Dam Engineering-I 2021

Chapter 2: Embankment Dam Engineering

Embankment dams are defined as those constructed primarily of the natural materials of the
earth, namely soil and rock. The natural fill materials are placed and compacted without the
addition of any binding agent, using high capacity mechanical plant.
An embankment dam is therefore a non-rigid dam which resists the forces exerted up on it
mainly by its shear strength. These dams usually provide the most economical and most
satisfactory solution for sites at which suitable foundation at reasonable depth may not be
available for a dam of concrete or masonry.
The two main forms of embankment dams are (1) Earth (earth fill) dams made predominantly
of earth or soil. (2) Rock fill dams made predominantly of quarried rock. However a
composite earth and rock fill type of embankment dams are also being widely used.

2.1 Earth Dams (earth fill dams)

An embankment may be categorized as an earth fill dam if compacted soils account for over
50% of the placed volume of material. An earth fill dam is constructed primarily of
engineering soils compacted uniformly and intensively in relatively thin layers and at a
controlled moisture content.

Merits of Earth Dams

 Local materials is used which is readily available & easy to handle

 Can be built on almost all types of foundation
 Large base width of earth dams is suited for pervious foundation
 Easier and cheaper to extend up wards
 The natural appearance blends with the surrounding

Demerits of earth dam are:

 An earthen embankment is easily damaged or destroyed by water flowing on, over or

against it. Thus, a spillway and adequate upstream protection are essential for any
earthen dam.
 Designing and constructing adequate spillways is usually the most technically
difficult part of any dam building work. Any site with a poor quality spillway should
not be used.

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 If it is not adequately compacted during construction, the dam will have weak
structure prone to seepage.
 Earthen dams require continual maintenance to prevent erosion, tree growth,
subsidence, animal and insect damage and seepage.

The design of an earth dam involves both a hydraulic and structural analysis. The hydraulic
analysis deals with the determination of the seepage patterns and the magnitude of seepage as
well as the internal hydrostatic seepage forces for both the dam body and the foundation. Of
particular importance is the investigation for possible removal of fine particles near the toe by
emerging seepage water (piping). The structural analysis involves the study of the stability of
the embankment under the given conditions of seepage and other forces. Settlement and
stability studies of the foundation are also important.

2.1.1 Types of Earth Dams

Earth dams may be classified on the basis of methods of construction.

Accordingly we have:-

i. Rolled-fill earth dam

ii. Hydraulic-fill earth dam
iii. Semi-hydraulic fill earth dams
i. Rolled fill Dam

In rolled-fill earth dams the embankment is constructed in successive mechanically

compacted layers. The material (sand, clay, gravel etc.) is transported from the borrow pits to
the dam site by truckers or scrapers. It is then spread with in the dam section by bulldozers to
form layers of 15 to 45 cm thickness. Each layer is then thoroughly compacted and bonded
with the preceding layer by means of power operated rollers of proper design and weight.

ii. Hydraulic fill dam

In the case of hydraulic-fill dam the materials are transported from borrow pits to their final
position (dam site) placed through the agency of water. Thus in this case, at the borrow pits
the material is mixed with water to form a slurry which is transported through flumes or pipes
and deposited near the faces of dam. The coarser materials of the slurry stay near the faces of
the dam while the finer ones move towards the centre and get deposited there. This would

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provide a dam section with shoulders of the coarse free draining particles and an impervious
central core of fine grained material such as clay and silt.

iii. Semi-hydraulic dam

In the semi-hydraulic fill dam construction, the material is dumped near the upstream and
downstream face of the dam to form rough levees as in the case of rolled fill dam w/o the use
of water. Then the space b/n the levees are filled with water and the material placed in or
upon the levees is washed towards the centre of the dam. For this jets of water are directed on
the dumped fill which cause the finer material from the fill near the faces of the dam to be
washed away. The finer material moves towards the central portion of the dam and is
deposited there thus forming an impervious central core while coarse material stays near the
faces of the dam. However, in the absence of proper jetting action the dumped fill at the faces
of the dam may be more dense and impervious than the material immediately below it on the
inside of the dam which may result in the failure of the dam.

Out of these three types, the rolled-fill earth dams are the most common. This is so b/c in the
case of other two types of dams‟ lack of control in placing the material may result in the
failure of the dam.

Rolled fill dams are of three types

a. Homogenous type
b. Zoned type
c. Diaphragm type

a. Homogenous type

A purely homogeneous type of dam is composed of a single kind of earth material except
for the slope protection. It is used when only a single type of material is economically and
locally available. Such a section is used only for low to moderately high dams and for
dykes. Large dams are rarely designed as homogenous embankments. For a completely
homogeneous section it is inevitable that seepage will emerge on the downstream slope
regardless of its flatness and the impermeability of the soil if the reservoir level is
maintained for a sufficiently long time. At the downstream slope up to 1/3 of the height
may be saturated if internal drainage arrangements are not provided. Besides larger
sections (flat slopes) are required to make it stable and safe against piping. Because of
this an internal drainage system such as a horizontal drainage layer and a rock toe is

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added so as to keep the phreatic line well within the body of the dam. This permits the use
of steeper slopes and thus smaller sections. The material comprising the dam must be
sufficiently impervious to provide an adequate water barrier & the slopes must be
relatively flat for stability. To avoid sloughing the upstream slope must be relatively flat
if rapid draw down of the reservoir is anticipated. Although formerly very common in the
design of small dams, the purely homogenous section has been replaced by a modified
homogeneous section in which small amounts of carefully placed pervious materials
control the action of seepage so as to permit much steeper slopes. The modified
homogeneous section is the one provided with internal drainage filter system in the form
of a horizontal drainage blanket, a rock toe or a chimney drain.

Fig. 2.1 Homogeneous type embankment

b. Zoned embankment type

These are the most common for high dams of rolled fill type. They are provided with a
central impervious core, covered by a relatively pervious transition filter which is finally
surrounded by a more pervious outer zones or shells. The core thickness should not be
less than 3 m or the height of the dam above the section. The central core checks the
seepage; the transition filter zone prevents piping through cracks which may develop in
the core. The outer zones (shells) provide stability to the core and also distribute the load
over a larger foundation area. The core is usually a mixture of clay and sand or gravel or
silty clay. Pure clay that shrinks and swells excessively is not suitable. Freely draining
materials such as coarse sands and gravels are used as the outer shells. This is necessary
b/c the downstream pervious zone should act as a drain to control the line of seepage. If a

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variety of soils are readily available, the choice of type of earth fill dam should always be
the zoned embankment type b/c its inherent advantages will lead to economies in cost of
construction.

Fig. 2.2 Zoned embankment type

c. Diaphragm type

In this type of section the bulk of embankment is constructed of pervious materials

(Sand, gravel, or rock) and a thin diaphragm of impermeable material is provided to form
the water barrier. The position of this barrier may vary from a blanket on the upstream
face to central vertical core. If the diaphragm is provided as an impervious blanket on the
u/s face of the dam it needs to be protected against shallow sloughs and slide during
draw down and from erosion by wave action. For this the diaphragm is held buried below
a thin layer of pervious material over which the upstream slope protection is provided.
The diaphragm may be of earth, Portland cement or asphalt concrete or other material. If
the core thickness at any elevation is less than 3m or less than the embankment height
above the corresponding section then the dam embankment is considered to be the
diaphragm type.

Fig. 2.3 Diaphragm type embankment

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Foundation Requirements

The term “foundation,” as used herein, includes both the valley floor and the abutments upon
which the embankment will be built. A foundation for an earth-fill dam has two essential
requirements:

1. It must provide stable support for the embankment under all conditions of saturation
and loading, and
2. It must provide sufficient resistance to seepage to prevent internal erosion or
excessive loss of water.

Foundations are grouped into three main classes according to their predominant
characteristics:

1. Foundations consisting of rock

2. Foundations consisting of coarse-grained material (sand and gravel)
3. Foundations consisting of fine-grained material (silt and clay)
1. Rock foundation: foundations of rock including hard shale do not present any problem
of bearing strength for small earth fill dam. The principal considerations are dangerous
erosive leakage and the excessive loss of water through joints, crevices, permeable strata
and along fault planes. Ordinarily, the design and estimate for a storage dam should
provide for the injection of grout under pressure to seal seams, joints & other opening in
the bed rock to a depth equal to the reservoir head above the surface of the bed rock.
Grouting is usually done with neat cement and water starting with a ratio of 1:5 pressures
usually applied are (0.25 D kg/sq cm) where D is the depth of grouting below the surface.
2. Pervious foundations (sand and gravel): often the foundations for dams consist of
recent alluvial deposits composed of relatively pervious sand and gravel over lying
impervious geological formations. Two basic problems are found in pervious foundations.
One pertains to the amount of under seepage and the other is concerned with the forces
exerted by the seepage.
Quantity of under seepage and seepage forces: To estimate the volume of under
seepage, it is necessary to determine k, by Darcy‟s formula, the accuracy of which
depends on the homogeneity of the foundation and the accuracy with which the
coefficient of permeability is determined. Seepage forces are caused as a result of the
friction b/n the percolating water and the walls of the pores of the soil through which it

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flows. The forces are exerted in the direction of flow and are proportional to the friction
loss per unit distance. As the water percolates up ward at the d/s toe of the dam, the
seepage force tends to lift the soil resulting in piping.
Upon determination of the coefficient of permeability of the foundation, a rough
approximation of the amount of under seepage may be made by use of Darcy‟s formula:

Where:

Discharge volume per unit of time.

Coefficient of permeability for the foundation; i.e., discharge through a unit area at unit
hydraulic gradient,

Hydraulic gradient ⁄ difference in head divided by length of path, and

Gross area of foundation through which flow takes place.

3. Impervious foundation: Foundations of fine silt and clay are impervious and have very
low shear strength. Shear failure may occur in such foundations: If the foundation
material is impervious and comparable to the compacted embankment material in
structural characteristics, little foundation treatment is required. The minimum treatment
for any foundation is stripping of the foundation area to remove the topsoil with high
content of organic matter & other unsuitable material which can be disposed of by open
excavation. In many cases where the over burden is comparatively shallow the entire
foundation is stripped to bed rock.

2.1.2 Design Criteria for Earth Dams

An earth dam must be safe and stable during all phases of construction and operation of
the reservoir. For this the following must be met.

i. The embankment must be safe against over topping during occurrence of the
inflow design flood and also by action of wave, by provision of spillway of
sufficient capacity and of sufficient free board.
ii. The upstream and downstream slopes of the embankment must be stable during all
stages of construction and under worst conditions of loading. These critical

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conditions of loading occur for the u/s slope during sudden drawdown of the
reservoir, and for the d/s slope during steady seepage under full reservoir.
iii. The embankment must be designed in such a way that it will not impose excessive
stress up on the foundation.
iv. Seepage flow through the embankment, foundation and abutments must be
controlled so that no internal erosion takes place so that no sloughing takes place
where the seepage emerges
v. The upstream face should be properly protected against wave action, and the
downstream face against rains and against waves up to tail water. Provisions of
horizontal berms at suitable intervals in the d/s face may be thought of, so as to
reduce the erosion due to flow of rain water. Ripraps should be provided on the
entire u/s slope and also on the d/s slope near the toe and up to slightly above the
tail water so as to avoid erosion.
vi. The seepage line should be well within the downstream face and there should be
no opportunity for the free passage of water from the u/s to the d/s face.

2.1.3 Seepage through Earth Dams

For any dam of homogenous material, seepage will pass through the dam and appear at
the downstream face regardless of the tightness of the material. The line of saturation i.e.
the upper boundary of the flow line below which the flow is under hydrostatic pressure is
called the phreatic line. If this line of saturation is allowed to intersect the d/s slope above
the toe, a serious sloughing will always occur unless prevented by construction of toe
drains or filters or rock fill toe. Location of the position of the phreatic line is desirable
for determination of the amount of through seepage and for construction of the flow nets
as it represents one flow boundary.

Phreatic Line for a Homogenous Earth Dam with a Horizontal Drainage Blanket

Kozeny has shown that the phreatic line in this case coincides with the base parabola
ADC except at the entrance. The base parabola has its focus (F) at the starting point of the
horizontal drainage blanket & intersects the water surface at A (0.3L from B).

The basic property of parabola which is utilized to draw the base parabola is that the
distance of any point P from the focus is equal to the distance of the same point from the
directrix.

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Fig. 2.4

I. Graphical Method
i. With centre at A & radius AF draw an arc. The arc cuts the line AB when produced at
E. Draw a vertical line GE through point E which is the directrix of the base parabola.
ii. The intermediate points are located by utilizing the above mentioned basic property of
the parabola.
iii. Join all intermediate points by a smooth curve. The last point C on the parabola will
be midway b/n F & G as FC = CG
II. Analytical Method

Let us take the origin (O) at the focus with X- positive u/s & Y-positive upward.

From the basic property of parabola: distance PF = distance PR

Squaring both sides & rearranging

Where is the distance from the focus to the directrix, also called focal distance
Thus . The value of can be obtained from the known coordinates
of the starting point A.
Substituting the values in equation (i) we get

√ √

Hence, the focal distance can be calculated from this equation.

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For different values of X the corresponding values of Y can be computed using the parabola
equation (ii). The intermediate points are plotted from the known coordinates to obtain a
smooth curve. As the actual phreatic line starts from point B and not from point A, a short
transition entry correction curve is sketched free hand by eye judgment such that it is
perpendicular to the u/s face & meets the basic parabola tangentially.

After the phreatic line is determined, then it is also possible to draw the flow net, considering
the phreatic line as the first/top most flow line. And thus, one can compute the quantity of
seepage through dam. Discharge through dam can also be quantified using analytical
approach for this particular situation.

From Darcy‟s Law:

Where, Coefficient of permeability

The hydraulic gradient

The seepage discharge per unit length can be given by:

Where A is area of flow per unit length

For steady flow, the discharge through all vertical planes across the dam section will be the
same.
Considering the discharge through the vertical section PQ passing through the point P (x, y),

Substituting for the value of y from above,

(√ ) (√ )

[ ( ) ] *√ +

( ) *√ +
√
√

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The coefficient of permeability K and the focal distance ( ) are known; the discharge can
be easily computed. This is an important equation. Strictly speaking, this equation is
applicable only to dams with horizontal drainage but is used for other type of section also and
gives quite close values of discharge.
Phreatic Line for a Homogeneous Dam with Out Any Drainage System

Fig. 2.5
In this case the phreatic line cuts the d/s faces at point J above the toe. In addition to the entry
correction an exit correction is also required.
The focus (F) of the base parabola is located at the d/s toe of the dam & its starting point A is
located at a distance of 0.3L from B.
Casagrande has shown that the exit correction depends up on the slope of the

discharge face and he has given the values ⁄ for different values of angle as
follows.
Table 2.1

in degrees ⁄ Remarks
30 0.36 Note. Intermediate values
60 0.32 can be interpolated, or read
90 0.26 out from a graph between
120 0.18 and ⁄ plotted
135 0.14 with the values given here.
150 0.10
180 0.0
is the distance FK (i.e. the distance of the focus from the point where the parabola
cuts the d/s face) and is known. can then be evaluated. and can be connected by a
general equation .

[ ]

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The value of will be equal to 180° for a horizontal filter case and may be equal or more

than 90° in case a rock toe is provided at the downstream end. will be less than 90° when

no drainage is provided. Then the point J is marked at a distance from point K by

drawing a smooth transition curve by eye judgment such that the phreatic line meets the d/s
face tangentially. To determine discharge, the same concept as above can be adopted.

i. Approximate analytical solution for the determination of the distance „a‟ for the
slope angle

For the slope angle , Schaffernak and Van Iterson gave the analytical solution
for the determination of the distance „a‟. In this case it is assumed that the hydraulic
gradient (i) is equal to the tangent of the angle.

Thus ⁄ , this assumption is true for small values of the angle

A vertical line is drawn through the point J to cut the base at J‟ (Fig. 2.5). The discharge
through the vertical section JJ‟ per unit length is given by:

( )

From which one can obtain,

Integrating between the limits

∫ ∫

Simplifying,

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( ) √( )

Ignoring unfeasible +ve sign, we have

ii. Approximate analytical solution for the determination of the distance „a‟ for the
slope angle

An approximate value of the distance JF („a‟) can be found from the approximate analytical
solution as given below. Casagrande suggested that in this case the hydraulic gradient should
be taken as instead of . That is it should be taken as ⁄ instead of

⁄ , where is the distance measured along the phreatic line.

Thus the discharge per unit length is given by:

( )

Thus = ⁄

Integrating between the limits

Where = is the total length of the phreatic line,

∫ ∫

| | | |

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[ ]

Ignoring +ve sign, we get

The total length of the parabola can be approximately taken to be equal to

√ , then

√
Substituting, we get

√ √

√ √ ( )

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√ √

Phreatic Line for Homogeneous Erath Dam with Rock Toe

The figure below shows an earth dam with rock toe. The u/s face of the rock toe is usually
inclined downstream i.e., as shown in figure below (Fig. 2.6). However, sometimes
the u/s face of the rock toe is kept vertical. The drawing procedure for phreatic line is the
same as previous cases but the exit correction is somewhat d/t.

Fig. 2.6 Homogeneous Earth Dam with Rock toe

Exit Correction of Phreatic line for earth dam with rock toe

The u/s face of the rock toe acts as the discharge face. It makes an angle with the
horizontal. The base parabola cuts the discharge face at point K. The value of may
be obtained by measuring the distance FK or from equation given above for a given value of
and calculated value of .

For the known value of , the value of ⁄ can be obtained from Table 2.1. The

exit correction is then found from the values of the equations. The joint J is then marked

on the u/s face of the rock toe at a distance of from K. The phreatic line is drawn by
making a transition curve by eye judgment from the point J to the point M on the base
parabola. The transition curve is tangential to the vertical line at J, and it meets the base
parabola tangentially at M. It may be noted that the phreatic line drops vertically in to the
rock toe.

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Phreatic Line for Zoned Erath Dam with a Central Core

For zoned earth dam the phreatic line construction depends mainly on the geometry and
thickness of the core section. B/c the permeability of shell material (example sand) is quite
large as compared to core material (example clay); the effect of outer shells on the phreatic
line in the core is negligible. As such the u/s shell has practically no effect on the position of
the phreatic line. The phreatic line can just start from point B where the extension of the
water level cuts the core. The d/s shell in this case acts as a drain. Thus the usual practice is to
draw the phreatic line for the core section only.

For drawing the phreatic line, the focus F is to be located at the d/s toe of the core and
assuming the u/s shell as a reservoir. Then the core section is treated as a homogeneous dam
and the same of constructing phreatic line for homogeneous dam is considered. However, in
this case, the phreatic line at the exit end will be slightly above the base of the core so that the
seepage water can flow under gravity through the d/s shell which acts a drain (Fig. 2.7).

Fig. 2.7

Flow net and Flow net construction (reading assignment)

Control of Seepage through Earth Dam and Its Foundation

The effects of seepage are:

 Loss of water
 Piping failure
 Reduce slope stability and result in dam failure
 Causes local sloughing

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Seepage control measures are divided in to two main categories

A. Measures to reduce quantity of seepage – lessen loss of water
B. Measures for safe drainage of seeping water – No piping
A. Measures to reduce quantity of seepage
a. In Dam: The only measure is provision of impervious core within the body of the dam
called embankment zonation. Embankment zonation: for reducing seepage through
the body of the dam, a core of impervious material such as silt clay or clayey silt is
generally provided. For most effective control of through seepage and seepage during
reservoir drawdown, the permeability should progressively increase from the core out
towards each slope.
Sometimes flat slopes without drains are provided for some dams constructed with
impervious soils having flat embankment slopes & infrequent, short duration , high
reservoir levels, the phreatic surface may be contained well within the d/s slope &
escape gradients may be sufficiently low to prevent piping failure.
b. In foundation: If an impervious stratum such as rock, clay, etc., is available close to
the bed of the river then no specific measure is required for reducing the seepage
through the foundation and only grouting and surface treatment may be carried out if
necessary. However, if the foundation consists of alluvial deposits of pervious sands
and gravels with an impervious stratum at a greater depth below the bed of the river
then the following measures may be adopted to reduce the seepage of water through
the foundation.
1. Cut-off
2. Upstream impervious blanket
3. Downstream berm
1. Cut-off. A cut-off is a vertical impermeable barrier provided within the pervious
foundation of an earth dam to reduce the seepage of water through the foundation. It
usually extends down from the base of the impervious core provided within the body
of the dam. On the basis of the length of the cut-offs these may be classified in the
following two types viz.,
(a) Full cut-off
(b) Partial cut-off
(a) Full cut-off. A full cut-off is a vertical barrier provided for the entire depth of the
pervious foundation below the earth dam. It joins the base of the impervious core of the

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dam with the impervious stratum in the foundation. Such a cut-off is provided where the
impervious stratum is available in the foundation at a reasonable depth below the base of
the dam. The various types of full cut-off usually adopted are as follows.
i. Positive cut-off trench
ii. Concrete cut-off wall
iii. Grout curtain
iv. Steel sheet pile
v. Slurry trench cut-off
i. Positive cut-off trench. It consists of a trench formed by open excavation in the
foundation soil and backfilled by a compacted impervious soil. As such it is also
known as open trench and fill back cut-off or rolled earth cut-off. For constructing
this type of cut-off the same impervious soil and construction methods are
employed as in the impervious core of the dam. These cut-offs are most
commonly constructed to depths up to 25 m. However, trenches have been
excavated to more than 50 m depth but it becomes expensive and troublesome.
The width and side slopes of the trench are generally selected according to the
convenience of construction and to ensure stability of excavated slopes. The main
difficulty in the construction of these trenches is that of dewatering and holding
down the water level till the trench is backfilled. Dewatering of these trenches is
however carried out with suitable pumps.
ii. Concrete cut-off wall. It consists of a trench excavated in the foundation soil and
backfilled with unreinforced concrete. The trench is of constant width (about 2 m)
and its walls are supported by sheets and braces. A new form of concrete cut-off
wall is a continuous row of overlapping concrete piers installed with special
drilling rigs or other equipment.
iii. Grout curtain. Grout curtain or Grouted cut-off is produced by injection of grout
of cement, clay, chemicals or a combination of these materials within the zone
assigned to the cut-off. While cement grouts have been used to reduce leakage
through fissured rocks under dams, the same has not been found successful to
grout alluvial sand and gravel deposits. This is so because cement grout could not
be injected uniformly except in coarse materials. Chemical grouts could be
injected into sand deposits but these are usually too expensive. However, clay
grout has been found to be quite successful for grouting sand and gravel deposits.

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Usually a grout consisting of a mixture of clay, cement and chemicals such as

silicate and phosphate is used.
iv. Steel sheet pile. It consists of steel sheets driven through the pervious foundation.
It is however ineffective in controlling seepage because even if it is intact there is
considerable leakage through the interlocks between the individual sheets. In
addition during driving the pile may be damaged and the interlocks may break
because of defect in the steel or when the pile hits some obstacles such as cobbles
and boulders. Further if steel sheet piles are driven to hard rock with a very
uneven surface, a continuous row of triangular gaps may be present between their
lower edges and the rock, or the piles may curl if they are driven too hard. As such
a steel sheet pile with a special design has been developed to reduce leakage in the
interlocks and to prevent breaking or curling. It consists of a double row of
straight sheet piles welded to 450 mm wide flange steel beams. After driving, the
space between the beams is excavated and filled with concrete. However, besides
the various limitations of steel sheet piles as mentioned above these are also
relatively more expensive and hence these are not commonly used.
v. Slurry trench cut-off. It also consists of a trench excavated in the pervious deposits
of the foundation and backfilled with a suitable impervious soil. However, in this
case cut-off is constructed by using slurry trench method. In this method a trench
is excavated with a dragline through the pervious deposits down to the impervious
stratum of the foundation. The trench is kept continuously filled with bentonite
slurry which prevents the trench walls from caving so that no sheeting or shoring
is required to be used. After a sufficient length of trench has been excavated the
bottom is cleaned with clamshell buckets and air lifts and the backfilling begins.
The backfill consists of the excavated material (i.e., a mixture of sand and gravel
with bentonite slurry) blended with about 15 to 20% of natural silt brought in from
a borrow pit. This mixture is then dumped from one end of the trench displacing
the bentonite slurry until the backfilling is complete.
(b) Partial cut-off. In many cases in the foundation of an earth dam the impervious stratum
may exist at such a large depth below the bed of the river that it would be impracticable
or extremely expensive to provide full cut-off extending up to the impervious stratum. In
such cases a partial cut-off may be provided. A partial cut-off is one which extends down

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from the impervious core of the dam into the underlying pervious strata but does not
reach the impervious stratum.
2. Upstream Impervious Blanket. The path of percolation in pervious foundations can be
increased by the construction of a blanket of impervious material connecting with the
impervious zone of the dam and extending upstream from the toe. Blankets are
usually used when cut-offs to bed rock or to an impervious layer are not practicable
b/c of excessive depth; they are also used in conjunction with partial cut off trenches.
The length of the blanket will be governed by the desired reduction in the amount of
under seepage and its thickness usually varies from 1.5 to 3.0 m.
It may be provided in homogenous dams constructed of relatively impervious soil.
The length of the u/s blanket can be obtained from the following formula.

Where = mean horizontal permeability coefficient

= the gross height

= percentage (stated as decimal) of flow under dam w/o a blanket to which level it is
desired to reduce the seepage by means of a blanket
=length of impervious dam material

⁄ seepage flow under the dam (approximate)

= depth of pervious foundation

Where is the seepage quantity after provision of u/s blanket

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Fig. 2.8 Upstream impervious blanket

3. Downstream berm (or landside berm or downstream loading berm)
As shown in Fig. (2.9) a downstream or landside berm extending beyond the
downstream toe of the dam is sometimes provided to reduce the quantity of seepage
by lengthening the seepage path. It also provides some protection against sloughing of
the downstream slope as a result of seepage.

Fig. 2.9 Earth dam with downstream berm

B. Measures for safe drainage of seeping water – No piping
Some water always seeps through the dam and foundation even after adopting several
seepage control measures discussed earlier. The seeping water should be safely
drained through the dam and foundation without causing ill effects. The various

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measures that are adopted for safe drainage of water seeping through the dam and
through the foundation are as follows.
(a) In Dam.
i. Horizontal drainage blanket
ii. Rock toe
iii. Strip drain
iv. Chimney drain
i. Horizontal drainage blanket. As shown in Fig. 2.10 a horizontal drainage blanket is
provided at the base of the dam which extends from the downstream toe of the dam
in the upstream direction. The horizontal drainage blankets are widely used for
dams of low to moderate heights. The drainage blanket must be pervious enough to
drain off effectively and its design should fulfil the filter criteria as described later.
The thickness of a drainage blanket should be sufficient to convey the maximum
quantity of seepage estimated to come through the dam. However, it should have a
minimum thickness of 1 m. The blanket extends from the d/s toe for a distance of
about three times the height of the dam but not longer than 2/3 of the base width. In
the case of zoned section it extends up to the core.
The main disadvantage of such a measure is that it is not effective if the
embankment material has stratifications and the horizontal permeability is greater
than the vertical permeability.

Fig. 2.10 Horizontal drainage blanket

ii. Rock toe. The rock toe is provided at the d/s toe of the earth dam and it forms part
of the dam. It consists of stones of size varying from 15 to 20 cm. The u/s face of
the rock toe may be vertical or inclined. A graded filter may be provided between
the rock toe and the soil mass as well as b/n the foundation and the rock toe to avoid

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migration of materials. The rock toe is also suitable for low to moderate height of
dams. The height of the rock toe is generally b/n H/3 to H/4, where H is the height
of the dam. Rock toe can also be used in conjunction with horizontal drainage
blankets.

Fig. 2.11 Rock toe

iii. Strip drain. If there is a scarcity of pervious material, instead of a continuous

horizontal drainage blanket a strip drain may be provided. As shown in Fig. 2.12 a
strip drain is a relatively narrow drain provided inside the dam parallel to the axis of
the dam. A number of transverse drains are provided for discharging water from the
strip drain to another parallel drain provided at the downstream toe of the dam.
However, a continuous horizontal drainage blanket is preferred to a strip drain,
because in the event of choking of an individual transverse drain a significant length
of the dam would become un-drained.

Fig. 2.12 Strip drain

iv. Chimney drain. A chimney drain is a vertical/nearly vertical drain located inside the
dam so that it intercepts all layers of the dam in the seepage zone. Thus it is helpful

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in stratified embankments. A chimney drain renders the d/s portion of the dam free
from seeping water and it increases the stability of the d/s slope. It also helps in
reducing the pore water pressure during construction and sudden draw down
condition. Chimney drains are rarely provided in homogeneous dams and they are
provided d/s of the impervious core in zoned earth fill dams. From the chimney
drain water is carried to d/s by a horizontal drainage blankets. The chimney drain
should be accompanied with proper filters.

Fig. 2.13 Chimney drain

(b) In Foundation.
In general for the safe drainage of water seeping through the foundation, most of
the measures adopted for the drainage of water seeping through the dam will serve
the foundation also. Besides these the following measures are adopted for the safe
drainage of water seeping through the foundation.
i. Toe drains
ii. Drainage trenches
iii. Relief Wells
iv. Vertical Sand Drains
i. Toe Drain and Drainage Blanket: The purpose of toe drains is to collect the seepage
water from the horizontal drainage blanket and foundation to carry it to an outfall
pipe which then discharges the water in to the river or spillway stilling basin. Toe
drain pipes are usually of verified clay or perforated asphalt dipped corrugated metal
pipes placed in trenches excavated to the required depth below the ground surface to
ensure effective interception of seepage flow. Filters are provided as usual.

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Fig. 2.14 Toe drain

ii. Drainage Trenches: Drainage trenches are used when a thin impervious top stratum
overlies a shallow pervious stratum of the foundation so that the trench can be built
to penetrate the pervious stratum substantially. They are similar in arrangement with
that of toe drains, but in this case there is no pipe provided to drain. The trenches are
excavated to the required depth and backfilled with properly graded layers in
accordance with the filter criteria such that the coarser materials are at the inner side.
Drainage trenches, however, are not effective if the underlying pervious stratum is
quite deep and stratified.

Fig. 2.15 Drainage trench

iii. Relief Wells: Are generally used for drainage of the foundation if it consists of a
deep pervious stratum which is stratified and whose permeability increases with
depth. Relief wells are provided at or near the d/s toe of the dam to collect water
seeping through the foundation and to reduce the pore pressure in the foundation.

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Relief well consists of an interior perforated pipe or a well screen with a minimum
diameter of 15 cm. The well screen is surrounded by a small thickness of gravel pack
which is properly graded so as to meet the filter criteria for the surrounding soil.
Seepage from the relief wells is usually discharged at the toe of the dam in the river
channel through the horizontal overflow pipe and a lined drainage ditch. The spacing
of the relief wells is usually b/n 15 to 30m.

Fig. 2.16 Relief well

iv. Vertical Sand Drains: The vertical sand drains consist of vertical holes drilled in the
foundation all along the base of the dam (Fig. 2.17) and filled with clean, coarse
sand of high permeability. By providing these drains the path of drainage is
considerably reduced which results in keeping the pore pressure low and thereby
accelerate the consolidation of the foundation soil. Thus, vertical drains are found to
be quite effective for dams on soft clay foundations. In addition to accelerate
consolidation of the foundation soil, the sand drains also act as relief wells and thus
help in controlling under seepage. The diameter of the vertical sand drains is usually
in the range of 150 to 300 mm. The spacing of these drains however depends on
several factors such as characteristics of foundation soil, time for obtaining the
required degree of consolidation, etc.

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Fig. 2.17 Vertical sand drains

2.1.4 Embankment Design

The design of an earth dam essentially consists of determining such a cross sections of the
dam which, when constructed with the available materials, will fulfill its required function
with adequate safety. Thus there are two aspects of the design of an earth dam, viz.

i. To determine the X-section of the dam and

ii. To analyses the stability of the proposed X-section.

For determining the X-section of an earth dam there are no mathematical analyses or formula
as in the case of rigid dams. The design of slopes of earth fill embankments depends on the
nature of the materials of construction and the type of dam (i.e. zone, homogeneous &
diaphragm). It depends on the nature of the material used for the core and the shells and in
the case of zoned embankment on the relative proportion of them.

Details of Earth Dams

i. Crest width/Top width

The crest width of an earth fill dam depends on several considerations such as:-

- Sufficiency to keep the top flow line well within the dam body when the reservoir is
full.
- Sufficiency to provide the embankment mass for resistance to earth quake shock.
- Satisfactory for secondary requirement such as minimum road way width.

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Crest width can be calculated using the following formula:

Where: - is the height of the dam.

ii. Freeboard

Sufficient free board must be provided so that there is no possibility what so ever of the
dam being over topped. The necessary free board is calculated by assuming that the
maximum flood will occur when the reservoir is full and that the highest possible waves
will develop at the same time. The minimum free board shall be 1.5 times the wave height
plus a safety factor.

The additional safety provision generally various from 0.6 to 3 m depending up on the
size of the reservoir, the height of the dam the reliability of the flood computation etc.
Most of the hydraulic failures of earth dams have occurred due to overtopping of dams.
Hence, the freeboard must be sufficient enough, as to avoid any such possibility of
overtopping. The free board should not be less than 2 m in any case.

iii. Embankment slopes

The design slopes of an embankment may vary widely depending on the character of the
materials available for construction, foundation conditions and the height of the structure.
The upstream slope may vary from 1:2 to as flat as 1:4 (V: H) for stability usually it is
1:2.5 or 1:3. Flat upstream slopes are sometimes used in order to eliminate expensive
slope protection.

The usual downstream slopes for small earth fill dams are 1:2 where a downstream
pervious zone is provided in the embankment and 1:2.5 where the embankment is
impervious. Theses slopes are stable for soil types commonly used when drainage is

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provided in the design so that the downstream slope of the embankment does not become
saturated by seepage. The table below shows slopes recommended by Terzaghi.

Table 2.2

Type of Type of Material u/s slope D/s slope

Section (V:H) (V:H)
Homogeneous Homogeneous, well graded material 1:2.5 1: 2
Homogeneous Homogeneous, coarse silt 1:3 1:2.5
Homogeneous Homogeneous clay or silt clay
i) < 15m height 1:2.5 1:2
ii) > 15m height 1:3 1:2.5
Zoned Sand or sandy gravel with silty core 1:3 1:2.5
Zoned Sand or sandy gravel with R.C. core 1:2.5 1:2

iv. Slope protection

Usual types of surface protection for the upstream slope against destructive wave actions
are riprap and concrete pavement. The upstream slope protection should extend from the
crest of the dam to a safe distance below minimum water level and ordinarily terminate
on a supporting berm. Usual type of surface protection of the upstream slope is stone
riprap, either dumped or hand placed. For thin layers, hand placed riprap may be
economical than dumped riprap.

The downstream slope of earthen dam is protected against erosive action of water‟s wave
from tail water depth. The protection method to be used is the same to the upstream slope
protection work. Moreover, the downstream slope should also be protected against the
rainfall and run-off by providing suitable berms at suitable intervals (say for 15 m or so),
to intercept the rainwaters over the-slope and discharge them safely. In addition, an
attempt should also be made for establishment of grasses and plants towards the
downstream face, soon after construction of the dam, as they fully cover the sloppy area
by their rapid vegetative growth; and thus to control the slope against various causes.

v. Surface drainage

It may be necessary to prevent gullying at the contact of the embankment and valley
slopes. This is done by providing a gutter concrete or stone pavement.

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vi. Filters

Filers are always provided between any two dissimilar materials when the difference in
their particles is so great that the particles of the finer material can migrate in to the voids
of coarser material with seepage water & can cause piping.

Therefore filters are provided:-

- B/n the drainage system & the adjoin soils to prevent the migration of the soil
particles in to the drains.
- B/n impervious zones (cores) of fine-grained soils and the pervious zones (shells) of
the coarse -grained soils for the same purpose.

Criteria for filter design according to USBR

D15 of the filter = 5 to 40 provided that the filter does not contain
D15 of base material more than 5 percent of material finer than 0.074 mm
D15 of the filter = 5 or less
D85 of base material
D85 of the filter = 2 or more
Max. Opening of drain
The grain size curve of the filter should be roughly parallel to that of the base material
Where D15 is the grain size with 15 percent of the total soil practices are smaller & D85 is
the grain size wit 85% of the total soil particles are smaller.
If more than one filter is used, the preceding layer is considered as the base material and the
succeeding layer as the filter and the same rules above are applied.
vii. Cores

The core may be defined as a membrane built with in an embankment dam to form the
impermeable barrier, the balance of the dam being provided to ensure stability. It may be
of natural materials clay, gravels etc. or prepared materials such as cement or asphaltic
concrete or of metal, plastic, rubber etc. The thickness of the core will depend primarily
on the material available. A general core thickness is one half of the height of the dam
depending on materials available. Thin cores may be adequate for impermeability but it is
essential to provide well designed filters on either side.

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2.1.5 Slope Stability Analysis

Failure of an embankment dam can result from instability of either the upstream or
downstream slopes. The failure surface may lie within the embankment or may pass
through the embankment and the foundation soil. The critical stages in u/s slope are at the
end of construction & during rapid drawdown. The critical stages for the d/s slope are at
the end of construction & during steady seepage when the reservoir is full.

Stability of an embankment is determined by its resistance to shearing stresses that may

result from external loads (such as reservoir pressure & earth quake) and internal or body
force. Various methods of slope stability analysis are available but the Swedish slip -
circle or slices method is the most common. In this method the factor of safety against
sliding is defined as the ratio of resisting moments to actuating moments (or the ratio of
resisting forces to actuating forces). The forces are computed taking a trial slip surface
and dividing the soil mass above the assumed failure surface in to some number of slices.
The potential surface of rupture is taken to be any cylindrical surfaces.

Fig. 2.18 Slices (methods of slicing for computing F.S)

The figure shows a trial slip surface AB which is circular; the radius of the circle, r and its
centre O. The trial failure wedge is divided in to vertical slices (or strips) by drawing vertical
lines. The slices are usually of equal width, but not necessary so. The number of slices is
usually kept 8 to 15. The greater the number the more is accuracy. It is convenient to have all

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the slices of equal width b, but not necessarily. In the case of the zoned section, the slicing
should be in such a way that the base of each slice is resting on only one type of the material.

Procedure for Analysis

After proper slicing of an assumed failure surface and let us consider the equilibrium of any
one slice and forces acting on it. It is subjected to the following forces (slice 4).
The driving force is the tangential component of the weight.

1. The weight W4 acting vertically downwards through its center of gravity.

2. Cohesive force for C4 along the curved surface, in the direction opposite to the direction
of probable movement of the wedge. The cohesive force C4 is equal to c∆L, where c is
unit cohesion and ∆L is the length of the base of the strip.
3. Reaction R4 at the base of the slice, acting along the line inclined at angle  to the
normal, where  is the angle of the shearing resistance of the soil. It is assumed that the
slippage is imminent and the full shear strength of the soil has been mobilized. Therefore,
the inclination of the reaction with the normal is equal to  .
4. The soil reactions ER and EL acting on the vertical sides of the slice exerted by the
adjacent slices on the right and left slices respectively.
5. The forces due to pore water pressure UL, UR and UB acting on the left face, right face
and at the base respectively. The force UB acts in the normal direction.
In the conventional Swedish circle method, it is assumed that the reactions ER and EL are
equal and opposite in direction and cancel each other. Likewise the UL and UR. Thus there
are four forces which are normally considered in the analysis viz, W4, C4, R4 and UB.
The force UB due to the pore water pressure is zero if the soil is dry, and the number of the
forces in that case reduces to only three.
Let us resolve the weight W into its normal component N and the tangential component T. As
the normal of a circle passes through the Centre, the direction of N is the first marked in the
normal direction. A perpendicular is drawn from the tip of the vector W to the normal
direction to determine N and T. Thus

and

Where , is the angle which the normal makes with the vertical.

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Fig. 2.19

Thus resolving all the forces in the normal and tangential direction,
In normal (radial) direction
In tangential direction
This implies that
⁄

is the driving force which is counterbalanced by the frictional resistance and

cohesion resistance . When the forces just balance the failure is imminent. For margin

of safety, the soil reaction would be inclined to the normal at angle less than the angle . As
soon as the reaction becomes inclined at angle , the maximum resistance is developed and
the failure is imminent.
On any trial surface, the safety factor against sliding is given by:

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The resisting force is the internal friction resistance plus cohesion, if any
i.e. Resisting force = ̅ and T is the driving force
Where: - N= Normal force along the arc

U = pore water pressure force at the base of each slice = UB

C and are cohesion & internal angle of friction of the soil
 L = base length of each slice along the arc.
̅

For the total sliding surface;

∑ ̅ ∑
∑
If is constant,

∑ ̅
∑
Where = length of the entire slip surface = ∑

∑ ∑
∑

Therefore, Since

∑ ∑
∑
Where: is the length of the entire arc of the slip circle.

Where is the angle in degrees subtended by the slip surface at the center.

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Pore water pressure force ̅ L is determined from

flow net or other means.
If the soil is dry then the can be computed from:

∑ ∑
∑

Various centers and radii are used and those computations are repeated until the arc which
gives the minimum safety factor is established. The slip surface which gives minimum factor
of safety is the critical. The minimum Fs should be greater than the allowable one (1.5).
Summary of procedure for earth dam stability analysis
1. Take a trial slip surface and divide the wedge above the slip surface into 8 to 15 vertical
slices.
2. Determine the Weight W of each slice and its line of action. For convenience, the weight
of the slice is generally taken proportional to the middle ordinate of the slice and its line
of action is taken through the middle of the slice. Thus ̅ where ̅ is the

middle ordinate of the slice, is the width of the slice and is the unit weight of the
soil.
3. Measure the angle which the normal makes with the vertical and compute N and T.

4. Determine the pore water pressure, at the base of the slice or otherwise. Compute the
force UB due to the pore water pressure as:

5. Determine the cohesive force,

6. Determine the factor of safety for slip surface from equations given above.
7. Repeat the procedure for a number of other trail surfaces. The trail surface which gives
the minimum factor of safety is the most critical circle. The minimum factors of safety
should be greater than the specified safe value.
Critical cases to be considered for Earth dam stability Analysis.
The critical conditions to be analyzed for stability are:
 Stability of downstream slope during steady seepage
 Stability of u/s slope during sudden drawdown condition
 Stability of u/s and d/s slopes during construction

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2.1.6 Causes of Failure of Earth Dams

Earth dam failures are caused by improper design, frequently based on insufficient
investigation and lack of control and maintenance. The various causes may be grouped in to
the following three broad categories:-
i. Hydraulic failure
ii. Seepage failure
iii. Structural failure
i. Hydraulic failure: - Caused by surface erosion of the dam by water. They include
washout from overtopping, wave erosion of upstream face, scour from the discharge
of spillways & erosion of the d/s slope by rain.
ii. Seepage failure: - uncontrolled or concentrated seepage through the dam body or
through the foundation may lead to piping and sloughing and subsequent failure of
the dam. the following are the common modes of seepage failure:-
 Seepage through pervious foundation: - Presence of strata or lenses of sand or
gravel of high permeability or cavities and fissures in the foundation permit
concentrated flow of water from reservoir leading to piping.
 Leakage through embankment: - This is mainly due to poor construction control,
insufficient compaction adjacent to out let conduits, poor bond b/n embankment &
foundation or b/n successive layers of the embankment.
 Conduit leakage: - failure may be either due to contact seepage along the conduit
or due to seepage caused by leakage in the conduit.
 Sloughing: This occurs when the downstream portion of the dam becomes
saturated either due to choking or filter toe drain or due to presence of highly
pervious layer in the dam body.
iii. Structural failure: - Consists of foundation slide and or embankment slide.
 Foundation Slide: - When the foundation of soft soil such as fine silt, soft clay etc.
the entire dam may slide over the foundation. Partial failures of embankment may
also occur over part of the foundation where seams of fissured rock, shale‟s or soft
clay may occur.
 Embankment Slide: - When the embankment slopes are too steep for the strength
of the soil, they may slide causing dam failure. For the upstream slope the critical
condition is during sudden draw down and for the downstream slope the full
reservoir and steady seepage condition is the most critical.

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5.2 Rock fill Dams

The cost producing large quantities of rock for the construction of rock fill dams makes this
type of dam economical only in remote areas where the cost of concrete would be high or in
areas where there is a scarcity of earth fill materials and the only material for construction of
the structure consists of durable hard rock. A rock fill dam is an embankment which uses
variable sizes of rock to provide stability and an impervious membrane to provide water
tightness. The watertight membrane for a rock fill dam should be constructed on the upstream
slope where its condition can be inspected when the reservoir is drawdown and repairs made
as necessary. Usually the membrane will consist of Portland cement concrete although steel
plates and wood planking have been used to the limited extent of the life of those materials.

Rock fill dams can prove economical when any of the following conditions exist.
1. Large quantities of rock are readily available or will be excavated in connection with
the project, such as from a spillway or tunnel.
2. Earth fill materials are difficult to obtain or require much processing to be used.
3. Short construction seasons prevail.
4. Excessively wet climatic condition limit the placement of large quantities of earth fill
materials.

Fig. 2.20 Rock fill dam

The major components of rock fill dam may consist of:

1. Impermeable membrane
2. Rock fill

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3. U/S cut-off
4. Rock cushion/rubble masonry
The membrane is usually placed on the u/s face, and in some instances it is placed in the
center of the rock fill. The material of the membrane could of reinforced concrete, asphalt
concrete, steel, timber or impervious soil. The rock fill usually owns the natural slope at the
d/s face. The dry rubble masonry/well compacted rock is provided b/n u/s impervious
membrane and the rock fill to make smooth compact bedding for the impervious membrane.

Fig. 2.21 Major components of rock fill dam

Rock fill dams may be classified into three groups, depending on the location of the
membrane, as follows: (1) central core, (2) sloping core, and (3) upstream membrane or
“decked.”
Impervious membrane is used as a water barrier placed either within the embankment or on
the u/s slope. Internal membrane constructed of earthen materials should preferably be placed
in the central core. For external membranes concrete, asphalt or steel are recommended.
Each membrane location has its advantages and disadvantages, which vary according to the
type of membrane, materials available at the site, and foundation conditions. Central and
sloping cores are referred to as “internal membranes,” and these are generally constructed of
impervious earth materials.
Advantages of Internal membrane:
 Less total area exposed to water
 Shorter grout curtain length
 Protection from effect of weathering and external damage

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Disadvantages of Internal membrane:

 Inability to place rock fill material without simultaneous placement of core material
and filter
 The dependence on a smaller section of the dam for stability against sliding
 Instability of membrane for damage inspection
Advantages of u/s membrane
 Available for inspection and repair
 Membrane can be constructed after embankment is completed
 A large portion of the dam available for resistance against sliding
 Membrane can be used as a slope protection
Embankment Design
Foundation requirements. Rock fill dams require foundations which will result in a
minimum settlement. Thus rock foundations are the best but they should consist of hard
durable rock which cannot be softened or eroded appreciably by water percolating from the
reservoir. It should be free from faults, shear zones and other structural weaknesses. Silt,
clay, sand and organic material must be removed from the foundation area before
construction of the rock fill dam. To prevent seepage, the foundation must be grouted.
Cut off walls. A cut off wall is provided along the contact of the impervious membrane with
the foundation and the abutments at the upstream toe of the dam to prevent seepage under the
dam. The cut-off wall extends from the upstream toe of the dam into the bedrock. In most of
the cases concrete cut-off wall is provided. The width of the cut-off wall is usually governed
by construction considerations. The depth of penetration of the cut-off wall into the bedrock
depends on the character of the foundation rock. However, even if the rock is sound the
minimum depth up to which the cut-off wall should extend into the foundation rock is 1 m. A
deeper cut-off wall or special treatment such as grouting is required if the rock is not sound or
if open joints or broken rock structure exists. In addition to its function of preventing under
seepage, the cut-off wall must provide adequate support for the impervious membrane.
Selection of embankment material: - The rock must be hard & durable to resist excessive
breakdown during the hauling and placing operation and must be located near the dam site
for economy .The rock also should with stand disintegration under the action of freezing and
thawing. Un-weathered igneous and metamorphic rocks are of satisfactory quality for rock
fill. Sedimentary rocks should be avoided. The rock should be abrasion resistant.

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The rock produced in the quarry or obtained from natural sources should be well graded from
0.014 - 0.73 cubic meters in size and should contain less fine than sufficient to fill the voids.
Dam axis. The axis of a rock fill dam may be curved (convex upstream) or straight. A curved
axis will tend to compress the dam as filling occurs, whereas a straight axis has the benefit of
easy construction layout and less total dam cost.
Dam section. The upstream and downstream slopes of a rock fill dam depend on the type of
impervious membrane and its location. The rock fill dams having central or sloping cores
have upstream and downstream slopes ranging from 2:1 to 4:1. On the other hand the rock fill
dams in which the impervious membrane is placed on the upstream slope usually have
upstream slopes ranging from 1.3:1 to 1.7:1 and downstream slopes in the range of 1.3:1 to
1.4:1, which corresponds to the angle of repose of the natural rock. For rock fill dams on
good foundation the upstream slopes may be 1.3:1 to 1.4:1 for concrete and steel membranes
and 1.6:1 to 1.7:1 for asphaltic-concrete membranes to facilitate its construction. The
downstream slopes may be 1.3:1 to 1.4:1 in all the cases.
Methods for the placement of the rock fill. For the placement of the rock fill the following
two methods are adopted.
In one of the methods the rock fill is placed by dumping in high lifts which in some cases
varied from 20 to 50 m. By dropping the stones from some height, due to impact, the large
sized stones break into smaller ones, their corners break off and they tend to rest in stable
positions. Thus high lift permits the use of large sized rock and it is intended to minimise the
future settlement. Further during placement the rock fill is sluiced by water issuing from high
velocity nozzles. The sluicing of rock fill helps to soften the rock to induce early settlement,
lubricates the stones and helps them to rest in stable positions and washes the smaller ones
into the voids between the larger rocks. This will provide a dense fill and minimise future
settlement. The sluicing of rock fill is done by using volume of water equal to two to three
times the volume of rock.
In another method well graded rock is placed in relatively thin layers about 1 to 2 m thick and
each layer is compacted either with the hauling equipment or with 50 t (or 500 kN) rubber
tyre rollers or vibratory steel drum rollers. For compacted rock fill the thickness of each layer
is usually 2 m or less. Further for compacted rock fill sluicing may or may not be done.
However, it is desirable to sluice each layer if rocks show appreciable loss of strength on
wetting, for high dams, and for rock fill material containing higher percentages of fines. For

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compacted rock fill only a small amount of water is used to saturate the rock pieces and to
rearrange the fines to some extent.

Fig. 2.22 Earth-fill central core rock-fill dam section

Settlement of rockfill dams. The major problem with rock fill dams is that of settlement.
In earth core rock fill dams‟ large differential settlement may lead to cracking of the core.
Similarly in the case of rock fill dams with upstream membrane there is likelihood of
cracking of the membrane due to settlement. The cracking of earth core as well as upstream
membrane may result in heavy leakage of water through the dam. As such every effort should
be made to reduce the settlement of rock fill dams.
The settlement of a rock fill dam takes place in two stages. The first major settlement occurs
during the construction due to the self-weight of the rock fill. By proper use of sluicing water
this initial settlement may be large and it can be expedited. Further the rapid rise in height of
dam should be avoided so that the adjustment of the rock fill may keep pace with loading.
The second major settlement occurs after the construction of the dam as the reservoir fills and
the thrust due to water load is transmitted to the rock fill.
In order to account for the post-construction settlement of a rock fill dam it is usually
constructed to a somewhat greater height than the designed height so that there is no
reduction in the designed freeboard above the maximum water level in the reservoir. This
extra height of the dam is provided in the form of a longitudinal camber over the designed
crest level, varying from zero at the abutments to a maximum value at the centre of the valley
where the dam will be the highest and the settlement of the dam will be the most. For a rock
fill dam the maximum value of the post-construction settlement may be assumed as 1 to 2 %
of the height of the dam.
Upstream membrane. The upstream membrane is usually placed after the initial settlement
has taken place. Between the main rock fill of the dam and the upstream membrane a zone of
dry rubble masonry or well compacted rock with a reasonably even outer surface is provided

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to support the membrane and transmit the load to the main rock fill. This zone may be 1.5 to
3 m thick at the top and increasing at 5% of the height towards the bottom. In some cases this
zone with a constant thickness of 4.5 to 8.5 m has also been provided. However, for low
dams instead of dry rubble masonry or well compacted rock, a pervious zone of graded sand
and gravel or quarry fines may be provided. The pervious zone should have a minimum
horizontal width of 4.3 m to facilitate compaction. On the upstream face of this zone the
impervious membrane is provided.

Fig. 2.23 Different types of upstream impervious membranes

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