Learning Objectives for this Chapter

1. Differentiate the Types of Surveying

2. Differentiate the Methods of Surveying

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2. Types of Surveying

2.1. Plane Surveying

The type of surveying in which the mean surface of the earth is considered as a plane, or in which
its spheroidal shape is neglected, with regard to horizontal distances and directions.
Plane surveying is the survey in which the earth surface is assumed to be plane and the curvature
of the earth is ignored. The plane surveys extend only over small areas and the lines connecting any two
points on the surface of the earth are treated as straight lines and the angles between such lines are taken
as plane angles. In dealing with plane surveys, knowledge of plane geometry and trigonometry is required.
Surveys covering an area up to 260 km² may be treated as plane surveys. It is to be noted that the difference
in length between the arc and the subtended chord on the earth surface for a distance of 18.2 km is only
0.1 m.
Plane surveys are carried out for engineering projects on sufficiently large scale to determine
relative positions of individual features of the earth surface. Plane surveys are used for the layout of
highways, railways, canals, fixing boundary pillars, construction of bridges, factories etc. The scope and
use of plane surveys is very wide. For majority of engineering project, plane surveying is the first step to
execute them. Plane surveys are basically needed for proper, economical and accurate planning of all
engineering projects and their practical significance cannot be overestimated.

2.2 Geodetic Surveying

The type of surveying that takes into account the true shape of the earth. These surveys are of high
precision and extend over large areas.
Geodetic Surveying is that branch of survey which deals with areas so extensive that it is necessary
to take into consideration the true shape and dimensions of the earth. Its primary object is not to determine
the exact Figure of the Earth, but to establish a very precise and rigid control for coordination of all other
surveys. This point is often overlooked, and the scientific aspect is sometimes stressed to the detriment of
the more practical side. It is true that the earth's dimensions must be known to enable the exact computation
of positions, but it is also evident that before these dimensions can be determined, it is necessary to carry
out the geodetic trigonometrical survey. Actually the position is that geodetic surveys are carried out,
firstly, to establish rigid co-ordination of all surveys, basing the computations on a previously known
value of the earth's dimensions; and secondly, as the survey extends or is completed, further data becomes
available for a check on the Figure used, or, if necessary, for the calculation of another figure to fit more
closely the territory being surveyed.
This is the science of locating and relating the position of objects on the earth relative to each
other, while taking into account the size, shape and gravity of the earth. This type of survey is suited for
large areas and long lines and is used to find the precise location of basic points needed for establishing
control for other surveys.
Horizontal and vertical networks that span the country form the primary spatial reference system
used in mapping, boundary demarcation, and other geomatics applications. Practical applications of
geodesy include monitoring earth movement and determining the precise location of points on the surface
of the earth, for use in satellite tracking and global navigation.

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2.3 Methods of Surveying

2.3.1. Control Survey

Made to establish the horizontal and vertical positions of arbitrary points. Control surveys provide
horizontal and vertical positions of points to which supplementary surveys are adjusted. Control surveys
provide the standard of accuracy for subsequent and subordinate surveys to attain. All projects, including
route surveys, photogrammetry, and topographic mapping, are made up of a series of vertical and
horizontal field surveys. These secondary surveys are dependent on control for position and relative
accuracy.

2.3.2. Boundary Survey

Made to determine the length and direction of land lines and to establish the position of these lines
on the ground. A boundary survey is a process carried out to determine property lines and define true
property corners of a parcel of land described in a deed. It also indicates the extent of any easements or
encroachments and may show the limitations imposed on the property by state or local regulations.
Easements may include a utility line easement crossing the subject property to a neighboring property or
appurtenant like the right to cross another property for access to a public road. On the other hand, the use
of a piece of land by an individual other than the owner unaccompanied by an authority to do so is
generally termed as encroachment. Boundary surveys are an important procedure for anyone buying a
property of any type. They are typically performed prior to buying, subdividing, improving or building on
land. Surveying the parcel before these activities ensures avoidance of future disputes, the expense and
frustration of defending a lawsuit, moving a building, or resolving a boundary problem.

2.3.3. Topographic Survey

Made to gather data to produce a topographic map showing the configuration of the terrain and the
location of natural and man-made objects. Topographic survey is simply the recording of coordinates and
height data for a particular survey area. This data can be used to create spot height maps, contour maps,
or more complex terrain models of the surveyed area. It is important in topographic surveys to record the
boundaries of your survey, both so that the data can be spatially located, but also, for the management of
point collection. More often than not, survey boundaries are defined by field boundaries, and it is good
practice to record these immediately after instrument setup and orientation. A topographic map represents
in a small area upon a drafting medium a portion of surface of the earth. For this reason the distance
between any teo points on the map must have a known ratio to the distance between the same two points
on the ground. The ratio of these points is the scale of the map. The scale is given in terms of map distance

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in a given number of units, which corresponds to a certain distance on the ground. Scales may be expressed
by direct correspondence or by a ratio. For example, a typical scale is 1 in = 100 ft. Expressed as a ratio,
this is 1:1200, or 1/1200. As scale of 1:1200, or 1/1200, indicates that 1 unit on the map corresponds to
2000 units on the ground.

2.3.4. Hydrographic Survey

The survey of bodies of water made for the purpose of navigation, water supply, or sub-aqueous
construction. Hydrographic surveying is a specialised and highly varied role, demanding a deep
understanding of the physical environment underwater. Hydrographic surveyors, otherwise known as
hydrographers, specialise in data acquisition, precise positioning and processing in both offshore and
onshore marine environments primarily for the safety of navigation. It’s vital to know about the shape and
nature of the seabed — for example, plans for new shipping routes need to take into account areas of
shallow water and sandbanks which could be hazardous, and engineers building offshore wind farms need
to know if the seabed will support new structures.

Hydrographers (also known as hydrographic surveyors) use state-of-the-art technology to produce

detailed plans of seabeds, harbours and waterways showing depths, shapes and contours. Some of the
work involves geomatic surveying or geospatial engineering – collecting the precise information needed
to draw up all kinds of detailed charts, maps and plans. In order to carry out their work, hydrographers use
sophisticated technology such as satellite positioning systems, echo sounders and computer-aided design
packages. The work usually involves periods onboard survey vessels, drilling rigs etc.

2.3.5. Mining Survey

Made to control, locate and map underground and surface works related to mining operations.
Mining regulations normally require mines to maintain plans and sections of the surface and any
underground workings. Regulations may require these documents to be provided to the government.
Regulations normally specify requirements for being up-to-date, in months.

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 It is important to maintain accurate plans for the use of current and future land users so that the
positions of any potentially hazardous workings or infrastructure are permanently recorded. Information
must be adequate to ensure that adjacent mine workings do not accidentally connect, with risk of flooding,
contamination or other safety hazards. Regulations may require minimum boundary pillars around mining
properties.
Internally, individual mines similarly require adequate information to prevent inadvertent
undercutting of installations and unplanned intersection of workings. It is important to know the positions
of all points underground relative to every place on surface, particularly for management of emergency
situations and rescues.
Mine operators require detailed plans for designing and controlling the excavation of mine
workings and the construction of all mine facilities.

Purposes Of Mine Surveying

1. Comply with regulations governing mine surveying, mine plans and related matters.

2. Ensure compliance with mining title arrangements (licenses, contracts): ensuring that all work is
carried out within permitted boundary limits.

3. Maintain an adequate geographic database (plans, sections, models) for planning the layout of all
physical features: mine workings, plant, buildings and all infrastructure.

4. Maintain a permanent record of all the above physical features.

5. Provide control for all mining excavations: position, direction, elevation, dimensions.

6. Provide similar control for construction of buildings and infrastructure.

7. Grade control: in some instances, survey is used to control the selection of ore of different grades
from zones within an orebody, both in open pit and U/G applications.

8. Measuring & recording mining activities: development metres, bank cubic metres extracted in
open pits, face advance or area mined in stopes (mainly in tabular orebodies), tonnage mined. This
information may be used for payment of contractors or of incentive bonuses to workers; for
reconciling ore mined with plant output and calculating or verifying mining and plant recoveries;
for reporting to government, confirming compliance with licensing arrangements and other
purposes.

2.3.6. Construction Survey

Made to lay out, locate and monitor public and private engineering works. A construction survey
is used to establish or mark the desired position of building corners, roads, sidewalks, or utilities, that the
engineer has designed. Particular attention is made to ensure the building does not encroach or overlap
into or over the designated setbacks, easements, or property line. These points are then “staked out” onto
the actual property to indicate the location of the improvement, generally flagged or painted lathe, stakes,
or rebar are used.
The stakes and points set during the process of construction surveying are not usually set at the
actual construction point, but usually on some sort of offset. This is done so that the survey stake is not
disturbed by excavation or other activities that will take place at the actual point of construction. The
stakes are marked with an "offset" and a "grade", which provides the construction crew with the spacial
relationship of the construction stake to the actual point of construction. The "offset" is the distance from
the survey stake to the horizontal position of the actual point of construction, and would typically be three
feet for curb and gutter to ten feet for underground pipes. The distance of the offset should be coordinated
with the contractor to accommodate any specific needs due to existing field conditions or special
equipment, and should be clearly marked on the survey stake (usually by a number enclosed in a circle).
The "grade" represents the change in elevation that needs to be obtained from the reference point to the
actual construction point, expressed as a "cut" (lower in elevation) or a "fill" (higher in elevation). The
grade should also indicate the vertical feature that the grade is referencing, usually a flowline or finished
floor elevation.

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 The results of construction surveying are seen in almost any urban, suburban, and even rural
setting. Almost any roadway, building, or other man-made improvement probably had some amount of
construction surveying involved. Construction surveying provides not only the horizontal location of new
improvements, but also the vertical information required to ensure that surfaces drain or pipes flow as
required.

2.3.7. Route Survey

Refers to those control, topographic, and construction surveys necessary for the location and
construction of highways, railroads, canals, transmission lines, and pipelines. The term route survey refers
to surveys necessary for the location and construction of lines of transportation or communication that
continue across country for some distance, such as highways, railroads, open-conduit systems, pipelines,
and power/telecom lines. Generally, the preliminary survey for this work takes the form of a topographic
survey.

In the final stage, the work may consist of the following:

 Locating the center line, usually marked by stakes at required interval called Stations.
 Determining elevations along and across the center line for plotting profile and cross sections.
 Plotting the profile and cross sections and fixing the grades.
 Computing the volumes of earthwork and pre paring a mass diagram.
 Staking out the extremities for cuts and fills.
 Determining drainage areas to be used in the design of ditches and culverts.
 Laying out structures, such as bridges and culverts 8. Locating right-of-way boundaries, as well as
staking out fence lines, if necessary.

2.3.8. Photogrammetric Survey

Made to utilize the principles of aerial photogrammetry, in which measurements made on
photographs are used to determine the positions of photographed objects.
The Photogrammetry is a surveying and mapping technique which has several applications. The
practice of Photogrammetry Applications in surveying includes siteplanning, topographic mapping,
earthwork volume estimation for proposed roads, a collection of digital elevation models (DEM), and
image-based mapping (orthophotography).
The term “photogrammetry” is the combination of the words “photo” and “meter” it means
measurements from photographs. The classical definition of photogrammetry is: “It is the art, science, and
technology of gathering reliable information regarding any physical object and the complete environment.
This technique involves a process of record-keeping, measuring, and evaluating terrestrial and aerial
photographs.
Photogrammetry refers to art because to obtain reliable measurements it requires specific skills,
techniques, and decisions taken by an individual. Photogrammetry is a science and a technology because

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it uses images and modifies it, through technology, into significant results. The Modern photogrammetry
involves image references and image forms different than photographs, like Radar images.
The photogrammetric process consists of proper project planning, image retrieval, image
processing, control data for image adjustment, data accumulation and presentation of an end product
results. The result of the photogrammetric method coordinates values of specific points, a realistic
representation of the earth surface (topographic map), or a reformed image of the earth surface including
map-like characteristics (orthophoto.)
Photographs used for photogrammetry are capture from a special (metric) camera, a typical camera
or from digital sensors. The images are captured and recorded from a tool fixed on a satellite, on an aircraft
as well as helicopters, or on a tripod (terrestrial photogrammetry) which is set up and mounted on the
ground.

2.3.9. Astronomical Survey

Generally involve imaging or "mapping" of regions of the sky using telescopes. An astronomical
survey is a general map or image of a region of the sky that lacks a specific observational target.
Alternatively, an astronomical survey may comprise a set of many images or spectra of objects that share
a common type or feature. Surveys are often restricted to one band of the electromagnetic spectrum due
to instrumental limitations, although multiwavelength surveys can be made by using multiple detectors,
each sensitive to a different bandwidth.
Surveys have generally been performed as part of the production of an astronomical catalog. They
may also search for transient astronomical events. They often use wide-field astrographs.

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