Power Systems Distribution

Credits Hours 3 Hours

Contacts Hours (Hours/week) Lecture: 2; Tutorial: 2; Lab:2
Evaluation 60% Exam; 20% Class Work ;20% Lab
Instructor Dr. Giddani Osman Addalan Kalcon

Syllabus
Lecture.1 Electrical disturbuation system components
Lecture.2 Electrical disturbuation system components
Lecture.3 Load charcterstics
Lecture.4 Load forecasting
Lecture.5 Various distribuation systems
Lecture.6 Feeders and disturbutors
Lecture.7 Test (1)
Lecture.8 Choise of econmic cross section area
Lecture.9 Capacitors and power factor improvement
Lecture.10 Tariffs
Lecture.11 Harmonics
Lecture.12 Earthing systems
Lecture.13 Test (2)

TEXT BOOK:
1- Electric power generation, transmission and distribution
S.N.Singh
2- Electric power disturbuation system engineering
Turan Gonen
3- Electrical Technology- B.L. Theraja & A.K. Theraja
4- Principles of Power System by V K Mehta & Rohit Mehta
 Electrical disturbution system components
In general the electrical power system include three main components
1- Generation
2- Transmission
3- Distribuation
Distrubuation systems represent an important parts in the electrical grids and for this
reasons the electrical companies delicate approximately 40% of the captical investment for
distribuation systems while the remian is given to generation and transmission (40%
generation & 20% transmission. The distribuation system is particularly important for an
electrical utility for two reasons:
1- Its the close part to the custmors and any fialure in distribuation system affect the
custmor directly. For example fialures in transmission and generation sections may not
cause custmor service interruptions.
2- Its high investment cost

Distribuation system components

According to figure 1 which represent one line diagram of typical electrical power system
network the mian components of distribuation system are:
1- Subtransmission system
The subtransmission system is part respensible for transmission the electrical power from
the transmission substation (the source of bulk power) into distribuation substation. The
transmission voltage is lay in the range 12.47-275 kv.
2- Distribuation substation
Its always step-down the subtransmission voltage to level suitable for the primary feeders
(220/33kv, 100/11kv).
3- Primary feeders
The primary feeders distribuate the power from the low bus side of distribuation
substation into distrbuation transformer located in load centres. The nominal voltage of
this feeders lay in the range 3.3 to 33 kv.
4- Distribuation transformers
Distribuation transformer usually connected to the promary feeders, they reduce the
distribuation voltage to the utilization voltage. Distribuation transformer are rated from 10
to 500 KVA with voltages 3300/415, 11000/415 volts.
5- Secondary feeders
Distribuate the power from the secondary side of the distribuation trasformer into
custmers services with 415 volt.
6- Custmors services
7- Dispersed storage and generation (DSG)
In the future small and medimum dispersed storage and generation units (storage system ,
solar units, or wind farms) may be attached to custmor home, primary feeder or
distribuation substation to inject power into distribuation system and this will required
increasing of automation and control of the system.

Fig.1 one line diagram of typical electrical power system network

Subtransmission lines
The subtransmission system is part respensible for transmission the electrical power from
the transmission substation (the source of bulk power) into distribuation substation. The
subtransmission circuits may be made of overhead lines or underground cables. The
voltage of this circuits varies from 12.47 to 275 kv with the majoriy at 69, 110 and 138 kv
levels with general trend in using higher voltages as results of the increasing use of higher
transmission voltages. The subtransmission system designs vary from simple radial
system to a complex subtransmisson nework and the major conseration affecting the
design are cost and reliability. In general there are four types of subtransmission systems
as shown in figure 2a, 2b, 2c and 2d.
In radial system as the name implies the circuits radiate from the bulk power station to the
distribution substation. The radial system is simple and has low first cost but it also has
low services continuity, for this reason the radial system is not generally used.
Improved system from radial subtransmission is introduced as shown in Fig.2b. In this
system additional feeder is incorporated to allow relatively faster service restoration when
faults occur on the one of transmission circuits.
Due to higher service reliability the subtransmission system is designed as loop circuits or
multiple circuits forming a subtransmission grid or network as shown in Fig.2c. In this
design a single circuit origination from a bulk power bus runs through a number of
substation and returns to the sane bus.
The network or grid subtransmission has multiple circuits in order to produce
interconnected substations. The design may have more than one bulk power source,
therefore it has the greatest service reliability and it requires costly control of power flow
and control system. This type is the most commonly used form of subtransmission.

Distribution Substations
Substation is important part of power system. The main task of substation is to convert the
voltages in order to match the transmission and distribution levels.
Roles of substations
1- Facilitate the connection of different generation station into electrical power grid.
2- Step down the high and medium voltages to value suitable for distribution at the
customers’ level.
3- Regulate the power system voltage using the tap changer with the power transformer,
capacitors and reactors (the devices lactated at the substation).
4- Facilitate the regional interconnection for neighbouring electrical grids.
5- Facilitate the disconnection of some of subsystem (such as transformer, transmission
line) to achieve maintenance, programming tests or even extension works using
disconnection switches at the substation.

Substation location: To select ideal location for a substation, the following rules should
be observed:
1- Locate the substation as much as feasible close to the load centre of its service area.
2- Locate the substation such that proper voltage regulation is obtained without extensive
measurement.
3- Locate the substation such that it provides proper access for incoming subtransmission
lines and outgoing primary feeders.
4- The substation location should provide enough space for the future substation
expansion.
5- The selected location should not oppose the land use regulations, local ordinances and
neighbours.
6- The selected location must help to minimize the number of customers affected by any
services discontinuity.
Substations types: There are two main types of substations:
Transmission substations: These substations transform the high transmission voltage into
lower high voltage or even medium voltage before delivering the power to distribution
centres.
Distribution substations: Always step down the medium sub-transmission voltages to low
voltage suitable for distribution purposes.
In general the substations are divided according to their nature and design into:
a- Air Insulated substation (AIS) : all the circuits are located in the external space and the
circuits are isolated using the air.
b- Gas Insulated Substations (GIS)—: substations that enclose high voltage bus,
switches, and breakers in containers filled with SF6 gas. GISs greatly reduce the
substation footprint and protect equipment from many causes of equipment failures.

Substation components
1- Power Transformers: Step down the voltages before distribute the electrical power
into load centres. The ratio of primary windings to secondary winding determines the
voltage reducing. This ratio can be adjusted up or down with tap changers located on
secondary windings. 3-phase transformer is commonly used although 3 individual
single phase transformer can be used.
2- Circuit breakers: Open or close the circuit under normal as well as fault conditions.
It designed to operate manual or by remote control under normal conditions and
automatically under fault conditions. The common used circuits’ breakers are SF6 CB.
3- Isolating Switch (Insulator): Switches used to visibly isolate parts of a substation
during maintenance. An isolator is knife switch and design to operate under no-load.
4- Bus-bars: Rigid copper or aluminium bar conductor of rectangular cross section area
used collect the electrical power before distributed it into primary feeders. The
incoming and outgoing lines in sub-station are connected to the bus-bars. The most
commonly used bus-bars arrangements in sub-station are:
(a) Single bus-bar arrangement
(b) Double bus-bar arrangement
(c) Single bus-bar arrangement with sectionalisation
5- Voltage and current transformers
Special transformers use for measuring and protection purpose. There always step down
the current and voltage to values suitable for measuring and protection devices. Voltage
transformers and current transformers are commonly referred as VTs and CTs
6- Capacitors and reactors:
There can be connected in series or parallel and used for voltage regulation by generation
or absorbing the reactive power.
7- Lighting arresters:
They are used to protect the substation devices from the high voltage generated due the
lighting stroke the substation.
8- Earthing switches:
This switches use during maintenance to ground the device in order to protect the power
system engineers.
9- Protection and measurement panels
10- Control panel and communication devices
11- Batteries to supplies protecting and measuring relays.
12- Current limiting reactors uses to limit the fault currents
13- Line trap
Uses to protect the substation from high voltages generated due to switching of the
breakers.
Substation bus schemes
There are several bus-bar arrangements which can be used in substations. The choice of
particular arrangement is is based on safety, reliability, economy, simplicity and other
consideration. The most commonly used substation bus schemes are:
a- Single bus-bar system
Consists of single bus-bar and all incoming and outgoing lines are connected to it. The
advantages of this type are low cost, less maintenance and simple operation. The
disadvantage is the complete outage during maintenance and fault in the bus-bar.

b. Double Bus Double Breaker

In this scheme there are two buses and two circuit breakers per circuit are used. In normal
state both the buses are energised. Any circuit breaker can be removed for maintenance
without interruption of the corresponding circuit. Also the failure of one of the two buses
does not interrupt any circuit as all the circuits can be fed from the remaining bus and
isolating the failed bus.
By shifting circuit from one bus to other the loading on the buses can be balanced. The
substation with this configuration requires twice as much equipments as single bus
scheme. This scheme has high reliability but is costly and requires more space. This
scheme is usually used at EHV transmission substation or generating station where high
reliability is required.
c. Double Bus Single Breaker
This scheme has two buses. Each circuit has one breaker and connected to both buses by
isolators as shown. There is one tie breaker between two buses. The tie breaker is
normally closed. For the tie breaker in closed position the circuit can be connected to
either of the buses by closing the corresponding switch. It is clear that fault on one bus
requires isolation of the bus and the circuits are fed from the other bus.
This arrangement has more flexibility in operation than the single bus scheme. This
scheme is costlier and requires more space than the single bus scheme. Many EHV
transmission substations use this scheme with an additional transfer bus.

d. Ring Bus
The breakers are so connected and form a ring. There are isolators on both sides of each
breaker. Circuits terminate between the breakers. The number of breakers is same as the
numbers of circuits. Each of the circuits in ring bus system is fed from both sides. Any of
the breakers can be opened and isolated for maintenance without interrupting any of the
circuits. A fault on any of the circuit is isolated by tripping of two breakers on both sides
of the circuit. By tripping the two breakers only the faulted circuit is isolated and all other
circuits continue to operate in open ring state. This scheme has good operational flexibility
and high reliability.
 e. Main and transfer bus system
In this scheme one more bus is added. In this arrangement one more breaker may be used,
known as tie circuit breaker. No circuit is associated with this tie breaker. When the tie CB
is not present, for maintenance of a circuit breaker, the transfer bus is energized by closing
the isolator switches to transfer bus. Then the breaker to undergo maintenance is opened
and isolated (opening isolators on both sides of CB) for maintenance.

f. Breaker and Half

The Breaker and Half scheme have two main buses. Both the buses are normally
energised. Three breakers are connected between the buses. The circuits are terminated
between the breakers as shown. In this bus configuration for two circuits three numbers of
breakers are required. Hence it is called one and half scheme. Any of the breakers can be
opened and removed for maintenance purposes without interrupting supply to any of the
circuits. Also one of the two buses can be removed for maintenance without interruption
of the service to any of the circuits. If fault happens on a bus it is isolated without
interruption of supply to any of the circuits. If the middle circuit breaker fails then the
breakers adjacent to the buses are tripped so interrupting both the circuits. But if a breaker
adjacent to the bus fails then the tripping of middle breaker does not interrupt power
supply to circuit associated with healthy breaker. Only the circuit associated with failed
breaker is interrupted.

Voltage drop at substation main feeders

The analysis of voltage drop at squire shaped service area represents the entire served area
of a distribution substation is achieved by assumed:
1- The squire is fed by four primary feeders from central fed point as shown in Fig.4,
each feeder and laterals are of three phase.
2- Dots represent balanced three phase loads lumped at that location and fed by
distribution transformer.
3- Uniformly distributed load that mean equal loaded distribution transformers.

Fig.4 squire shaped distribution substation service area

In figure.6 each feeder serves a total load of

Where S4 is kilovolt ampere load served by one of the four feeders emanating from a feed
point. A4 is the area served by one of the four feeders emanating from a feed point (m 2). D
is the load density. And l4 is dimension of the primary feeder serve area.
Assume uniform distributed load, the voltage drop at main primary feeder is:

In this equation the total lumped load is assumed to be located at a distance of 2/3l from
central feed point. K constant k is found from conductor voltage drop graph.

If the served area is extend to hexagonally shaped served area supplied by six feeders from
fed central point as shown in Fig.8. each feeder is feed area equal to 1/6 of the
hexagonally

Where l6 primary feeder demension. Each feeder serve a total load of

The total lumped load is located at distance of 2/3l from the feed point. voltage drop is:

Fig.5 hexagonally shaped distribution substation service area

Comparison between square and hexagonally
For square seved area, the total area served bt all four feeders

Thus total kiovoltamere served by all four feeders is

The precentage voltage drop on the main feeder is

The load current on the mian feeder at feed point a is

For hexagonlly seved area, the total area served bt all four feeders

Thus total kiovoltamere served by all four feeders is

The precentage voltage drop on the main feeder is

The load current on the mian feeder at feed point a is

The relation between the served areas of four and six feeders is found under two assuption
1- Feeder circuit are thermaly limited 2- Feeder circuit are voltage drop limited
Thermaly limited (That mean I4=I6)

Than

By dividing the total area served

The six feeder area could carry 1.5 time as much as four feeder if they are thermaly
limited
Voltage drop limited

Substatiting voltage drop equations equation

The total area served by all six feeders

The total area served by all four feeders is:

Dividing equationS

The six feeder area could carry 1.25 time as much as four feeder if they are voltage drop
limited
K constant: The K conatant can be devied using the conductor voltage drop graph

K constatnt for copper conductors

Three phase 4.16KV main feeder has #4 copper conductors, and a load of 500 KVA
caculate the presntage voltage drop for the feeder if
1- The is load lumped and connected at the end of the conductor at 1km distance
2- The load is uniformly distrbuted
3- The load has an increasing density
Soluation
Feeder voltage/phase=4160/3=2400 volt and from the graph K=0.01
The presentage voltage drop is

For lumped load (s=1)

VD=1*0.01*500=5%
For uniformly distrbuted load (s=0.5)
VD=0.5*0.01*500=2.5%
For increasing density load (s=0.667)
VD=0.667*0.01*500=3.33%

Lumped load Uniformly distrbuted load

Increasing density load

4.16KV, 230 amper square shaped distrbution substation, the feeder main are made of 2
AWG copper. Assume a lagging load power factor of 0.9 and a 1000 KVA/m2 unformly
distrbuted load density and calculate:
(A) Consider thermally loaded feeders find:
i. maximum load per feeder
ii. substation size
iii. substation spacing
iv. total precentage voltage drop at the end of the feeder
(b) Consider voltage drop limited to 3% at feeder end find:
i. substation spacing
ii. maximum load per feeder
iii. substation size
iv. ampere loading of the feeder
Primary feeder system
The part of the electric ulility system which is between distribution substation and
distribution transformers is called the primary system.it is made of circuits known as
primary feeders or primary distribuation feeders. Figure 7 show one line diagram of
typical primary distribuation system, the figure include:
1- Main feeder usually three phase, four wire circuit.
2- Laterals/ or branches sigle or three phase circuits tapped of the main, always
located at residetial and rural ares.
3- Sub-lateral single phase circuit consist of line and nuetral tapped off the lateral,
always located at residetial and rural ares.
4- Distrubation transformers
5- Reclosing devices to sectionalized the feeder in order to as little as psoosible of
the faulted circtuits.
6- Shunt capacitors
There are many factors affecting the selection of primary feeder rating, for example:
1- The nature of the load connected
2- The load density
3- The growth rate of the load
4- Cost
5- Capacity of substation
6- Regulationg equipment
The voltage condition in distribution systems is improved by using shunt capacitors
connected near the loads to derieved the best benfit. The use of shunt capacitors also
improve the power factor and reduce currents and the losses.
 Fig.7 one line diagram of typical primary distribuation system
Radial type primary feeder
The simplest, lowest cost and the most common form of primary feeder is the redial type

Figure 8: Radial type primary feeder

The mian primary feeder branches into various laterals which in turn seperated into
several sub-lateral to cover all distribution transformers. In general the main feeder is three
phase, four wire system and the sub-lateral is single/ or three phase circuit. The current
magnitude is the greatest in the feeder conductors leave the substation and continously
lessens out at the end of the feeder as the laterals and sub-laterals are tapped off the feeder.
As the current lessen the size of the conductor is also lessen.
The reliabilty of the service continuity of the redial system is the lowest. Any fault at any
location on the main feeder cause a power outage for every consumer on the feeder unless
the fault can be isolated from the source by a disconnecting devices such as fuse,
sectionalizer, disconnecting switch or reclosor. Figure. 10 shows a modified redial type
primary feeder with tie and sectionalizing switches to provide fast restoration of the servic
to custmorers by switching unfaulted section of the feeder. The fault can be isolated by
opening the associated disconnection devices on each side of the faulted section.

Figure 10 Radial type primary feeder with tie and sectionalizing switches
Figure 12 show another type of the modified primary feeder with express feeder and
backfeed. The section between the substation low voltage bus and the load center of the
service area is called an express feeder. No subfeeders or laterals are allowed to tapped off
the express feeder. However a subfeeder is allowed to provide a backfeed toward the
substation from the load center.
 Figure 11 Radial type primary feeder with express feeder and backfeed
Figure 12 shows the redial type phase-area feeder arrangement in which each phase the
three-phase feeder serves its own service. In fig 11 and 12 each dot represents a balanced
three-phase load limped at that location.

Figure 12 Radial type phase area feeder

Loop-type primar feeder
Figure 17 represent a loop type primary feeder which loop through the feeder load area
and return beck to the bus. Sometime the loop tie disconnect switch is replaced by a loop
tie breaker according to loads conditions.
 Figure 17 loop type primary feeder
The size of the feeder conductor is kept the same throughout the loop, it is selected to
carry its rated load plus the load of the other half of the loop. This arrangement provides
two parallel paths from the substation to the load when the loop is operated with normally
open tie breaker. The loop type feeder is perffered to provide service for loads where high
reliabilty service is required. In general two seperated tie breaker is on each end of the
loop is perffered although the the cost involved.
Network primary feeeder
As shown in figure 18 a primary network is a system of interconnected feeders supplied
by number of substation. Each tie feeder has two associated circuit breakers at each end in
order to have less load interrupted due to tie-feeder fault. The primary network system
supplies a load from several direction and they have lower power losses compared to to
redial and loop system due to load division. The reliabilty and quilty of service of the
primary network system is much higher than the other types, however it is more difficult
to design and operate than the radial and loop systems.
 Figure 17 Network type primary feeder
Tie line
A tie line is line connects two supply system to provide emergency service to one system
from anothor as shown in figure 18. Usually the tie line provides services for area loads
along its route as well as providing emergency services to areas or substation. In general
tie line provide either of the following functions:
1- To provide emergency service for a adjacent feeder to reduce outage time
2- To provide emergency service for adjacent substation systems and eliminating the
necessity of having an emergency backup supply at every substation..