2 Marks Questions

UNIT 1
1. Define force.
Force is the agent that changes the state of rest or motion of object. It is in the form of push or pull given by one
object over other object.
Force = Mass x Acceleration [F = m a]
SI Unit of Force is Newton (N)

2. Mention the types of forces.

The types of forces are: tensile force, compression force, shear force

3. What are the characteristics of force?

Force is a vector quantity. It has characteristics like magnitude and direction. It acts on a point and along a straight
line. These characteristics of force are used in arriving at the effect of the force.

4. What is Principle of Transmissibility of Forces?

Principle of Transmissibility of Forces states that “If any force acting on a rigid object is shifted to any other point
along its straight line of action, then the external effect of the force on the object remains unchanged”.

Numerically, F = F’, where F and F’ are two forces acting along the same direction and same line of action and have
the same effect on the rigid object on which they are acting.

5. Define resultant of forces.

If a number of forces acting on an object are replaced by a single force which has the same effect on that object as
the combined effect of those forces, then such single force is called as resultant force.

In the above example, forces P and Q are acting at point A and force R is their resultant. If the object is pulled along
P and Q then it actually ends-up moving along R.

6. What is meant by resolution of forces?

A force F can be resolved in the two directions of a given plane. Let F be a force of an angle θ with the horizontal,
then it can be resolved in X-X axis and Y-Y axis as follows,

F1x = F1 cos θ, in X-X axis (Horizontal direction)

F1y = F1 sin θ, in Y-Y axis (Vertical direction)

7. State triangle law of forces.

Triangle law of forces states that, “If two forces acting simultaneously at a particle, be represented in magnitude
and direction by the two sides of a triangle, taken in order, their resultant may be represented in magnitude and direction
by the third side of the triangle, taken in opposite order”.

1
 Let P and Q are two forces acting simultaneously at a particle A. Let R be their resultant. Let P and Q are
represented in magnitude and direction by the two sides of a triangle ABC, taken in order (anti-clockwise direction). Then
as per triangle law of forces, their resultant R may be represented in magnitude and direction by the third side of the
triangle, taken in opposite order (clockwise direction).

8. State parallelogram law of forces.

Parallelogram law of forces states that, “If two forces acting simultaneously at a point, be represented in
magnitude and direction by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram, then their resultant may be represented in
magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram, passing through that point”.

Let P and Q are two forces acting simultaneously at a point A. Let R be their resultant. Let P and Q are represented
in magnitude and direction by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram ABCD. Then as per parallelogram law of forces,
their resultant R may be represented in magnitude and direction by the diagonal AC of the parallelogram.

9. State polygon law of forces.

Polygon law of forces states that, “If a number of concurrent forces acting simultaneously on a object are
represented in magnitude and direction by the sides of a polygon, taken in order, then their resultant is represented in
magnitude and direction by the closing side of the polygon, taken from first point to last point”.

Let F1, F2, F3 and F4 are forces acting simultaneously at a particle O. Let R be their resultant. Let the sides of
polygon ABCDE represent in magnitude and direction the forces taken in order (anti-clockwise direction). Then as per
polygon law of forces, the resultant R may be represented in magnitude and direction by the closing side of the polygon,
taken from .from first point to the last

10. State Lami’s theorem.

Lami’s Theorem: states “If three forces acting at a point are in equilibrium, each force will be proportional to the
Sine of the angle between the other two forces”.
Let P, Q and R be three forces in equilibrium at a point. Let α, β and γ be the angles between the lines QR, RP and
PQ respectively.

2
 P Q R
Mathematically, = =
sin α sin β sin γ

11. Define Moment.

Moment of force about a point is the product of the force and the perpendicular distance between the point and
the line of action of force. Moment of force is the effect of a force measured at a perpendicular distance (to the direction of
force). Moment of force results in turning or bending and it is also called Bending Moment.

In the above diagram, the moment of the force F about the axis O-O is, MO = F x d, where d is the perpendicular
distance between the axis O-O and the line of action of force, F

12. Define Couple.

Couple is a set two parallel forces of same magnitude but of opposite direction. Since they are opposite and equal
they don’t result in movement of the object. They result only in the rotation of the object.

In the above diagram, two 30 N forces act at a distance of 0.4 m from each other in opposite direction but are
parallel to each other. They both form a couple. Moment produced by these forces is given by, M = F x d = 30 x 0.4 = 12 Nm.
This moment is called as the moment of the couple. It results in the rotation of the wheel.

13. State the Principle of moments (or) Varignon’s theorem.

Principle of moments (or) Varignon’s theorem states that, “Moment of a Force about a point is equal to the sum of
the moments of the force’s components about the point”.
In other words, “The moment of the resultant of a number of forces about any point is equal to the algebraic sum
of the moments of all the forces of the system about the same point”.

If F is a force acting from a point O at a perpendicular distance r, then the moment (M O) of force F about the point
O, is equal to the algebraic sum of the moments of the components of the force F, (namely F 1 and F2) about the same point
O.
Numerically, MO = F r = (F1 + F2) r = (r F1) + (r F2)
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14. Define Reaction.
The resistance offered by the object when any force acts on it and tries to change its position or shape. Newton’s Third
Law of Force states, “To every action there is always an equal and opposite reaction”. This defines the reaction.

15. What is support?

Consider the example of beams carrying gravity loads (forces) from the roof slab above them. The beams are supported by
columns at end. These column supports, resist the beams from moving down due to downward acting gravity loads.

16. Mention the types of support conditions generally used.

Simple support (Or Hinged support Or pinned support) It offeres vertical (V) and horizontal reaction (H) .
Roller support. It offers vertical reaction (V)
Fixed support (Or Rigid support). It offers Vertical reaction (V), Horizontal reaction (H) and Moment reaction (M).

17. Write the conditions of equilibrium of a system of forces. (Or) What are the conditions to be satisfied for a
body in equilibrium?
For 3 dimensional systems:
• Algebraic sum of all forces should be zero, i.e. Σ F = 0: ( Σ FX = 0, Σ FY = 0, Σ FZ = 0 )
• Algebraic sum of all moments should be zero, i.e. Σ M = 0; ( Σ MX = 0, MY = 0, MZ = 0 )
For 2 dimensional systems:
• Algebraic sum of all forces should be zero, i.e. Σ F = 0: (For plane XY, Σ FX = 0, Σ FY = 0 )
• Algebraic sum of all moments should be zero, i.e. Σ M = 0; (For plane XY, MZ = 0 )

18. What is force system?

Force System consists of two or more forces act simultaneously on the same object. The various types of force systems are
based on the lines of action of various forces acting on the object.

19. Collinear forces: Line of action of all forces act along the same line.
Example: Forces on a rope in a tug of war.

20. Coplanar parallel forces: All forces are parallel to each other and lie in a single plane.
Example: System of forces acting on a beam (only vertical loads including reactions).

21. Coplanar like parallel forces: All forces are parallel to each other, lie in a single plane and are acting in the same
direction.
Example: Forces along the line due to mass of army men standing in a line.

22. Coplanar concurrent forces: Line of action of all forces pass through a single point and they lie in same plane.
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Example: Forces in ropes with pulleys, used to lift a weight, as below.

23. Coplanar non-concurrent forces: All forces do not meet at a point, but lie in a single plane.
Example: Forces on coins during play in a carrom board.

24. Non-coplanar parallel forces: All the forces are parallel to each other, but not in same plane.
Example: Forces on legs of a table.

25. Non-coplanar concurrent forces: All forces do not lie in the same plane, but their lines of action pass through a
single point.
Example: A tripod carrying a camera.

26. Non-coplanar non-concurrent forces: All forces do not lie in the same plane and their lines of action do not pass
through a single point.
Example: Various forces acting on a moving bus.

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27. What are the assumptions in Mechanics? (Or What is Idealisation in Mechanics?)
The object on which force is acting is assumed to be rigid.
The object can be treated as continuum (Or Continuous medium).
The object may be treated as a particle.
The force acting on an object may be treated as a point force.
Support conditions are idealised as simple support, hinged and fixed support.

UNIT 2
1. What are the methods used to analyse the trusses?
Method of Joints
Method of Sections
Graphical Method

2. When do you say that a pin jointed truss is statically indeterminate? (Or) How do you check the static
determinacy of a pin jointed frame?
A pin jointed truss is statically determinate if the below equation is true.
m=2j – 3
Where,
m = no. of members in a truss
j = no. of joints
A pin jointed truss is statically indeterminate if the above equation is false.

3. List the assumptions made in the analysis of a perfect truss (Or State the assumptions made in the analysis
of plane truss by Method of Joints.)
The truss is perfect truss
The load acts only at joints
The area of cross section of the member is less when compared to the length of the member

4. Define perfect and imperfect truss.

A truss called as Perfect truss if the below equation is true.
m=2j – 3
Where,
m = no. of members in a truss
j = no. of joints
A truss called as Imperfect truss if the above equation is false.

5. What are the limitations of the method of joints?

I cannot be used for imperfect truss
It cannot be used the load does not acts only at joints
It cannot be used if the area of cross section of the member is comparatively more when compared to the length of the
member
The time taken for the analysis by method of joints is more when compared with method of sections

UNIT 3
1. Define Centre of Gravity.
Centre of gravity is the point at the entire weight of the object (or area or lamina) is assumed to act. It is denoted by G.

2. Define Centroid.
Centroid is the point of geometrical centre of the area (or plane figure or lamina). It is denoted by G. Centroid coincides
with the centre of gravity if the thickness of lamina is uniform.

3. State the Parallel Axis Theorem (or Theorem of Parallel Axis).

Moment of inertia of an area about an axis which is parallel to the centroidal axis is, equal to the sum of moment of inertia
passing through the centroid axis and the product of that area and square of the perpendicular distance between the two
parallel axes.
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IAA=IXX + A (h1)2
IBB=IXX + A (h2)2

4. State the Perpendicular Axis Theorem (or Theorem of Perpendicular Axis).

Moment of inertia of a plane lamina about an axis perpendicular to the lamina and passing through its centroid is equal to
the sum of the moment of inertia about two mutually perpendicular axis passing through the centroid and in the plane of
the lamina.

IZZ = IXX + IYY

5, Define Moment of Inertia.

Moment of inertia about an axis is defined as the resistance offered by a body against angular acceleration, about that axis.
It is equal to the product of area and the square of the perpendicular distance of centroid of that area, to the axis about
which it is found.
Mathematically, IXX = A x dy2
Where,
IXX = Moment of Inertia about X axis mm4
dy = perpendicular distance (in Y axis) in mm
A = area in mm2
It is also called as Second moment of area.

6, Define Polar Moment of Inertia.

Polar of inertia about an axis is defined as the resistance offered by a body against twisting, about that axis.
It is equal to the product of moment of inertia of the area about two mutually perpendicular axes which are also
perpendicular to the axis about which it is found.
Mathematically, IZZ = IXX + IYY
Where,
IZZ = Polar Moment of Inertia about Z axis mm4
IXX = Moment of Inertia about X axis mm4
IYY = Moment of Inertia about Y axis mm4

7. Define Radius of Gyration.

Radius of gyration of any area about a given axis may be defined as the distance from the that axis at which all the parts of
that area would have to be placed, such that not to alter the moment of inertia about the given axis.
Radius of gyration give the idea about the concentration of that area around its centroid.
It is equal to the square root of the ratio of Moment of inertia about the same axis to the area.
Mathematically, rXX = √IXX ⁄A
Where,
rXX = radius of gyration about X axis in mm
IXX = Moment of Inertia about X axis in mm4
A = area of the object in mm2
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8. Define Section Modulus.
Section Modulus about an axis is defined as the resistance offered by a body against bending, about that axis.
It is equal to the ratio of moment of inertia about that axis to the centroid distance in perpendicular direction to that axis
about which it is found.
Mathematically, ZXX = IXX / yG
Where,
ZXX = Section modulus about X axis mm3
IXX = Moment of Inertia about X axis in mm4
yG = perpendicular centroidal distance (in Y axis) in mm

UNIT 4
1. Define stress and strain.
Stress is defined as the concentration of load per unit area.
It is denoted by σ and its SI unit is N/mm2
Mathematically,
σ=P/A
P = load in N
A = area in mm2
σ = Stress in N/mm2

Strain is defined as the ratio of change in dimension to original dimension.

It is denoted by e and it has no units as it is a ratio.
Mathematically,
e = δL / L
L = original dimension in mm
δL = change in dimension in mm
e = strain

2. Define Hooke’s law with an example.

Hooke’ law state, “Stress applied is directly proportionally to strain within the elastic limit”.

3. What are the various types of stresses?

Direct stress – tensile stress, compressive stress
Lateral stress – Shear stress

4. Distinguish between ductile and brittle materials.

Ductile materials exhibit flexibility. Brittle materials exhibit rigidness.
Ductile materials fails by yielding (excess change in length). Brittle materials fails by shattering.
Steel, metals like gold, silver, copper are Ductile. Concrete, brick and glass are Brittle.

5. What is limit of proportionality?

Limit of proportionality is the stress at which the stress applied is no more proportional to strain.

6. Name any two types of steel grades used for construction.

Mild steel - Fe 250
High Tensile Steel - Fe 415

7. What is elastic limit?

Elastic limit is the stress within which the material undergoes elastic deformation. If the material returns to original length
after the load is removed, is called as elastic deformation.
If the material does not returns to original length after the load is removed, is called as plastic deformation or permanent
deformation.

8. Define modular ratio.

Modular ratio is defined as the ratio of Young’s Modulus of two materials, used in same cross section of a structural
member like beam or column.
8
m = Esteel / Etimber
= (2 x 105 N/mm2) / (1 x 104 N/mm2) = 20

9. Define ultimate stress.

The maximum stress at which the material fails is called as ultimate stress.it is called as failure stress or extreme stress.
Mathematically,
Ultimate stress = Ultimate load / area
σultimate = Pultimate / A
Pultimate is the load at which the material fails, or it is the maximum load which the material cannot carry without fail.

10. Define working stress.

The stress at which the materials are subjected to during its usage is called working stress.
Its value is less than ultimate stress. Ultimate stress is reduced (divided) by a factor called Factor of Safety to arrive at
ultimate stress.
Mathematically,
Working stress = (ultimate stress/ factor of safety)
σultimate = σworking / FOS

11. Define Factor of Safety

Factor of Safety is the ratio of ultimate stress to working stress.
Factor of Safety is the factor by which the ultimate stress is reduced to arrive at the working stress. It is generally a
number in range of 1.5 to 5. It is used to take care
Mathematically,
factor of safety = (ultimate stress/ Working stress)
FOS = σworking / σultimate

12. What do you mean by Poisson’s ratio? Which material has maximum value?
Poisson’s Ration is defined as the ratio of lateral strain to linear strain. It is denoted by µ.
It is a measure of how an object deforms in lateral direction (Or perpendicular direction) if the load is applied in
linear direction. µrubber = 0.4999 and µsteel = 0.3. It means, under same load, rubber elongates more than steel in lateral
direction if the load is applied in linear direction.
lateral strain elat δd⁄d
Mathematically, Poisson’s ratio, µ = = =
linear strain elin δL⁄L
Where,
δd = change in lateral dimension, d= lateral dimension, δL = change in linear dimension, L = linear dimension.
Rubber has the maximum Poisson’s Ratio = 0.4999

13. Draw a typical stress-strain curve for mild steel (or flexible material) and mark all salient points.

a : Limit of proportionality b : Elastic limit c : Upper yield point d :

Lower yield point f : Ultimate load g : Point of fracture
o–b : Elastic Zone d–e : Plastic zone
e–f : Strain hardening zone f–g : Strain softening zone

14. Draw a typical stress-strain curve for TOR steel and mark all salient points.

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 Y : Yield Point R : Rupture point

15. Draw a typical stress-strain curve for concrete (or brittle material) and mark all salient points.

16. A 10 mm diameter steel bar of length 600 mm is subjected to an axial tensile force 50 kN. Determine the
elongation of the bar, if the modulus of elasticity of steel is 200 GPa.
P⁄A
E=
δL⁄L
50000 ⁄ ( π 102 / 4) 50000 ⁄ 78.54
2 x 105 = =
δL ⁄ 600 δL ⁄ 600
5000 x 600
Or, δL = = 0.19 mm
78.54 x 200000
Extension, L + δL = 600 + 0.19
Extension = 600.19 mm
UNIT 5
1. Define Young’s Modulus (Or Modulus of Elasticity).
Young’s Modulus is defined as the linear stress required to produce a unit linear strain.
It gives idea about the resistance offered by that object against change in length. Higher E value denotes stronger object.
Mathematically,
linear stress σ P⁄A
Young’ Modulus, E = = =
linear strain e dL⁄L
Its SI unit is N/mm2

2. Define Bulk Modulus.

Bulk Modulus is defined as the linear stress required to produce a unit volumetric strain.
It gives idea about the resistance offered by that object against change in volume. Higher K value denotes stronger object.
Mathematically,
linear stress σ P⁄A
Bulk modulus, K = = =
volumetric strain evol dV⁄V
Its SI unit is N/mm2

3. Define Rigidity Modulus (Or Modulus of Rigidity Or Shear Modulus).

Rigidity Modulus is defined as the shear stress required to produce a unit shear strain.
It gives idea about the resistance offered by that object against shear. Higher C value denotes stronger object.
Mathematically,

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 shear stress τ
Rigidity Modulus, C = =
shear strain θ
Its SI unit is N/mm2

4. Write an expression relating modulus of elasticity and bulk modulus.

E = 3K (1–2µ)
Where,
E = Young’s Modulus (N/mm2)
K = Bulk Modulus (N/mm2)
µ = Poison’s ratio

5. Write an expression relating modulus of elasticity and shear modulus.

E = 2C (1+µ)
Where,
E = Young’s Modulus (N/mm2)
C = Rigidity Modulus (N/mm2)
µ = Poison’s ratio

6. Write an expression relating modulus of elasticity, bulk modulus and shear modulus.
9KC
E=
3K+C
Where,
E = Young’s Modulus (N/mm2)
K = Bulk Modulus (N/mm2)
C = Rigidity Modulus (N/mm2)
µ = Poison’s ratio

7. Determine the value of bulk modulus for a material if the modulus of elasticity of the material is 200 GPa
and shear modulus is 80 GPa.
9KC
E=
3K+C
9 K 80
200 =
3 K +80
200 (3K + 80) = 720 K
600 K + 16000 = 720 K
16000 = 720 K – 600 K = 120 K
K = 16000 / 120
Bulk Modulus, K = 133.33 GPa

8. If Young’s Modulus = 250 GPa and Poisson’s Ratio is 0.29, find the shear modulus and bulk modulus.
E = 2C (1+µ)
250 = 2 K (1 + 0.29) = 2.58 K
K = 250 / 2.58
Shear Modulus, C = 96.9 GPa

E = 3K (1–2µ)
250 = 3 K (1 – 2 x 0.29) = 3 K (0.42) = 1.26 K
K = 250 / 1.26
Bulk Modulus, K = 198.41 GPa

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 16 Marks Questions
UNIT 4 & 5
1. Derive the relation between Young’s Modulus (Or Modulus of Elasticity) and Bulk Modulus.
Consider a cube of side L, subjected to three mutually perpendicular tensile loads of equal intensity P (Px = Py = Pz
= P), as in diagram.

Let,
P
Stress on each face, σx = σy = σz = σ =
L2
Young’s Modulus = E
Bulk Modulus = K
Poison’s ratio = µ
Side = L

Now consider the deformation of one side AB of cube under the action of the 3 mutually perpendicular stresses. The side
will undergo the 3 following strains;
1.) Linear tensile strain due to stress σx,
σ σ
ex = x =
E E
2.) Lateral compressive strain due to stress σy,
σy σ
ey = − µ =−µ
E E
lateral strain elat σ
(Poisson’s ratio, µ = = → elat = µ elin → elat = µ )
linear strain elin E
3.) Lateral compressive strain due to stress σz,
σ σ
ez = − µ z = − µ
E E
∴ Total strain of AB is given by,
dL σ σ σ
e= = −µ −µ
L E E E
dL σ
= (1 − µ − µ)
L E
dL σ
= (1 − 2µ) →[I]
L E

Volume of cube, V = L3
Differentiate with respect to L,
dV = 3L2 dL
Divide by V,
dV 3L2 dL
=
V V
dV 3L2 dL
= (∵ V = L3)
V L3
3dL dL
= =3 →[II]
L L

Substitute equation [I] in equation [II],

dV σ
= 3 (1 − 2µ)
V E

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 3σ
= (1 − 2µ)
E

We know that,
direct stress σ
Bulk modulus, K = =
volumetric strain dV⁄V
σ
= 3σ
(1 − 2µ)
E
𝐄
K=
𝟑(𝟏−𝟐µ)
E = 3K (1–2µ)
𝟑𝐊−𝐄
µ=
𝟔𝐊

2. Derive the relation between Young’s Modulus and Shear Modulus (OR Rigidity Modulus OR Modulus of
Rigidity).

Consider a cube of side L, subjected to shear stress of τ. Due to their stresses, the cube will be subjected to
deformation in such a way that, in the side ABCD diagonal BD is elongated (to BD1) and the diagonal AC will be shortened
(to AC1). Draw a perpendicular line from BD1 to D, at E, such that BE = BD.

Let this shear stress τ cause shear strain φ.

Let,
Young’s Modulus = E
Bulk Modulus = C
Poison’s ratio = µ

Tensile strain in diagonal BD due to tensile stress τ along BD,

tensile stress along BD τ
= =
Young′ s Modulus E
Tensile strain in diagonal BD due to compressive stress τ along AC,
tensile stress along BD µτ
= =
Young′ s Modulus E
Total tensile strain in diagonal BD,
τ µτ
= +
E E
τ
= (1 + μ) → [1]
E

Similarly total compressive strain in diagonal AC,

τ
= (1 + μ)
E
Let ABC1D1 be the deformed shape of face ABCD,
Increase in length of diagonal BD = BD1 – BD
change in length
Tensile strain in diagonal BD =
original length
BD1 − BD
=
BD
BD1 − BE
= (∵ BD = BE → 2 sides of a cube)
BD
D1 E
=
BD

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 DD1 cos 45°
= (in Δle DD1E, ∠ DD1E = 45°)
BD
DD1 cos 45°
= (in Δle ABD, BD = √AB 2 + AD2 = √AD2 + AD2 = AD x √2)
AD √2
DD1 1
= ×
AD √2 √2
1 DD1
= ×
2 AD
1
= × shear strain
2
1 shear stress
= ×
2 Modulus of Rigidity
1 τ
= × → [2]
2 C

Equations [1] and [2] are same, the strain in BD, i.e.,
τ 1 τ
(1 + μ) = ×
E 2 C
1 1 1
(1 + μ) = ×
E 2 C
E = 2C (1+µ)
𝐄
C=
𝟐(𝟏+µ)

3. Derive the relation between Young’s Modulus, Bulk Modulus and Shear Modulus.

Relation between Young’s Modulus and Bulk Modulus is,

E = 3K (1 – 2µ)
E
1 – 2µ = → [A]
3K

Relation between Young’s Modulus and Shear Modulus is,

E = 2C (1 + µ)
E
1+µ=
2C
E
2 + 2µ = → [B]
C

Add equations [A] and [B],

E E
1 – 2µ + 2 + 2µ = +
3K C
EC +3EK
3=
3KC
E(C+K)
3=
3K+C
𝟗𝐊𝐂
E=
𝟑𝐊+𝐂

4. If Modulus of Elasticity = 200 GPA and Rigidity Modulus = 80 GPa, find Poisson’s Ratio and Bulk Modulus.

Given Data:
Modulus of Elasticity, E = 200 GPa
Rigidity Modulus, C = 80 GPa

To Find:
Poisson’s Ratio, µ
Bulk Modulus, K

Formula:
E = 2C (1+µ)
E = 3K (1 – 2µ)

Solution:
E = 2C (1+µ)

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E
=1+µ
2C
E 200
µ=( )–1=( )–1
2C 2 x 80
µ = 0.25

E = 3K (1 – 2µ)
200 = 3 K (1 – 2 x 0.25) = 3 K (0.5) = 1.5 K
K = 200 / 1.5 = 133.33 GPa

Result:
Poisson’s Ratio, µ = 0.25
Bulk Modulus, K = 133.33 GPa

5. A steel bar 300 mm long, 60 mm wide and 15 mm thick, is subjected to an axial pull of 100 kN. Find the
change in length, width, thickness and volume of the bar. E = 200 GPa and μ = 0.3

Given Data:
Length, L = 300 mm
Breadth, b = 60 mm
Depth, d = 15 mm
Axial pull force (tensile force), P = 100 kN = 100 x 103 N
Young’s Modulus, E = 200 GPa = 2 x 105 N/mm2
Poisson’s Ratio, μ = 0.3

To Find:
Change in dimensions, δL, δb, δd
Change in volume, δV

Diagram:

Formula:
direct stress σ P⁄A
Young’s Modulus, E = = =
linear strain elin δL⁄L
lateral strain elat
Poisson’s Ratio, µ = =
linear strain elin

Solution:
P⁄A
E=
δL⁄L
PL 100 × 103 × 300
Or, δL = = = 0.167 mm
AE 60 × 15 × 2 × 105

elat δb⁄b
µ= =
elin δL⁄L
µ b δL
Or, δb =
L
0.3 × 60 × 0.167
= = 0.01 mm
300

15
 elat δd⁄d
Also, µ = =
elin δL⁄L
µ d δL
Or, δd =
L
0.3 × 15 × 0.167
= = 0.0025 mm
300

Volume, V = L b d = 300 x 60 x 15 = 270000 mm3

δV
Volumetric strain, evol =
V
δL
Also, evol = (1 – 2µ)
L
δV δL
∴ = (1 – 2µ)
V L
δL
Or, δV = V (1 – 2µ)
L
0.167
= 270000 x (1 – 2 x 0.3) = 60 mm3
300

Result:
Change in dimensions,
Change in length, δL = 0.167 mm
Change in breadth, δb = 0.01 mm
Change in thickness, δd = 0.0025 mm
Change in volume, δV = 60 mm3

6. A 600 mm long bar is of area 50 mm x 40 mm. This bar is subjected to: (i) 40 kN tensile force on 50 mm x
40 mm side, (ii) 200 kN compressive force on 40 mm x 600 mm side and (iii) 300 kN tensile force on 600 mm x 50
mm side. If E = 2 x 105 N/mm2 and μ = 0.3, find change in dimensions and change in volume.

Given Data:
Length, L (Or) x = 600 mm
Breadth, b (Or) z = 50 mm
Depth, d (Or) y = 40 mm
Tensile force on 50 mm x 40 mm side (X direction), Px = 40 kN = 40 x 103 N
Tensile force on 600 mm x 50 mm side (Y direction), Py = 300 kN = 300 x 103 N
Compressive force on 40 mm x 600 mm side (Z direction), Pz = –200 kN = –200 x 103 N
Young’s Modulus, E = 2 x 105 N/mm2
Poisson’s Ratio, μ = 0.3

To Find:
Change in dimensions, δL, δb, δd
Change in volume, δV

Diagram:

Formula:
1
Volumetric strain due to stresses in 3 directions, evol = (σx + σy + σz) (1 – 2µ)
E
load P
Stress, σ = =
area A
Solution:
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 Px 40 x 103
Stress in X direction, σx = = = 20 N/mm2
yz 40 × 50
Py 300 x 103
Stress in Y direction, σy = = = 10 N/mm2
xz 600 × 50
Pz –200 x 103
Stress in Z direction, σz = = = –8.33 N/mm2
xy 600 × 40

σx σy + σz 1
Strain in X direction, ex = –µ( )= [σx − μ(σy + σz )]
E E E
δx
Also, ex =
x
δx 1
∴ = [σx − μ(σy + σz )]
x E
x 600
Or, δx = [σx − μ(σy + σz )] = [20 − 0.3(10 + (−)8.33)]
E 2 × 105
= 0.0585 mm

σy σz + σx 1
Strain in Y direction, ey = –µ( )= [σy − μ(σz + σx )]
E E E
δy
Also, ey =
y
δy 1
∴ = [σy − μ(σz + σx )]
y E
y 40
Or, δy = [σy − μ(σz + σx )] = [10 − 0.3((−)8.33 + 20)]
E 2 × 105
= 0.0013 mm

σz σx + σy 1
Strain in Z direction, ez = –µ( )= [σx − μ(σy + σz )]
E E E
δx
Also, ex =
x
δx 1
∴ = [σx − μ(σy + σz )]
x E
x 50
Or, δx = [σx − μ(σy + σz )] = [(−)8.33 − 0.3(10 + 20)]
E 2 × 105
= –0.00433 mm

Volume = L b d = 600 x 50 x 40 = 1200000 mm3

1
Volumetric Strain, evol = (σx + σy + σz) (1 – 2µ)
E
δV
Also, evol =
V
δV 1
∴ = (σx + σy + σz) (1 – 2µ)
V E
V 1200000
Or, δV = (σx + σy + σz) (1 – 2µ) = [20 + 10 + (–)8.33] [1 – 2 x 0.3]
E 2 × 105
= 52 mm3

Result:
Change in dimensions,
Change in length, δL = 0.0585 mm = 5.85 x 10–2 mm (expansion)
Change in breadth, δb = –0.00433 mm = –4.33 x 10–3 mm (i.e. reduction in dimension)
Change in thickness, δd = 0.0013 mm = 1.3 x 10–3 mm (expansion)
Change in volume, δV = 52 mm3 (increase in volume)

7. A square bar of area 40 mm x 40 mm is subjected to axial pull of 160 kN, the measured extension of length
200 mm is 0.1 mm and the decrease on each side of square is 0.005 mm. Find the Modulus of Elasticity, Poisson’s
Ratio, Shear Modulus and Bulk Modulus.

Given Data:
Axial pull (tension), P = 160 kN = 160 x 103 N
Side of square, s = 40 mm
Reduction in side, δs = 0.005 mm
Length, L = 200 mm
Extension in length, δL = 0.1 mm

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 To Find:
Modulus of Elasticity, E
Poisson’s Ratio, µ
Shear Modulus, C
Bulk Modulus, K

Diagram:

Formula:
direct stress σ P⁄A
Modulus of Elasticity, E = = =
linear strain elin δL⁄L
lateral strain elat δs⁄s
Poisson’s Ratio, µ = = =
linear strain elin δL⁄L
E
Shear Modulus, C =
2(1+µ)
E
Bulk Modulus, K =
3(1−2µ)

Solution:
P⁄A 160 x 103 ⁄ (40 ×40)
E= =
δL⁄L 0.1 ⁄ 200
E = 200000 = 2 x 105 N/mm2 = 200 GPa
δs⁄s 0.005⁄40
µ= =
δL⁄L 0.1⁄200
µ = 0.25
E 2 × 105
C= =
2(1+µ) 2 ( 1 + 0.25 )
C = 80000 = 8 x 104 N/mm2 = 80 GPa
E 2 × 105
K= =
3(1−2µ) 3 ( 1 – 2 × 0.25)
K = 133333 = 133.333 x 103 N/mm2 = 133.333 GPa

Result:
Modulus of Elasticity, E = 2 x 105 N/mm2 = 200 GPa
Poisson’s Ratio, µ = 0.25
Shear Modulus, C = 8 x 104 N/mm2 = 80 GPa
Bulk Modulus, K = 133.333 x 103 N/mm2 = 133.333 GPa

NOTE:
1. In below table for standard Centroid values, for non-right angled triangle (No. 4), if the reference point (O) is at the apex
of the triangle (instead of base as given in diagram), then the centroid distance is = b – (b/3) = 2b/3
Or h – (h/3) = 2h/3

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