Chapter 2 Static and Dynamic Characteristics of Signals

Static and Dynamic Characteristics of Signals
Outline
1- input/output signals concepts
-Classification of the waveform
2- signal analysis
Signal amplitude
Signal root mean square value
Discrete time or digital signal
3-Signal amplitude and frequency
- Periodic signal
-Frequency analysis
-Fourier series
4- Fourier Transform and Frequency Spectrum
Analysis of signals in frequency space
Input/output signals concepts
❖Measurement process is taking the physical input

and transforms it into an output quantity that can be
observed or recorded.
❖Signal: is the information about the measured
variable that transmitted from the process to the
measurement system or between the stages of the
measurement system.
❖Two important tasks that engineers face in the
measurement of physical variables are:
•Selecting a measurement system: depends on the input
signal (magnitude, rate of change)
•Interpreting the output from a measurement system
❖Signal waveform : Is the shape and form of the
signal. It contains information about the signal
magnitude and frequency.
❖Classification of the waveforms:
•Analog signal : Continuous in time
•Discrete or Digital: The magnitude of the signal is
available only at discrete points in time
•Digital signals: Useful when data
acquisition and processing are performed
using a digital computer.
•A digital signal has two important

characteristics:
•It exists at discrete values in time, like a
discrete time signal
•The magnitude of a digital signal is
discrete, determined by a process known as
quantization at each discrete point in time
•Quantization assigns a single number to

represent a range of magnitudes of a
continuous signal
❖According to changing of the Signal with time,
signals may be classified as:
•Static: If it does not change with time
•Dynamic: If the signal is time dependent
The dynamic signal is called deterministic if its

change with time is predictable and
Nondeterministic if it has no discernible pattern of
repetition
Deterministic Signal
Nondeterministic Signal
Signal Analysis
Signal can be characterized by:

1- Mean value (defines only the
static portion and It does not give
any indication of the dynamic
portion of the signal) t2
I R (t 2 − t1 ) = R  I 2 (t )dt
2
e
t1
2- Root mean square value (It t
characterizes the dynamic portion 1 2 2
t 2 − t1 t1
I e = I rms = I (t )dt
of the signal). It is defined as the
constant effective current that
produce the same energy
dissipation as the time-varying
current in a constant resistance.
Direct current Offset: To make the

dynamic portion of the signal
noticeable, the static portion is
subtracted from the signal.
Periodic signals
Periodic signal is characterized by its amplitude
and frequency, i.e., sine and cosine function.
Sine and cosine functions describe the physical

behavior of systems such as spring- mass system.
The time required for the mass to finish one

complete cycle of the motion is called the period,
and is generally represented by the symbol T
Frequency is related to the period and is defined

as the number of complete cycles of the motion
per unit time. This frequency, f, is measured in
cycles per second (Hz; 1 cycle/s = 1 Hz).
Is called angular
The relationship among , f, and the period, T, is frequency
C = A 2 + B2
Signal amplitude and Frequency
The behavior of the measurement system depends on the nature

of the input signal
Complex signals can be approximated as a series of sine and cosine

functions, which is known as Fourier analysis
The most obvious physical example of Fourier analysis is the

separation of the white light through a prism.
Frequency (Fourier) analysis
Any complex signal can be thought of as made up of sines and

cosines of differing periods and amplitudes, which are added
together in an infinite trigonometric series.
This representation of a signal as a series of sines and cosines

is called a Fourier series. Once a signal is broken down into a
series of periodic functions, the importance of each frequency
can be easily determined.
This information about frequency content allows proper

choice of a measurement system, and precise interpretation
of output signals.
Fourier series
For a periodic function y(t) with a period
T=2, it can be represented by a
trigonometric series in the form,
The terms corresponding to n=1 is
called fundamental and have the
lowest frequency.
The terms for n=2,3,4, …. Are
called the harmonics
For a periodic functions of arbitrary period

T, the Fourier series representation for the
function will be
If the function y(t) is an even
function, y(t)=y(-t), its Fourier
series will contain only cosine
terms
If the function y(t) is odd function,

y(-t)=-y(t), the Fourier series will
contain only sine terms
Example (1)
Determine the Fourier series that

represents the function shown.
Solution
Since the function is odd, the Fourier
series will contain only sine terms
0 if n=even number if n= odd number

Example(2)
E(t)
As an example of interpreting the frequency
content of a given signal, consider the output
voltage from a rectifier. A rectifier functions to ‘‘flip’’
the negative half of an alternating current (AC) into
the positive half plane, resulting in a signal that t (s)
appears as shown. For the AC signal the voltage is
given by
The rectified signal can be expressed as
FIND: The frequency content of this signal as

determined from a Fourier series analysis.
SOLUTION
The rectified sine wave is an even function,
so Bn =0 0 for n odd
for n even
E(t) =
Fourier Integral and Fourier Transform
Fourier series are used to represent periodic functions in

terms of sine and cosine functions
Non-periodic functions can be represented by

Fourier series If we consider the period of the
function to approach infinity. In the limit as T
approaches infinity the Fourier series becomes
an integral
The Fourier coefficients A() and B() are known as the

components of the Fourier transform of y(t)

y( t ) =  A() cos t + B() sin t d
1
0
1  
 
y( t ) =    ( y( v) cos(v) cos t + y( v) sin(v) sin t )dv  d
 0 − 
1  
 
y( t ) =    y( v) cos(( t − v))dv  d
 0 − 
1  
 
y( t ) =    y( v)[(cos(( t − v)) + i sin(( t − v))]dv  d
2  −  −  
1     i t
   
1 1
   y( v) e    y( v) e
i ( t − v ) − i v )
y( t ) = dv  d = dv  e d
2  −  −   2 −  2  −  

1

i t
y( t ) = Y ( ) e d
2 − 

1

− i t
Y() = y ( t ) e dt
2 − 
Y() is called Fourier Transform of y(t)

y(t) is called Inverse Fourier Transform of Y()
Fourier transform provides the amplitude-frequency properties of

the signal, y(t), which are not apparent in its time-based form
We can think of the Fourier transform as a decomposition of y(t)

into amplitude versus frequency information. This property is
analogous to the optical properties of a prism that separates the
white light to its basic spectrums.
Discrete Fourier Transform
In real applications of measurement, the function y(t) is

likely measured and recorded in the form of discrete time
or digital signal. It is not given in functional form.
Consider a signal y(t) measured at N times at equally

spaced time intervals t
The Fourier transform integral for this function is called

Discrete Fourier transform and it is given by
f ---- is the frequency resolution
2/N --- is a scaling factor
The DFT yields N/2 discrete values of the Fourier

transform. This is the so-called one-sided or half-transform
as it assumes that the data set is one-sided, extending
from 0 to tf , and it returns only positive valued
frequencies.
The time required to compute directly the DFT algorithm
increases at a rate that is proportional to N2. This makes it
inefficient for use with data sets of large N.
A fast algorithm for computing the DFT, known as the fast Fourier
transform (FFT), was developed by Cooley and Tukey. It is widely
available in mathematical packages such as Matlab and Labview.
Problems
1-20

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Static and Dynamic Characteristics of Signals

❖Measurement process is taking the physical input

•A digital signal has two important

•Quantization assigns a single number to

•Dynamic: If the signal is time dependent

The dynamic signal is called deterministic if its

Signal can be characterized by:

Direct current Offset: To make the

Sine and cosine functions describe the physical

The time required for the mass to finish one

Frequency is related to the period and is defined

The behavior of the measurement system depends on the nature

Complex signals can be approximated as a series of sine and cosine

The most obvious physical example of Fourier analysis is the

Any complex signal can be thought of as made up of sines and

This representation of a signal as a series of sines and cosines

This information about frequency content allows proper

For a periodic functions of arbitrary period

If the function y(t) is odd function,

Determine the Fourier series that

0 if n=even number if n= odd number

FIND: The frequency content of this signal as

Fourier series are used to represent periodic functions in

Non-periodic functions can be represented by

The Fourier coefficients A() and B() are known as the

Y() is called Fourier Transform of y(t)

Fourier transform provides the amplitude-frequency properties of

We can think of the Fourier transform as a decomposition of y(t)

In real applications of measurement, the function y(t) is

Consider a signal y(t) measured at N times at equally

The Fourier transform integral for this function is called

The DFT yields N/2 discrete values of the Fourier

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