S V ENGINEERING COLLEGE

KARAKAMBADI ROAD, TIRUPATI-517507

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS

ENGINEERING

LECTURE NOTES

15A02501-ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS

Regulation – R15

Academic Year (2020 – 21)

Year / Semester: III / I

 SYLLABUS
JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY ANANTAPUR
B. Tech III-I Sem. (EEE)

15A02501 ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS

UNIT- I
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
Classification – Ammeters and Voltmeters – PMMC, Dynamometer, Moving Iron Type
Instruments – Expression for the Deflecting Torque and Control Torque – Errors and
Compensations, Range Extension.Cathode Ray Oscilloscope- Cathode Ray tube-Time base
generator-Horizontal andVertical Amplifiers – Applications of CRO – Measurement of Phase ,
Frequency,Current & Voltage- Lissajous Patterns
UNIT – II
D.C & A.C BRIDGES
Methods of Measuring Low, Medium and High Resistances – Sensitivity of Wheatstone’s Bridge –
Kelvin’s Double Bridge for Measuring Low Resistance,Measurement of High Resistance – Loss of
Charge Method. Measurement ofInductance - Maxwell’s Bridge, Anderson’s Bridge. Measurement
of Capacitance andLoss Angle - Desauty Bridge. Wien’s Bridge – Schering Bridge.
UNIT – III
MEASUREMENT OF POWER AND ENERGY
Single Phase Dynamometer Wattmeter, LPF and UPF, Double Element and ThreeElement
Dynamometer Wattmeter, Expression for Deflecting and Control Torques.Types of P.F. Meters –
Dynamometer and Moving Iron Type – 1-ph and 3-ph Meters.Single Phase Induction Type Energy
Meter – Driving and Braking Torques – Errors andCompensations. Three Phase Energy Meter.
UNIT –IV
INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS AND POTENTIOMETERS
Current Transformers and Potential Transformers – Ratio and Phase Angle Errors –Methods for
Reduction of Errors-Design Considerations.Potentiometers: Principle and Operation of D.C.
Crompton’s Potentiometer –Standardization – Measurement of unknown Resistance, Current,
Voltage.A.C. Potentiometers: Polar and Coordinate types- Standardization – Applications.
UNIT – V
MAGNETIC MEASUREMENTS
Ballistic Galvanometer – Equation of Motion – Flux Meter – Constructional Details,Comparison
with Ballistic Galvanometer. Determination of B-H Loop - Methods ofReversals - Six Point Method
– A.C. Testing – Iron Loss of Bar Samples.

TEXT BOOKS:

1. Electrical & Electronic Measurement & Instruments, A.K.Sawhney and

Dhanpat Rai & Co. Publications, 2011, Reprint 2014.
2. Electrical Measurements and measuring Instruments 5th Edition, E.W.
Golding and F.C. Widdis, Reem Publications, 5th Edition, 2011.

REFERENCE BOOKS:

1. Electronic Instrumentation, 3rd Edition, H. S. Kalsi, Tata Mcgrawhill, 2011.

2. Electrical Measurements, Buckingham and Price, Prentice Hall, 1970.
3. Electrical Measurements: Fundamentals, Concepts, Applications, Reissland,
M.U., New Age International (P) Limited, 2010.
 UNIT-1
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

1. CLASSIFICATION OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS:

Electrical measuring instruments are classified into two groups:

1. Absolute (or primary) instruments.

2. Secondary instruments.

1. Absolute Instruments:
These instruments give the value of the electrical quantity in terms of absolute quantities
(or Some constants) of the instruments and their deflections. In this type of instruments no
calibration or comparison with other instruments is necessary. They are generally not used in
laboratories and are seldom used in practice by electricians.
Some of the examples of absolute instruments are:
EX: Tangent galvanometer

2.Secondary Instruments:
They are direct reading instruments. The quantity to be measured by these instruments can be
determined from the deflection of the instruments. They are often calibrated by comparing
them with either some absolute instruments or with those which have already been calibrated.
Some of the very widely used secondary instruments are: ammeters, voltmeter, wattmeter,
energy meter , ampere-hour meters etc.
secondary instruments are again classified into three types, these are.
1. Indicating instruments
2. Recording instruments
3. Integrating instruments.

1.Indicating instruments:

Indicating instruments indicate the quantity to be measured at the time of measurement

by means of a pointer which moves on a scale.
Examples are ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter etc.
 2. Recording instruments:
These instruments record continuously the variation of any electrical quantity with respect
to specified time. In principle, these are indicating instruments but so arranged that a
permanent continuous record of the indication is made on a chart or dial. The recording is
generally made by a pen on a graph paper which is rotated on a dice or drum at a uniform
speed. The amount of the quantity at any time (instant) may be read from the traced chart.
Any variation in the quantity with time is recorded by these instruments.
Examples are ECG and X-Y recorder etc.
3. Integrating instruments:

These instruments record the consumption of the total quantity of electricity, energy etc.,
during a particular period of time. That is, these instruments measure total energy over a
specified period of time. No indication of the rate or variation or the amount at a particular
instant are available from them.
Some widely used integrating instruments are: Ampere-hour meter: kilowatt-hour (kWh)
meter, etc.

2.Various forces/torques required in measuring instruments:

Certain torques which are common to all indicating instruments. In an indicating instrument,
it is
Essential that the moving system is acted upon by three distinct torque (or forces) for
satisfactory
working. There torques are:
1. A deflecting or operating torque, Td
2. A controlling torque, Tc
3. A dampling torque,
1. Deflecting torque/force:
The defection of any instrument is determined by the combined effect of the deflecting
torque and control torque. The value of deflecting torque must depend on the electrical signal
to be measured. This torque causes the instrument movement to rotate from its zero position.
The deflection torque can be provided by the following methods.
1. Magnetic effect:
 When a current carrying conductor is placed in a uniform magnetic field,it
produces a force it causes to move it.This effect is mostly used in many instruments
like permanent magnet moving coil instrument,moving iron instrument etc;
2. Thermal Effect:
The current to be measured is passed through a small element (platinum irridium
wire ) , the property of the element is, it expanses when the temperature increase. Due
to the current flowing through the element, the temperature of the element increases,
due to the elasticity property the moving system of the instrument moves from the
zero position.
3. Electrostatic Effects:
When two charged plates are kept with a small distance , there is a attraction or
repulsion force experience between the two plates, this effect is called Electrostatic
Effect.This force is used to move the pointer of the instrument.

4. Induction Effects:
This type of instrument works on the principle of induction motor. This
instruments are used to measure only A.C quantities. When a non-magnetic
conducting disc is placed in a magnetic field produced by electromagnets which are
excited by alternating currents, an e.m.f is induced in it.

2. Controlling torque/force:
This torque must act in the opposite direction to the deflecting torque, and the
movement will take up an equilibrium or definite position when the deflecting and
controlling torque are equal in magnitude. The controlling torque is dependent on
the magnitude of deflection produced. The moving system is deflected from zero to
such a position that the controlling torque at that deflected position is equal to the
deflecting torque. The controlling torque increases in magnitude with the deflection
till it balances
the deflecting torque. That is, for a steady deflection,
Controlling torque = Deflection or operating torque, Then we will get the steady
deflection.
The controlling torque developed in an instrument has two functions:
(a) It limits the movement of the moving system and ensures that the magnitude of the
deflections always remains the same for a given value of the quantity to be measured.
 (b) It brings back the moving system to its zero position when deflection force is zero.
There are two methods to provide controlling torques.
1. Spring controlling torque.
2. Gravity controlling torque.
1.Spring Control:
Spring control is now almost universal in indicating instruments. Figure shows a
spindle free to turn between two pivots. The moving system is attached to the spindle. Two
phosphor-bronze hair springs wound in opposite directions are also shown whose inner ends
are attached to the spindle. The outer end of spring one of the spring is connected to a leaver
which is pivoted the adjustment of which gives zero setting. However, the outer end of
another is fixed.When the pointer is deflected one spring unwinds itself while the other is
twisted. This twist in the spring produces restoring (controlling) torque, which is proportional
to the angle of deflection of the moving systems.

The springs used for controlling torque should have following properties.
1. The spring should be non magnet.
2. The spring should be free from mechanical stress.
3. The spring should have a small resistant, sufficient cross sectional area.
4. It should have low resistive temperature coefficient.

The controlling Torque produced by spring is given by,

𝐸𝑏𝑡 3
Controlling torque = 𝜃 = 𝐾𝑆 𝜃
12𝐿
𝐸𝑏𝑡 3
Where KS is the spring constant= 12𝐿 𝜃
 𝑇𝐶 ∝ 𝜃

2.Gravity Control:
In gravity controlled instruments, as shown in Fig. (a) a small adjustable weight is attached to
the spindle of the moving system such that the deflecting torque produced by the instrument
has to act against the action of gravity. Thus a controlling torque is obtained. This weight is
called the control weight. Another adjustable weight is also attached is the moving system for
zero adjustment and balancing purpose. This weight is called Balance weight.When the
control weight is in vertical position as shown in Fig. (a), the controlling torque iszero and
hence the pointer must read zero. However, if the deflecting torque lifts the controlling weight
from position A to B as shown in Fig. (b) such that the spindle rotates by an angle θ, then due
to gravity a restoring (or controlling) torque is exterted on the moving system.

The controlling torque, Tc, is given by

Where W is the control weight

L is the distance of control weight from the axis of rotation of moving system
Kg is the gravity constant.
𝑇𝐶 ∝ sin 𝛳
This relation shows that current I is proportional to sin θ and not θ. Hence in gravity
controlled instruments the scale is not uniform. It is cramped for the lower readings, instead
of being uniformly divided, for the deflecting torque assumed to be directly proportional to
the quantity being measured.
 Advantages of Gravity Control:
1. It is cheap and not affected by temperature variations.
2. It does not deteriorate with time.
3. It is not subject to fatigue.
Disadvantages of Gravity Control:
1. Since the controlling torque is proportional to the sine of the angle of deflection, the scale
is not uniformly divided but cramped at its lower end.
2. It is not suitable for use in portable instruments (in which spring control is always
preferred).
3. Gravity control instruments must be used in vertical position so that the control weight
may operate and also must be leveled otherwise they will give zero error.
In these reasons, gravity control is not used for indicating instruments in general.
4. Damping torque/force:
A damping force is required to act in a direction opposite to the movement of the
moving system. This brings the moving system to rest at the deflected position reasonably
quickly without any oscillation or very small oscillation.

This is provided by
1. air friction damping
2. fluid friction damping
3.eddy current damping

Depending upon the degree of damping introduced in the moving system, the instrument
tmay have any one of the following conditions as depicted in Fig.
1. Under damped condition: The response is oscillatory
2. Over damped condition: The response is sluggish and it rises very slowly from its zero
position to final position.
 3. Critically damped condition: When the response settles quickly without any oscillation,
this system is said to be critically damped. In practice, the best response is slightly obtained
when the damping is below the critical value the instrument is slightly under damped.
The damping torque is produced by the following methods:
1. Air Friction Damping:
The arrangement of Fig. consists of a light aluminium piston which is attached to the
moving system. This piston moves in a fixed chamber which is closed at one end. Either
circular or rectangular chamber may be used. The clearance (or gap) between the piston and
chamber walls should be uniform thorughout and as small as possible. When the piston
moves rapidly into the chamber the air in the closed space is compressed and the pressure of
air thus developed opposes the motion of the piston and thereby the whole moving system. If
the piston is moving out of the chamber, rapidly, the pressure in the closed space falls and the
pressure on the open side of the piston is greater than that on the opposite side. Motion is thus
again opposed. With this damping system care must be taken to ensure that the arm
carryingthe piston should not tou h the sides of the chamber during its movement. The
friction which otherwise would occur may introduce a serious error in the deflection.

The air friction damping is very simple and cheap. But care must be taken to ensure that the
piston is not bent or twisted. This method is used in moving iron and hot wire instruments.
2. Fluid Friction Damping:
This form is damping is similar to air friction damping. The action is the same as in
the air friction damping. Mineral oil is used in place of air and as the viscosity of oil is
greater, the damping force is also much greater. The vane attached to the spindle is arranged
to move in the damping oil.
• It is rarely used in commercial type instruments.
• The oil used must fulfill the following requirements.
* It should not evaporate quickly
* It should not have any corrosive effect on metals.
* Its viscosity should not change appreciably with temperature.
 * It should be good insulator.
The arrangements of fluid damping are shown in Fig.

In Fig. (a) a disc attached to the moving system is immersed in the fluid (damping oil).
When the moving system moves the disc moves in oil and a frictional drag is produced. For
minimizing the surface tension affect, the suspension stem of the discshould be cylindrical
and of small diameter.

Advantages of Fluid Friction Damping

1. The oil used for damping can also be used for insulation purpose in some forms of
instruments
which are submerged in oil.
2. The clearance between the vanes and oil chamber is not as critical as with the air friction
clamping system.
3. This method is suitable for use with instruments such as electrostatic type where the
movement
is suspended rather than pivoted.
4. Due to the up thrust of oil, the loads on bearings or suspension system is reduced thereby
the
reducing the frictional errors.
Disadvantages of Fluid Friction Damping
1. The instruments with this type of damping must be kept always in a vertical position.
2. It is difficult to keep the instrument clean due to leakage of oil.
3. It is not suitable for portable instruments.
3. Eddy Current Damping
 Eddy current damping is the most efficient form of damping. The essential components in
this type of damping are a permanent magnet; and a light conducting disc usually of
alumninum.

When a sheet of conducting material moves in a magnetic field so as to cut through lines of
force, eddy currents are set up in it and a force exists between these currents and the magnetic
field, which is always in the direction opposing the motion. This force is proportional to the
magnitude of the current, and to the strength of field. The former is proportional to the
velocity of movement of the conductor, and thus, if the magnetic field is constant, the
damping force is proportional to the velocity of the moving system and is zero when there is
no movement of the system.
3. Moving-iron Instruments:

The brief description of different components of a moving-iron instrument is given

below.

Moving element: a small piece of soft iron in the form of a vane or rod
Coil: to produce the magnetic field due to current flowing through it and also to
magnetize the iron pieces.
Control torque is provided by spring or weight (gravity)
Damping torque is normally pneumatic, the damping device consisting of an air
chamber and a moving vane attached to the instrument spindle.
Deflecting torque produces a movement on an aluminum pointer over a graduated
scale.

There are two types of moving iron instruments

1. Attraction type moving iron instrument
 2. Repulsion type moving iron instrument

The deflecting torque in any moving-iron instrument is due to forces on a small

piece of magnetically ‘soft’ iron that is magnetized by a coil carrying the operating current. In
repulsion (Fig). type moving–iron instrument consists of two cylindrical soft iron vanes
mounted within a fixed current-carrying coil. One iron vane is held fixed to the coil frame
and other is free to rotate, carrying with it the pointer shaft. Two irons lie in the magnetic
field produced by the coil that consists of only few turns if the instrument is an ammeter or of
many turns if the instrument is a voltmeter. Current in the coil induces both vanes to become
magnetized and repulsion between the similarly magnetized vanes produces a proportional
rotation. The deflecting torque is proportional to the square of the current in the coil, making
the instrument reading is a true ‘RMS’ quantity Rotation is opposed by a hairspring that
produces the restoring torque. Only the fixed coil carries load current, and it is constructed so
as to withstand high transient current. Moving iron instruments having scales that are
nonlinear and somewhat crowded in the lower range of calibration. Another type of
instrument that is usually classed with the attractive types of instrument is shown in (Fig).

This instrument consists of a few soft iron discs (B) that are fixed to the spindle (D), pivoted
in jeweled bearings. The spindle (P) also carries a pointer (P), a balance weight (W1), a
controlling weight (W2) and a damping piston (E), which moves in a curved fixed cylinder
(F). The special shape of the moving-iron discs is for obtaining a scale of suitable form.
Torque Expressions:
Torque expression may be obtained in terms of the inductance of the instrument.
Suppose the initial current is I, the instrument inductance L and the deflection θ.
Then let I change to I+ Id, Id being a small change of current; as a result let θ changes to
(θ+d θ) and (L+dL) . In order to get an incremental change in current dI there must be an
increase in the applied voltage across the coil.
𝑑(𝐿𝐼) 𝑑𝐿 𝑑𝐼
Applied voltage v= =I +𝐿
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
The electric energy supplied to the coil in dt is
vI dt=I2dL+ILdI

(neglecting second and higher terms in small quantities)

If T is the value of the control torque corresponding to deflection θ, the extra energy stored in
the control due to the change dθ is Tdθ. Then, the stored increase in stored energy=

From principle of the conservation of energy, one can write the following expression Electric
energy drawn from the supply = increase in stored energy + mechanical work done

While the controlling torque is given by

TC= Kθ
K= spring constant
Under steady state condition TC=Td
1 𝑑𝐿
Kθ= 𝐼 2
2 𝑑𝜃
 Torque equation is directly proportional to square of the current.

Advantages:
1. The instruments are suitable for use in a.c and d.c circuits.
2. The instruments are robust, owing to the simple construction of the moving parts.
3. The stationary parts of the instruments are also simple.
4. Instrument is low cost compared to moving coil instrument.
5. Torque/weight ration is high, thus less frictional error.
Disadvantages:
1. Scale is not uniform.
2. Error due to variation of frequency causes change of reactance of the coil and also
changes the eddy currents induced in neighboring metal.
3. Deflecting torque is not exactly proportional to the square of the current due to
non-linear characteristics of iron material.
4. Frequency error present in the moving iron instrument.

5. Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) Instruments

The general theory of moving-coil instruments may be dealt with considering a
rectangular coil of turns, free to rotate about a vertical axis. Fig shows the basic
construction of a PMMC instrument. A moving coil instrument consists basically of a
permanent magnet to provide a magnetic field and a small lightweight coil is wound on a
rectangular soft iron core that is free to rotate around its vertical axis. When a current is
passed through the coil windings, a torque is developed on the coil by the interaction of
the magnetic field and the field set up by the current in the coil. The aluminum pointer
attached to rotating coil and the pointer moves around the calibrated scale indicates the
deflection of the coil. To reduce parallax error a mirror is usually placed along with the
scale. A balance weight is also attached to the pointer to counteract its weight in Fig. .
To use PMMC device as a meter, two problems must be solved. First,a way must
be found to return the coil to its original position when there is no current through the
coil. Second, a method is needed to indicate the amount of coil movement. The first
problem is solved by the use of hairsprings attached to each end of the coil as shown in
Fig. . These hairsprings are not only supplying a restoring torque but also provide an
electric connection to the rotating coil. With the use of hairsprings, the coil will return to
its initial position when no current is flowing though the coil. The springs will also resist
the movement of coil when there is current through coil.
When the developing force between the magnetic fields is exactly equal to the force of
the springs, the coil rotation will stop. The coil set up is supported on jeweled bearings in
order to achieve free movement. Two other features are considered to increase the
accuracy and efficiency of this meter movement. First, an iron core is placed inside the
coil to concentrate the magnetic fields. Second, the curved pole faces ensure the turning
force on the coil increases as the current increases.

Principle of operation:
It has been mentioned that the interaction between the induced field and the field
produced by the permanent magnet causes a deflecting torque, which results in rotation
of the coil. The deflecting torque produced is described below in mathematical form.

Deflecting torque:
It is assumed that the coil sides are situated in a uniform radial magnetic field of flux
density Bwb/ m2, let the length of a coil side (within the magnetic field) be L(meter),
and the distance from each coil side to the axis be d (meter).
If the coil is carrying a current of I amps, the force on a coil side = BNAI N-m
Td=GI N-m
Where G=BNA=constant
B= Flux Density in air gap in Wb/m2
A= Effective coil area in m2
I= Current Amps.
 Control torque is provided by springs and it is proportional to Angular deflection of the
pointer
TC=Kθ
At steady state condition
Tc=Td
Kθ=GI

Deflection is directly proportional to current passing through the coil.

Advantages:
1. The scale is uniformly divided .
2. The power consumption can be made very low a
3. The torque-weight ratio can be made high with a view to achieve high accuracy.
4. A single instrument can be used for multi range ammeters and voltmeters.
5. Error due to stray magnetic field is very small.
Disadvantages:
1. They are suitable for direct current only.
2. The instrument cost is high.
3. Variation of magnet strength with time.

4. Extension of Instrument ranges

Moving coil instruments , which are used as ammeters and voltmeters are designed
to carry max.current of 50mA and withstand a voltage of 50mV. Hence, to measure
larger currents and voltages, the ranges of these meters have to be extended. The
following methods are employed to increase the ranges of ammeters and voltmeters
By using shunts, the range of dc ammeters is extended
By using multipliers, the range of dc voltmeter is extended
By using current transformers the range of ac ammeter is extended
By using potential transformer the range of ac voltmeter
By using shunts the range of dc ammeters is extended as follows:
When heavy currents are to be measured , the major part of current if bypassed through
a low resistance called shunt. It is shown in the below fig
 The shunt resistance can be calculated as
Let
Rm = internal resistance of coil
Rsh = shunt resistance
Im = full scale deflection current
Ish = shunt current
I = Total current
Now, I = Ish + Im
Ish Rsh = ImRm
Rsh = ImRm/Ish
Rsh = Rm / (I/Im - 1)
Rsh = Rm / m-1 where m = I/Im
And m is called multiplying power of shunt and is defined as the ratio of total
current to the current through the coil

Multirange ammeters
The range of basic dc ammeter can be extended by using no. of shunts and a
selector switch, such a meter is called multirange ammeter and is shown in the fig
 A multirange ammeter can be constructed simple by employing several values of shunt
resistances, with a rotary switch to select the desired range. Fig. shows the circuit
arrangement.
Range extension of voltmeter by using Multiplier:
The resistance is required to be connected in series with basic meter to use it as a
voltmeter. This series resistance is called a multiplier. The main function of the multiplier is
to limit the current through the basic meter, so that meter current does not exceed full scale
deflection value.
The multiplier resistance can be calculated as
Let Rm is the internal resistance of the coil.
Rs = series multiplier resistance
Im = full scale deflection current
V = full range voltage to be measured
V = ImRm + ImRs
ImRs = V –ImRm / Im
Rs = V/Im - Rm
The multiplying factor for multiplier is the ratio of full range voltage to be
measured and the drop across the basic meter
 CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE
1. Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
This is the cathode ray tube which is the heart of CR.O. It is' used to emit the electrons required to
strike the phosphor screen to produce the spot for the visual display of the signals. The CRT
generates the electron beam, accelerates the beam, deflects the beam and also has a screen where
beam becomes visible, as a spot. The main parts of the CRT are:
1) Electron gun ii) Deflection system

iii) Fluorescent screen iv) Glass tube or envelope

v) Base
A schematic diagram of CRT, showing its structure and main components is shown in the
Fig.

Electron Gun:
The electron gun section of the cathode ray tube provides a sharply focused electron beam directed
towards the fluorescent-coated screen. This section starts from the cathode, The control grid is given
negative potential with respect to cathode dc. This grid controls the number of electrons in the
beam, going to the screen. The momentum of the electrons determines the intensity, or brightness,
of the light emitted from the fluorescent screen due to the electron beam. The light emitted is
usually of the green color. Because the electrons are negatively charged, a repulsive force is created
by applying a negative voltage to the control grid (in CRT, voltages applied to various grids are
stated with respect to cathode, which is taken as common point).
Deflection System
When the electron beam is accelerated it passes through the deflection system, with which beam can
be positioned anywhere on the screen. The deflection system of the cathode-ray-tube consists of two
pairs of parallel plates, referred to as the vertical and horizontal deflection plates. One of the
plates' in each set is connected to ground (0 V), To the other plate of each set, the external
deflection voltage is applied through an internal adjustable gain amplifier stage, To apply the
deflection voltage externally, an external terminal, called the Y input or the X input, is available. As
shown in the Fig. , the electron beam passes through these plates. A positive voltage applied to the
Y input terminal (Vy) causes the beam to deflect vertically upward due to the attraction forces,
while a negative voltage applied to. The Y input terminal will cause the electron beam to deflect
vertically downward, due to the repulsion forces. When the voltages are applied simultaneously to
vertical and horizonta1 deflecting plates, the electron beam is deflected due to the resultant-of these
two voltages.
Fluorescent Screen
The light produced by the screen does not disappear immediately when bombardment by electrons
ceases, i.e., when the signal becomes zero. The time period for which the trace remains on the
screen after the signal becomes zero is known as "persistence". The persistence may be short as a
few microseconds, or as long as tens of seconds or minutes. Long persistence traces are used in the
study of transients. Long persistence helps in the study of transients since the trace is still seen on
the screen after the transient has disappeared.
Glass tube:
All the components of a CRT are enclosed in an evacuated glass tube called envelope. This allows
the emitted electrons to move about freely from one end of the tube to other end.
Base:
The base is provided to the CRT through which connections are made to the various parts.
2. Cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO):
The oscilloscope is, in fact, a voltmeter. Instead of the mechanical deflection of a metallic pointer as
used in the normal voltmeters, the oscilloscope uses the movement of an electron beam against a
fluorescent screen, which produces the movement of a visible spot. The movement of such spot on
the screen is proportional to the varying magnitude of the signal, which is under measurement.
Vertical Amplifier:
The input signals are generally not strong to provide the measurable deflection on the screen. Hence
the vertical amplifier stages are used to amplify the input signals. The amplifier stages used are
generally wide band amplifiers so as to pass faithfully the entire band of frequencies to be
measured. Similarly it contains the attenuator stages as well. The attenuators are used when very
high voltage signals are to be examined, to bring the signals within the proper range of operation.
Horizontal amplifier:
The sawtooth voltage produced by the time base generator may not be of sufficient strength. Hence
before giving it to the horizontal plates, it is amplified using the horizontal amplifier.

Trigger circuit:
It is necessary that horizontal deflection starts at the same point of the input vertical signal, each
time it sweeps. Hence to synchronize horizontal deflection with vertical deflection a synchronizing
or triggering circuit is used. It converts the incoming signal into the triggering pulses, which are
used for the synchronization.
Time base generator:
The time base generator is used to generate the sawtooth voltage, required to deflect the beam in
the horizontal section. This voltage deflects the spot at a constant time dependent rate. Thus the x-
axis' on the screen can be represented as time, which, helps to display and analyse the time varying
signals.
Delay line:
The delay line is used to delay the signals for some time in the vertical sections. When the delay line
is not used the part of the signals gets lost. Hence the input signal is not applied directly to the
vertical amplifier, but it is delayed by some time by using delay line circuit.
There are two types of delay lines used in CRO.
1. Lumped parameter delay line.
2. Distributed parameter delay line.
Power supply:
The power supply block provides voltage to CRT to generate an electron beam and to the othe
circuits like horizontal amplifier and vertical amplifier.
There are two sections of power section block.
1. High voltage section
2. Low voltage section
The high voltage of the order of 1000 to 1500 volts and low voltage of the order of
about 500 volts.
 CRO Measurements:

1. Voltage measurement:
 CRO includes the amplitude measurement facilities, such as constant gain amplifier
and calibrated shift controls.
 The wave form can be adjusted on the screen by using shift controls so that
measurement of divisions corresponding to the amplitude becomes easy.
 Generally to reduce the error peak to peak value of the signal is measured than its
amplitude and r.m.s value is calculated
 To measure the amplitude use the following steps
1. Note down the selection in volts/division from the front panel, selected for
measurement
2. Adjust shift control to adjust signal on the screen so that it becomes easy to count
number of divisions corresponding to peak to peak value of the signal
3. Note down peak to peak value in terms the number of divisions on screen
4. Use the following relations
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
Peak to peak voltage = Vp.p = No. of divisions x [ ]
𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑉𝑝−𝑝
Amplitude = 𝑉𝑚 =
2
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑝−𝑝
R.M.S value of signal = =
√2 2 √2

Problem 1:
Calculate the amplitude and R.M.S value of the sinusoidal voltage, the waveform of which is
observed on CRO as shown in the figure, the vertical attenuation selected is 2mv/div

Ans:

It can be observed that the screen is divided such that one part is subdivided into 5 units
1
1 subdivision = 5 = 0.2 units
Positive peak = 2+3x0.2 = 2.6
Negative peak = 2+3x0.2 = 2.6

𝑉𝑝−𝑝 = peak to peak = 2.6+2.6 = 5.2 divisions

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡
𝑉𝑝−𝑝 = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 ×
𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
= 5.2 x 2 x 10−3
= 10.4mV
𝑉𝑝−𝑝 10.4
𝑉𝑚 = 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 = = = 5.2 𝑚𝑣
2 2
𝑉𝑚 5−2
𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 = = = 3.6769 𝑀𝑣
√2 √2
2. Frequency measurement:

In such measurements, the waveform is displayed on the screen such that are complete cycle
is visible on the screen.
Thus accuracy increases if the single cycle occupies as much as the horizontal distance on the
screen.
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
T = [No. of divisions occupied by 1 cycle] x
𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

= Time period
1
The frequency is the reciprocal of the time period f =
𝑇
3. Current measurements:
CRO is basically voltage indicating device.
Hence to measure the current, the current is passed through a standard resistance is
known. The voltage across resistance is displayed on the screen and is measured.

This measured voltage divided by the known resistance gives the value of unknown current
𝑉𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝐶𝑅𝑂
I=
𝑅
Problem 2:

In an experiment the voltage across a 10 K𝛺 resistor is applied to C.R.O. The screen shows a
sinusoidal signal of total vertical accupancy 3 cm and total horizontal occupancy of 2 cm.
The front panel controls of V/div and time/div are an 2v/div and 2ms/div
Ans:

Volt/div = 2
Time base = 2ms/div
Voltage occupancy = 3 cm = 3 divisions
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
𝑉𝑝−𝑝 = 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = × (𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠)
𝑑𝑖𝑣
= 2x3 = 6 V
𝑉𝑝−𝑝
𝑉𝑚 = = 6/2 = 3 V
2

𝑉𝑚 3
𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 == = = 2.1213 𝑉
√2 √2
Assume that one cycle is displayed on the screen horizontal occupancy = 2 cm = 2 divisions
T = (time/div) x [No. of divisions]
= 2x10−3 x2
= 4x10−3 𝑆𝑒𝑐
Lissajous Figures:

This methods quickest method of measuring the frequency. In this method standard known
frequency signal is applied to the horizontal plates and simultaneously unknown frequency
signal is applied to the vertical plates such pattern’s obtained by applying simultaneously two
different sine wave to horizontal and vertical deflection plates. This pattern are called
Lissajous patterns (or) Lissajous figures the shape of the lissajous figures depends on
1. Amplitude of two waves
2. Phase difference between two waves
3. Ratio of frequency of two waves

Consider two signals applied, having same amplitude and frequency having phase difference
of ∅ between them.
𝑒1 = 𝐸𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 And
𝑒2 = 𝐸𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + ∅) . The phase difference ∅ produces the various patterns

4. Measurement of Phase difference:

Consider the lissajous fig. obtained on the CRO. With an unknown phase difference ∅ as
shown in the figure a.
The frequency and amplitudes of two waves is same
The parameter’s ×1 ,×2 , (𝑜𝑟) 𝑦1 , 𝑦2 can be measured in fig a.

The phase angle then calculated as

𝑦1 ×1
∅ = sin−1 = sin−1
𝑦2 ×2

If the pattern obtained is as shown in the figure b. then the phase angle is given by
 𝑦
∅ = 180˚- Sin𝑦1
2

Measurement of Frequency:

To measure the unknown frequency of the signal with known frequency is applied to
vertical deflecting plates called 𝑓𝑣 𝑎𝑛𝑑 known frequency signal is applied to horizontal
deflection plates 𝑓𝐻
Using shift control, stationary lissajous is obtained on the screen, such that to the figure
vertical and horizontal axes are tangential to one or more points
The pattern depends on the ratio of two frequencies
The ratio of two frequencies can be obtained as
𝑓𝑣 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠
=
𝑓𝐻 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠

If the ratio of two frequencies is not integral than the pattern is obtained as shown figure

It can be seen that the horizontal frequencies are 3 while vertical tangencies are two

𝑓 3
Hence 𝑓𝑣 = 2= 1.5
𝐻

𝑓𝑣 = 1.5 𝑓𝐻
𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒍𝒆𝒎:

The lissajous figure obtained on the CRO is shown in the figure, find the phase difference
between two applied voltages.
 Ans:

It can be observed from the lissajous figures that

𝑦1 = 8 units
𝑦2 = 10 units
𝑦
∅ = sin−1 𝑦1
2

8
= sin−1 = 53.13˚
10

Application of CRO:

1. It is used to measure a.c as well as D.C voltages and currents

2. It is useful to calculate the parameters of the voltages as peak to peak value, r.m.s value etc
3. It is used the measure capacitance, inductance and also used to check the diodes.
4. It is used to measure frequency, time period and phase difference for periodic and non
periodic wave forms
5. In the medical application, it is used to display the cardiograms which are useful for the heart
beats of the patient
6. In industry, it is used for many purposes. It is used to observe B-H curves, P-V diagrams and
other effects
Pro: The Lissajous pattern obtained on the screen by applying horizontal signal of
frequency of 1 KHz as shown in the figure. Determine the unknown frequency of vertical
signal
Sol:
It can be observed that
No. of vertical tangencies = 2
No. of horizontal tangencies = 5
𝑓𝑣 5
=
𝑓𝐻 2
5
𝑓𝑣 = 2 × 1 𝐾𝐻

1.5 KH
 UNIT-II

MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE
Resistanceis one of the most basic elements encountered in electrical and electronics engineering.
The value of resistance in engineering varies from very small value like, resistance of a
transformer winding, to very high values like, insulation resistance of that same
transformerwinding. Although a multimeter works quite well if we need a rough value of
resistance, but for accurate values and that too at very low and very high values we need specific
methods. In this article we will discuss various methods of resistance measurement. For this
purpose we categories the resistance into threeclasses-

MEASUREMENT OF LOW RESISTANCE (<1Ω)

The major problem in measurement of low resistance values is the contact resistance or lead
resistance of the measuring instruments, though being small in value is comparable to the
resistance being measured and hence causes serious error
The methods employed for measurement of low resistances are:-

• Kelvin’s Double Bridge Method

• PotentiometerMethod
• DucterOhmmeter.

KELVIN’S DOUBLE BRIDGE

Kelvin’s double bridgeis a modification of simple Wheatstone bridge. Figure below shows the
circuit diagram of Kelvin’s double bridge.
 As we can see in the above figure there are two sets of arms, one with resistances P and Q and
other with resistances p and q. R is the unknown low resistance and S is a standard resistance.
Here r represents the contact resistance between the unknown resistance and the standard
resistance, whose effect we need to eliminate. For measurement we make the ratio P/Q equal to
p/q and hence a balanced Wheatstone bridge is formed leading to null deflection in the
galvanometer. Hence for a balanced bridge we can write

Putting eqn 2 in 1 and solving and using P/Q = p/q, we get-

Hence we see that by using balanced double arms we can eliminate the contact resistance
completely and hence error due to it. To eliminate another error caused due to thermo-electric
emf, we take another reading with batteryconnection reversed and finally take average of the two
readings. This bridge is useful for resistances in range of 0.1µΩ to 1.0Ω.

MEASUREMENT OF MEDIUM RESISTANCE (1Ω - 100KΩ)

Following are the methods employed for measuring a resistance whose value is in the range 1Ω -
100kΩ -

• Ammeter-VoltmeterMethod
• Wheatstone BridgeMethod
• SubstitutionMethod
• Carey- Foster BridgeMethod
• OhmmeterMethod

WHEATSTONE BRIDGE METHOD

This is the simplest and the most basic bridge circuit used in measurement studies. It mainly
consists of four arms of resistance P, Q; R and S. R is the unknown resistance under experiment,
while S is a standard resistance. P and Q are known as the ratio arms. An EMF source is
connected between points a and b while a galvanometer is connected between points c and d
 A bridge circuit always works on the principle of null detection, i.e. we vary a parameter until
the detector shows zero and then use a mathematical relation to determine the unknown in terms
of varying parameter and other constants. Here also the standard resistance, S is varied in order
to obtain null deflection in the galvanometer. This null deflection implies no current from point c
to d, which implies that potential of point c and d is same.Hence

Combining the above two equations we get the famous equation –

MEASUREMENT OF HIGH RESISTANCE (>100KΩ)

Following are few methods used for measurement of high resistance values-

• Loss of ChargeMethod
• Megger
• Megohm bridgeMethod
• Direct DeflectionMethod
LOSS OF CHARGE METHOD
In this method we utilize the equation of voltage across a discharging capacitorto find the value
of unknown resistance R. Figure below shows the circuit diagram and the equations involved

are-

However the above case assumes no leakage resistance of the capacitor. Hence to account for it
we use the circuit shown in the figure below. R1 is the leakage resistance of C and R is the
unknown resistance. We follow the same procedure but first with switch S1 closed and next with
switch S1 open. For the first case we get

For second case with switch open we get

Using R1 from above equation in equation for R’ we can find R.

MAXWELL BRIDGE
A Maxwell bridge is a modification to a Wheatstone bridge used to measure an
unknown inductance (usually of low Q value) in terms of calibrated resistance and inductance or
resistance and capacitance. When the calibrated components are a parallel resistor and capacitor,
the bridge is known as a Maxwell-Wien bridge. It is named for James C. Maxwell, who first
described it in 1873.
It uses the principle that the positive phase angle of an inductive impedance can be compensated
by the negative phase angle of a capacitive impedance when put in the opposite arm and the
circuit is at resonance; i.e., no potential difference across the detector (an
AC voltmeter or ammeter)) and hence no current flowing through it. The unknown inductance
then becomes known in terms of thiscapacitance.
With reference to the picture,

R1 R4 are known fixed resistances

R2,C2 are known variable resistance, capacitances
variable entities. R2 and C2 are adjusted until the bridge is balanced.
R3 and L3 can then be calculated based on the values of the other components

Anderson's Bridge

The main disadvantage of using Hay's bridge and Maxwell bridge is that, they are
unsuitable of measuring the low quality factor. However Hay's bridge and Maxwell bridge are
suitable for measuring accurately high and medium quality factor respectively. So, there is need
of bridge which can measure low quality factor and this bridge is modified Maxwell's bridge and
known as Anderson's bridge. Actually this bridge is the modified Maxwell inductor
capacitancebridge. In this bridge double balance can obtained by fixing the value of capacitance
and changing the value of electrical resistanceonly.
In this circuit the unknown inductor is connected between the point a and b with electrical
resistance r1 (which is pure resistive). The arms bc, cd and da consist of resistances r3, r4 and r2
respectively which are purely resistive. A standard capacitoris connected in series with variable
electrical resistance r and this combination is connected in parallel with cd. A supply is
connected between b ande.
Now let us derive the expression for l1 and r1:

At balance point, we have the following relations that holds good and they are:

Now equating voltagesdrops we get,

Putting the value of ic in above equations, we get

WORKING

At first set the signal generatorfrequency at audible range. Now adjust r1 and r such that
phones gives a minimum sound. Measure the values of r1 and r (obtained after these adjustments)
with the help of multimeter. Use the formula that we have derived above in order to find out the
value of unknown inductance. The experiment can be repeated with the different value of
standard capacitor

Phasor Diagram of Anderson's Bridge

Let us mark the voltage dropsacross ab, bc, cd and ad as e1, e2, e3 and e4 as shown in figure
above.

Here in the phasor diagram of Anderson's bridge, we have taken i1 as reference axis. Now ic is
perpendicular to i1 as capacitive load is connected at ec, i4 andi2 are lead by some angle as shown
in figure. Now the sum of all the resultant voltage drops i.e. e1, e2, e3 and e4 is equal to e, which
is shown in phasor diagram. As shown in the phasor diagram of Anderson's bridge the
resultant of voltages dropi1 (R1 + r1) and i1.ω.l1 (which is shown perpendicular to i1) is e1. e2 is
given by i2.r2 which makes angle 'A' with the reference axis. Similarly, e4 can be obtained by
voltage drop i4.r4 which is making angle 'B' with referenceaxis.

Advantages of Anderson's Bridge

1. It is very easy to obtain the balance point in Anderson's bridge as compared to Maxwell
bridge in case of low quality factorcoils.
2. There is no need of variable standard capacitor is required instead of thin a fixed value
capacitor isused.
3. This bridge also gives accurate result for determination of capacitance in terms of
inductance.
 Disadvantages of Anderson's Bridge
1. The equations obtained for inductor in this bridge is more complex as complex as compared
to Maxwell'sbridge.
2. The addition of capacitor junction increases complexity as well as difficulty of shielding the
bridge.

De Seauty Bridge
This bridge provide us the most suitable method for comparing the two values of capacitorif we
neglect dielectric losses in the bridge circuit. The circuit of De Sauty's bridge is shown below

Batteryis applied between terminals marked as 1 and 4. The arm 1-2 consists of capacitor c1
(whose value is unknown) which carries current i1 as shown, arm 2-4 consists of pure
resistor(here pure resistor means we assuming it non inductive in nature), arm 3-4 also consists
of pure resistor and arm 4-1 consists of standard capacitor whose value is already known to us.
Let us derive the expression for capacitor c1 in terms of standard capacitor and resistors. At
balance condition we have,

It implies that the value of capacitor is given by the expression

In order to obtain the balance point we must adjust the values of either r3 or r4 without disturbing
any other element of the bridge. This is the most efficient method of comparing the two values of
capacitor if all the dielectric losses are neglected from the circuit.

Now let us draw and study the phasor diagram of this bridge. Phasor diagram of De Sautybridgeis shown below:
Let us mark the currentdrop across unknown capacitor as e1, voltage dropacross the resistor r3
be e3, voltage drop across arm 3-4 be e4 and voltage drop across arm 4-1 be e2. At balance
condition the current flows through 2-4 path will be zero and also voltage drops e1 and e3 be
equal to voltage drops e2 and e4 respectively.
In order to draw the phasor diagram we have taken e3 (or e4) reference axis, e1 and e2 are shown
at right angle to e1 (or e2). Why they are at right angle to each other? Answer to this question is
very simple as capacitor is connected there, therefore phase difference angle obtained is 90o.
Now instead of some advantages like bridge is quite simple and provides easy calculations, there
are some disadvantages of this bridge because this bridge give inaccurate results for imperfect
capacitor (here imperfect means capacitors which not free from dielectric losses). Hence we can
use this bridge only for comparing perfectcapacitors.
Here we interested in modify the De Sauty's bridge, we want to have such a kind of bridge that
will gives us accurate results for imperfect capacitors also. This modification is done by Grover.
The modified circuit diagram is shown below:

Here Grover has introduced electrical resistancesr1 and r2 as shown in above on arms 1-2 and 4- 1
respectively, in order to include the dielectric losses. Alsohe has connected resistances R1 and R2
respectively in the arms 1-2 and 4-1. Let us derive the expression capacitor c1 whose value is
unknown to us. Again we connected standard capacitor on the same arm 1-4 as we have done in
De Sauty's bridge. At balance point on equating the voltage drops wehave:
On solving above equation we get:

This the required equation. By making the phasor diagram we can calculate dissipation factor.
Phasor diagram for the above circuit is shown below

Let us mark δ1 and δ2 be phase angles of the capacitors c1 and c2 capacitors respectively. From
the phasor diagram we have tan(δ1) = dissipation factor = ωc1r1 and similarly we have tan(δ2) =
ωc2r2. From equation (1) wehave

on multiplying ω both sides we have

Therefore the final expression for the dissipation factor is written as

Hence if dissipation factor for one capacitor is known. However this method is gives quite
inaccurate results for dissipation factor.

Measurement of Capacitance using Schering Bridge

This bridge is used to measure to the capacitance of the capacitor, dissipation factor and
measurement of relative permittivity. Let us consider the circuit of Schering bridge as shown
below:
Here, c1 is the unknown capacitance whose value is to be determined with series
electricalresistancer1.

c2 is a standard capacitor. c4 is a variable capacitor. r3 is a pure resistor(i.e. non inductive in

nature). And r4 is a variable non inductive resistor connected in parallel with variable capacitor
c4. Now the supply is given to the bridge between the points a and c. The detector is connected
between b and d. From the theory of ac bridges we have at balance condition,

Substituting the values of z1, z2, z3 and z4 in the above equation, we get

Equating the real and imaginary parts and the separating we get

,
Let us consider the phasor diagram of the above Shering bridge circuit and mark the
voltagedrops across ab,bc,cd and ad as e1, e3,e4 and e2 respectively. From the above Schering
bridge phasor diagram, we can calculate the value of tanδ which is also called the dissipation
factor.
SUBJECT ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS

UNIT III: MEASUREMENT OF POWER AND ENERGY

1.Power in DC circuits:

power in DC circuits can be measured by using ammeter-voltmeter method (or) voltmeter-

ammeter method.

(1) Ammeter-Voltmeter method:

Voltmeter is connected between load and ammeter. Hence ammeter not only indicates the current
through the load but in addition current in the voltmeter also.

𝑉
Current through the voltmeter= , where 𝑅𝑣 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑅𝑉

Power consumed by the load=𝑉𝐼𝐿

𝑉2
= V (I-𝐼𝑉 ) = 𝑉𝐼 − 𝑅
𝑉

= power indicated by the instrument – power loss in the voltmeter

Power indicated by the instrument = power consumed by the load + power loss in voltmeter

(2) Voltmeter – ammeter method:

1 V G T Rakesh, Asst.Professor, S.V. Engineering College , Tirupati.

SUBJECT ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS

Ammeter is connected between the load and voltmeter. Hence voltmeter not only indicates the
voltage across the load but in addition voltage drop 𝑉𝑎 across the ammeter if 𝑅𝑎 is the resistance if
ammeter then the voltage drop in the ammeter is I𝑅𝑎

Power consumed by load = 𝑉𝐿 𝐼

= (𝑉 − 𝑉𝑎 )𝐼

= 𝑉𝐼 − 𝑉𝑎 𝐼

= 𝑉𝐼 − 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑎

= power indicted by the instruments – power loss in

the ammeter

Power indicated by the instrument = power consumed by the load + power loss in the ammeter

In both the cases power indicated by the instrument is equal to the power consumed by the load
plus power consumed by the instrument near to the load terminals.

2. DYNAMOMETER WATTMETER :

Construction: The construction of wattmeter is similar to PMMC instrument but instead of

permanent magnet is used. Dynamometer wattmeter mainly consists of fixed coil, moving coil.

Fixed coil: The magnetic field is produced by the fixed coil which is divided into two
sections to give more uniform field near the centre and to allow passage of the instrument
shaft.

Moving coil: The moving coil is connected across the voltage; hence current through the moving
coil is proportional to voltage. A high non-inductive references is connected in series with the
moving coil to limit the current to a small value, since moving coil carries a current proportional
to voltage, it is called voltage coil (or) pressure coil of wattmeter current in the moving coil is also
passes through the instant springs. Hence the moving coil current is limited to a value which can
carried safely by spring without damage.

2 V G T Rakesh, Asst.Professor, S.V. Engineering College , Tirupati.

SUBJECT ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS

Control Torque: control torque is provided by the spring control system.

Damping Torque: Damping torque is provided by using air friction damping.

TORQUE EQUATION:

Let 𝑖1 = 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙

𝑖2 = 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙

𝐿1 = 𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙.

𝐿2 = 𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙.

𝑀 = 𝑚𝑢𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙

Flux linkage of coil 1, 𝛹1 = 𝐿1 𝑖1 + 𝑀𝑖2

Flux linkage of coil 2, 𝛹2 =𝐿2 𝑖2 +M𝑖1

3 V G T Rakesh, Asst.Professor, S.V. Engineering College , Tirupati.

SUBJECT ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS

Electrical input energy = 𝑒1 𝑖1 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑒2 𝑖2 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝛹1 𝑑𝛹2
=𝑖1 𝑑𝛹1 + 𝑖2d𝛹2 As 𝑒1 = , 𝑒2 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

= 𝑖1 𝑑(𝐿1 𝑖1 + 𝑀𝑖2 ) + 𝑖2 𝑑(𝐿2 𝑖2 + 𝑀𝑖1 )

1 1
Energy stored in the magnetic field= 2 𝑖 21 𝐿1 + 2 𝑖 2 2 𝐿2 + 𝑖1 𝑖2

1 1
Change in energy stored = 𝑑 (2 𝑖 21 𝐿1 + 2 𝑖 2 2 𝐿2 + 𝑖1 𝑖2 𝑀)

From principle of conservation of energy

Total electrical input energy = change in energy stored+ mechanical energy

Mechanical energy= total electric input energy – change in energy stored.

𝑖1 2 𝑑𝐿1 𝑖 2 2
+ 𝑑𝐿2 + 𝑖1 𝑖2 𝑑𝑀
2 2

𝐿1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐿2 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 & 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜

Mechanical energy = 𝑖1 𝑖2 𝑑𝑀

Suppose Ti is the instantaneous deflecting torque and d𝜃 is the change in deflection then,

Mechanical energy = work done =Ti d𝜃

𝑑𝑀
Hence Tid𝜃 = 𝑖1 𝑖2 𝑑𝑀=Ti=𝑖1 𝑖2 𝑑𝜃

OPERATION WITH DC:

Let 𝐼1 = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙

𝐼2 = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙

𝑑𝑀
Deflecting torque =𝑇𝑑 = 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝑑𝜃

At steady condition Td=TC

𝑑𝑀
K𝜃 = 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝑑𝜃

4 V G T Rakesh, Asst.Professor, S.V. Engineering College , Tirupati.

SUBJECT ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS

OPERATION WITH AC:

let 𝑖1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖2 be the instantaneous values of currents instantaneous deflecting torque

𝑑𝑀
=𝑇𝑖 = 𝑖1 𝑖2 𝑑𝜃

1 𝑇
Average deflection over one cycle=𝑇𝑑 = 𝑇 ∫0 𝑇𝐼 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑀 1 𝑇
= . ∫ 𝑖 𝑖 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜃 𝑇 0 1 2

Where T is the time period for one cycle

If 𝑖1 &𝑖2 are the sinusoidal and displaces by an angle Ψ

𝑖1 = 𝐼𝑚1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑡

&𝑖2 = 𝐼𝑚2 sin(𝑤𝑡 − ∅)

𝑑𝑀 1 𝑇
Average deflecting torque = 𝑑𝜃 . 𝑇 ∫0 𝑖1 𝑖2 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑀 1 2𝜋
= . ∫ 𝐼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑡 𝐼𝑚2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑤𝑡 − ∅)𝑑(𝑤𝑡)
𝑑𝜃 2𝜋 0 𝑚1

𝑑𝑀
= 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅
𝑑𝜃

At steady condition 𝑇𝑑 = 𝑇𝑐

𝐼1 𝐼2 𝑑𝑀
𝜃= 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅
𝐾 𝑑𝜃

3.Errors in electrodynamometer wattmeter:

(1) Error due to pressure coil inductance:

Let 𝑟𝑝 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙
L= inductance of pressure coil
R= resistance in series with the pressure coil
𝑅𝑝 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙
= 𝑟𝑝 + 𝑍

5 V G T Rakesh, Asst.Professor, S.V. Engineering College , Tirupati.

SUBJECT ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS

V = voltage applied to pressure coil circuit

I = current in the current coil circuit’
𝐼𝑃 = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡
𝑍𝑃 = 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑖𝑢𝑢𝑖𝑡
2
= √(𝑅 + 𝑟𝑝 ) + (𝑤𝐿)2

In the discussion of ideal wattmeter that the current in the pressure coil is in phase with the applied
voltage. If the pressure coil of wattmeter has an inductance the current in it will lag the voltage by
an angle 𝛽 where

𝑊𝐿 𝑊𝐿
𝛽 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
𝑅𝑃 (𝑅 + 𝑟𝑝 )

For the lagging power factor, the angle between current coil and current in the pressure coil
circuit is less than ∅,

The angle between pressure coil current and current coil current is ∅′ = ∅ − 𝛽

𝐼.𝐼𝑃 𝑑𝑀
Actual wattmeter reading = ( ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅′ 𝑑𝜃
𝐾

𝑉.𝐼 𝑑𝑀
=𝑍 cos (∅ − 𝛽) 𝑑𝜃
𝑃 .𝐾

6 V G T Rakesh, Asst.Professor, S.V. Engineering College , Tirupati.

SUBJECT ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS

𝑉.𝐼 𝑑𝑀
= 𝑅 cos (∅ − 𝛽) 𝑑𝜃
𝐾.( 𝑃 )
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽

𝑉. 𝐼 𝑑𝑀
= cos(∅ − 𝛽) ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
cos(𝛽)
𝐾. 𝑅𝑃 𝑑𝜃

If inductance is zero i.e. 𝑍𝑃 = 𝑅𝑃 and 𝛽 = 0 then wattmeter will read true power.

𝐼𝑃 .𝐼 𝑑𝑀 𝑉𝐼 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ 𝑑𝑀
True power = 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ 𝑑𝜃 =
𝐾 𝐾𝑅𝑃 𝑑𝜃

𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑉𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ 𝑑𝑀 𝐾. 𝑅𝑃 𝑑𝑀

= . ×
𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐾. 𝑅𝑃 𝑑𝜃 𝑉𝐼𝐶𝑂𝑆(∅ − 𝛽)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 𝑑𝜃

𝑐𝑜𝑠∅
=
cos(∅ − 𝛽) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽

𝑐𝑜𝑠∅
True power = actual wattmeter reading
cos(𝜃−∅)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽

𝑐𝑜𝑠∅
Correction factor = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
cos (∅−𝛽)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽

From the vector diagram for the lagging loads, wattmeter will read high due to the effect of
pressure coil inductance.

For leading load, wattmeter will read low value due to effect of pressure coil inductance

𝑐𝑜𝑠∅
Correction factor for leading load = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽.cos (∅+𝛽)

Error = tan∅𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽 × 𝑉𝐼 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ = 𝑉𝐼 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽

From the above it is clear that error is serious at low power factor

7 V G T Rakesh, Asst.Professor, S.V. Engineering College , Tirupati.

SUBJECT ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS

Compensation:

Many wattmeters are compensated for inductance of pressure coil current by connecting a
capacitor in parallel to a portion of series resistance as shown in figure.

The total impedance of the circuit may be written as

𝑟 − 𝑗𝑤𝑐𝑟 2
𝑍𝑃 = (𝑅𝑃 − 𝑟) + 𝑗𝑤𝐿 +
1 + 𝑤 2𝑐2𝑟 2

If the value of circuit constants are chosen that for power frequencies 𝑤 2 𝑐 2 𝑟 2 ≪ 1

We have approximately 𝑍𝑃 ≈ 𝑅𝑃 − 𝑟 + 𝑗𝑤𝐿 + 𝑟 − 𝑗𝑤𝑐𝑟 2 ≈ 𝑅𝑝 + 𝑗𝑤(𝐿 − 𝐶𝑟 2 )

I f we make L-c𝑟 2 = 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑍𝑃 ≈ 𝑅𝑃 &𝛽 = 0

Hence error due to the pressure coil is almost eliminated.

2. Pressure coil capacitance error: pressure coil circuit may have capacitance in addition to
inductance due to the high series resistance for lagging loads, wattmeter reads high value.

3. Error due to the methods of connection: there are two methods of connection of wattmeter in
the circuit.

(a) Pressure coil is connected on supply side:

In this connection the voltage applied to the pressure coil is the voltage across the load plus
voltage drop across the current coil. Hence watt meter reads power loss in the current coil in
addition to power consumed by the load.

8 V G T Rakesh, Asst.Professor, S.V. Engineering College , Tirupati.

SUBJECT ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS

Power indicated by wattmeter = power consumed by load + power loss in the current coil

(b) Current coil is a supply side:

In this connection, wattmeter reads power loss in the pressure coil in addition to power consumed
by the load.

Power indicated by the wattmeter = power consumed by the load power loss in the pressure coil

If the load current is very small, then the voltage drop in the current coil is small so that
connection (a) introducing a very small error.

If the load current is high, the value of pressure coil current is very small as compared to load
current. Hence the power loss in the pressure coil is very small as compared to power in the load;
hence for large currents figure (b) is preferred.

9 V G T Rakesh, Asst.Professor, S.V. Engineering College , Tirupati.

SUBJECT ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS

4. Eddy current error: eddy current are introduced in the said metal parts and within thickness
the conduction by alternating magnetic field of current coil. These currents will produce a field of
their own and after the magnitude and phase of current coil field &thus cause error.

4. Low power factor watt meter:

Measurement of power in circuits having low power factor by ordinary electrodynamometer

wattcmeters is difficult and inaccurate because:

(i) The deflecting torque on the moving system is small even when the current and
pressure coils are fully excited
(ii) Errors introduced because of inductance of pressure coil is large at low power factors

Special features are incorporated in an electrodynamometer wattmeter to make it a low power

factors type of wattmeter. These features are discussed in details below:

1. Pressure coil current: The pressure coil circuit is designed to have a low value of resistance,
so that the current, flowing through it, is increased to give an increased operating torque. The
pressure coil current in a low power factor wattmeter may be as much as 10 times the value
employed for high power factor wattcmeters.

Compensation for pressure coil current: The power being measured in a low power factor
circuit is a small and current is high is account of low power factor, connection of figure cannot

10 V G T Rakesh, Asst.Professor, S.V. Engineering College , Tirupati.

SUBJECT ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS

be used because owning to large load current there would be a large power loss in the current coil
and, therefore, the wattmeter will give a large error.

2.Compensation for inductance of pressure coil:

The error caused by pressure coil inductance is: VIsin∅𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽. Now, with low power factor, the
value of ∅ is large and, therefore, the error is correspondingly large. Hence in a low power
factor wattmeter we must compensate for the errors caused by inductance of the pressure coil.
This is done by connecting a capacitor across a part of series resistance in the pressure coil
circuit as shown in the figure. If we incorporate features discussed above, at low factor
wattmeter can be represented as shown in figure.

3. Small control torque: low power factor wattmeter’s are designed with to have a small control
torque so that they give full scale deflection for power factors as low as 0.1

5. Single phase induction type energy meter:

An instrument that is used to measure either quantity of electricity or energy, over a period of time
is known as energy meter or watt-hour meter. the unit of energy is joule or watt second. The
commercial unit of electrical energy is kilowatt hour (KWh). For measurement of energy in a.c.
circuit, the meter used is based on “electro-magnetic induction” principle. They are known as
induction type instruments. The measurement of energy is based on the induction principle is
particularly suitable for industrial or domestic meters on the account of lightness and robustness of
the rotating element.

Construction: Induction type energy meter essentially consists of following components

(a) Driving system (b) Moving system

(c) Braking system (d) Registering system

11 V G T Rakesh, Asst.Professor, S.V. Engineering College , Tirupati.

SUBJECT ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS

(a) Driving system: The construction of driving system is shown in Fig and it consists of two
electromagnets, called “shunt” magnet and “series” magnet, of laminated construction. A coil
having large number of turns of fine wire is wound on the middle limb of the shunt magnet. This
coil is known as “pressure or voltage” coil and is connected across the supply mains. This voltage
coil has many turns and is arranged to be as highly inductive as possible. In other words, the
voltage coil produces a high ratio of inductance to resistance. This causes the current, and
therefore the flux, to lag the supply voltage by nearly 900. Adjustable copper shading rings are
provided on the central limb of the shunt magnet to make the phase angle displacement between
magnetic field set up by shunt magnet and supply voltage is approximately 900. The copper
shading bands are also called the power factor compensator or compensating loop. The series
electromagnet is energized by a coil, known as “current” coil which is connected in series with the

12 V G T Rakesh, Asst.Professor, S.V. Engineering College , Tirupati.

SUBJECT ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS

load so that it carry the load current. The flux produced by this magnet is proportional to, and in
phase with the load current.

(b) Moving system: The moving system essentially consists of a light rotating aluminium disk
mounted on a vertical spindle or shaft. The shaft that supports the aluminium disk is connected by
a gear arrangement to the clock mechanism on the front of the meter to provide information that
consumed energy by the load. The time varying (sinusoidal) fluxes produced by shunt and series
magnet induce eddy currents in the aluminium disc. The interaction between these two magnetic
fields and eddy currents set up a driving torque in the disc. The number of rotations of the disk is
therefore proportional to the energy consumed by the load in a certain time interval and is
commonly measured in killowatt-hours (Kwh).

(c) Braking system: Damping of the disk is provided by a small permanent magnet, located
diametrically opposite to the a.c magnets. The disk passes between the magnet gaps. The
movement of rotating disc through the magnetic field crossing the air gap sets up eddy currents in
the disc that reacts with the magnetic field and exerts a braking torque. By changing the position
of the brake magnet or diverting some of the flux there form, the speed of the rotating disc can be
controlled.

(d) Registering system: The registering or counting system essentially consists of gear train,
driven either by worm or pinion gear on the disc shaft, which turns pointers that indicate on dials
the number of times the disc has turned. The energy meter thus determines and adds together or
integrates all the instantaneous power values so that total energy used over a period is thus known.
Therefore, this type of meter is also called an “integrating” meter.

Operation: Induction instruments operate in alternating-current circuits and they are useful only
when the frequency and the supply voltage are approximately constant.The rotating element is an
aluminium disc, and the torque is produced by the interaction of eddy currents generated in the
disc with the imposed magnetic fields that are produced by the voltage and current coils of the
energy meter.

13 V G T Rakesh, Asst.Professor, S.V. Engineering College , Tirupati.

SUBJECT ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS

In all induction instruments we have two fluxes produce by currents flowing in the windings of the
instrument. These fluxes are alternating in nature and so they induce emfs in a aluminium disc.As
in an energy meter instrument, we have two fluxes and two eddy currents and therefore two
torques are produced by

i) First flux (ɸ1) interacting with the eddy currents (Ie2) generated by the second flux (ɸ2) and

ii) Second flux (ɸ2) interacting with the eddy currents (Ie1) induced by the first flux (ɸ1).

14 V G T Rakesh, Asst.Professor, S.V. Engineering College , Tirupati.

SUBJECT ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS

The coil which is connected series with load is called series coil load current flows through the
coil

∅L ∝ I L

The coil which is connected across the supply is called shunt coil. The current is shunt coil is
proportional to supply voltage.

∅𝑠ℎ ∝ 𝐼𝑠ℎ ∝ 𝑉

In order to measure the energy we have two consider two assumptions.

(i) Supply voltage = load voltage

V = 𝑉𝐿 ie. Drop in the series will is zero

(ii)The shunt coil is pure inductive in nature

Assuming load is lagging

15 V G T Rakesh, Asst.Professor, S.V. Engineering College , Tirupati.

SUBJECT ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS

8.Errors in the energy meter:

The induction type energy may have the following errors:

1. Speed error: Due to the incorrect position of the brake magnet, the braking torque is not
correctly developed. This can be tested when meter runs at its full load current alternatively on
loads of unity power factor and a low lagging power factor. The speed can be adjusted to the
correct value by varying the position of the braking magnet towards the centre of the disc or away
from the centre and the shielding loop. If the meter runs fast on inductive load and correctly on
non-inductive load, the shielding loop must be moved towards the disc. On the other hand, if the
meter runs slow on non-inductive load, the brake magnet must be moved towards the center of the
disc.

2. Meter phase error: An error due to incorrect adjustment of the position of shading band results
an incorrect phase displacement between the magnetic flux and the supply voltage (not in
quadrature). This is tested with 0.5 p.f. load at the rated load condition. By adjusting the position
of the copper shading band in the central limb of the shunt magnet this error can be eliminated

3.Creeping: In some meters a slow but continuous rotation is seen when pressure coil is excited
but with no load current flowing. This slow revolution records some energy. This is called the
creep error. This slow motion may be due to (a) incorrect friction compensation, (b) to stray
magnetic field (c) for over voltage across the voltage coil. This can be eliminated by drilling two

16 V G T Rakesh, Asst.Professor, S.V. Engineering College , Tirupati.

SUBJECT ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS

holes or slots in the disc on opposite side of the spindle. When one of the holes comes under the
poles of shunt magnet, the rotation being thus limited to a maximum of . In some cases, a small
piece of iron tongue or vane is fitted to the edge of the disc. When the position of the vane is
adjacent to the brake magnet, the attractive force between the iron tongue or vane and brake
magnet is just sufficient to stop slow motion of the disc with full shunt excitation and under no
load condition.

(v) Temperature effect: Energy meters are almost inherently free from errors due to temperature
variations. Temperature affects both driving and braking torques equally (with the increase in
temperature the resistance of the induced-current path in the disc is also increases) and so
produces negligible error. A flux level in the brake magnet decreases with increase in temperature
and introduces a small error in the meter readings. This error is frequently taken as negligible, but
in modern energy meters compensation is adopted in the form of flux divider on the break magnet.

17 V G T Rakesh, Asst.Professor, S.V. Engineering College , Tirupati.

SUBJECT ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS

18 V G T Rakesh, Asst.Professor, S.V. Engineering College , Tirupati.

 UNIT IV

POTENTIOMETERS
Principle and operation of DC Crompton’s potentiometer-standardization-measurement of
unknown, current, voltage

AC potentiometers: polar and coordinate type standardization-applications

______________________________________________________________________________

Introduction:

A potentiometer is an instrument designed to measure an unknown voltage by comparing it with

a known voltage. The known voltage may be supplied by a cell or any other known voltage.
Potentiometer is also applied to the measurement of current and resistance.

Potentiometers are used for calibration of voltmeters and ammeters and it has become the
standard for calibration of this instrument.

1.Basic potentiometer circuit:

The basic principle of all potentiometer is based on the circuit shown below. i.e. basic slide wire
potentiometer

1 V.G.T.Rakesh, Assistant professor, S.V .Engineering College , Tirupati

Potentiometer consists of a sliding wire which is mode with platinum gold silver and the area of
cross section is same and the sliding contact is made with copper gold silver.

With switch in the operate position, the battery supplies the working current (which can be
varied by changing rheostat setting) through the rheostat ‘R’ and the slide wire.

Measuring of unknown voltage depends on finding a position for the sliding contact. Such that
galvanometer shows null or zero deflection when switch is closed.

The slide wire has a uniform cross-section and uniform resistance along its entire length. A
calibrated scale in cm and fraction of cm is placed along the slide wire.

The process of adjusting the working current so as to match the voltage drop across a sliding
wire against a standard reference source is known as “standardization”

Standardization:
The procedure is as follows:

 The length of slide wire is 200cm and its resistance is 200Ω. The emf of standard cell is
1.0186v
 Keep the switch ‘s’ in ‘calibrate’ position and sliding contact is placed at 101.86cm mark
on slide wire.
 Now rheostat 𝑅ℎ is adjusted to vary the working current.
 This adjustment is carried on till ‘g’ shows no deflection when key ‘k’ pressed.
 under these conditions, the voltage drop across 101.86cm slide wire is equal to standard
cell voltage of 1.0186v
 the resistance of 101.86cm slide wire is 101.86Ω , the working current has been adjusted
to a value
1.0186
× 100 = 10𝑚𝐴
101.86

 The voltage at any point along the slide wire is proportional to the length of slide wire.
 If potentiometer is calibrated over, its working current is never changed.

2 V.G.T.Rakesh, Assistant professor, S.V .Engineering College , Tirupati

2.D.C Crompton’s potentiometer:

 Modern laboratory type potentiometer use calibrated dial resistors and a small circular
wire of one or more turns, there by reducing size of the instrument.
 The circuit of DC Crompton’s potentiometer is as shown below.
 There is one dial switch with fifteen steps, each having a precision resistor of 10Ω
Resistor of 10Ω and the total resistance of dial switch is 150Ω
 In addition, there is a single turn circular slide wire of 10Ω
 The working current is 10mA and each step corresponds to 0.1v(dial)
 Slide wire is provide with 200 scale divisions and voltage drop of 0.1v , each division of
0.1
slide wire corresponds to = 0.0005𝑣
200

3 V.G.T.Rakesh, Assistant professor, S.V .Engineering College , Tirupati

  The potentiometer is provided with a double through switch which may be connected to
either a standard cell or unknown emf
 A key and a protective galvanometer at its maximum sensitivity, provision is made to
short the protective resistance when near the balance conditions.

The following steps are used when making measurements with potentiometer:

1. The combination of dial resistors and the slide wire is set to standard cell voltage.
Eg. The standard cell emf is 1.0186v, the dial resistor is put at IV and the slide wire is
pu0.0186v setting

2. Switch’s’ thrown to ‘calibrate’ position, and the galvanometer key is tapped while the
rheostat is adjusted for zero deflection on the galvanometer.
3. As (the above balance or) null point is approached, the protective resistance is shorted so
as to increase the sensitivity of galvanometer. Final adjustments are made for o deflection
by adjusting the rheostat.
4. After completion of standardization, switch’s’ is thrown to operate will the protective
resistance in the circuit, potentiometer is balanced by means of main dial and slide wire
5. When the balance is approached, protective resistance is shorted is final adjustments are
made.
6. The value of unknown is read of directly from the stepping of dial and slide wire
7. The standardization is again checked by returning the switch‘s’ to calibrate position. The
dial settings are kept exactly the same as in the original standardization process.

3. Applications of DC potentiometers:

1. Measurement of resistance:
The circuit for measurement of resistance is shown in fig. the unknown resistance ‘R’ is
connected in series with standard resistors’’. The current in the circuit is controlled with
the help of a rheostat. A two double pole switch is used.

4 V.G.T.Rakesh, Assistant professor, S.V .Engineering College , Tirupati

 When switch‘s’ put in position1,11 , unknown resistance is connected to potentiometer
and suppose the reading of potentiometer is 𝑉𝑅 , 𝑉𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅

Now switch is thrown to 2,21 , this connects standard resistor to the potentiometer and
reading of potentiometer 𝑉𝑆
𝑉𝑆 = 𝐼𝑆

𝑉𝑅
𝑅= .𝑆
𝑉𝑆
Since S is accurately known, value of R can also be accurately known.

2. Measurement of current (or) calibration of ammeter:

For measurement of current by use of potentiometer the conditions are similar to that of
measurement of resistance, except that the unknown resistance is omitted cell and
standard resistance only required.

5 V.G.T.Rakesh, Assistant professor, S.V .Engineering College , Tirupati

 The potentiometer is first standardized, and the voltage drop across the standard
resistance is then measured. The value of current flowing through this is given by
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟
𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟

This method may be used for the calibration of ammeter, the ammeter being connected in
series with standard resistance and its readings, for various measured values of the
current, noted
This method is very accurate.
3. Calibration of voltmeter (or) measurement of voltage:

Figure shows the circuit for calibration of voltmeter. The main requirement is suitable stable
dc voltage supply.

 It consists of a potential divider network, consisting of two rheostats, one for coarse and the
other for fine control of calibrating voltage.
 This network is connected to supply source and with the help of these controls, it is possible
to adjust the voltage so that the pointer consists exactly with a major division of the
voltmeters.
 The voltage across the voltmeter is stepped down to a value suitable for application for a
potentiometer with the help of volt ratio box.
 Potentiometer measures the true value of voltage
 If the potentiometer reading does not agree with the voltmeter reading, a negative or positive s
error is indicated.
4. Measurement of power:

6 V.G.T.Rakesh, Assistant professor, S.V .Engineering College , Tirupati

Two measurements are made, one across the standard resistances connected in series with the
load and the other across at output terminals of the volt-ratio box

Current in the circuit can be measured from voltage drop across ‘s’ and voltage across the
load can be measured from potentiometer reading across the output terminals of volt ratio box

𝑉𝑆 = 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 ′𝑠′

𝑉𝑅 = 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 − 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑏𝑜𝑥
𝑉𝑆
Current through load 𝐼 = 𝑆

Voltage across load 𝑉 = 𝐾𝑉𝑅 K= multiplying factor of volt ratio box

𝑉𝑆
Power consumed = 𝑉𝐼 = 𝐾𝑉𝑅 . 𝑆

5. CALIBRATION OF WATTMETER:

Figure shoes the circuit for calibration of wattmeter

7 V.G.T.Rakesh, Assistant professor, S.V .Engineering College , Tirupati

  The current coil of wattmeter is supplied from the low voltage supply and a series rheostat is
inserted to Adjust the value of current.
 The pressure coil is supplied from the supply. A volt ratio box is used to step down the voltage
for the potentiometer to read
 The voltage ‘v’ and current ‘I’ are measured in turn with the potentiometer employing a double
pole double through(DPDT) switch. The true power is then VI and the wattmeter reading may be
compared.

Types of A.C. Potentiometers

A.C. potentiometers may be classified according to the manner in which the value of unknown voltage may be
measured by the instrument dials and scales. The A.C. potentiometers may be broadly classified as:

1. Polar type: In these instruments, the magnitude of the unknown voltage is read from one scale and its phase
angle, with respect to some reference phasor, is read directly from a second scale. Provision is made to read
phase angles up to 360˚. The voltage is read in the form V∠𝜃

2. Co-ordinate type. These instruments are provided with two scales to read respectively the in phase
′
component ′𝑉1 ′ and the quadrature component ′𝑉2 of the unknown voltage V. These components are 90˚ out of
phase with each other.

15.3.3 Drysdale polar potentiometer:

This instrument consists of a potentiometer of ordinary d.c. type, except that the resistance coils are non-
inductively wound and the following auxiliary apparatus is used:

1. Drysdale phase shifting transformer. The phase shifting transformer consists of a laminated silicon steel
stator which houses a two or a three phase winding. The rotor is also a laminated structure having slots in
which a winding is provided. There is a small air gap between the rotor and the stator. When current flows in
the stator winding, a rotating field is produced, thereby inducing an emf in the rotor winding. The rotor can be
adjusted at will through any required angle, the phase displacement of rotor emf being equal to the angle
through which the rotor has been moved from its zero position. A scale and pointer are provided on top of the

8 V.G.T.Rakesh, Assistant professor, S.V .Engineering College , Tirupati

instrument to indicate the angle through which rotor has been moved from its zero position. The scale is
graduated both in degrees and cosines of the angles.
A phase shifter operated from a single phase supply may also be used by means of a phase splitting
device. This device is shown in Fig.. In this phase shifter it is only necessary to have two separate windings
displace by 90˚ in space on the stator. One winding is fed directly from the supply while the other winding is
connected in series with a variable resistance R and a variable capacitor C. The values resistance R and
capacitance C are adjusted until the currents through the two windings are equal and are 90˚ displaced from each
creating a uniform revolving field. The quadrature adjustment is explained in fig.

For a particular position of the rotor the induced emf due to each of the stator winding is proportional to the
cosine of the angular displacement from position of maximum emf. The emf induced in rotor winding due to
stator winding1,

𝑒1 = 𝐾 𝐼 sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜃

And that due top stator winding 2 is

𝑒2 = 𝐾 𝐼 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 90˚) cos(𝜃 + 90˚)

= - 𝐾 𝐼 cos 𝜔𝑡 sin 𝜃

∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟

𝑒 = 𝐾 𝐼 [sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜃 − cos 𝜔𝑡 sin 𝜃]

9 V.G.T.Rakesh, Assistant professor, S.V .Engineering College , Tirupati

 𝐾𝐼 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜃)

The above relationship shows that the rotor emf has a constant amplitude but the phase angle is given by rotor

position 𝜃.

Operation:

For A.C measurements, the slide wire MN is supplied from a phase shifter circuit so arranged that the
magnitude of the voltage supplied by it remains constant while its phase can be varied through 360 0.
Consequently, slide wire current I can be maintained constant in magnitude but varied in phase.

The phase shifting circuit consists of two stator coils supplied from the same source in parallel, their
currents are made to differ by 900 by using well known phase shifting technique.

The two windings produce rotating flux which induces a secondary e.m.f. in the rotor winding which is of
constant magnitude but the phase of which can be varied by the rotating the rotor in any position either
manually or otherwise. The phase of the rotor e.m.f is read from the circular graduated dial provided for
the purpose.

The ammeter A in the slide wire circuit is of electrodynamic or thermal type.

Before using it for A.C measurements, the potentiometer is first calibrated by using D.C supply for slide
wire and standard cell for test terminals T1 and T2 .

10 V.G.T.Rakesh, Assistant professor, S.V .Engineering College , Tirupati

 The unknown alternating voltage to be measured is applied across the terminals T1 and T2 and the
balance is effected by the alternate adjustment of the slide wire contact and the position of phase
shifting rotor. The slide wire reading represents the magnitude of the test voltage and the voltage phase
shifter reading gives the phase shift with reference to an obituary reference vector

2. Gall-Tinsley (Co-ordinate Type) A.C. Potentiometer

This potentiometer uses two slide wires XY and MN with their currents I 1 and I2 having a mutual phase
difference of 900.

The two currents are obtained from single phase supply through isolating transformer , the circuit foe
‘quadrature’ slide wire MN incorporating a phase shift arrangement.

Before using the instrument, the current I1 is first standardized and next current I2 is standardized with the
help of mutual induced e.m.f in the inductometer secondary.

Now slide wire MN is balanced against induced e.m.f in the inductometer, this balance is obtained only
when I2 is of current magnitude and in exact quadrature with I1.

The unknown voltage is applied across the terminals T 1 and T2.

Slide wire MN measures Quadrature component of unknown voltage and slide wire XY measures inphase
component of unknown voltage.

11 V.G.T.Rakesh, Assistant professor, S.V .Engineering College , Tirupati

 5. Applications of A.C. potentiometers

The applications of a.c potentiometers are numerous and only a limited number of applications can be
given in the space available here.

1. Voltmeter calibration. Low voltages up to 1.5 V or thereabouts can be measured directly.

Higher voltages can be measured by using a volt-box (for medium voltages) or two capacitors in series
(for high voltages) in conjunction with the potentiometers
2. Ammeter calibration. The measurement of various alternating currents required for such
calibration may be made by the use of non-inductive standard resistors with the potentiometer the method
being similar to that adopted when the calibration is to be carried out with direct current.
3. Wattmeter and energy-meter testing. The testing circuit for wattmeter’s and energy meters
is the same as that used in the case of d.c. measurements. A phase shifting transformer is included in the
potential circuit to vary the phase of voltage with respect to current so that the wattmeters and energy
meter are tested at various power factors.
4. Measurement of self reactance of a coil. A standard resistance S is connected in series with
the coil whose reactance is to be measured
Two voltage measurements are done, one across the standard resistance and the other across the coil.

Supposing we are using a polar type of potentiometer and the readings are:

Voltage across standard resistor

‘S’ = 𝑉𝑠 ∠𝜃𝑠

Voltage across the coil is 𝑉𝑐 = 𝑉𝑐 ∠𝜃𝑐

Current through coilI = 𝑉_𝑠 ⁄ (𝑠∠𝜃 _𝑠 )

𝑉𝑐 𝑆𝑉𝑐 ∠𝜃𝑐 𝑆𝑉𝑐

Impedance of coil =Z = = = ∠𝜃𝑐 − 𝜃𝑠
𝐼 𝑉𝑠∠𝜃𝑠 𝑉𝑠

𝑆𝑉𝑐
Resistance of the coil=R = Z cos(𝜃𝑐 − 𝜃𝑠 ) = 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝜃𝑐 − 𝜃𝑠 )
𝑉𝑠

𝑆𝑉𝑐
Reactance of the coil=X = Z sin (𝜃𝑐 − 𝜃𝑠 ) = 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝜃𝑐 − 𝜃𝑠 )
𝑉𝑠

12 V.G.T.Rakesh, Assistant professor, S.V .Engineering College , Tirupati

 UNIT – V
Magnetic Measurements
Introduction:

The Measurements of various magnetic material are called magnetic Measurements. The
magnetic materials play very important operation of electrical machines hence measurement of
various characteristics of magnetic Materials important from the point of view of designing and
manufacturing of Electrical Machines.

The magnetic measurements include,

1. Measurement of flux density B in a specimen of Ferro magnetic material.

2. Measurement of magnetizing forces H, producing the flux density B ,in air.

3 .Determination of BH curve and the hysteresis loop.

4,Determination of eddy current and the hysteresislosses,

5.Testing of permanent magnets.

Ballistic Galvanometer

The ballistic galvanometer and the flux meter are the necessary instruments for various types of magnetic
measurements.

The ballistic galvanometer is used to measure a quantity of electricity passed t hrough it. The ballistic
galvanometer has a search coil connected to its terminals. When there is change in the flux linked with the search
coil, an emf is induced in the search coil. The Electricity proportional to this emf is measured by t he ballistic
galvanometer.

The ballistic galvanometer is usually of D‘Arsonval type. The electricity passing through the ballistic
galvanometer is in the form of transient current which is instantaneous in nature. It exists only till the change of
flux is associated with the search coil-Thus the ballistic galvanometer gives a ‘throw‘ proportional to the quantity
of current instantaneously passing through it. It does not gives teady deflection. The scale of the ballistic
galvanometer is calibrated in such away that f rom its t hrow, the quantity of electricity and the change in the
flux producing it can be measured. The throw of the ballistic galvanometer is proportional to the electricalonly
if the discharge of electricity through it gets completed before any appreciable change in position of the moving
system, Hence the moving system of the galvanometer is mad lo have large momen to finertia and due to this,
it keeps on vibrating for longtime for about10-15seconds. The large momen to finertia is achieved by the
additional weights to the moving system. Thus the oscillations of the galvanometer moving system are damped
with large time period and damping ratio, The damping erasures t h e first deflection (throw) is high and large
in amplitude. The throw or deflection is measured at the extreme point of the first throw using a lamp and scale,
The dead beat galvanometer is best- Ithas to have Electromagnetic damping such that it mobe determined horn
the constants of the instrument Air dampings hould not be present as it is indeterminate. To bring the moving
system back rapidly, akey is provided with which galvanometer terminals are shortcircuited,

The special construction of the ballistic galvanometer also includes

1. The moving coil is free from magnetic material.

2.The terminals coil and all the Connections are made up of copper to avoid thermo electric e.m.fs at the starting
junctions.

3.The suspensions trip is selected carefully and mounted precisely.

4. In precision instrument, the suspension is non-conducting and current is ledin and out of the coil
with the help of delicate spirals of very thin strip of copper.

Theory of Ballistic Galvanometer

1. The quantity of Electricity through the galvanometer is instantaneous and for very short period of time
while discharged it gives energy to the moving system which is dissipated gradually infriction and
damping.

𝜃=deflectioninradians

b=damping meant

a=moment of inertia

c=controlling constant

During the act ual motion, Electricity is not present once gets discharged hence the equation of motion
becomes,

d2 θ d2 θ
a +b +c𝜃 = 0 ------(i)
dt2 dt2

The solution of the differential equation is

 𝜃= A𝑒 𝑚1 𝑡 + B 𝑒 𝑚2 𝑡 ----(ii)

𝐴, 𝐵 = constants.

𝑚1 , 𝑚2 = roots of quadratic.
As damping is very small, b is verysmall hence(b2- 4ac) term is negative and the roots are
imaginary in nature.

The solution of second o r d e r differential equation having complex conjugate roots is damped
sinusoidal oscillations given by
𝑏𝑡 √4𝑎𝑐− 𝑏2
𝜃= 𝑒 −2𝑎 b sin( 𝑡 + 𝑎) ------(iii)
2𝑎

But as b is very small hence 4ac-b2 = 4ac

𝑏𝑡 √𝑐
𝜃= 𝑒 −2𝑎 b sin( 𝑡 + 𝑎) -----(iv)
√𝑎
From the initial conditions when t=0, 𝜃 = 0, hence α = 0
𝑏𝑡 √𝑐
𝜃= 𝑒 −2𝑎 b sin( 𝑡) -----(v)
√𝑎
During the discharge of the electricity through the instrument for the short period of time𝜏, the
deflecting torque proportional to instantaneous current ‘i’ exists given by Gi. Where ‘G’ is
displacement constant.
Hence the torque produced by G i is represented as
d2 θ
Gi= a -------(vi)
dt2
𝑇 𝑇 d2 θ 𝑑𝜃
∫0 𝐺𝑖 dt = ∫0 a dt2
dt = a 𝑑𝑡
-----(vii)
𝑇
But ∫0 𝑖 dt represents the charge Q coulombs.
𝑑𝜃
QG = a ----(viii)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜃
Where is the angular velocity of the system at the end of the period 𝜏 i.e at the beginning of the
𝑑𝑡

first deflection.
𝑑𝜃 𝐺
=𝑎Q ---(ix)
𝑑𝑡

Now differentiating above equation

𝑏𝑡 𝑏𝑡
𝑑𝜃 𝑏 𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
= − 2𝑎 𝑒 −2𝑎 b sin(√𝑎 𝑡)+ 𝑒 −2𝑎 b cos(√𝑎 𝑡) √𝑎 -----(x)
𝑑𝑡

As the period of discharge is small, at the end of discharge, t=0, using above,
𝑑𝜃 𝑐
= b√𝑎 ----(xi)
𝑑𝑡
From the equations (ix) and (xi)
𝐺 𝑐
Q = b√𝑎
𝑎

𝐺 𝑎
b= 𝑎
√𝑐 Q

Substituting the value of b in (V)

𝑏𝑡
𝐺 𝑎 𝑐
𝜃= 𝑒 −2𝑎 ⌈ √ 𝑄⌉ sin(√ 𝑡).
𝑎 𝑐 𝑎

Flux meter:
A special ballistic galvanometer with very small controlling torque and high electromagnetic
damping is used as flux meter.
It consists of a small cross-section carrying a coil C. the cross-section is suspended in the narrow
airgap of permanent magnet. The cross-section is suspended with the help of spring support and a
single thread of silk. The current is injected to the coil through very thin, annealed silver springs as
shown in fig.
The pointer is fitted to the moving system of the flux meter and the scale is calibrated in terms of
flux turns. Such a flux meter is designed by grassot and hence it is called grassot flux meter. The
spirals of silver of silver springs keep the controlling torque to minimum.

Fig: Flux meter

As controlling torque is minimum, pointer takes time to come back to the zero position. But readings
may be taken by observing the difference in deflections at the beginning and end of the change in
flux, without waiting for pointer to restore its zero position.

The resistance 𝑅𝑠 of the search coil connected to the flux meter must be small. The inductance of
search coil may be large.
Let ∅1 and ∅2 are the interlinking fluxes at the beginning and the end of the change in flux to be
measured respectively. Then,
d𝜃 = change in deflection = 𝜃2 - 𝜃1
d∅ = change in flux = ∅2 - ∅1
And it can be proved that,
G d𝜃 = N d∅
G = constant of flux meter called displacement constant
N = number of turns on search coil.
𝑁
d𝜃 = d∅.
𝐺

In modern flux meters, the coil is supported with pivots and mounted in jeweled bearings. The
current is passed to the coil through fine ligaments.
The flux meter has an advantage over ballistic galvanometer as the deflection is same irrespective
of the time taken for the corresponding change in flux, interlinking with the search coil. Another
advantage of flux meter is it is portable.
DeterminationofB-HCurve

There are two methods, by which B-Hcurve can be obtained for t he magnetic material specimen,

1. Method of reversals 2.Step by step method

Method of reversals
A ring specimen with known dimensions is taken for the test. A thin tape is wound on the ring. The search
coil insulated by the paraffined wax is wound over the tape. Another layer of tap Lswound on the search coil.
Then the magnetizing winding is wound uniformly on the specimen. The overall circuit used is as shown in
the Fig.
 Fig: Method of reversals.

The complete specimen is demagnetized before the test. Using the variable resistance, the magnetizing current
is adjusted to its lower value, at the beginning of the test The ballistic galvanometer switch K is closed and
reversing switch S is thrown backward and forward for about twenty times. This brings their on specimen
into are producible cyclic magnetic state. The galvanometer key K is now opened and the flux in the specimen
corresponding to this value of His measured from the deflection of the ballistic galvanometer, by reversing
the switch S. The change in flux, measured by the galvanometer, when the reversing witch S is quickly
reversed, will be twice the aux in the specimen, corresponding to t he value of applied. This value of H
can be obtained as
𝑁𝐼1
H= 𝑙

N = number of turns on the magnetizing winding.

𝐼1 = corresponding magnetizing current.

𝑙 = Mean circumference length of specimen in m.

While the flux density B is obtained by dividing the flux measured by the area of cross-section of the
specimen

The procedure is repeated for the different values of H by increasing H upto the maximum testing point
value. The graph of B against H gives the required B-H curve for the specimen.
Magnetic testing under ac conditions:

Whenever a piece of magnetic material is subjected to alternating current, it goes under a cycle of
magnetizing and demagnetization.

Fig. typical iron loss curves

There exists a hysteresis, due to which power loss occurs in the form of hysteresis loss and eddy current
loss. This loss is called iron loss. The knowledge of iron loss in Ferro-magnetic materials plays an important
role for the designers. The iron loss depends on,

(i) Frequency of alternating field to which it is subjected.

(ii) Maximum value of flux density Bm.

In practice, for various materials, the curves are obtained at typical frequency giving the variation between
iron loss per kg against the maximum flux density. Such curves are called iron loss curves. The curves help
the designers to select proper materials for the proper application. the fig shows typical iron loss curves at a
frequency of 50Hz.

The total iron loss has two components

(i) Hysteresis loss

(ii) Eddy current loss.
(i) Hysteresis loss:
For a given volume and thickness of laminations, these losses depend on the operating frequency and
maximum flux density in the core. Basically hysteresis loss per unit volume is the area of the hysteresis loop
of that material.

Practically steinmetz has given the formula for the hysteresis loss per unit volume as,
𝑘
𝑃ℎ = 𝜂 f 𝐵𝑚 watts/m3

𝜂= hysteresis coefficient

F= frequency
 B m= maximum flux density

K = steinmetz coefficient varies between 1.6 to 2

Practically k Is taken as 1.67

For a given specimen of thickness t and certain volume, it is given by

1.67
𝑃ℎ = 𝐾ℎ f 𝐵𝑚 watts

(ii) Eddy current loss:

The eddy current loss per unit volume for given lamination is given by,

4k2f f2 B2m t2
Pe = watts/m3
3ρ

Where 𝐾𝑓 = form factor of alternating supply used

T= thickness of lamination

ρ = resistivity of the material in ohm-meter

Pe = k e k 2f f 2 Bm
2
watts

pi = ph + pe = total iron loss

Core loss measurements by bridges:

The Maxwell Bridge used for testing ring specimen is shown in fig.

The arm a-b consists of the specimen.

Thus 𝑅𝑎𝑏 = 𝑅𝑠

𝐿𝑎𝑏 = 𝐿𝑠

At the bridge balance, detector current is zero hence,

𝐼1 𝑅3 = 𝐼2 𝑅4 ------------(i)

𝐼1 (𝑅𝑠 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿𝑠 )= 𝐼1 (𝑅2 + 𝑟 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿2 )-----------(ii)

Dividing the two equations

(R s + jωLs ) (R 2 + r + jωL2 )
=
R3 R4

Equating real and imaginary parts,

R
R s = R3 (R 2 + r)
4

R
And Ls = R3 L2 -----------------------(iii)
4
 R s = effective resistance of a-b including winding resistance

𝐼12 𝑅𝑠 = iron loss+ copper loss in winding

Pi = 𝐼12 [𝑅𝑠 - 𝑅𝑤 ] --------------(iv)

I = I1 + I2

From equation 1

𝐼1 𝑅3 = (𝐼1 − 𝐼2 ) 𝑅4
𝑅4
𝐼1 = I⌈𝑅 ⌉ ---------(v)
3 +𝑅4

𝑅4 2
𝑃𝑖 = 𝐼12 [𝑅 ] [𝑅𝑠 - 𝑅𝑤 ] -----------(vi)
3 +𝑅4

The current I is measure on ammeter and𝑅𝑠 , 𝑅𝑤 can be measured. Thus iron loss can be obtained.

Maxwell’s inductance capacitance bridge:

Instead of Maxwell’s bridge, Maxwell’s inductance capacitance bridge can be used as shown in fig.

The arm a-b consists of a specimen hence

𝑅𝑎𝑏 = 𝑅𝑠

𝐿𝑎𝑏 = 𝐿𝑠

From general bridge balance equation

̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑍1 𝑍4 = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑍2 𝑍3
1
Now 𝑌̅4 = ̅̅̅4̅
𝑍

̅̅̅
𝑍2 = 𝑅2 and ̅̅̅
𝑍3 = 𝑅3
̅̅̅
𝑍1 = 𝑅𝑠 + 𝑗𝐿𝑠
1
𝑌̅4 = ̅̅̅̅ + 𝑗𝜔𝐶4
𝑅 4

−𝑗 1
As ̅̅̅
𝑍4 = 𝑅4 ‖𝜔𝐶 and 𝑗 = -1
4

Using the expression of ̅̅̅

𝑍1 ,
1
𝑅𝑠 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿𝑠 =𝑅2 𝑅3 [̅̅̅̅ + 𝑗𝜔𝐶4 ]
𝑅 4

𝑅2 𝑅3
𝑅𝑠 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿𝑠 = + 𝑗𝜔𝑅2 𝑅3 𝐶4
𝑅4

Equating real and imaginary parts

𝑅2 𝑅3
𝑅𝑠 = ohm ,𝐿𝑠 = 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝐶4
𝑅4
 Calculating I at balance, iron loss can be obtained.

A.C potentiometer method:

The fig shows a.c co-ordinate type of potentiometer used for the measurement of iron loss at low flux
densities.

Fig: measurement of iron loss using a.c potentiometer method

The ring specimen has two windings, primary with 𝑁1 turns and secondary with 𝑁2 turns. The primary is
supplied from a.c supply, through a regulating transformer. This also supplies the two slide wire circuits of
the two potentiometers.

The primary winding has a regulating resistance. Another standard resistance r is also connected in the
primary circuit. By measuring drop across R, current through primary can be obtained. The alternator a.c
supply must have sinusoidal waveform.

When supply is given to the primary, the voltage 𝐸2 is induced in the secondary.

According to transformer equation, it is given by,

𝐸2 = 4.44 ∅𝑚 f𝑁2 = 4.44 𝐵𝑚 A f 𝑁2

𝐸
𝐵𝑚 = 4.44 A2 f 𝑁
2

For sinusoidal waveform 𝐾𝑓 = 1.11

Then put the switch to position 2 and adjust both the potentiometers till galvanometer shows zero deflection.

The total current has two parts as core loss component 𝐼𝑐 and magnetizing component 𝐼𝑚

The in-phase potentiometer reading gives the drop 𝐼𝑐 R while the quadrature potentiometer reading gives the
drop 𝐼𝑚 R.
reading of in−phase potentiometer
𝐼𝑐 = R
 reading of quadrature potentiometer
𝐼𝑚 = R

𝑁
𝑃𝑖 = Iron loss = 𝐼𝑐 𝐸2 ( 2 )
𝑁1

This method is very effective as both core loss and magnetizing components of currents are obtained.