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HYDROLOGY

1 PRECIPITATION

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. What is hydrology?

Hydrology is the study of water in all its phase, and includes hydraulics, the physics,
and chemistry of water, meteorology, geology and biology.
In a more limited sense hydrology is the study of the hydrologic cycle in which water
rises by process of evaporation and transpiration, is carried over the land where it falls
as precipitation.
1.2. Hydrologic Cycle
The three main phases of the hydrologic cycle are
(i) Evaporation and transpiration.
(ii) Precipitation
(iii) Runoff
The water particles have different residence time in each phase.
1.3. Residence time
• This is the average time taken by a water molecule in crossing one particular phase of
hydrologic cycle.
• The ‘phase’ does not essentially mean solid, liquid and gas.
• Mathematically, it can be expressed as
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑅𝑒 𝑠 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒  =
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑒
1.4. Catchment Area
Area draining into a river or stream is called the catchment area of that stream at a
particular location.
It is also called watershed, drainage area and drainage basin.

Ridge: It is a line which divides one catchment are from its neighbouring catchment
area. It is also called water divide or divide.

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1.5. Hydrologic Equation (Water budget equation)

The hydrologic equation is merely a statement of the law of conservation of matter and
mathematically it can be expressed as
| Mass Inflow – Mass Outflow | = Change in Storage
• Inflow includes following quantities
(i) Precipitation
(ii) Surface inflow
(iii) Ground water inflow
(iv) Import.
• Outflow includes following quantities.
(i) Surface outflow
(ii) Ground water outflow
(iii) Export
(iv) Evaporation
(v) Transpiration
(vi) Interception
• All values should have same units only then we can use this equation.
Example: A small catchment of area 150 ha received a rainfall of 10.5 cm in 90
minutes due to a storm. At the outlet of the catchment, the stream draining the
catchment was dry before the storm and experienced a runoff lasting for 10 hours with
an average discharge of 1.5 m3/s. The stream was again dry after the runoff event. (a)
What is the amount of water which was not available to runoff due to combined effect
of infiltration, evaporation and transpiration? What is the ratio of runoff to precipitation?
Solution:
The water budget equation for the catchment in a time ∆t is
R=P–L
where L = Losses = water not available to runoff due to infiltration (causing addition to
soil moisture in the groundwater storage), evaporation, transpiration and surface
storage.
In the present case ∆t = duration of the runoff = 10 hours.
Note that the rainfall occurred in the first 90 minutes and the rest 8.5 hours the
precipitation was zero.
(a) P = Input due to precipitation in 10 hours
= 150 × 100 × 100 × (10.5/100) = 157,500 m 3
R = runoff volume = outflow volume at the catchment outlet in 10 hours
= 1.5 × 10 × 60 × 60 = 54,000 m3
Hence losses L = 157,500 – 54,000 = 103,500 m3

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(b) Runoff/rainfall = 54,000/157,500 = 0.343

1.6. World water balance
Total volume of water on Earth = 1386 Mkm3 ≈ 1400 Mkm3
96.5% → 𝑂𝑐𝑒𝑎𝑛 → 𝑆𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒
} 97.5% → 𝑆𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒
1% → ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑑 → 𝑆𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒
(All values are approximate)

2. PRECIPITATION

Precipitation denotes all form of water that reach the earth from the atmosphere.
Precipitation is one of the three major phases in hydrologic cycle and one of the major items
of inflow in the hydrologic equation. It includes rain, snow, hail, dew and frost.
2.1 Types and Causes
The following are the different types of precipitation.
(i) Rain: It is the most dominant from of precipitation in Indian. It denotes water
droplets of size varying 0.5 to 6 mm. On the basis of which intensity of rainfall is
classified as follows

Intensity (mm/hr)

0 – 2.5 Light Rain

2.7 – 7.5 Medium/Moderate Rain

> 7.5 Heavy Rain

Note:
• In India, rainfall data is collected every day at 8.30 am and if rainfall on a particular
day is more than 2.5 mm then that day is known as rainy day.
• Average rain fall per year in India is 119 cm ≃ 120 cm.
(ii) Drizzle: It denotes fine droplets of water whose size is less than 0.5 mm and
intensity is less than 1 mm/hr
(iii) Snow: These are ice crystals having the density of 0.1 gm/cc
(iv) Glaze: When droplet of water comes in contact with cold ground surface, then
water is converted into ice, which is called as glaze or freezing rain.
(v) Sleet: These are frozen rain drops of transparent nature which forms when rain
falls through subfreezing temperature.
(vi) Hail: These are lumps of ice whose size is greater than 8 mm.

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2.2. Weather System for Precipitation

• Convective Precipitation: This type of precipitation occurs due to the temperature
differences. Warm air rises up because of its lesser density and air from cooler
surrounding flows to take up its place, thus setting up a convective cell. The rising
warm air undergoes cooling and results in precipitation. Areal extent of such rains is
usually small (diameter of around 10km).
• Oro graphic Precipitation: When moist air masses get lifted up due to presence of
mountain barriers, they undergo cooling, condensation and precipitation. Such a
precipitation is known as Orographic precipitation. The windward slopes have heavy
precipitation and the leeward slopes light rainfall.

• Frontal Precipitation: Under certain favourable conditions when a warm air mass
and cold air mass meet, the warmer air mass is lifted over the colder one with the
formation of a front. The ascending warmer air cools adiabatically with the
consequent formation of clouds and precipitation.
• Cyclonic Precipitation: This type of precipitation occurs due to the pressure
differences. A cyclone is a large low-pressure region with circular wind motion. The
rainfall will normally be heavy in the entire region occupied by the cyclone.

3. AVERAGE ANNUAL RAINFALL

The amount of rain collected by a rain gauge in the last 24 hrs is called daily rainfall and the
amount collected in one year is called as annual rainfall. The average value of annual rainfall
for a period of 35 years is called average annual rainfall.

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4. INDEX OF WETNESS

The actual precipitation for a given year may differ from the long-time mean. To bring out
this important relationship. We often express the actual precipitation for a given year as a
ratio to the mean. Such a factor is called the index of wetness. This factor is used to find
deficiency in rainfall and is given as follows:
𝑅𝑎 𝑖𝑛𝑓 𝑎 𝑙𝑙 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑡𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 = × 100
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑎 𝑖𝑛𝑓 𝑎 𝑙𝑙
• If index of wetness is 100%, it indicates a normal year. If it is greater than 100%, it is
called as good year and if it is less than 100%, it is called bad year.

5. DROUGHT

This is a climatic situation characterised by less availability of moisture. Following are

different types of drought.
(i) Meteorological Drought
The type of drought occurs by deficiency in precipitation. If the deficiency is more than 25%
it is known as drought. If deficiency is in between 25 – 50%, it is known as moderate drought
and it is greater than 50%, it is known as severe drought.
A particular year is drought year if area affected by drought is more than 20% of total area of
the country.
(ii) Hydrological drought
This type of drought denotes below average value of stream flow, water content in lakes,
reservoir, underground water etc.
(iii) Agricultural draught
This type of drought denotes deficiency of water which is required for meeting the
evapotranspiration needs of a crop. It is denoted by a factor known as Aridity Index.
Mathematically it can be expressed as
𝑃𝐸𝑇−𝐴𝐸𝑇
Aridity index = × 100
𝑃𝐸𝑇

Here, PET = potential evapotranspiration.

AET = actual evapotranspiration.
On the basis of aridity index, regions can be classified as follows.
Aridity index %)
0 – 25 Mild
25 – 50 Moderate
>50 Severe

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6. MEASUREMENT OF RAINFALL

Rainfall is expressed in terms of depth to which water would stand on an area if all the
rainfall is collected on it. Rainfall is measured by an instrument called Rain gauge which is
also known as pluviometer, ombrometor, hyetometer.
Following are the requirements which has to be satisfied prior to installation of rain gauge.
(a) Rain gauge must be surrounded by an open fenced area of at least 5.5 m × 5.5 m
(b) Rain gauge must be installed at a distance of at least 30 m or twice the height of building
or obstruction.
(c) Rain gauge must be installed on a level surface which is free from undulation.
A rain gauge basically consists of cylindrical assembly which is kept in open in order to collect
the rain water. There are basically two types of rain gauges:
(i) Non Recording rain gauge
In India, most commonly used non recording rain gauge is Symon’s rain gauge which has a
collecting diameter of 127 mm. Now a days IMD (Indian meteorological department) is using
fibre glass reinforced polyester type rain gauge. Which comes in two variants having
collecting area of 100 cm2.
(ii) Recording type rain gauge
This type of rain gauge automatically records the rate of precipitation and the time of its
occurrence. It also produces a continuous variation of rainfall with time. Graphically which
can be represented as follows.

In India natural siphon or float type is used as the standard recording type rain gauge.
Latest improvements in rain gauge technology has led to the development of following rain
gauges.
(ii) Telemetering Rain Gauge
It is basically a recording type rain gauge which contains electronic equipment to transfer
rainfall data to the base relation. As such it can be used in far remote and inaccessible
locations.

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(ii) Radar Based Rain Gauge:

It is used to find aerial extent location and movement of rain storms. Rainfall over a large
area can be measured with good accuracy. Meteorological radar operates at a wave length
range of3 – 10 cm
Note: Typical examples of recording type rain gauges are: Tipping bucket, weighing rain
gauge, Natural siphon etc.

7. NETWORK DENSITY

World meteorological organisation gave the following recommendation regarding density of

rain gauge:
(i) For flat regions of temperate tropical and Mediterranean zone: 1 station per 600-900 km2
(ii) For mountainous regions of temperature, tropical and Mediterranean zone: 1 station per
100 – 250 km2
(iii) For arid and polar regions: 1 station/1500 – 10000 km2.
According to Indian standard recommendations.
(i) for plain region: 1 station per 520 km 2
(ii) for regions having elevation of 1000 m: 1 station per 260-390 km2
(iii) in predominantly hilly areas with heavy rainfall: 1 station per 130 km 2
Note: As per recommendation of WMO, at least 10% of the rain gauge should be of recording
type.
7.1. Optimum number of rain gauge
This can be calculated on the basis of variation or deviation in the given rain fall data
and allowable percentage error. Mathematically it is given as

𝐶𝑣 2
𝑁=( )
∈
Here, Cv = coefficient of variation.
𝜎
𝐶𝑣 = × 100
𝑥̄
∑𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖 ∑𝑛
𝑖=1(𝑥𝑖 –𝑥̄ )
2
Here, 𝑥̄ =  𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎 = √
𝑛 𝑛−1

n = number of rain gauge stations.

ϵ = allowable percentage error.
Also, for given number of rain gauge standard error ϵs is given as
𝐶𝑣
∈𝑠 =
√𝑛

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Example: The average Annual rainfall of 5 rain gauge stations are 90, 55, 42, 40 and

50 cm. It the error in the estimation of rainfall should not exceed 10%. How many

additional gauges may be required?

Solution: -
The mean rainfall is obtained as
90 + 55 + 42 + 40 + 50
X or Pm =
5
X = 55.4 cm

Now,
(90 − 55.4)2 + (55 − 55.4)2 +
(42 − 55.4)2 + (40 − 55.4)2 + (50 − 55.4)2
2 =
5 −1
 P − Pm 
 2 = i 
 m−1 

σ2 = 410.8
 σ = 20.27
The coefficient of variation is calculated as:

CV =
X
20.27
 CV = = 0.366
55.4
Now, optimum no. of rain gauges, N
2
C 
N= V
  
2
 0.366 
N=  (  = 10%)
 0.10 
N = 13.396 ~ 14
Thus, additional rain gauges required = 14 – 5
= ‘9’
Example: A catchment area has seven rain gauge stations. In a year the annual rainfall
recorded by the gauges are as fallows.
Station P Q R S T U V
Rainfall (cm) 120 14 110 130 150 116 45

(a) Determine the standards error in the estimation of mean rainfall in the existing set
of rain gauges.

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(b) for a 5% error in the estimation of mean rainfall calculate the minimum number of
additional rain gauge stations to be establish in the catchment.
Solution: -
For the given data,
No. of rain gauges, m = 7
Mean annual rainfall
120 + 140 + 110 + 130 + 150 + 116 + 145
P =
7
P = 130.142
Now, standard deviation,
m

 (P
1
i −P )2
m −1 =
m −1
(120 − 130.14)2 + (140 − 130.14)2
+ (130 − 13014)2 + (150 − 130.14)2
+ (116 − 130.14)2 + (145 − 130.14)2
 m −1 =
7 −1

102.82 + 97.22 + 405.62 + 0.0196

+ 394.42 + 199.92 + 220.82
m−1 =
6
σm–1 = 15.388
 coefficient of variation
m −1
CV =  100
P
15.388
CV =  100 = 11.79
130.42
CV = 12
(a) Standard error new the estimation of the mean ' ' .
CV 12
= = = 4.54%
m 7
(b) When the error is limited to 5%,  = 5 and the optimum number of rain gauges in
the catchment is given by
2 2
C   11 
N= v =  = 4.84 ~ 5
    5 

8. CONSISTENCY OF RAINFALL

Whenever there is change in condition at rain gauge prevailing, there will be inconsistency in
rainfall data available for that period. This inconsistency may be due to the following reasons.

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(i) Due to observation error

(ii) Neighbourhood of station undergoing a significant change.
(iii) Due to shifting rain gauge station to new location.
This inconsistency can be found out by a technique called as ‘double mass curve
technique’.

9. ESTIMATION OF MISSION RAINFALL DATA

If on a particular day of a year rainfall data at some station ‘x’ could not be recorded (due to
defective rain gauge or otherwise) and it is required to find an approximate value of this
missing data, following methods are adopted.
Few stations close to problematic station ‘x’ are selected and rainfall value at these stations is
noted down as P1, O2, ….., Pn – 1’ Pn. Px is the missing rainfall data whose approximate value
has to be obtained.
Let N1, N2, N3, … and Nx be the normal precipitation values for station ‘1 to m’ and ‘x’ Normal
precipitation is average value of rainfall for a day, month or a year on the basis of record of
last 30 years.
Case 1: when N1, N2, … Nm differs from Nx by less than 10% the value of Px is given as
follows.
𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + 𝑃3 + 𝑃3 +. . . +𝑃𝑚
𝑃𝑥 =
𝑚
Case 2: when one or more of N1, N2,…Nm, differs from Nx by 10% or more, the value of Px is
calculated by:
𝑁𝑥 𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑃𝑚
𝑃𝑥 = [ + +. . . . . . . + ]
𝑚 𝑁1 𝑁2 𝑁𝑚

Example: The normal annual rainfall of stations A, B, C and D in a catchment is 85 mm, 90

mm, 80 mm and 87 mm in the year 2020, the station D was inoperative when stations A, B
and C recorded annual rainfall of 92, 72, 81 mm. estimate the missing rainfall at station D in
the year 2020.
Solution: -
The normal precipitation of the station A, B & C are within 10% of that at station ‘D’

Hence single average arithmetic will be used.

92 + 72 + 81
 Px =
3
Px = 81.67 mm
Example: Find the missing rainfall at station ‘x’.

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Rain gauge Normal Actual

A 1120 875
B 900 1020
C 760 910
x 825 ?

Solution: -
As the normal precipitation of other stations, A, B and C are not within 10% of normal
precipitation at station x
As,

Hence, we will use normal ratio method.

Px 1 P P P 
i.e. =  A + B + C
Nx n  NA NB NC 

PX 1  875 1020 910 

= + +
825 3 1120 900 760 
Px = 855.786
Px = 856 mm Ans.

10. AVERAGE PRECIPITATION/RAINFALL

When a catchment or any other area contains more than one rain gauge station, then
average rainfall for the area can be obtained using the following method.
10.1. Arithmetical Mean/Average Method
This method is suitable if rainfall is uniformly distributed and area is not very large.
𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + 𝑃3 +. . . . . +𝑃𝑛
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
𝑛
This method does not give very good result and hence is not used very frequently. Any
station outside the area of consideration is not taken into account in this method.
10.2. Thiessen polygon/mean Method
In this method the rainfall recorded at each station is given a weightage on the basis of
an area closest to the station, that is why this method is also known as weightage
area method.
The procedure of determining the weighing are is as follows:
Step 1: The catchment area is drawn to scale and the position of station is also drawn.
Step 2: All the stations are joined together to form a network of triangles.

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Step 3: Perpendicular bisectors for each of the sides of the triangle are drawn.
These bisectors form a polygon around each station. Stations are then assigned the
area by which they are surrounded.
𝑃1 𝐴1 + 𝑃2 𝐴2 +. . . +𝑃𝑛 𝐴𝑛
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
𝐴1 + 𝐴3 +. . . +𝐴𝑛

∑𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑃𝑖 𝐴𝑖
⇒𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
𝐴

The ratio Ai/A is called the weightage factor for each station.

This method of finding average rain fall is suitable when area is large and rainfall is
non-uniformly distributed. This method is superior to arithmetical mean method.
10.3. Isohyetal Method
An isohyet is a line joining all the points having same value of rainfall and isohyetal
maps are the one which shows contours of equal rainfall magnitude.
In isohyetal method, it is assumed that the precipitation in areas between isohyetal
lines is equal to the mean of the precipitation of at isohyetal lines.
Mathematically, various following cases are possible.
Case 1:

𝑃1 + 𝑃2 𝑃 + 𝑃2 𝑃 + 𝑃𝑛
( ) 𝐴1 + ( 2 ) 𝐴2 +. . . + ( 𝑛−1 ) 𝐴𝑛−1
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 2 2 2
𝐴1 + 𝐴2 + 𝐴3 +. . . +𝐴𝑛−1

Case 2: If isohyets outside the considered area is given.

𝑃0 + 𝑃1 𝑃 + 𝑃2 𝑃 + 𝑃3 𝑃 + 𝑃𝑛 𝑃 + 𝑃𝑛+1
( ) 𝐴0 + ( 1 ) 𝐴1 + ( 2 ) 𝐴3 + ( 𝑛−1 ) 𝐴𝑛−1 + ( 𝑛 )𝐴
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 2 2 2 2 2
𝐴0 + 𝐴1 + 𝐴2 . . . . . +𝐴𝑛−1 + 𝐴𝑛

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Case 3:

𝑃1 + 𝑃2 𝑃 + 𝑃3 𝑃 + 𝑃𝑛
( ) 𝐴1 + ( 2 ) 𝐴2 +. . . + ( 𝑛−1 ) 𝐴𝑛−1 + 𝑃𝑛+1 𝐴𝑛
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 2 2 2
𝐴1 + 𝐴2 + 𝐴3 +. . . +𝐴𝑛−1 + 𝐴𝑛

Limitations of Isohyetal method

(i) This method gives better result only if there are larger number of stations.

(ii) Inter isohyetal area is a function of rainfall value which will change with any change
of rainfall pattern

(iii) This method requires use of technical and skilled man power.

(iv) It is a time-consuming method.

Note: Among all the methods discussed above orographically derived isohyetal method
is the best method of finding average rainfall.

Example: Five rain gauges stations namely A, B, C, D and E are located on a circular
shape basin of diameter 20 km as shown in the fig. given below compute the mean
annual rainfall at stations A, B, C, D and E are 100 cm, 90 cm, 110 cm, 120 cm and 80
cm respectively.

Solution: -

Diameter of basin = 20 km. we know that in Thiessen polygon method. The polygons
are obtained by joining the perpendicular bisectors of triangles formed, when various
rain gauge stations are joined.

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The Thiessen polygon can be drawn as :-

Area under influence of station A (area of region I)

= 10 × 10 = 100 km2
Area under influence of station B, C, D and B.

 (20)
2
− 100
= 4 = 53.54 km2
4
Mean areal rainfall:-
PA A A + PB AB + PC AC + PD AD + PE AE
=
A A + AB + A C + AD + AE

(100  100) + (90  53.54) + (120  53.54)

+ (80  53.54)
=
 4 (20)
2

= 100 cm
 mean area rainfall
= 100 cm
Example: The Isohyets for annual rainfall over a catchment basin were drawn. The
areas of strips between the Isohyets are given determine the Average precipitation over
the basin

Isohyets (cm) Area in sq. km

75-85 1500

85-95 2500

95-105 2800

105-115 1200

115-135 800

135-155 600

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Solution:

Average precipitation in given as

 P + P2   P + P3 
A1  1  + A2  2  + ... + An−1
 2   2 
 Pn−1 + Pn 
 
2
Pavg =  
A1 + A 2 + A 3 + ... An

 75 + 85   85 + 95 
1500   + 2500 
 2   2 
 95 + 105   105 + 115 
+ 2800  + 1200 
 2   2 
 115 + 135   135 + 155 
+ 800  + 600 
 2   2 
Pavg =
1500 + 2500 + 2800 + 1200 + 800 + 600
(1500  80) + (2500  90) + (2800  100)
+ (1200  110) + (800  125) + (600  145)
 PAvg =
9400
PAvg = 100.425 cm Ans.
Example: Calculate the average depth of rainfall for the catchment with an area of 200
km2 using (i) Arithmetic method (ii) Thiessen polygon method.

Station (i) Rainfall (mm) Pi Thiessen polygon area (km2) Description inside (I) outside (0)

1 45 7.5 0

2 20 10.0 0

3 30 45.0 I

4 45 30.0 I

5 50 16.0 0

6 35 45.0 I

7 45 40.0 I

8 40 6.5 0

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Solution:

The average depth of rainfall is determined by: -

(1) Arithmetic mean method

In this method we will consider rain gauges which are inside the catchment only.

P1 + P2 + P3 + P4 . . . Pn
 P =
n

30 + 45 + 35 + 45
P =
4

145
P = = 36.25 mm
4

 volume of rainfall = A  P

= 200 × 36.25 km2 mm

36.25 3
= 200 × 1000 × 1000 × m
100

= 72.5 × 105 m3

(ii) Thiessen polygon method.

We will consider rain guage which are present both inside and outside the catchment
area.
P1 A1 + P2 A2 + ...Pn An
 Pavg =
A1 + A2 + ...

(45  7.5) + (20  10) + (30  45) + (45  30)

+ (50  16 ) + (35  45) + (45  40) + (40  6.5)
=
200
Pavg = 38.36 mm
Volume of rainfall = Pavg × 200 km2
= 7672.5 km2 mm
= 76.72 × 105 m3

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ENGINEERING HYDROLOGY

2 STREAM FLOW MEASUREMENT

1. INTRODUCTION

A stream can be defined as a flow channel into which the surface runoff from a specified basin
drains. The science and practice of water measurement is called ‘hygrometry’. Among different
parts of hydrological cycle, stream flow measurement is the only one that can be done
accurately.

2. MEASUREMENT OF STAGE (G)

Stage is defined as water surface evaluation measured fixed value. The process of
measurements of stage is called gauging. Following methods may be used in order to find the
value of a G.
2.1. Staff Gauge
The simplest of stage measurements are made by noting the evaluation of the water
surface in contact with a fixed graduated staff.
It is fixed rigidly to a structure such as an abutment, pier, wall etc. The staff may be
vertical or inclined with clearly and accurately graduated permanent markings.

It is a gauge used to measure the water surface elevation from above the surface such
as from a bridge or similar structure. In this a weight is lowered by a reel to touch the
water surface.
A mechanical counter measures the rotation of the wheel which is proportional to the
length of the wire paid out. The operating range of this kind of gauge is about 25 m.

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2.2. Float gauge recorder

This is the most commonly used automatic stage recorder. It contains a stilling well in
order to negate the wave effect and to prevent entry of debris.

In this gauge, compressed air or gas is made to bleed out at a very small rate through
an outlet placed out at a very small rate through an outlet placed at bottom of the river.
A pressure gauge measures the gas pressure which in turn is equal to the water column
above the outlet. A small change in the water surface elevation as felt as a change in
pressure from the present value at the pressure gauge and this in turn is adjusted by a
servo-mechanism to bring the gas to bleed at the original rate under the new head. The
pressure gauge reads the new water depth which is transmitted to a recorder.

* pressure of gas = pgas = rH

pgas
H=
r

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3. MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY

The measurement of velocity is an important aspect of many direct stream flow measurement
techniques.
Following methods may be used in order to find the velocity of a river or a stream.
3.1. Float
In this method, a very simple float device is used which flows along the river surface.

L
Mathematically, V =
t1

Measurement of float is affected by wind or other such obstructions and hence this does
not give very reliable results. Some improvements in the conventional flow has led to the
development of consister float and rod float

3.2. Current meter

The most commonly used instruments in hydrometry to measure the velocity at a point
in the flow cross section is the current meter. It consists essentially of a rotating element
which rotates due to the reaction of the stream current with an angular velocity
proportional to the stream velocity.
Number of rotations made by the current meter is counted in order to find out the value
of rps (rotation per second) (Ns). The characteristic equation of current meter is given as

V = aNs + b

Here, a and b are called characteristic constants.

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There are basically two types of current meter.

(a)Vertical axis current meter :
It contains a vertical axis on which a rotating disc is provided. Its major disadvantage is
that it can’t be used in situation where there is an appreciable inclined flow.
Typical example of this types of current meter are price current meter and curely
current meter.
(b)Horizontal axis current meter:
It contains a horizontal axis on which a rotating element is provided. These of current
meters are not affected by inclined flow upto 15°.
Typical example includes ott,neyrtec and watt meter.
Note: Caliberation of current meter is done by using a ‘Towing tank’.
Sounding weight: It is a standard weight attached to a current meter in order to keep it
at fixed location.

In order to reduce the drag force these are stream lined in shape. Value of this sounding
weight is given as

W = 50 v y
Here, w = weight in ‘N’

v = Average velocity in ‘m/s’

Y = depth in ‘cm’.
Average velocity can be obtained as follows
Case 1: For deep water bodies k/a two point formula.

V0.2y + V0.8y
Vavg =
2
Case 2: For shallow k/a one point formula

Vavg = V0.6y

Case 3: For flashly river and flood like situation.

Vavg = kvs

Here, k = 0.85 – 0.95

Vs = Surface velocity

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Example In a triangular channel, the top with and depth of flow were 2m and 0.9m
respectively. Velocity measurement on the centre line at 18 cm and 72 cm below the
free water surface indicated velocities of 0.6 m/s and 0.4 m/s respectively. The discharge
in the channel is
Solution.
A = 1/2 × 2 × 0.9 = 0.9m
VAvg = (V0.2y + V0.8y) / 2
= (0.4 +0.6) / 2 = 0.5
∵ given depths,
18cm is 0.2y depth i.e = 0.2 × 0.9 = 0.18 m = 18 cm
For 72 cm is 0.8y depth i.e = 0.8 × 0.9 = 0.72m = 72 cm
Q = A × V = 0.9 × 0.25
= 0.45 m3/s

4. MEASUREMENT OF DISCHARGE

Measurement of discharge can be broadly classified in to two categories as

(i) Direct determination of stream discharge
(a)Area velocity method
(b)Dilution method
(c) Ultrasonic method
(d)Moving boat method
(e) Electromagnetic method
(ii) Indirect determination of stream discharge
(a)Slope area method
(b)Hydraulic structure such as weirs, flumes and gated structure.
4.1. Area velocity method:
This method of discharge measurement consists essentially of measuring the area of
cross section of the river at a selected section called gauging site and measuring the
velocity of flow through the cross sectional area. This method is also known as standard
current meter method. In this method section of river or stream is divided in to a number
of segments as follows.

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n
Q=  Qi
i=1

Q1 = A1V1

Q2 = A2 V2

Qn = An Vn

Here, A1 = w1y1

A2 = w2y2

An = wny2

Here,
2
 w2 
 w1 + 2 
w1 =  
2w1

w3 + w4
w3 =
2
2
 wn−1 
 wn = 2 
Similarly, wn−1 =  
2wn

4.2. Dilution method:

This method is also known as the chemical method depends upon the continuity principle

applied to a tracer which is allowed to mix completely with the flow.

The stream flow is assumed to be steady.

Here C = background concentration.

Mathematically,

CQ + c 'Q' = C "(Q + Q')

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Example. A 300 g/l solution of common salt was discharged into stream at the rate of

35 l/s at a downstream section, the solution was completely mixed and an equilibrium

concentration of 70 ppm Was reached. If the background concentration was 15 ppm. The

discharge in the stream in m3/s

Sol. Q = Q1(C1 – C2)/C2 – C0

Q1= 35 × 10–3 m3/s

C0 = 15 × 10–6 kg/l

C1 = 300 × 10–3 kg/l

C2 = 70 × 10–6 kg/l

on solving,

Q = 191 m3/s

4.3. Ultrasonic Method:

This is essentially an area velocity with the average velocity being measured by using

ultrasonic signals. In this method two transducers are provided on both the sides of river

or stream

l
t1 = → (i)
C + v cos 

l
t2 = → (ii)
C + v cos 

From equation (i) and (ii) we get

l  1 1
v=  − 
2 cos   t1 t 

Q = AV

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4.4. Moving Boat Method:

Discharge measurement of large alluvial rivers.

Such as the ganga by the current meter method is very time consuming even when the

flow is low or moderate. It is particularly suitable for wild streams whose width is more.

It this method, a boat moves from one bank to the other bank of the river in which current

meter is installed.

The boat is also provided with an angle indicator which records the direction of resultant

velocity.

Mathematically, it can be expressed as.

  0 + y1   y1
Q1 = A1Vf =  Vb t1    vf = vb0vf t1
  2  2

y1
= Vr2 sin  cos t1
2
Similarly,

 y + y2 
Q2 = Vr2 sin  t2  1 
 2 

 y + y3 
Q3 = Vr2 sin  t3  2 
 2 

4.5. Electromagnetic Method:

This method of finding discharge makes use of faraday’s Law of electromagnetism.

4.6. Slope Area Method :

This method finding discharge makes use of law of conservation of energy for fluid

(Bernoulli’s equation) In this method two section are selected such that cross section

properties are known

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v12 V2
Z1 + y1 + = Z2 + y2 + 2 + h2
2g 2g

 V2 − V22 
 h2 = (z1 + y1 ) − (z2 + y2 ) +  1 
 2g 
hf = frictional
Here, h2 = hf + hc  
hc = eddies 

 V2 − V22 
 hf = (h1 − h2 ) +  1  − he
 2g 

Through experiments, it has been found that eddy head loss

V12 − V22
he = K e
2g

Where, Ke = eddy head loos coefficient.

According to Manning's equation, discharge is given as
1
Q= A R2/3 S1/2 ⇒Q=K S
n
1
Where K = conveyance= AR2/3
n

hf hf
-S= ⇒ Q=k
L L

Here, Q is a function of hf, whereas the value of hf depends on Q and hence in order to
find discharge following method is adopted.
(i) To start with, assume V1 = V2, which gives hf = h1 – h2

hf
(ii) Find discharge using Q = k
L

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(iii) Using above value of discharge (Q), find V1 and V2 where,

Q Q
V= 1 and V = 2
A1 A2

(iv) Find modified value of hf using above value of V1 and V2

(v) Find discharge Q by using above value of hf
(vi) Repeat the above steps till the value of discharge converges.
Here,

1
K for section (1)→ K1 = A1 R12/3
2

1
K for section (2)→ K2 = A2 R 2/3
2
2

K= k1k 2

Example. In a river carrying a discharge of 142 m3/s, the stage at a station A was 3.6m
and the water surface slope was 1 in 3000. If during a flood, the stage at A was 3.6m
and the water surface slope was 1 in 6000, what was the flood discharge?
Solution.

Q s

s1 s1 142 1 / 3000
Q1/Q2 = =  =
s2 s2 Q2 1 / 6000

Q2 = 200 m3/s
Example: During a flood flow the depth of water in a 10 m wide rectangular channel was
found to be 3.0 m and 2.9 m at (two section 200 m apart. The drop in the water-surface
elevation was found to be 0.12 m. Assuming Manning’s coefficient to be 0.025, estimate
the flood discharge through the channel. Assume (h e = 0).
Solution:
Using suffixes 1 and 2 to denote the upstream and downstream section respectively, the
cross-sectional properties are calculated as follows:

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Section 1 Section 2
y1 = 3.0 m y2 = 2.90 m
A1 = 30 m 2
A2 = 29 m2
P1 = 16 m P2 = 15.8 m
R1 = 1.875 m R2 = 1.835 m
K1 = 1/0.025 × 30 × (1.875)2/3 K2 = 1/0.025 × 29 × (1.835)2/3
= 1824.7 = 1738.9

Average K for the reach = K1 K2 = 1781.3

To start with h1 = fall = 0.12 m is assumed. (This follows from V 1 = V2).
Eddy loss he = 0
The calculations are shown in Table as shown below
Sf = hf/L = hf/200

Q = K Sf − 1781.3 Sf

2
V12  Q 
= / 2g
2g  30 
2
V22  Q 
= / 2g
2g  29 

 V12 V22 
hl = (h1 – h2) +  − 
 2g 2g 

 V12 V22 
hf = fall +  − 
 2g 2g 

 V12 V22 
= 0.12 +  − 
 2g 2g 

hf St Q V12 /2g V22 /g hf

Trial
(trial) (units of 10–4) (m3/s) (m) (m) by eq. (A)
1 0.1200 6.000 43.63 0.1078 0.1154 0.1124
2 0.1124 5.615 42.21 0.1009 0.1080 0.1129
3 0.1129 5.645 42.32 0.1014 0.1085 0.1129

The final value of Q may be taken as 42.32 m3/s.

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ENGINEERING HYDROLOGY

3 EVAPORATION

1. EVAPORATION

It is the process in which liquid changes to gaseous state at the free surface of liquid below the
boiling point through the transfer of heat energy. Evaporation is basically a cooling process in
which latent heat of vaporization must be provided by water body.
1.1. Factors affecting evaporation
(i) Vapour pressure:
Rate of evaporation is directly proportional to the difference between saturated vapour
pressure (ew) and vapour pressure of air (ea).
(ii) Temperature:
Rate of evaporation is directly proportional to prevailing temperature.
(iii) Wind speed:
Rate of evaporation increases with increase in speed of the wind But if the wind velocity
is very high and is sufficient to remove all vapour on the liquid surface, then any further
increase in wind velocity will not affect the rate of evaporation.
(iv) Atmospheric pressure:
Rate of evaporation is inversely proportional to the atmospheric pressure.
(v) Soluble salts:
If water is saline which means it has salt in it then its vapour pressure decreases which
in turn results in a reduction in the rate of evaporation. As such evaporation from sea
water is about 2.3% less as compared to fresh water.
(vi) Depth of water body:
In summers, shallow depth of water permits rapid increase in temperature during the day
time and hence evaporation is greater in a shallow water bodies.
In winters, temperature of surrounding air falls but the temperature of deep water bodies
doesn’t fall easily and thus water remains relatively warmer consequently in winter
evaporation is more from a deep-water body. Above phenomenon is primarily due to heat
storage of water.
(vii) Surface Area:
Rate of evaporation is directly proportional to surface area.

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1.2. Measurement of evaporation

Estimation of evaporation data is very important in many hydrologic problems associated
with planning and operation of reservoirs and irrigation systems. The amount of water
evaporated from a water surface is estimated by three different approaches:
A. experimental methods using evaporimeters (pans)
B. empirical evaporation equations
C. analytical methods.
A. Experimental Methods:
(i) Class-A Evaporation pan:
This is a standard pan that has been developed by US weather bureau and has a
diameter of 121 cm and the depth 25.5 cm. This pan is normally made of galvanized
iron sheet in areas where corrosion is the problem.
(ii) Indian standard evaporation pan:
This is the modified form of class-A evaporation pan in which diameter is 122 cm and
depth is 25.5 cm. This pan is made of copper sheet having a thickness of 0.9 mm. Top
of the pan is fully covered with a hexagonal wire netting in order to ensure that uniform
temperature is maintained during day and night time.
(iii) Colorado sunken pan:
Main advantage of this style of pan is that it creates similar radiation and aerodynamic
effect.

In order to convert pan evaporation values in actual evaporation value a pan coefficient
is used mathematically.
𝐿𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛  = 𝐶𝑃 × 𝑃𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Where, CP = pan coefficient

𝑇𝑦𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑛 𝐶𝑝
(𝑖) 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐴 0.7
(𝑖𝑖) 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝑠 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑑 0.8
(𝑖𝑖𝑖) 𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑜 0.78

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B. Empirical Method:
A large number of empirical equations are available to estimate lake evaporation using
commonly available meteorological data. Most formulae are based on the Dalton’s type
equation and can be expressed in the general form. It is called Meyer’s equation.
𝑣𝑎
𝐸 = 𝐾𝑚(𝑒𝑤 − 𝑒𝑎 ) (1 + )
16
Here, E = Rate of evaporation per day.
Km = constant which depends on size of water body.
ew = Saturated vapour pressure in mm of mercury.
ea = vapour pressure of air (ea) in mm of mercury.
Va = Mean monthly wind velocity in km/hr at a height of about 9m from the ground
surface.
C. Analytical methods:
The analytical methods for the determination of lake evaporation can be broadly
classified into three categories as
(i) Water budget method.
(ii) Energy balance method
(iii) Mass transfer method.
Example: A reservoir with surface area of 250 hectares has saturation vapor pressure at
water surface = 17.54 mm of Hg and actual vapor pressure of air = 6 mm. wind velocity
at 1 m above ground surface = 16 km/hr. Estimate the average daily evaporation from
the lake using Meyers formula.
Solution:
ew = 17.59 mm of Hg
ea = 6 mm
Wind speed of 9 m above ground = Ug

Ul C(1)1/7
 =
Ug C(9)1/7

 Ug = 21.9 km/hr

hence using Mayer’s formula,

 21.9 
L = 0.36 (17.54 − 6 ) 1 +
 16 

= 9.84 mm/day.

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1.3. Reservoir Evaporation and methods of its reduction:

Following methods can be used in order to conserve the water of reservoir.
(i) By providing greater depth to the water body, its surface area is reduced which in
turns reduces the evaporation.
(ii) By providing mechanical covers in form of roof shades etc. This can be used only
for small water body such as a lake or pond.
(iii) Certain chemicals such as hexadecimal (C6 H33 OH)
(Cetyl Alcohol) and octa decimal (C18 H37 OH) (Stearyl alcohol) can be effectively used for
reducing to the rate of evaporation. A thin colorless, odorless and nontoxic film is formed
on the water surface which permits free circulation of O 2 and CO2 Among all, the chemical
Cetyl alcohol is found to be the effective one and by using it evaporation can be reduced
by about 40 – 60%.
By increasing the salinity of water, evaporation rate can be reduced.
1.4. Transpiration
It is the process by which water leaves the body of a living plant and reaches the
atmosphere as water vapour.
The water as taken up by the plant-root system and escapes through leaves. The
important factors affecting transpiration are: atmospheric vapour pressure,
temperatures, wind, light intensity and characteristics of the plant, such as the root and
leaf systems.
It can be measured by an instrument called as phytometer.
Transpiration takes places along with evaporation of water from soil and water bodies
and hence these two terms are considered advantageously in the form of one single factor
called evaporation.
This evapo-transpiration is a direct measure of water consumed by the plants during its
growth period.
It is also called as consumptive use it is denoted as ‘Cu’.
Following are the methods find out the evapotranspiration.
(i) Lysimeter
(ii) Field plot
(iii) Penman’s equation
(iv) Blaney criddle equation.
Transpiration as a process is essentially confined to day light hours whereas evaporation
is an or going process continuing all through day and night.
An imaginary line joining all the points having same value of evapotranspiration is called
isopleth.

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Example: Estimate the PET of an area for the season January to April. The area in North
India at a latitude of 30°N with mean monthly temperatures and monthly percentage of
annual day time (hr) as follows.

Month Jan Feb March April

Temp °C 16.5 13.0 10.0 14.0

Monthly % of annual day time (hr) 7.19 7.15 7.30 7.03

Take,
K = 0.65
Use the Blaney riddle formula.
Solution:
The temperature converted to Fahrenheit and the calculations are performed in the table
Month Tf Ph Ph T f / 100

Jan 61.7 7.19 4.44

Feb 55.4 7.15 3.96
March 50 7.30 3.65
April 57.2 7.03 4.02

(use: 1.8°C + 32 = F°)

Ph T f
Now, = 16.07
100
By Blaney criddle formula.
εr = 2.54 × 16.07 × 0.65
= 26.53 cm

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HYDROLOGY

4 INFILTRATION

1. INTRODUCTION

Infiltration is the flow of water into the ground through the soil surface. Before infiltration of
water starts, certain initial losses are to be satisfied which are as follows.
1.1. Interception loss
This is the loss which is captured by vegetation and other such obstructions and which
subsequently evaporate some of the water which is trapped as interception loss runs
down the branches of the tree goes down the stem and is called stem fall.
1.2. Depression storage
When the precipitation of a storm reaches the ground, it must fill all the depressions
available on the ground before it can flow on the surface. The volume of water trapped
in these depressions is called Depression Storage.

2. INFILTRATION CAPACITY

The maximum rate at which a given soil at a given time can absorb water is defined as the
infiltration capacity. The infiltration capacity of a soil is high at the beginning of a storm and
how an exponential decay as the time elapses. Graphically it can be expressed as follows.

Equation of this curve has been developed in exponential form by Horton and is known as
Horton’s equation.

𝐹𝑡 = 𝐹𝑓 + (𝐹𝑖 − 𝐹𝑓 )𝑒 −𝑘𝑡

Here,
Ft = Infiltration rate or capacity at time ‘t’.
Ff = Final infiltration rate or capacity.
Fi = Initial infiltration rate or capacity.
K = Decay constant (T –1
or /s or / hr)

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Example: During a 3hr storm event it was observed that all abstractions other than infiltration
were negligible. The rainfall was idealized as three 1hr storms of intensities 10mm/hr,
20mm/hr and 10mm/hr respectively. The infiltration was idealized as Horton’s curve.
f = 6.8 + 8.7e–t where f is in mm/hr and t is in hr. calculate the depth of effective rainfall
Solution.

f = 6.8 + 8.7 e–t

f (0) = 6.8 + 8.7 = 15.5
f (1) = 10.
Depth of effective rainfall= Area of shaded region.
3

 (6.8 + 8.7e
−t
= 20 × 1 + 10 × 1 – )dt
1

= 30 – [6.8 × 2 + 8.7 (e –1
– e–3)]
= 13.63 mm Ans.

3. INFILTRATION INDICES

In hydrological calculations involving floods it is found convenient to use a constant value of

infiltration rate for the duration of the storm. The defined average infiltration rate is called
infiltration index and two types of indices are in common use.
3.1. 𝛟 𝐈𝐧𝐝𝐞𝐱
The 𝜙  - index is the average rainfall above which the rainfall volume is equal to run off
volume. The 𝜙 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 is derived from the rainfall hyetograph with the knowledge of
resulting run off volume.
The initial losses are also considered as infiltration.

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Example: A 6 hr rainstorm with hourly intensities of 7, 18, 15, 11 and 3mm/hr produced
a runoff of 39 mm. Calculate ϕ index in mm/hr.
Solution
Assume ϕ ≤3 mm/h
(7 –  ) + (18 –  ) + (25 –  ) +(17 –  ) + (11 –  )+ (3 –  ) = 39 mm
81 – 6  = 39

 = 7 hence wrong assumption

Assume, 3 <  < 7
So, (7 –  ) + (18 –  ) + (25 –  ) + (17 –  ) + (11 –  ) = 39 mm

 = 7.8 mm, hence wrong assumption

Now, 7 <  < 11
(18 –  ) + (25 –  ) + (17 –  ) + (11 –  ) = 39 mm

4  = 32

 = 8 mm/hr
Hence  index = 8mm/hr

3.2. W-index
This is the average infiltration rate during the entire duration of rainfall. In the calculation
of w-index, the initial losses are separated from total abstractions to refine the 𝜙 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥.
Mathematically it is defined as
𝑝 − 𝑟 − 𝑡𝑎
𝑤=
𝑡𝑐
Here, P = total storm precipitation (cm)
R = total run off (cm)
ta = minor loss in total duration
Tc = duration of the rainfall excess i.e. total.
W = defined average rate of infiltration (cm)
Example: For a storm of rainfall 80 cm, total storm runoff was recorded as 25 cm, taking
initial loss as 10 cm and duration of the rainfall excess as 2 hours, the value of w-index
will be
Solution.
P − R − Il
W=
tr

80 − 25 − 10
= cm/hr
2
45
= = 22.5 cm/hr
2

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HYDROLOGY

5 RUNOFF

1. INTRODUCTION

It is the graphical variation of discharge with time at any given location on the stream.

2. IMPORTANT ASSOCIATED POINTS WITH TYPICAL HYDROGRAPH

(i) 'tr ' is the duration of rainfall.

(ii) 'tB 'is the base time and it is a total time for which catchment contribute flow at the section
where the hydrograph is plotted.
(iii) Shape of rising limb depends on catchment as well as rainfall characteristics.
(iv) Shape of falling limb depends only on catchment characteristics.
(v) Segment B to C is called crest segment and it contains one of the most important property
of flood that is peak discharge.
(vi) 'TL' is the lag time and is a time interval between center of mass of rainfall and center of
mass of hydrograph.
(vii) B and C are inflection points, at which curvature of graph changes.

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3. FACTORS AFFECTING FLOOD HYDROGRAPH

The factors that affect the shape of the hydrograph can be broadly grouped into climatic factors
and physiographic factors.

Physiographic factors Climatic factors

1. Basin characteristics
1. Storm characteristics
(a) Shape
(a) Precipitation
(b) Size
(b) Intensity
(c) Slope
(c) Duration
(d) Nature of the Valley
(d) Magnitude
(e) Elevation
(c) Movement of storm
(f) Drainage density
2. Infiltration characteristics
(a) land use and cover
2. Initial loss
(b) soil type and geological conditions
(c) Lakes, swamps and other stage
3. Channel characteristics
(a) Cross section
3. Evaporation.
(b) Roughness
(c) Storage capacity

3.1. Shape of the Basin

The shape of basin influence time taken for water from the remote parts of the catchment
to arrive at the outlet. Thus the occurrence of the peak and hence the shape of the
hydrograph are affected by the basin shape.

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Shape of Catchment Hydrograph

3.2. Size
Small basins be different from the large ones in terms of the relative importance of
various phases of the runoff phenomenon. In small catchment the overland flow phase is
predominant over the channel flow. Hence the land use and intensity of rainfall have
important role on the peak flood. On large basins these effects are suppressed as the
channel flow phase is more predominant.
3.3. Stream Density
It is defined as the total number of streams per unit area of the catchment.
3.4. Drainage density
This is defined as total length of streams per unit area of the catchment. Some examples
of drainage density are as follows.

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Type of Catchment Shape of Hydrograph

4. DETERMINATION OF DIRECT RUNOFF HYDROGRAPH (DRH)

Hydrograph having base flow is known as flood hydrograph or storm hydrograph.

Flood

hydrograph Direct runoff hydrograph

Direct runoff = depth

n=

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So, Mathematically it can expressed as

or

Here, n is in cm
A is in km2
t is in hr
O is in m3/sec
Example:
A 4-hour storm occurs over an 80 km2 watershed. The details of the catchment are as follows.

Sub-area Φ-index Hourly Rain (mm)

(km2) (mm/hour) 1st hour 2nd hour 3rd hour 4th hour

15 10 16 48 22 10

25 15 16 42 20 8

35 21 12 40 18 6

5 16 15 42 18 8

Calculate the runoff from the catchment and the hourly

Distribution of the effective rainfall for the whole catchment.
Sol.

Effective Rain (km2 . mm)

Sub-area
1st hour 2nd hour 3rd hour 4th hour
(16 – 10) × 15 = (48 – 10) × 15 = (22 – 10) × 15 = (10 – 0) × 15
15
90 570 180 =0
(16 – 15) × 25 = (42 – 15) × 25 = (20 – 15) × 25 =
25 0
25 675 125
(40 – 15) × 35 =
35 0 0 0
665
(42 – 16) × 5 =
5 0 (18 – 16) × 5 = 10 0
130
Total 115 2040 315 0
Average ER
115/80 = 1.4375 2040/80 = 25.50 315/80 = 3.9375 0
(mm)

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2470
Total direct runoff = 115 + 2040 + 315 = 2470 km2 mm =  106 = 2.47 Mm3
103

5. UNIT HYDROGRAPH

The problem of predicting the flood hydrograph resulting from a known storm in a catchment
has received considerable attention. A large number of methods are proposed to solve this
problem and most popular and widely used method is the unit hydrograph method. This method
was first suggested by Sharman in 1932.
The unit hydrograph of a drainage basin is defined as a hydrograph of direct runoff resulting
from 1 cm of effective rainfall applied uniformly over the basin area at a uniform rate during a
specified period of time (D-hr).

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• Thus one can have a 6-hr unit hydrograph, 12-hr unit hydrograph etc.
1
• A 6-hr unit hydrograph will have an effective rainfall intensity of cm/hr.
6

• The effective rainfall intensity means the rainfall which will produce once runoff.
• In the D-hr unit hydrograph, D should not be more than any of the following (a) time of
concentration, (b) lag time or (c) period of rise
• Volume of water contained inside the unit hydrograph (i.e. area of unit hydrograph) is equal
to (1 cm ×Catchment area)
5.1. Assumption made in the theory of unit hydrograph (As proposed by Sherman)
is as follows:
The following assumptions are made while using the unit hydrograph principle :
1. Effective rainfall should be uniformly distributed over the basin, that is, if there are “N’
rain gauges spread uniformly over the basin, then all the gauges should record almost
same amount of rainfall during the specified time.
2. Effective rainfall is constant over the catchment during the unit time, i.e. intensity is
constant.
3. The direct runoff hydrograph for a given effective rainfall for a catchment is always the
same irrespective of when it occurs. (Time invariance) Hence, any previous rainfall event
is not considered to effect the new rainfall.

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Note: This antecedent precipitation is otherwise important because of its effect on soil-
infiltration rate, depression and detention storage, and hence, on the resultant
hydrograph.
4. The ordinates of the unit hydrograph are directly proportional to the effective rainfall
hyetograph ordinate. Hence, if a 6-h unit hydrograph due to 1 cm rainfall is given, then
a 6-h hydrograph due to 2 cm rainfall would just mean doubling the unit hydrograph
ordinates. Hence, the base of the resulting hydrograph (from the start or rise up to the
time when discharge becomes zero) also remains the same.
Example: A flood hydrograph of river draining a catchment of 189 km2 due to a 6 hour
isolated storm is in the form of a triangle with a base of 66 hour and a peak ordinate of
30 m3/s occurring at 10 hours from the start. Assuming zero base flow, develop the 6-
hour unit hydrograph for this catchment.
Sol. Catchment area = 189 km2
Flood hydrograph due to a 6h storm

∴ Volume of runoff
1
=  66  3600  30
2
= 3.564 × 106 m3
∴ Effective rainfall

3.564  106
= = 0.018857 m
189  106
= 1.8857 cm
For getting ordinates of 6 h unit hydrograph for the catchment, it is required to divide the
ordinates of the flood hydrograph of 1.8857 and the peak will be 15.91 m 3/s at 10 hr
from start. Its base will also be 66 hr.

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5.2. Derivation of UH from a simple flood hydrograph of isolated storm

Different steps required to derive UH are:
Step 1. From the given flood hydrograph. separate the base flow by any one of the
methods. Most commonly used method to draw a straight line for simplicity.
Step 2: Determine the volume of DRH by the formula:
Volume of DRH =  Qt = area under DRH

Step 3: Divide this volume by known area of catchment to get rainfall or rainfall excess
in (cm).
Step 4: Divide the ordinates of DRH by the depth of rainfall excess to obtain ordinates of
UH.
Step 5: Plot the ordinates of UH against time to get the UH of the catchment.
Example: The following are the ordinates of the flood hydrograph from a catchment area
of 780 km2 due to 6 hr storm. Derive the 6 hr unit hydrograph of the basin.

Time (hrs) 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72 78

Discharge (m3/sec) 40 64 245 360 405 350 270 205 145 100 70 50 40

Sol. Assume a base flow of 40 m2/sec. Then

Area under DRH
= [(64 – 40) + (215 – 40) + (360 – 40) + (405 – 40) + (350 – 40) + (270 – 40) + (205
– 40) + (145 – 40) + (100 – 40) + (70 – 40) + (50 – 40)] × 6 × 60 × 60
= (24 + 175 + 320 + 365 + 310 + 230 + 165 + 105 + 60 + 30 + 10) × 6 × 60
= 1794 × 6 × 60 × 60 m3
∴ DRH in depth

 1794  6  60  60 
 6
 100  cm = 4.968 cm
 780  10 
Therefore, the ordinates of UH are obtained by dividing the ordinates of DRH hydrograph
by rain excess 4.968 cm to get ordinates of UH.

Time (hrs) 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72 78
Ordinates of
0 4.83 35.22 64.42 74.47 62.4 46.29 33.21 21.13 12.077 6.04 2.01 0
UH

5.3. Unit Hydrograph of Different Duration

A unit hydrograph where duration is D-hr can only be applied to storm of duration D-hr
to obtain direct runoff. If however the rainfall duration is different, the unit hydrograph
of duration equal to the duration of rainfall is to be used. If such unit hydrograph is not
available and only D-hr unit hydrograph is available then the D-hr unit hydrograph has
to be converted into the unit hydrograph of duration equal to that of the rainfall. In this
process two conditions arise :

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Case (i) changing a short Duration Unit Hydrograph to Longer duration

If the desired long duration of the unit graph is an integral multiple of the short, (say a
3- hour unit graph is given and a 6-hour unit graph is required) assume two consecutive
unit storms of 3 hr duration producing a net rain of 1 cm each.
Draw the two unit hydrograph, the second unit graph being lagged by 3 hours.
Draw now the combined hydrograph by superposition. This combined hydrograph will now
produce 2 cm in 6 hours.
To obtain the 6-hour unit graph divide the ordinates of combined hydrograph by 2.
It can be observed that this 6-hour unit graph derived has a longer time base by 3 hours
than the 3-hour unit graph, because of a lower intensity storm for a longer time.
In such situations the U.H. of any duration can be obtained from the U.H. of given duration
using the S-curve technique.
A S-curve hydrograph may be defined as the hydrograph of direct runoff resulting from
1
a continuous effective rainfall of uniform intensity cm/h.
D
As shown below, the S-curve is constructed by adding together a series of D h unit
hydrograph, each lagged by D h with respect to the previous one.
The S-curve hydrograph attains a constant ordinate, called the equilibrium discharge
denotes by Qt, approximately at the end of the base period TB of the unit hydrograph.
TB
Thus the number of unit hydrographs needed to produce the S-curve is .
D

Since the rainfall rate is equal to the runoff rate at the equilibrium state, it follows that
1 A
Qe = A . km2 − cm / h = 2.778 m3 / s
D D

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Where A is the area of the basin in km2 and D is the duration of unit hydrograph in hours
which is used in the construction of the S-curve.
Consider two D-h S-curves A and B displaced by Th. If the ordinates of B are subtracted
from that of A, the resulting curve is a DRH produced by a rainfall excess of duration T h

1 
and magnitude   T  cm. Hence if the ordinate difference of A and B, i.e. (SA – SB)
 D 
are divided by T/D, the resulting ordinates denote a hydrograph due to an ER of 1 cm
and of duration T i.e. a T-h unit hydrograph.

Example :
The 6-hour unit hydrograph of a catchment is triangular in shape with a base width of 64
hours and a peak ordinate of 30 m3/s. Calculate the equilibrium discharge of the S6-
curve of the basin.
Sol. Direct runoff

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1
 64  3600  30 = 3.456  106 m3
2
ER = 1 cm
3.456  106
Area =  102
1
= 345.6 × 106 = 345.6 km2
Equilibrium discharge Qs = 2.778 A/D m 3/s
345.6
Qs = 2.778  = 160.0128 m3 / s
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5.4. Limitations of Unit Hydrographs
(i) Precipitation must be rainfall only. Snow melt runoff can not be satisfactory
represented by unit hydrograph.
(ii) The catchment should not have unusually large storages in terms of tanks, ponds,
large flood bank storages, etc. which affect the linear relationship between storage and
discharge.
(iii) If the precipitation is decidedly non uniform, unit hydrographs can not be expected
to give good results.

6. SYNTHETIC UNIT HYDROGRAPH

Unit hydrographs can be derived if rainfall and runoff records are available for the basin under
consideration. But there are many basins, which are not gauged and for which unit-graphs may
be required. Hence some method of deriving unit hydrographs for ungauged basins is
necessary.
This is usually done by relating the selected basin characteristics to the unit hydrograph shape.
Once such relations are established between the basin parameters and unit hydrograph
parameters for the basins having sufficient data, the same relations are applied to get the unit
hydrograph of ungauged basins in the same hydro meteorologically homogeneous area from
the known basin parameters. The unit hydrograph thus obtained is known as Synthetic unit
hydrograph.
Note : Unit hydrograph developed from rainfall and stream flow data on a catchment applies
only for that catchment and point on stream where the stream flow data was measured.
Synthetic unit hydrograph is used to develop unit hydrograph for the locations on the stream
in the same catchment or for a nearby catchment of a similar character.
Snyder selected three parameters for development of SUH. Theses parameters relate the
catchment characteristics
(i) Basin time width T
(ii) Peak discharge QP

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(iii) Lag time i.e. basin lag time tp. (Snyder defined lag time as time interval from mid pt. of
rainfall to peak of UH (instead of centroid).

He proposed the following three equations for these three parameters

Lag time, tp = Ct(LLca)0.3
Basin time width T = (72 + 3tp)
2.78Cp A
Peak discharge QP =
tp

Where tp is in hr
Ct is a coefficient reflecting slope, land use, and associated storage characteristics of basin. Its
value varies between 1.35 to 1.65, average being 1.5
L = basin length measured along the water course from the basin divide to the gauging station
in km.
Lca = Distance of centroid of catchment from the gauging point (in km)
T is in hr
QP is in m3/s
A = Catchment area in km2

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CP = a regional constant having value between 0.56 to 0.69

Synder used the standard duration tr (or D-hr) in hr for unit hydrograph

tp
tr = Dhr =
5.5

If a synthetic unit hydrograph of other duration then D’hr is required, then lag time , tpr’ is given

by

D '− tr
tpr = tp =
4

To plot the smooth synthetic unit hydrograph, US army crops of engineering gave the width of

SUH as

5.87
W50 = 1.08
 Qp 
 
 A 

3.35 W50
W75 = =
 Qp 
1.08
1.75
 
 A 

Where W50 and W75 are the width of synthetic unit hydrograph in hr at 50% and 75% of QP

respectively, where QP is in m3/s and A is area of catchment in km2.

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Example: Derive 3-hr synthetic unit hydrograph of basin with following data with a catchment
area of 2500 km2
Length of main stream = 120 km
Distance of centroid from outlet = 80 km
Ct and Cp of the catchment are assumed to be 1.5 and 0.6 respectively. Use Synder’s method.
Sol. Tp = Ct(LLca)0.3
Ct = 1.5, L = 120 km, Lca = 80 km
tp = 23.484 hrs
Standard duration tr = D
 tp   23.484 
=   =   = 4.27 hrs
 5.5   5.5 
Required duration D’ = 3 hrs
Lag time
D '+ tr
tpr = tp + = tp + 0.25 (D '− tr )
4
Or tpr = 23.484 + 0.25 (3 – 4.27) = 23.16 hrs
 0.6  2500  3
Qp = 2.78   = 180 m / sec
 23.16 
T = 72 + 3 × 23.16 = 141.48 hours
With these values Qp, T and tpr a smooth curve may be drawn.

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To plot the smooth synthetic unit hydrograph (SUH), US army corps Engineers gave the width
of SUH as :
5.87
W50 = 1.08
 Qp 
 
 A 
3.35
W75 = 1.08
 Qp 
 
 A 
Where W50 and W75 are widths in hrs of SUH at 50 % and 75% of QP
5.87
W50 = 1.08
= 100.62 hrs
 180 
 2500 
 
And
3.35
W75 = 1.08
= 57.42 hrs
 180 
 2500 
 
Hence the synthetic unit hydrograph (SUH) may be drawn as shown in Figure below :

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7. INSTANTANEOUS UNIT HYDROGRAPH (IUH)

● A unit hydrograph of infinitesimal duration is called instantaneous unit hydrograph. It is

mainly used where rainfall duration and intensity is variable because in that case we need
to divide the rainfall in very such durations and find out the response of that to runoff.
● Main advantage of IUH Is that it is independent of the duration of effective rainfall
hyctograph and one parameter less than D-hr unit hydrograph.
● IUH is independent of rainfall characteristics, it is indicative of catchment storage
characteristics.
● Instantaneous unit hydrograph is also obtained from S-curve. But that is an approximate
method.
1 dS
● Ordinate of instantaneous hydrograph is given by u ( t ) = , I = intensity of rainfall, S =
i dt
ordinate S-curve. (due to rainfall intensity of 1/D cm/hr)
● Thus ordinate of instantaneous unit hydrograph is the slope of S-curve of intensity 1 cm/hr
(i.e. S-curve derivate from a unit hydrograph of 1 hr duration).
● Clark Model
● Clark showed that IUH may be obtained by routing the rainfall excess.,
● He used the concept of time area diagram.

● With the help of IUH runoff is calculated using the following expression
tT
Run off = Q ( t ) =  u ( t − t ') (I ( t ') dt )
0

● Nash Model : Uses routing through a cascade of linear reservoir

● Note : Linear reservoir is the one in which storage is directly proportional to outflow
discharge.

****

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ENGINEERING HYDROLOGY

6 GROUND WATER HYDROLOGY

1. INTRODUCTION

Distribution of Sub-Surface Water

Sub-surface water (i.e. all forms of groundwater) can broadly be classified as:
(i) the portion in unsaturated zone, (Aeration zone)
(ii) the portion in saturated zone (ground water zone)
The unsaturated zone comprises of three sub-surface zones – soil water zone, intermediate
zone, capillary zone.

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2. SATURATED ZONE

In the saturated zone, groundwater fills the pore spaces completely, and water is storedas in
a reservoir, having a hydrostatic pressure variation throughout itsdepth with atmospheric
pressure assumed to exist at the water table.
All earth materials, from soils to rocks have pore spaces. Although these pores are completely
saturated with water below the water table, from the groundwater utilization point of view,
only such material through which water moves easily and hence can be extracted with ease
are significant. On this basis, the saturated formation are classified into four categories:
1. Aquifer,
2. Aquitard
3. Aquiclude and
4. Aquifuge.
2.1. Aquifer
An aquifer is a saturated formation of earth material which not only stores water but
yields it in sufficient quantity relatively easily due to its high permeability. Deposits of
sand and gravel from good aquifers.
2.2. Aquitard
It is a formation through which only seepage is possible and thus the yield is insignificant
compared to an aquifer. A sandy clay unit is an example of aquitard.
2.3. Aquiclude
Formations like clay which is highly porous but not permeable due to very small size of
pores.
2.4. Aquifuge
It is a geological formation which is neither porous nor permeable. Massive compact rock
without any fractures is an aquifuge.

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3. TYPE OF AQUIFERS

3.1. Unconfined Aquifers

• An unconfined aquifers is one which signifies the absence of any geological layer
confining the zone of saturation (above the water table). The unconfined aquifer is in
direct contact with atmosphere through the zone of aeration. The hydraulic pressure head
at any point within the unconfined aquifer is equal to depth of the point from the water
table.

• In unconfined aquifer the water table goes down if water is withdrawn from the aquifer
storage and the water table moves up if water is added into the aquifer storage.
• The water level in a large diameter dug wells tapping unconfined aquifer represents
water table. This aquifer is also known as water table aquifer or phreatic aquifer.
• A special case of unconfined aquifer is known as perched aquifer.
A perched aquifer is formed when the infiltrated rain water is intercepted within the
zone of Aeration by an impermeable layer and a local zone of saturation is formed. The
upper surface of such local zone of saturation is known as perched water table. The
perched aquifer occurs at higher elevation than the regional water table.

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3.2. Confined Aquifers

A confined aquifer (also called artisan aquifer) is the one which is overlain by an
impermeable layer or an Aquiclude. Unlike the unconfined aquifer the water in the
confined aquifer is not in direct contact with the atmosphere.

The ground water within a confined aquifer occurs under pressure (known as confined
pressure or artisan pressure) greater than atmospheric pressure. When such confined
aquifer is pierced by a well, the water rises in the well due to release of pressure within
the confined aquifer. The level up to which water will rise in the well is known as
potentiometric level. This potentiometric level indicates the magnitude of pressure within
the confined aquifer. If the potentiometric level is above the ground surface a flowing
well results.
The area from which the infiltrated water enters the confined aquifer is known as
Recharge area.

4. STEADY CONFINED FLOW (FULLY PENETRATING WELL)

Full penetrating well means the well which penetrates upto the bottom of the aquifer so that
flow is more or less radial.

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At a radial distance r from the well, if h is the piezometric head, the velocity of flow by Darcy’s
law is
dh
Vr = K
dr
The cylindrical surface through which this velocity occurs is 2πrB. Hence
 dh 
Q = (2rB )  K 
 dr 
Q dr
= dh
2KB r
Integrating between limits r1 and r2 with the corresponding piezometric heads being h 1 and h2
respectively.
Q r
ln 2 = (h2 − h1 )
2KB r1

2KB (h2 − h1 )
Q= r
ln r2
1

This is the equilibrium equation for the steady flow in a confined aquifer. This equation is
popularly known as Theme’s equation.
Further, at the edge of the zone of influence, s =0, r 2 = R and h2= H;at the well wall r1 = rw,
h1 = hw and s1 = sw. Hence

2KBSw
Q=
R
ln
rw

This is called dupits formula.

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5. STEADY UNCONFINED FLOW

dh
Vr = K
dr
dh
Q = (2rh) Vr = 2r Kh
dr
Q dr
= h dh
2K r
Integrating between limits r1 and r2 where the water table depths are h 1 and h2 respectively
and on rearranging

Q=
(
k h22 − h12 )
r2
This is the equilibrium equation for a well in an unconfined aquifer (Thiems formula). As at the
edge of the zone of influence of radius R, H = saturated thickness of the aquifer. Hence

Q=
(
 k H2 − h2w )
R
ln
rw
R is normally between 300-500 m.
where hw = depth of water in the pumping well of radius rw.

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Example: A 30-cm well completely penetrates an unconfined aquifer of saturated depth 40m.
After a long period of pumping at a steady rate of 1500 1pm, the drawdown in two observation
wells 25 and 75 m from the pumping well were found to be 3.5 and 2.0 m respectively.
Determine the transmissivity of the aquifer. What is the drawdown at the pumping well?
Solution:

1500  10−3
(a) Q = = 0.025 m3/s
60
h2 = 40.0 2.0 = 38.0 r2 = 75 m
h1 = 40.0 3.5 = 36.5 r1 = 25 m
From Eq. (9.49),

Q=
(
K h22 − h12 )
r2
ln
r1

K (38 ) − (36.5) 
2 2
 
0.025 =
75
ln
25
K = 7.823 × 10–5 m/s
T = KH = 7.823 × 103 × 40 = 3.13 ×103 m2/s
(b) At the pumping well, rw = 0.15 m

Q=
(
 K H12 − h2w )
r1
ln
rw

  7.823  10−5 (36.5) − h2w 

2
 
0.025 = Q =
25
ln
0.15

h2w = 811.84 and hw = 28.49 m

Drawdown at the well, sw = 11.51 m

6. RECUPERATING TEST

Although the pumping test gives accurate value of safe yield, it sometimes becomes very
difficult to adjust the rate of pumping, so as to keep the well water level constant. In such
circumstances, recuperation test is adopted.
In this method, the water is first of all drained from the well at a fast rate so as to cause
sufficient drawdown. The pumping is then stopped. The water level in the well will start rising.
The time taken by the water to comeback to its normal level or some other measured level is
then noted. The discharge can then be worked out as below:

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AB = Static water level in the well before the pumping was started.
CD = Water level in the well when the pumping was stopped.
s1 = Depression head in the well at the time the pumping was stopped.
EF = Water level in the well at the noted time (say after a time T form when the pumping is
stopped).
s2 = Depression head in the well at time T after the pumping is stopped.
Let X.X be the position of water level at any time ti after the pumping was stopped and let the
corresponding depression head be s. Let ds be the decrease in depression head in a time dt
after the time t. Hence, in a time
t after the pumping is stopped, the water level recuperates by (s1 – s). It again recuperates by
ds in a time dt after this.
∴Volume of water entering the well in the small interval of time (dt)
=dV=A.dt (1)
where A is the cross-sectional area of the well at the bottom.
Also, if Q is the rate of recharge into the well at the time t under a depression heads, then the
volume of water entering the well in this small time interval is
= dV=Q.dt
But Q  s
∴ Q=C’.s (2)
where C’ is a constant depending on the soil through which the water enters the well.
∴dV = C’.s.dt (3)
Equating (1) and (3), we get
– A.ds = C’.s dt
(The –v sign indicates that s decreases as t increases)
C.dt  ds 
or =− 
A  s 

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Integrating between the limits

t = 0, s = s1
t = T, s = s2
we get,
C T s2 ds
A  0
dt = s1 s
C T s2
or t 0
= − loge s s1
A
C s
or
A
( T ) = − loge s2
1

s2
= −2.3log10
s1
C 2.3 s
∴ = log10 1
A T s2
C
Knowing the values of s1,s2 and T from the above test, the value of can be calculated. C’ is
A
called the specific capacity of the open well. Knowing the value of the discharge Q for a well
under a constant depression head H can be calculated as follows:
Q = C’.s
 C 
or Q =   A.s
A

 2.3 s 
or Q =  log 10 1  A.s
 R s2 

A and s ate known, the discharge for any amount of drawdown (s) can be easily worked out.
Example: During a recuperation test, the water level in an open well was depressed by
pumping by 2.5 meters and is recuperated by an amount of 1.6 meters in 70 minutes.
(a) Determine the yield from a well of 3 m diameter under a depression head of 3.5 meters.
(b) Also determine the diameter of the well to yield 10 liters/second under a depression head
of 2.5 meters.
Sol.
C 2.3 s
= log10 1
A T s2
where s1= Initial drawdown = 2.5 m
s2 = Final drawdown
= 2.5 – 1.6= 0.9m
T = Time = 70 minutes
70
= hr = 1.167 hr
60
C 2.3 2.5
∴ = log10
A 1.167 0.9
= 0.875 m3/hr/m2/m of depression head

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(a) Yield from a well of 3 m diameter, under a depression head of 3.5 m is given by
 C 
Q =   A.s
A

 
= 0.875    32   3.5
4 
= 21.65 m3/hr
= 6.02 liters/sec Ans.
Q = 10 liters/sec,
10  60  60 3
= m hr
1000
= 36 m3/hr
s = 2.5 m
 C 
Q =   A.s
A
∴ 36 = (0.875) × A × 2.5
36
or A = = 16.46 m2
0.875  2.5

 2
or d = 16.46
4
or d = 4.58 m; Say 4.6 m
Hence, the diameter of the required well = 4.6 m. Ans.
Example: During the recuperation test of a 4.0 m open well a recuperation of the depression
head from 2.5 m to 125 m was found to take place in 90 minutes. Determine the (i) specific
capacity per unit well area and (ii) yield of the well for a safe drawdown of 2.5 m (iii) what
would be the yield from a well of 5.0 m diameter for a drawdown of 2.25 m?
 2
Sol. A=  ( 4.0 ) = 12.566m2
4
K0 1 H
= ln 1
A Tr H2

Here Tr = 90 min = 1.50 h, H1 = 2.5 m, and H2 = 1.25 m

K0 1 2.5
(i) K2 = = ln = 0.462h−1
A 1.5 1.25
(ii) Q = K2 × A × H = 0.462 × 12.566 × 2.5 = 14.52 m3/h
 2
(iii) A2 =  (5.0 ) = 19.635
4
Q = K2 × A2 × H2 = 0.462 × 19.635 × 2.25 = 20.415 m3/h

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