PASCO Basic Electricity Lab Manual EM 8622
PASCO Basic Electricity Lab Manual EM 8622
Teacher's Notes
and
Typical
Instruction Manual and 012-04367E
4/94
Experiment
Results Experiment Guide for
the PASCO scientific
Model EM-8622
BASIC ELECTRICITY
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EM
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10101 Foothills Blvd. • P.O. Box 619011 • Roseville, CA 95678-9011 USA ways to
Phone (916) 786-3800 • FAX (916) 786-8905 • TWX 910-383-2040 teach physics
012-04367E Basic Electricity
Table of Contents
Section ...........................................................................................................Page
Copyright, Warranty, and Equipment Return ................................................. ii
Introduction ..................................................................................................... 1
Equipment ........................................................................................................ 1
Getting Started, The Experiments ................................................................... 2
Comments on Meters ....................................................................................... 3
Notes on the Circuits Experiment Board ......................................................... 4
Experiments
Experiment 1: Circuits Experiment Board ....................................... 5
Experiment 2: Lights in Circuits ...................................................... 7
Experiment 3: Ohm's Law ................................................................ 9
Experiment 4: Resistances in Circuits ............................................ 11
Experiment 5: Voltages in Circuits ................................................ 15
Experiment 6: Currents in Circuits ................................................. 19
Experiment 7: Kirchhoff's Rules .................................................... 21
Experiment 8: Capacitors in Circuits.............................................. 23
Experiment 9: Diodes ..................................................................... 25
Experiment 10: Transistors ............................................................... 27
Appendix: Tips and Troubleshooting ........................................................... 29
Replacement Parts List .................................................................................. 31
Teacher's Guide ............................................................................................. 33
Technical Support ................................................................................ Back Cover
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Basic Electricity 012-04367E
Credits
This manual authored by: Clarence Bakken
This manual edited by: Dave Griffith
Teacher’s guide written by: Eric Ayars
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012-04367E Basic Electricity
Introduction
The PASCO Circuits Experiment Board is designed to circuit and continuing on to a study of Kirchhoff’s Laws
implement a large variety of basic electrical circuits for and characteristics of diodes and transistors. A labeled
experimentation. The Circuits Experiment Board can be pictorial diagram of the Experiment Board appears in
used for experiments beginning with a simple complete Figure 1.2 of Experiment 1.
Equipment
(1) Potentiometer–– 25 Ω, 2W
(1) Transistor Socket
(32) Springs
(1) Battery Holder
(3) Light Sockets Copyright © November 1990 $10.00
E M Phone (916) 786-3800 • FAX (916) 786-8905 • TWX 910-383-2040 teach physics
-
(3) 560 Ω–– 1/2 watt D
E -
+
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Basic Electricity 012-04367E
Getting Started
➀ Open the zip-lock bag containing the resistors and Store the remainder of the components in the zip-
other components. Distribute the following resistors lock bag until needed in future experiments.
and wires to each of the boards, storing them in the ➁ Students will need to use the same resistors, same bat-
plastic holder at the top of the board:
teries, etc. from one experiment to another, particu-
(3) 5" Wire Leads (12.7 cm) larly during experiments 4 to 6. Labeling of the
boards and your meters will enable students to more
(4) 10" Wire Leads (25.4 cm)
easily have continuity in their work. A pad has been
(1) 100 Ω Resistor (brown, black, brown, gold) included on the board for purposes of labeling indi-
(3) 330 Ω Resistors (orange, orange, brown, gold) vidual boards. Use of a removable label or using a
permanent marker are two alternatives.
(1) 560 Ω Resistor (green, blue, brown, gold)
(1) 1000 Ω Resistor (brown, black, red, gold)
The Experiments
The experiments written up in this manual are develop- Additional Equipment needed:
mental, starting from an introduction to the Circuits
Experiments 3-10 Digital Multimeter, VOM or
Experiment Board and complete circuits, through series
VTVM (See discussion on page 3)
and parallel circuits, ultimately resulting in diode and
transistor characteristics. These experiments can be used Experiments 8-10 The Meter needs at least 106 Ω
in combination with existing labs that the teacher em- input impedance
ploys, or may be used as a complete lab unit. Experiment 8 A timing device is needed,
Experiment 1 Circuits Experiment Board 0.1 second resolution.
Experiment 2 Lights in Circuits Experiment 9 A.C. Power Supply and an
Oscilloscope (optional)
Experiment 3 Ohm’s Law
Experiment 4 Resistances in Circuits
Experiment 5 Voltages in Circuits
Experiment 6 Currents in Circuits
Experiment 7 Kirchhoff’s Rules
Experiment 8 Capacitors in Circuits
Experiment 9 Diode Characteristics
Experiment 10 Transistor Characteristics
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012-04367E Basic Electricity
Comments on Meters
VOM: VTVM:
The Volt-Ohm-Meter or VOM is a multiple scale, multiple The Vacuum Tube Voltmeter or VTVM is a multiple
function meter (such as the PASCO SB-9623 Analog scale, multiple function meter, typically measuring
Multimeter), typically measuring voltage and resistance, voltage and resistance. They do not usually measure
and often current, too. These usually have a meter move- current. The meter is an analog one, with a variety of
ment, and may select different functions and scales by scales, selected with a rotating switch on the front of the
means of a rotating switch on the front of the unit. meter.
Advantages: VOM’s may exist in your laboratory and Advantages: VTVM’s have high input resistances, on
thus be readily accessible. A single meter may be used to the order of 106 Ω or greater. By measuring the voltage
make a variety of measurements rather than needing across a known resistance, current can be measured with
several meters. a VTVM.
Disadvantages: VOM’s may be difficult for beginning Disadvantages: VTVM’s have multiple scales. Students
students to learn to read, having multiple scales corre- need practice to avoid the mistake of reading the incorrect
sponding to different settings. VOM’s are powered by one. An internal battery provides the current for measur-
batteries for their resistance function, and thus must be ing resistance, and needs to be replaced from time to time.
checked to insure the batteries are working well. Typi- Grounding problems can occur when using more than one
cally, VOM’s may have input resistances of 30,000 Ω on VTVM to make multiple measurements in the same
the lowest voltage range, the range that is most often used circuit.
in these experiments. For resistances in excess of
1,000 Ω, this low meter resistance affects circuit opera- Panelmeters:
tion during the taking of readings, and thus is not usable
Individual meters, frequently obtained from scientific
for the capacitor, diode and transistor labs.
supply houses, are available in the form of voltmeters,
DMM: ammeters, and galvanometers (such as PASCO’s
The Digital Multimeter or DMM is a multiple scale, SE-9748 Voltmeter 5 V, 15 V , SE-9746 Ammeter 1 A,
multiple function meter (such as the PASCO SB-9624 5 A and SE-9749 Galvanometer ± 35 mV). In some
Basic Digital Multimeter or the SE-9589 General Purpose models, multiple scales are also available.
DMM), typically measuring voltage and resistance, and Advantages: Meters can be used which have the specific
often current, too. These have a digital readout, often range required in a specific experiment. This helps to
with an LCD (Liquid Crystal Display). Different func- overcome student errors in reading.
tions and scales are selected with either a rotating switch
or with a series of push-button switches. Disadvantages: Using individual meters leads to errors
in choosing the correct one. With limited ranges, students
Advantages: DMM’s are easily read, and with their may find themselves needing to use another range and not
typically high input impedances (>106 Ω) give good results have a meter of that range available. Many of the
for circuits having high resistance. Students learn to read individual meters have low input impedances
DMM’s quickly and make fewer errors reading values. (voltmeters) and large internal resistances (ammeters).
Reasonable quality DMM’s can be purchased for $60 or Ohmmeters are almost nonexistent in individual form.
less. PASCO strongly recommends the use of DMM’s.
Disadvantages: DMM’s also require the use of a battery, Light Bulbs
although the lifetime of an alkaline battery in a DMM is
The #14 bulbs are nominally rated at 2.5 V and 0.3 A.
quite long. The battery is used on all scales and func-
However, due to relatively large variations allowed by
tions. Most DMM’s give the maximum reading on the
the manufacturer, the wattage of the bulbs may vary by
selector (i.e., under voltage, “2” means 2-volt maximum,
15 to 30%. Therefore, supposedly “identical” bulbs may
actually 1.99 volt maximum). This may be confusing to
not shine with equal brightness in simple circuits.
some students.
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Basic Electricity 012-04367E
The springs are securely soldered to the board and serve When connecting a circuit to a D-cell, note the polarity
as a convenient method for connecting wires, resistors (+ or -) which is printed on the board. In some cases the
and other components. Some of the springs are con- polarity is not important, but in some it will be impera-
nected electrically to devices like the potentiometer and tive. Polarity is very important for most meters.
the D-cells. In the large Experimental Area, the springs
Connections are made on the Circuits Experiment Board
are connected in pairs, oriented perpendicular to each
by pushing a stripped wire or a lead to a component into a
other. This facilitates the connection of various types of
spring. For maximum effect, the stripped part of the wire
circuits.
should extend so that it passes completely across the
If a spring is too loose, press the coils together firmly to spring, making contact with the spring at four points.
tighten it up. The coils of the spring should not be too This produces the most secure electrical and mechanical
tight, as this will lead to bending and/or breaking of the connection.
component leads when they are inserted or removed. If a
spring gets pushed over, light pressure will get it straight-
ened back up. Spring
(side view)
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012-04367E Basic Electricity
EQUIPMENT NEEDED:
-Circuits Experiment -Board
-D-cell Battery -Wire Leads
-Graph -Paper
Purpose
The purpose of this lab is to become familiar with the Circuits Experiment Board, to learn how to
construct a complete electrical circuit, and to learn how to represent electrical circuits with circuit
diagrams.
Background
➀ Many of the key elements of electrical circuits have been reduced to symbol form. Each symbol
represents an element of the device’s operation, and may have some historical significance. In this
lab and the ones which follow, we will use symbols frequently, and it is necessary you learn
several of those symbols.
Battery
Wire Light
(Cell)
➁ The Circuits Experiment Board has been designed to conduct a wide variety of experiments easily
and quickly. A labeled pictorial diagram of the Experiment Board appears on page 6. Refer to
that page whenever you fail to understand a direction which mentions a device on the board itself.
➂ Notes on the Circuits Experiment Board:
a) The springs are soldered to the board to serve as convenient places for connecting wires,
resistors and other components. Some of the springs are connected electrically to devices like
the potentiometer and the D-cells.
b) If a spring is too loose, press the coils together firmly to enable it to hold a wire more tightly.
If a spring gets pushed over, light pressure will get it straightened back up. If you find a spring
which doesn’t work well for you, please notify your instructor.
c) The components, primarily resistors, are contained in a plastic case at the top of the board.
Keep careful track of the components and return them to the storage case following each lab
period. This way you will get components with consistent values from lab to lab.
d) When you connect a circuit to a D-cell (each “battery” is just a cell, with two or more cells
comprising a battery) note the polarity (+ or -) which is printed on the board. Although in
some cases the polarity may not be important, in others it may very important.
e) Due to normal differences between light bulbs, the brightness of “identical” bulbs may vary
substantially.
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Basic Electricity 012-04367E
Procedure
➀ Use two pieces of wire to make connections between the springs on one of the light bulbs to
the springs on the D-cell in such a way that the light will glow. Discuss with your lab partner
before you begin actually wiring your circuit which connections you intend to make, and why
you think you will be successful in activating the light. If you are not successful, try in order:
changing the wiring, using another light, using another cell, asking the instructor for assis-
tance.
a) Sketch the connections that the wires make when you are successful, using the symbols
from the first page of this lab.
b) Re-sketch the total circuit that you have constructed, making the wires run horizontally
and vertically on the page. This is more standard in terms of drawing electrical circuits.
➁ Reverse the two wires at the light. Does this have any effect on the operation? Reverse the
two wires at the cell. Does this have any effect on the operation?
➂ In the following steps, use a vacant spring
➤
connection such as one of the three around the
transistor socket as shown on the right as a
“switch.” Connect one lead from the battery to Can be
this spring and then take a third wire from the removed
spring to the light. You can now switch the “Switch”
power “on” and “off” by connecting or not
connecting the third wire. Figure 1.1
➃ Use additional wires as needed to connect a second light into the circuit in such a way that it is
also lighted. (Use a “switch” to turn the power on and off once the complete wiring has been
achieved.) Discuss your plans with your lab partner before you begin. Once you have
achieved success, sketch the connections that you made in the form of a circuit diagram.
Annotate your circuit diagram by making appropriate notes to the side indicating what
happened with that particular circuit. If you experience lack of success, keep trying.
➤ NOTE: Is your original light the same brightness, or was it brighter or dimmer that it was
during step 1? Can you explain any differences in the brightness, or the fact that it is the
same? If not, don’t be too surprised, as this will be the subject of future study.
CIRCUIT EXPERIMENT
1.5 volts
D cell
BOARD
Box
with what you achieved with Springs
1.5 volts
D cell
Model 555-04182-1
KIT NO.
Figure 1.2
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012-04367E Basic Electricity
EQUIPMENT NEEDED:
-Circuits Experiment Board -Two D-cell Batteries
-Wire Leads -Graph Paper.
Purpose
The purpose of this lab is to determine how light bulbs behave in different circuit arrangements.
Different ways of connecting two batteries will also be investigated.
Procedure
PART A
➤ NOTE: Due to variations from bulb to bulb, the brightness of one bulb may be substantially
different from the brightness of another bulb in “identical” situations.
➀ Use two pieces of wire to connect a single light bulb to one of the D-cells in such a way that the
light will glow. Include a “switch” to turn the light on and off, preventing it from being on
continuously. (You should have completed this step in Experiment 1. If that is the case, review
what you did then. If not, continue with this step.)
➁ Use additional wires as needed to connect a second light into the circuit in such a way that it is
also lighted. Discuss your plans with your lab partner before you begin. Once you have
achieved success, sketch the connections that you made in the form of a circuit diagram using
standard symbols. Annotate your circuit diagram by making appropriate notes to the side
indicating what happened with that particular circuit.
➤ NOTE: Is your original light the same brightness, or was it brighter or dimmer than it was
during step 1? Can you explain any differences in the brightness, or why it is the same?
➂ If one of the light bulbs is unscrewed, does the other bulb go out or does it stay on? Why or
why not?
➃ Design a circuit that will allow you to light all three lights, with each one being equally bright.
Draw the circuit diagram once you have been successful. If you could characterize the circuit
as being a series or parallel circuit, which would it be? What happens if you unscrew one of
the bulbs? Explain.
➄ Design another circuit which will also light all three bulbs, but with the bulbs all being equally
bright, even though they may be brighter or dimmer than in step 4. Try it. When you are
successful, draw the circuit diagram. What happens if you unscrew one of the bulbs?
Explain.
➅ Devise a circuit which will light two bulbs at the same intensity, but the third at a different
intensity. Try it. When successful, draw the circuit diagram. What happens if you unscrew
one of the bulbs? Explain.
➤ NOTE: Are there any generalizations that you can state about different connections to a set
of lights?
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Basic Electricity 012-04367E
PART B
➆ Connect a single D-cell to a single light as in step 1, using a spring clip “switch” to allow
you to easily turn the current on and off. Note the brightness of the light.
⑧ Now connect the second D-cell into the circuit as shown in Figure 2.1a. What is the effect
on the brightness of the light?
➤ ➤ ➤
➤ ➤ ➤
⑨ Connect the second D-cell as in Figure 2.1b. What is the effect on the brightness?
➉ Finally, connect the second D-cell as in figure 2.1c. What is the effect on the brightness?
➤ NOTE: Determine the nature of the connections between the D-cells you made in steps
8-10. Which of these was most useful in making the light brighter? Which was least
useful? Can you determine a reason why each behaved as it did?
PART C
11 Connect the circuit shown in Figure 2.2. What
is the effect of rotating the knob on the device
that is identified as a “Potentiometer?”
Discussion Light
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012-04367E Basic Electricity
EQUIPMENT NEEDED:
-Circuits Experiment Board -D-cell Battery
-Multimeter -Wire Leads
-Graph Paper.
Purpose
The purpose of this lab will be to investigate the three variables involved in a mathematical
relationship known as Ohm’s Law.
Procedure
➀ Choose one of the resistors that you have been given. Using the chart on the back, decode the
resistance value and record that value in the first column of Table 3.1.
Red (+)
Black (-)
Red (+)
Black (-)
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Basic Electricity 012-04367E
Data Processing
➀ Construct a graph of Current (vertical axis) vs Resistance.
➁ For each of your sets of data, calculate the ratio of Voltage/Resistance. Compare the values
you calculate with the measured values of the current.
Table 3.1
Discussion
➀ From your graph, what is the mathematical relationship between Current and Resistance?
➁ Ohm’s Law states that current is given by the ratio of voltage/resistance. Does your data
concur with this?
➂ What were possible sources of experimental error in this lab? Would you expect each to
make your results larger or to make them smaller?
Reference
Black 0
Brown 1 2nd Digit
Red 2 No. of Zeros Fourth Band
1st Digit
Orange 3 Tolerance
Yellow 4 None ±20%
Green 5 Silver ±10%
Blue 6 Gold ±5%
Violet 7 Red ±2%
Gray 8
White 9
Figure 3.2
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012-04367E Basic Electricity
EQUIPMENT NEEDED:
-Circuits Experiment Boar
- Multimeter
-Resistors.
Purpose
The purpose of this lab is to begin experimenting with the variables that contribute to the opera-
tion of an electrical circuit. This is the first of a three connected labs.
Procedure
➀ Choose the three resistors having the same value. Enter those sets of colors in Table 4.1 below.
We will refer to one as #1, another as #2 and the third as #3.
➁ Determine the coded value of your resistors. Enter the value in the column labeled “Coded
Resistance” in Table 4.1. Enter the Tolerance value as indicated by the color of the fourth band
under “Tolerance.”
➂ Use the Multimeter to measure the resistance of each of your three resistors. Enter these values
in Table 4.1.
➃ Determine the percentage experimental error of each resistance value and enter it in the appropri-
ate column.
Experimental Error = [(|Measured - Coded|) / Coded ] x 100%.
#1
#2
#3
Table 4.1
➄ Now connect the three resistors into the SERIES CIRCUIT, figure 4.1, using the spring clips on
the Circuits Experiment Board to hold the leads of the resistors together without bending them.
Measure the resistances of the combinations as indicated on the diagram by connecting the leads
of the Multimeter between the points at the ends of the arrows.
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Basic Electricity 012-04367E
Series
R1 R2 R3
R12=
➤
R12 ➤ R23=
➤
R23 ➤
R123=
➤
R123 ➤
Figure 4.1
➅ Construct a PARALLEL CIRCUIT, first using combinations of two of the resistors, and then
using all three. Measure and record your values for these circuits.
Parallel
R3
R2
R1
R1 =
R3
R23 =
R123 =
R1 ➤
➤ R2 3 ➤
R123 ➤
➤
Figure 4.3
⑧ Choose three resistors having different values. Repeat steps 1 through 7 as above, recording
your data in the spaces on the next page. Note we have called these resistors A, B and C.
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012-04367E Basic Electricity
Table 4.2
Series
RA RB RC
RAB =
➤ RAB ➤ RBC =
➤ RBC ➤
➤ RABC RABC=
➤
Figure 4.4
Parallel
RA
➤
RAB ➤ RAB =
RBC =
RB
RABC=
RC
Figure 4.5
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Basic Electricity 012-04367E
Combination
RB
RA
RA =
RC
RBC =
RABC=
RA ➤
➤ RBC ➤
RABC ➤
➤
Figure 4.6
Discussion
➀ How does the % error compare to the coded tolerance for your resistors?
➁ What is the apparent rule for combining equal resistances in series circuits? In parallel
circuits? Cite evidence from your data to support your conclusions.
➂ What is the apparent rule for combining unequal resistances in series circuits? In parallel
circuits? Cite evidence from your data to support your conclusions.
➃ What is the apparent rule for the total resistance when resistors are added up in series? In
parallel? Cite evidence from your data to support your conclusions.
Extension
Using the same resistance values as you used before plus any wires needed to help build the
circuit, design and test the resistance values for another combination of three resistors. As
instructed, build circuits with four and five resistors, testing the basic concepts you discov-
ered in this lab.
Reference
Black 0
Brown 1 2nd Digit
Red 2 1st Digit No. of Zeros Fourth Band
Orange 3 Tolerance
Yellow 4 None ±20%
Green 5 Silver ±10%
Blue 6 Gold ±5%
Violet 7 Red ±2%
Gray 8
White 9
Figure 4.7
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012-04367E Basic Electricity
EQUIPMENT NEEDED:
-Circuits Experiment Board -Multimeter
-D-cell Battery -Resistors
-Wire Leads
Purpose
The purpose of this lab will be to continue experimenting with the variables that contribute to the
operation of an electrical circuit. You should have completed Experiment 4 before working on
this lab.
Procedure
➀ Connect the three equal resistors that you used in Experiment 4 into the series circuit shown
below, using the springs to hold the leads of the resistors together without bending them. Con-
nect two wires to the D-cell, carefully noting which wire is connected to the negative and which
is connected to the positive.
➁ Now use the voltage function on the Multimeter to measure the voltages across the individual
resistors and then across the combinations of resistors. Be careful to observe the polarity of the
leads (red is +, black is -). Record your readings below.
Series
- +
- V1 +
R1 R2 R3
➤
- + - + - +
➤
V12 ➤
➤
V23 ➤
➤
V123 ➤
Figure 5.1
R1 = V1 =
R2 = V2 =
R3 = V3 =
R12 = V12 =
R23 = V23 =
R123= V123=
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Basic Electricity 012-04367E
➂ Now connect the parallel circuit below, using all three resistors. Measure the voltage across
each of the resistors and the combination, taking care with the polarity as before.
➤NOTE: Keep all three resistors connected throughout the time you are making your
measurements. Write down your values as indicated below.
Parallel
- +
R1 = V1 =
R1
➤
➤
R2 = V2 =
V1
R2 R3 = V3 =
R123 = V123 =
R3
Figure 5.2
➃ Now connect the circuit below and measure the voltages. You can use the resistance read-
ings you took in Experiment 4 for this step.
Combination
- +
R1 = V1 =
R2
R1
R23 = V23 =
R3
R123 = V123 =
V1 V23
➤ ➤
➤ ➤
➤ V123 ➤
Figure 5.3
➄ Use the three unequal resistors that you used in Experiment 4 to construct the circuits shown
below. Make the same voltage measurements that you were asked to make before in steps 1
to 4. Use the same resistors for A, B and C that you used in Experiment 4.
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012-04367E Basic Electricity
Series
- +
- VA +
RA RB RC
- + - + - +
➤
VAB ➤
➤
VBC ➤
➤ VABC ➤
Figure 5.4
RA = VA =
RB = VB =
RC = VC =
RAB = VAB =
RBC = VBC =
RABC= VABC=
Parallel
- +
RA = VA =
RA
RB = VB =
➤
➤
VA
RC = VC =
RB
RABC= VABC=
RC
Figure 5.5
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Basic Electricity 012-04367E
Combination
- +
RA = VA =
RB
RA RBC = VBC =
RC
RABC= VABC =
VA VBC
➤ ➤
➤ ➤
➤ VABC ➤
Figure 5.6
Discussion
On the basis of the data you recorded on the table with Figure 5.1, what is the pattern for how
voltage gets distributed in a series circuit with equal resistances? According to the data you
recorded with Figure 5.4, what is the pattern for how voltage gets distributed in a series
circuit with unequal resistances? Is there any relationship between the size of the resistance
and the size of the resulting voltage?
Utilizing the data from Figure 5.2, what is the pattern for how voltage distributes itself in a
parallel circuit for equal resistances? Based on the data from Figure 5.5, what is the pattern
for how voltage distributes itself in a parallel circuit for unequal resistances? Is there any
relationship between the size of the resistance and the size of the resulting voltage?
Do the voltages in your combination circuits (see Figures 5.3 and 5.6) follow the same rules
as they did in your circuits which were purely series or parallel? If not, state the rules you see
in operation.
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012-04367E Basic Electricity
EQUIPMENT NEEDED:
-Circuits Experiment Board -Digital Multimeter
-Resistors -D-cell Battery
-Wire Leads.
Purpose
The purpose of this lab will be to continue experimenting with the variables that contribute to the
operation of electrical circuits.
Procedure
➀ Connect the same three resistors that you used in Experiments 3 and 4 into the series circuit shown
below, using the springs to hold the leads of the resistors together without bending them. Connect
two wires to the D-cell, and carefully note which lead is negative and which is positive.
Series
+ -
➁ Now change the leads in your DMM so that
they can be used to measure current. You R1 R2 R3
should be using the scale which goes to a
+ - + - + -
maximum of 200 mA. Be careful to observe
the polarity of the leads (red is +, black is -). In
order to measure current, the circuit must be
interrupted, and the current allowed to flow Figure 6.1
through the meter. Disconnect the lead wire
from the positive terminal of the battery and
connect it to the red (+) lead of the meter. - + + -
I0
Connect the black (-) lead to R1, where the wire
originally was connected. Record your reading R1 R3
R2
in the table as Io. See Figure 6.2.
+ - + - + -
➂ Now move the DMM to the positions indicated
in Figure 6.3, each time interrupting the circuit,
and carefully measuring the current in each
Figure 6.2
one. Complete the table on the top of the back
page.
➤ NOTE: You will be carrying values from Experiments 3 and 4 into the table on the back.
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Basic Electricity 012-04367E
- + + - - I +
I0 2
R1 R2 R3
+ - + -
I1 I3
Figure 6.3
R1 = I0 = V1 =
R2 = I1 = V2 =
R3 = I2 = V3 =
R12 = I3 = V12 =
R23 = V23 =
R123= V123=
➃ Connect the parallel circuit below, using all three resistors. Review the instructions for
connecting the DMM as an ammeter in step 2. Connect it first between the positive terminal
of the battery and the parallel circuit junction to measure I0. Then interrupt the various
branches of the parallel circuit and measure the individual branch currents. Record your
measurements in the table below.
Parallel
+ + -
-
R1 = I0 = V1 = I0 I4
- R1
+
R2 = I1 = V2 = + I1 -
R3 = I2 = V3 = R2
+ I2 -
R123 = I3 = V123 =
R3
+ I3 -
I4 =
20
012-04367E Basic Electricity
EQUIPMENT NEEDED:
-Circuits Experiment Board -Two D-cell Batteries
-Wire Leads -Digital Multimeter (DMM)
-Resistors.
Purpose
The purpose of this lab will be to experimentally demonstrate Kirchhoff’s Rules for electrical
circuits.
Procedure
➀ Connect the circuit shown in Figure 7.1a using any of the resistors you have except the 10 Ω
one. Use Figure 7.1b as a reference along with 7.1a as you record your data. Record the
resistance values in the table below. With no current flowing (the battery disconnected), mea-
sure the total resistance of the circuit between points A and B.
C
R1 R2
A R1 C A B
R2 B R5
R3 R4
Wire R5 Wire D
R3 D R4
Figure 7.1a Figure 7.1b
21
Basic Electricity 012-04367E
R1 V1 I1
R2 V2 I2
R3 V3 I3
R4 V4 I4
R5 V5 I5
RT VT IT
Table 7.1
Analysis
➀ Determine the net current flow into or out of each of the four “nodes” in the circuit.
➁ Determine the net voltage drop around at least three (3) of the six or so closed loops. Re-
member, if the potential goes up, treat the voltage drop as positive (+), while if the potential
goes down, treat it as negative (-).
Discussion
Use your experimental results to analyze the circuit you built in terms of Kirchhoff’s Rules.
Be specific and state the evidence for your conclusions.
Extension
Build the circuit below and apply the same procedure you used previously. Analyze it in
terms of Kirchhoff’s Rules. If possible, try to analyze the circuit ahead of time and compare
your measured values with the theoretically computed values.
R2
R4
R3
R1
V2
V1 R5
Figure 7.2
22
012-04367E Basic Electricity
EQUIPMENT NEEDED:
– Vacuum Tube Voltmeter (VTVM) or Elec- – Circuits Experiment Board
trometer (ES-9054B) or Digital Multimeter – Capacitors, Resistors
(DMM) that has an input impedance of 10 MΩ – Wire Leads
or greater. – D-cell Battery
– Stopwatch or timer with 0.1 sec resolution.
Purpose
The purpose of this lab will be to determine how capacitors behave in R-C circuits. The manner in
which capacitors combine will also be studied.
Procedure
➀ Connect the circuit shown in Figure 8.1, using a 100-K Ω resistor and a 100-µF capacitor. Use one
of the spring clips from the transistor socket as a “switch” as shown. Connect the VTVM so the
black “ground” lead is on the side of the capacitor that connects to the negative terminal of the
battery and set it so that it reads to a maximum of 1.5 V DC.
➁ Start with no voltage on the capacitor and
the wire from the “switch” to the circuit
disconnected. If there is a remaining
voltage on the capacitor, use a piece of “Switch”
wire to “short” the two leads together, ➤
draining any remaining charge. (Touch A Resistor B
the ends of the wire to points B and C as Capacitor
shown in Figure 1 to discharge the
capacitor.) C
➂ Now close the “switch” by touching the
wire to the spring clip. Observe the V
+ -
voltage readings on the VTVM, the
voltage across the capacitor. How would Figure 8.1
you describe the manner in which the
voltage changes?
➃ If you now open the “switch” by removing the wire from the spring clip, the capacitor should
remain at its present voltage with a very slow drop over time. This indicates that the charge you
placed on the capacitor has no way to move back to neutralize the excess charges on the two
plates.
➄ Connect a wire between points A and C in the circuit, allowing the charge to drain back through
the resistor. Observe the voltage readings on the VTVM as the charge flows back. How would
you describe the manner in which the voltage falls? (It would be reasonable to sketch a graph
showing the manner in which the voltage rose over time as well as the manner in which it fell over time.)
➅ Repeat steps 3-5 until you have a good feeling for the process of charging and discharging of a
capacitor through a resistance.
➆ Now repeat steps 3-5, this time recording the time taken to move from 0.0 volts to 0.95 volts while
charging, tC, and the time taken to move from 1.5 volts to 0.55 volts while discharging, tD. Record
your times along with the resistance and capacitance values in Table 8.1 at the top of the back page.
23
Basic Electricity 012-04367E
Table 8.1
⑧ Replace the 100-µF capacitor with a 330-µF capacitor. Repeat step 7, recording the charging and
discharging times in Table 8.1. If a third value is available, include it in the data table, too.
⑨ Return to the original 100-µF capacitor, but put a 220-K Ω resistor in the circuit. Repeat step 7,
recording your data in Table 8.1. If a third resistor is provided, use it in the circuit, recording the
data.
➤ NOTE:
➀ What is the effect on charging and discharging times if the capacitance is increased? What
mathematical relationship exists between your times and the capacitance?
➁ What is the effect on charging and discharging times if the resistance of the circuit is increased?
What mathematical relationship exists between your times and the resistance?
➉ Return to the original 100-K Ω resistor, but use the 100-µF capacitor in series with the 330-µF
capacitor. Repeat step 7, recording your results in Table 8.2.
11 Now repeat step 7, but with the 100-µF and the 330-µF capacitors in parallel.
Type of Circuit tC tD
Series
Parallel
Table 8.2
➤ NOTE: What is the effect on the total capacitance if capacitors are combined in series? What if
they are combined in parallel? (Refer to Table 8.2).
24
012-04367E Basic Electricity
Experiment 9: Diodes
EQUIPMENT NEEDED:
-Circuits Experiment Board -Digital Multimeter (DMM)
-Wire Leads -Two D-cell Batteries
-1000-Ω Resistor -1N4007 Diode
-330-Ω Resistor.
Purpose
The purpose of this lab will be to experimentally determine some of the operating characteristics
of semiconductor diodes.
Procedure
➀ Connect the circuit shown in Figure 9.1a using the 1N4007 diode you’ve been supplied and the
1000-Ω resistor. Use Figure 9.1b as a reference along with Figure 9.1a as you record your data.
Note the direction that the diode is
oriented, with the dark band closer to
point B.
“Switch”
➁ With the “switch” closed and the current
flowing, adjust the potentiometer until
there is a voltage of 0.05 volt between
points B and C (VBC). Measure the
voltage across the diode (VAB). Record B C
A Diode
your values in the left-hand side of Table Resistor
9.1under “Forward Bias”.
➂ Adjust the potentiometer to attain the
following values for VBC: 0.1, 0.2,
0.3,.....2.0 volts. Record the two volt-
Figure 9.1a
ages for each case.
➃ Remove the 1000-Ω resistor and replace it with a 330-Ω
resistor. Repeat steps 3 & 4, going from a voltage of 0.3,
0.4,.....2.0 volts. Record the two voltages in each case.
➄ Reverse the orientation of the diode. Set the diode voltage A B
(VAB) to the values 0.5, 1.0,....3.0 volts. Measure the
resistor voltage (VBC) in each case. Record these values in 1N4007
the columns labeled “Reverse Bias”. C
Analysis R
➀ Determine the current flow (I) in each setting by dividing Figure 9.1b
the voltage across the resistor (VBC) by the resistance.
Where you switched resistors, be sure to change the divisor.
➁ Construct a graph of Current (vertical axis) vs the Voltage across the diode, with the graph
extending into the 2nd quadrant to encompass the negative voltages on the diode.
25
Basic Electricity 012-04367E
Discussion
Discuss the shape of your graph and what it means for the operation of a semiconductor
diode. Did the diode operate the same in steps 3 and 4 as it did in step 5? In steps 3 and 4
the diode was “Forward Biased”, while it was “Reverse Biased” in step 5. Based on your
data, what do you think these terms mean? What use might we have for diodes?
Table 9.1
Extensions
➀ If your instructor has a zener diode, carry out the same investigations that you did above.
What differences are there in basic diodes and zener diodes?
➁ Use an LED (light emitting diode) to carry out the same investigations. What differences
are there between basic diodes and LED’s?
26
012-04367E Basic Electricity
EQUIPMENT NEEDED:
-Circuits Experiment Board -Two D-cell Batteries
-Wire Leads -Digital Multimeter (DMM)
-1000-Ω Resistor -2N3904 Transistor (NPN)
-100-Ω Resistor.
Purpose
The purpose of this lab will be to experimentally determine some of the operating characteristics
of a transistor.
Procedure
➀ Connect the circuit shown in Figure 10.1a using the 2N3904 Transistor you’ve been supplied.
Resistor R1 = 1000 Ω and resistor R2 = 100 Ω. Use Figure 10.1b as a reference along with Figure
10.1a as you record your data. Note the leads on the transistor as marked next to the socket in the
drawing.
R1
C D
B
b R1 c
c e
D b
2N3904 C A B
R2 e
➁ Adjust the potentiometer carefully until the reading between points A and B is approximately
0.002 volt (2.0 mv). Now read the voltage between points C and D. Record these readings in
your data table. Note that VAB divided by R1 gives the current flowing to the base of the transis-
tor, while VCD divided by R2 gives the current flowing in the collector part of the circuit.
➂ Adjust the potentiometer to give VAB the following readings, each time reading and recording the
corresponding VCD: 0.006, 0.010, 0.015, 0.020, 0.025, 0.030, 0.035, 0.040, 0.045, 0.050, 0.055,
0.060, 0.080, 0.100, 0.150, 0.200, 0.250 volts. Also set VAB to 0.000 volts.
27
Basic Electricity 012-04367E
Analysis
➀ For each of your sets of readings, calculate:
IB = VAB / R1 and IC = VCD / R2
Record all of your current readings in mA.
➁ Plot a graph of IC (vertical axis) vs IB. If you find an area or areas where you need more
points to fill out any curves or sudden changes, simply return to step 2 and make the appro-
priate measurements.
➂ What is the general shape of the graph? Is there a straight-line region? Does it go through
the origin? Why or why not? Relate the behavior of the transistor at the beginning of the
graph to the behavior of the diode in Experiment 9.
➃ What does the leveling off of the graph indicate? Electronics people refer to the transistor as
being “saturated”. How would you describe saturation based on your experiment?
➄ Find the slope of the straight-line region of the graph. This ratio - I C / I B is referred to as
the current amplification of the transistor. It describes how many times greater changes in
the collector current are than the changes in the base current. Report the current amplifica-
tion of your transistor.
Discussion
Discuss the graph and the calculations you did in the Analysis section.
Table 10.1
Extensions
➀ What effect would changing the resistance in the collector circuit (R2) make? Try changing
the value to 330 Ω or 560 Ω. Does the graph have the same shape? Is the current amplifica-
tion the same as before? How does the amplification depend on R2?
➁ Obtain a different transistor and repeat the measurements you made in steps 2 & 3. If it is a
PNP transistor, you will need to reverse the wires coming from the D-cells as the emitter
needs to be positive, not negative, and the collector will be negative.
28
012-04367E Basic Electricity
Correct Circuit, Doesn’t Work The labs asking for relative brightness ask students to
judge relative brightness only, not an absolute brightness.
• Check to see if the circuit is indeed connected cor-
This part of the experiment would be aided by having the
rectly and completely.
room mostly darkened. Additional bulbs can be pur-
• Check to see if the battery is giving full voltage. chased from PASCO, at Radio Shack, an electronics
• Check to see if each wire is making contact with the store, at auto supplies stores, or possibly a local discount
spring. If magnet wire is used, the enamel coating store.
on the outside will prevent electrical connection and Batteries
needs to be removed. In some cases, students may
try to make a complete circuit through the insulation. The Circuits Experiment Board is designed to use one or
two D-cells. The voltage delivered by a D-cell is 1.5
Surprising Results volts ±. In practice, alkaline cells give the longest life,
but the less expensive zinc-carbon cells will give ad-
In some cases, there will be no difference in the measure-
equate results. A single set of batteries was used success-
ments from one point in the circuit to another. This
fully by ten different classes to complete labs 1,3,4,5, 6
doesn’t mean the measurement is trivial or unimportant,
and 7 before being replaced.
rather it is what we hope the student will learn from his/
her lab work. Not all measurements have to be different. Resistors
Making a “switch” The resistors supplied are listed under Materials on page
1 of this manual. The values have been chosen for clear
In the several labs, students are asked to use a “vacant” results and for helping to extend the life of the D-cells. If
spring connection such as one of the three around the resistors are lost or broken, replacements can be pur-
transistor socket as shown on the right as a “switch.” By chased from PASCO, or at any electronics store, includ-
connecting one lead from the battery there and then ing Radio Shack. Other values can be substituted, but for
taking a third wire to the circuit, you can effectively Experiments 3 through 7, the values should be between
switch the power “on” and “off” by simply connecting or 100 Ω and 1500 Ω for best results.
not connecting the third wire. This duplicates the action
in a real switch. ➤NOTE: Using the 330 Ω, 560 Ω and 1000 Ω
resistors gives approximate ratios of 1:2:3 for
working towards semi-quantitative understanding
of d.c. circuits.
➤
29
Basic Electricity 012-04367E
Wires Pulling the wire away from the stripper (Figure 3c) causes
the cut end of the insulation to slip off of the wire, leaving
The Circuits Experiment Board can be used with a large
3/8" of exposed wire.
variety of wire types and sizes. We recommend 20 or 22
gauge solid wire with colorful insulation. This will help
students to follow their work more easily and minimize Pull wire
➤
difficulties in making the transition from paper circuit to
actual circuit on the Circuits Experiment Board.
3/8"
➤
➤
Figure 4
Figure 3a
Squeeze ➤
handles ➤
Figure 3b
30
012-04367E Basic Electricity
31
Basic Electricity 012-04367E
Notes
32
012-04367E Basic Electricity
Teacher's Guide
Procedure These circuits have the same characteristics as the ones in part
2-3
➀
➅ There are two ways of doing this as well.
Parallel-in-Series Series-in-Parallel
➁➂ There are two ways of making the circuit so that both a b a b
lights are on with the same intensity.
Series c c
33
Basic Electricity 012-04367E
Procedure
0.16
➁-➅)Warn the students to be particularly careful when
setting up the multimeter to measure current. Attach- 0.14 J
ing an ammeter the wrong way can damage the meter. 0.12
0.1
Current
Data Processing
0.08
Resistance Current Voltage V/R % difference
0.06
100 0.02 1.579 0.02 -1.87%
0.04
560 0.00 1.582 0.00 -2.73%
0.02 J
330 0.00 1.582 0.00 -3.32% J
0 J J
1000 0.00 1.583 0.00 -9.17% 0 200 400 600 800 1000
10 0.14 1.549 0.15 -13.31% Resistance
Discussion
➀ Current is inversely proportional to R ➂) The greatest source of error is caused by the meter it-
self. Because the ammeter has some internal resis-
➁ Yes. A curve fit of the graph above gives Current = tance, the measured current is less than the current
1.36 x Resistance-0.98, which is quite close to the theo- when the meter is not there.
retical equation.
Procedure
➀-➃
Colors coded measured % error tolerance
#1 brown-black-brown-gold 100 98.9 -1.10% ±0.05%
#2 brown-black-brown-gold 100 99.6 -0.40% ±0.05%
#3 brown-black-brown-gold 100 99.7 -0.30% ±0.05%
➄ Series ⑧ Series
R12 = 198.3Ω RAB = 428Ω
R23 = 199.1Ω
RBC = 891Ω
R123 = 298Ω
RABC = 989Ω
➅ Parallel
Parallel
R12 = 49.7Ω RAB = 76.1Ω
R23 = 49.9Ω RBC = 207Ω
R123 = 33.3Ω RABC = 67.0Ω
R13 = 49.8Ω RAC = 84.1Ω
➆ Combination Combination
R1 = 98.9Ω RA = 98.9Ω
R23 = 49.9Ω RBC = 207Ω
R123 = 148.7Ω RABC = 306Ω
34
012-04367E Basic Electricity
Procedure Parallel
measurement Resistance Voltage
Equal Resistors:
A 67.49 1.574
Series
B 67.49 1.574
measurement Resistance Voltage C 67.49 1.574
1 100 0.523 ABC 67.49 1.574
2 100 0.528 Combination
3 100 0.527 measurement Resistance Voltage
12 200 1.051 A 100.00 0.509
23 200 1.055 BC 207.64 1.07
123 300 1.578 ABC 307.64 1.579
Parallel Discussion
measurement Resistance Voltage 1.6 J
2 33.33 1.565
1.2
3 33.33 1.565
123 33.33 1.565 1
Voltage
J
Combination 0.8
J
measurement Resistance Voltage 0.6
J
1 100 1.049 0.4
23 50 0.529
0.2
123 150 1.578 J
0
Different Resistors: 0 200 400 600 800 1000
Series Resistance
measurement Resistance Voltage In any series circuit, the voltage is distributed according
A 100 0.157 to the size of the resistors. (Notice that the graph above,
B 330 0.526 of the data from the second series circuit, shows this
C 560 0.897 direct relationship.)
AB 430 0.685 In any parallel circuit, the voltage is the same across all
BC 890 1.423 elements.
ABC 990 1.581 In the combination circuit, the voltage acts as if the
parallel resistors were actually one resistor, which is then
in series with the first. The rules are the same.
35
Basic Electricity 012-04367E
Procedure ➆ -11
➃ The rate at which the capacitor loses its charge de-
140
pends on the impedance of the meter used to measure
1 100,000 Ohm Z
the voltage, as well as on the size of the capacitor. For 120
this reason, most analog meters are not sufficient for Z 220,000 Ohm
100 Z
this lab.
Time (s)
80
➄
60 1
1
Charging 40
Voltage
Z
20 Z
1 1
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
Time Capacitance (µF)
Voltage
➤NOTES:
Discharging
➀➁ Charging: t = - R C ln(1-V/Vo)
Discharging: t = - R C ln(V/Vo)
Time In either case, the time is linearly dependent on
both resistance and capacitance.
➂ Parallel: Cp = C1 + C2
Series: 1/Cs = 1/C1 + 1/C2
37
Basic Electricity 012-04367E
Exp 9- Diodes
J
➀ A zener diode would be similar to the 4007, except
0.005 O LED
J
that there would be a breakdown point on the reverse
0.004
O
biasing, beyond which the current would flow. This
Current
J O
makes them useful for power regulation.
0.003 J O
J
J
J O
O
(and it lights up).
J O
0.001 J
J
J
O
J
J O
J
J
J O
JJ OO
0 J
O J
O J
O J
O J
O J
O O JJJO O O OO
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
Diode Voltage
Analysis Discussion
➁ ➀ This graph shows the results of applying different val-
ues for R2. The amplification remains the same in
2N3904 Transistor each linear region, but the size of that linear region
100 Ohm load
16 changes.
14
X X
X XX XX XX XX X
XX X
12 XX
XX 2N3904 Transistor
Collector Current (mA)
X
X various loads
10 X 50
X
8 X
Ñ 10 Ohm load Ñ
Ñ
6 X Ç 47 Ohm load Ñ
Ñ
Ñ
X 40 Ñ
Ñ
X á Ñ
2 ÑÑ
Ñ
X Ñ
X 30 Ñ
0 X
Ñ
Ñ
Ç
Ç Ç
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 Ñ Ç
Ç
Ñ Ç
Ç
Base Current (mA) Ñ Ç
Ç
Ñ Ç
20 Ñ
Ç
Ç
10 ÇÑÖ
sistor require to turn on. (Similar to the effect in lab 9) ÇÖ
Ñ
ÇÖ
Ö
rent; so beyond that point, there is no amplification. 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
Base Current (mA)
The current is limited only by the battery and resistor.
➄ The current amplification of the transistor tested was
249. This value will vary from transistor to transistor; ➁ The gain and/or saturation characteristics of the tran-
it’s usually between 150 and 250 for the 2N3904 tran- sistor will vary, although the basic shape of the graph
sistors supplied with the lab. will remain the same.
38
012-04367E Basic Electricity
Technical Support
39