice as much
– Most expensive component is battery

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 Battery Requirements for EV

1. Discharge power to accelerate the car

2. Charge power for regenerative braking
3. Discharge energy for range
4. Cycle life and calendar life to last the life of the vehicle
5. System level safety to insure passenger safety
6. System level cost low enough to allow profit

NiMH Cell NiMH Module

1.2 V 11 cells
NiMH Pack for EV1
11 x 1.2 = 13.2 V
26 Modules
26 x 13.2 = 343 V
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 The Car Equation
To move a car requires this force:

F = ma + mg*Crr + ½ρCDAv2
where...

F = force required at the wheels of the vehicle

m = mass of the vehicle
a = acceleration of the vehicle
g = local acceleration of gravity
Crr = coefficient of rolling resistance between tires and road surface
ρ = density of the ambient air
CD = coefficient of drag of the vehicle in the direction of travel
A = cross-sectional area of the vehicle
v = speed in the direction of travel

The power required for propulsion is: P = F x v

(Strictly, there is an additional term for rotational acceleration of motor.)

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 Battery Requirements for EV - Power

• Propulsion Power Needed for

– Acceleration (5-20 sec)
– To overcome rolling resistance (proportional to v)
– To overcome wind resistance (proportional to v3)
– For hill climbing (5-7% grade can double cruise power requirement)

• Acceleration Power Example

– To accelerate 3000 lb vehicle 0-60 mph in 12 seconds
– 65 kW required from F = ma, P = Fv
– Additional power required for
• Rolling resistance, wind resistance
• Electronics and drive train inefficiencies
– 80 kW required in practice (10% to overcome aerodynamic drag, 3-
5% to over come rolling resistance)

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 Battery Requirements for EV -
Regenerative
• Charge Power Acceptance Needed
– To capture regenerative braking energy
– Braking force is provided through the transfer of kinetic energy of
vehicle motion tin to electrical energy that is then stored as chemical
energy in the battery.

• Regenerative Example
– To decelerate 3000 lb vehicle from 60 to 30 mph in 5 seconds
– 74 kW required from F = ma
– Regen power opportunity comparable with acceleration requirement
– In practice, regen usually supplemented with friction brakes

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EPA Driving
Schedules
Standard Driving
Profiles to Rate
and Compare
Fuel Economy

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 Battery Requirements for EV - Energy

• Energy Needed for ~160 Mile Range

– 40 kWh required with 250 Wh/mile energy consumption
– Energy consumption <200 Wh/mile achievable
– GM EV1 had ~140 Wh/mi highway energy consumption

• City Driving Energy Efficiency Advantage for EVs

– EV advantage due to regenerative braking
– Conventional braking energy inefficiency substantial
 Over 25% energy loss possible from friction braking
– City driving efficiency exceeds highway efficiency for EVs

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 Battery Requirements for EV
• Power
 ~100 kW for passenger car acceleration

• Energy
 ~40 kWh for >150 mile range

• Weight and Size

 Less than 1/3 vehicle weight
 Must fit on vehicle

• Life
 To deliver 100,000 miles over 10 years

• Cost
 EV drive train competitive with Internal Combustion 47
Engine (ICE) drive train
 Specific Performance Definitions
• Specific Power (W/kg)
 Power (W) ÷ Weight (kg)

• Power Density (W/L)

 Power (W) ÷ Volume (L)

• Specific Energy (Wh/kg)

 Energy (Wh) ÷ Weight (kg)

• Energy Density (Wh/L)

 Energy (Wh) ÷ Volume (L)

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 USABC Goals for
EV Batteries:
Primary Criteria
Specific Energy 200 Wh/kg
Energy Density 300 Wh/L
Specific Power 400 W/kg
Life 1000 cycles and 10 years
Cost <$100/kWh

For 40 kWh pack this is…

200 kg (440 lbs) weight
133 L (35 gal) volume
80 kW (108 hp) power
1000 cycles exceeds 100,000 miles
$4000 cost

U.S. Advanced Battery Consortium (USABC)

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 USABC Goals for EV Batteries:
Secondary Criteria

Mid Term Long Term

Charge-Discharge 75% 80%

Efficiency
(3 hr discharge, 6 hr charge)

Self-Discharge 15% 15%

and Thermal Loss in 48 hr in 1 month

Maintenance none none

Abuse Resistance tolerant tolerant

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 EV Battery Chemistries
Some Things Tried Practical EV Batteries
• Lead-acid
• Ni-Cd • Lead Acid
• Ni-Zn
• NiMH
• Na-S
• Na-Metal Chloride • Li-Ion
• Zn-Brs
• Zn-Cl2
• Zn-Air
• Li-Ion

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 Status of Battery Performance
vs. EV Goals

1. Specific Power – exceeds target

2. Specific Regen Power – exceeds target
3. Specific Energy – approaching target
4. Cycle Life – meets target
5. Calendar Life – approaching target
6. Safety – achieved with expensive controls
7. Cost – nearly 10 X cost targets

*Li-Ion batteries are best choice but have issues with

safety, calendar life, and especially cost
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