36th International Symposium on Automation and Robotics in Construction (ISARC 2019)

Robotic Technologies in Concrete Building Construction: A

Systematic Review
M. Gharbiaa, A.Y. Chang-Richardsa, and R.Y. Zhongb
a
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Auckland, New Zealand
b
Department of Industrial and Manufacturing Systems Engineering, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
E-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract – for the purpose of building construction through

Several researchers have worked in the field of utilizing manipulator robots.
implementing robotics technology in concrete
building construction, after the first attempt in the Keywords –
1980s in Japan. Various motivations such as the Concrete buildings; Robotics in construction;
shrinking labor population, the aging of skilled Freeform construction; Future of construction.
workers, and the construction safety issues have
promoted the development of such technologies.
However, the future visionary on how construction 1 Introduction
robots can transform the concrete building The fundamental principles in building construction
construction sector is still not solid nor well have not yet substantially changed, since the Romans
structured. invented concrete about 100 BC [1]. Later, concrete is
What really needs to be changed? What types of still considered globally as the primary material for
construction activities can be taken by automated construction. According to a recent report by the
robotic technologies, as opposed to manpower or Cement Sustainability Initiative (CSI) [26], concrete is
skilled worker? To answer these questions, the the second most consumed substance after water, with
systematic review reported in this paper seeks to around 10 billion tonnes of concrete are manufactured
evaluate and synthesize empirical findings on the use globally in every year. Consequently, concrete has been
of robotic technologies in concrete building the focus in several investigations into robotically
construction. fabricated, geometrically complex, non-standard
A systematic search of Scopus, Web of Science, loadbearing constructions [2].
IEEE, and Engineering Village databases was The building construction industry has not been a
conducted, and 48,200 documents were targeted. By favourable field for the application of robotic
applying the inclusion and exclusion criteria, 48,149 technologies, however, various motivations such as the
records were excluded, and the remaining 51 records shrinking labour population, the aging of skilled
were assessed for eligibility and included in the workers, and the construction safety issues have
qualitative synthesis. The systematic review shows promoted the development of robotic construction
that researchers in the USA played a leading role on systems [3]. The United Nations world population
robotics in concrete building construction, followed prospects in 2015 indicated that global population is
by Germany and Switzerland. The robotics expected to grow by 34% by 2050 compared to 2014,
application and techniques have been largely used which will reach 6.5 billion people in 2050 or about
on-site and targeted low-rise buildings. The robotic two-thirds of the global population [4]. In accordance,
technologies that have been popular in literature the rising in population is expected to growth the
included 3D printers, and swarm robotics. Most of necessity for new buildings.
the papers have proposed a limited novel structural Meanwhile, the building construction process has
design, without introducing innovative construction been characterized as simple and systematic; depending
material. Even though the direct and indirect on formwork systems and skilled labour to build any
construction activities related to formwork, steel type of concrete structural element [5]. The current
reinforcement, and concreting can be replaced and construction methodologies used in structural concrete
thus eliminated, the horizontal RC elements still buildings are completely dependent on manual
cannot be built on-site without supports. Moreover, techniques that are slow, expensive, and non-
rapid prototyping found to be the best robotic design coordinated [27]. Moreover, the main obstacles for the

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 36th International Symposium on Automation and Robotics in Construction (ISARC 2019)

introduction of robotics within the building construction 2 Background of the study

industry are the variability of the construction processes
and the complex conditions of the construction 2.1 Early attempts
environment [6].
Many building construction activities have the Despite the recent advances in adoption of robotic
potential to be executed by implementing the robotic technologies in the construction industry, the
technologies techniques [7]. However, adapting new architectural processes which demand a high degree of
technologies necessitates several special properties of geometric freedom remain largely labour intensive and
high payload, reliability, and wide workspace to be manual [19]. This is due to the inherent difficulties in
achieved [8]. In addition, many robots will work in the robotizing the current implementation of such processes
same task, in which path planning on site would be coupled with the lack of alternate technologies [2].
complicated [9]. As explained by Scott et al. (2011), In the last three decades some Japanese construction
human construction differs from construction by robots companies have attempted to remedy the shortage of
as it involves some sort of pre-defined high-level plan skilled labour in building construction by resorting to
and in some regard is independent from the environment automation [20]. Khoshnevis et al. (2006) categorized
[10]. the current robotic technologies in concrete building
Several researchers have worked in the field of construction in accordance to the Japanese companies.
implementing robotic technologies in building The first one uses single task robots that can replace
construction, after the first attempt in the 1980s in Japan simple labour activities at the construction sites. The
[2]. While some autonomous construction robots have second category consists of fully automated systems
been developed, they can only be applied to simple that can construct steel reinforced concrete buildings
tasks to support human workers [9]. An example of such using prefabricated components [11].
approaches is the Big-Canopy, which is the world’s first So far, the application of robots is feasible only if it
automated construction system for building a precisely generates a value-adding effect. According to Hack et al.
defined concrete structure in Japan [11]. Nevertheless, 2014, the centralised fully automated Japanese
the degree of intelligence exhibited by commercially- construction systems failed to do so, as they merely
available robots is still deemed very limited, as robots tried to automate the existing construction processes.
are currently deployed only in a small subset of possible They only focused on the elimination of human labour
applications with low level of localization accuracy [12, from the building site, without considering the
31]. complexity of the building process. Hence, Hack
If robotic technologies could truly be implemented suggested that some innovated construction processes
in construction, they would certainly have the potential need to be developed first, to specifically address the
to improve measures like its speed and efficiency, as strengths of robots to be applied where they actually
well as enabling construction in settings where it is outperformed humans and conventional construction
difficult or dangerous for humans to work such as [14].
working at heights, in extra-terrestrial environments and
disaster areas [13, 32, 33]. In this context, this paper 2.2 Present attempts
aims to review existing studies in this field, to
The Chinese Huashang Tengda company in Beijing
investigate how the robotic technology can be
has recently claimed to 3D print an entire 400 m2 two
implemented in the concrete building construction. To
story villa ‘on-site’ in 45 days uses a unique process
overcome the existing constraints and limitations, the
allowing to print an ‘entire house’ in ‘one go’. This is
ongoing research will examine construction activities
by erecting the frame of the house including steel
with a potential to be executed by robotic technologies,
reinforcements and plumbing pipes conventionally, and
functionality of the robots, and the interaction between
then ready-mix concrete extruded over the frame and
humans and robots.
around the rebars using a novel nozzle design and 3D
The remainder of the paper is structured as follows.
printer [15].
Section 2 introduces the background of the research,
The WinSun decoration design engineering
followed by the methodology of using a systematic
company worked jointly with architectural and
review. Section 4 and 5 detail the results and discussion.
structural design companies such as Gensler, Thornton
Finally, the paper concludes with the guidelines for
Tomasetti, and others to build an office building for the
future research.
Dubai Future Foundation with a technique similar to
contour crafting, in which wall elements are
manufactured from extruded prismatic bodies [30]. One
more technology known as WASP (World’s Advanced
Saving Project) has focused on using Additive

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 36th International Symposium on Automation and Robotics in Construction (ISARC 2019)

Manufacturing technologies to build “zero-mile homes” backlog of research problems to be solved. This
that utilize on-site materials to build houses in places systematic review has been performed to respond to this
where it is hard to find access to construction materials research gap, and by using its results to develop a
[16]. comprehensive framework. The methodological
In despite of presently attempted, the current approach of the systematic review is outlined in the next
construction is in need for large scale 3D printers to section.
build complex geometric shapes on projects where
construction time, cost, and quality are the predominant
and determining success criteria [17]. In accordance, a 3 Research methodology
novel approach for 3DCP technology for on-site To provide a robust investigation on the applications
construction, named CONPrint3D, is currently being of robotic technologies in the concrete building
developed at the TU Dresden, Germany, which intends construction, a systematic review approach was adopted.
to bring 3DCP directly into the building sites [15]. In In comparison with a conventional literature review, a
addition, Skanska is a construction company that systematic review applies an explicit, rigorous,
recently has utilized advancements in the area of reproducible, and auditable methodology for evaluating
additive manufacturing by printing unique cladding for and interpreting all available research relating to a
the Bevis Marks building in London [16]. particular research question, topic area, or phenomenon
of interest [22].
2.3 Future visionary A systematic review originates from the need to
A comparison by Helm et al. (2012) between the overcome the shortcomings of a single facet approach
usages of robotic technologies in building site with which is often adopted in a literature review, by
other industries, revealed that the construction sector representing the bigger picture by combining discrete
has been rather slow to adopt such innovative pieces and synthetizing results in an organized way [23].
technologies with most tasks on a building site still Additional benefits also include that researchers can
carried out using manual methods [18]. As stated by summarize existing evidence about a phenomenon,
Hwang, et al. (2005), the present state of automation identify gaps in current research, and provide grounds to
and robotic technologies are not sufficient to position or support new ideas and hypotheses [24].
economically replace skilled labour, thus suggested that The review has been undertaken in distinct stages as
the construction industry needs to think “out of the box” shown in Figure 1, including the development of review
and seek alternatives to existing fabrication and protocol, the identification of inclusion and exclusion
assembly processes [19]. criteria, searching for relevant studies, critical appraisal,
Howe at el. (2000) had a different view, when data extraction, and synthesis. In the rest of this section,
proposed to study the possible applications of robotic we describe the detail of these stages and the methods
technologies to traditional methods because they are the used.
most familiar to us, while the feasibility of automating
the entire construction site would be dependent on need 3.1 Protocol development
and would occur gradually. At the same time, Howe The protocol for the systematic review has been
confirmed that there are many problems need to be developed in accordance with the Preferred Reporting
overcome first in order to develop usable robotics in the Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses
building construction [20]. (PRISMA) guidelines [28]. This protocol specified the
It has been furtherly explained by Choi et al. (2005) research questions, search strategy, inclusion, exclusion
that in a field of construction work, the content of work and quality criteria, data extraction, and methods of
and working material are frequently changeable, thus synthesis.
construction robot needs several special properties of
high payload, safety, reliability, and a wide workspace
3.2 Research question
[21]. Thus, a collaboration between conventional tools,
humans and robots, and standard concrete pumps is The aim of the systematic review is to locate
required to transfer the actual structural mass, while the relevant existing studies based on the research question
robot could unlock the inherent potential of concrete to of ‘What type of robotic technologies have been in use
take any desired shape by building complex formwork in the concrete building construction industry?’, to
in high resolution [14]. report the evidence in a way that clear conclusions with
The new paradigm brings a host of new topics into regard to further research to be drawn [29]. For the
the forefront of robotics in construction research. These purposes of this paper, the systematic review shall
topics have been neglected in the past by researchers provide a theoretical basis for understanding to what
inspired by the old paradigm, and therefore there is a extent the topic of robotic technologies is being

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 36th International Symposium on Automation and Robotics in Construction (ISARC 2019)

addressed in concrete buildings construction. poster sessions. This search strategy resulted in a total
of 48,200 documents. Of total number of documents (n
3.3 Inclusion and exclusion criteria = 47,719), 1,020 were book sourced, 15,646 journals,
and 31,053 were resulted from a conference proceeding
Studies were excluded if their focus, or main focus, source.
was not related to robotics in construction or if they did At screening stage, duplicates were removed as well
not present empirical data. Furthermore, the research as papers from undefined or trade publications resources.
question is concerned with concrete building, therefore, At this stage, 481 articles were excluded after removing
studies that focused on other building construction were duplicates as well as papers from undefined or trade
excluded. Studies were eligible for inclusion in the publications resources. However, it was not always
review if they presented empirical data on robotics in obvious whether a study was, indeed, an empirical one.
concrete building construction and passed the minimum Therefore, all studies that indicated some form of
quality threshold (see Section 3.5). The systematic experience with robotics in construction were included.
review included research studies published up to and At eligibility stage, studies were excluded if their main
including 2018. Only studies written in English, clearly focus was not robotics in on-site building construction.
describe its methodology, completed and concluded As a result, 51 primary studies were included for the
were included. detailed quality assessment.

3.4 Data sources and search strategy 3.5 Quality assessment

The search strategy included electronic databases. The methodological quality of the eligible selected
Of Scopus, Web of Science, IEEE, and Engineering studies was critically appraised using a set of screening
Village. Figure 1 shows the systematic review process questions adopted from the Critical Appraisal Skills
and the number of papers identified at each stage. Programme (CASP) [25]. A summary of the questions
Records identified
used to assess the quality of these studies is presented in
Identification
through databases Table 1. The tool provides a guide for appraising
(48,200) qualitative research to consider if the results of the study
are valid, what the results are, the benefits of the results,
and the tool has been used in a range of reviews. Taken
together, these questions provided a measure of the
Records Screened extent to which we could be confident that a particular
Screening (47,719) study’s findings could make a valuable contribution to
the review. Each of the 9 questions was graded on scale
of (YES = 1, NO = 0), and only question 1 was used as
the basis for including or excluding a study.
Assessed for Records Excluded
Eligibility eligibility (51) (47,668) Table 1. Quality appraisal questions
Screening Questions
Q1 Research: Is the paper based on research
Q2 Aim: Was the aim of the research clear?
Studies included
Included in Qualitative Q3 Method: Was the research methodology used
Synthesis (51) appropriate?
Q4 Design: Did the study design address the aims of
Figure 1. Flowchart of systematic review process. the research?
(PRISMA flow diagram [28]) Q5 Data analysis: Was the data analysis sufficiently
rigorous?
In the identification stage, the titles, abstracts, and Q6 Findings: Are the findings clearly stated?
keywords of the articles in the included electronic Q7 Gaps: Have gaps in the literature been clearly
databases and were searched using search term of identified?
(robot* AND construction)”. These keywords are Q8 Acceptance: Can I accept these findings as true?
widely-known for their use in research articles. Q9 Value: Can I apply these findings to my own
Excluded from the search were editorials, prefaces,
work?
article summaries, interviews, news, reviews,
correspondence, discussions, comments, reader’s letters The results of the quality assessment are shown in
and summaries of tutorials, workshops, panels, and Figure 2. Because only research papers were included in

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 36th International Symposium on Automation and Robotics in Construction (ISARC 2019)

this review, all included studies were rated as yes on the Paper
Construction Construction
robot setup
first screening question, in addition, they all had a clear
statement of the aims of the research as well as New
Paper title Type of robot construction
appropriate research methodology. While the number of material

negative answers was three for each criterion of

Direct
research methodology, study design and findings Year of
publication
Impact on
construction activities to be
replaced
acceptance. Furthermore, the data analysis did not seem
sufficiently rigorous for four of the studies. The highest Source name Level of Indirect
activities to be
development
numbers of negative answers were 17, and 19 as it has replaced

been noticed that the findings were not well described, Context, Human robot Construction
material to be
and gaps in the literature were often not identified. issues corporation
eliminated

Q1: Resrach Q2: Aim Q3: Method Structural/

Conclusion Robotic non-structural
Q4: Design Q5: Data analysis Q6: Findings system design elements can
be executed
Q7: Gaps Q8: Acceptance Q9: Value
Structural/
Findings Category of non-structural
robot elements can’t
be executed
51 51 50
48 48 47 48
Construction Critical Innovation in
category hardware design

Funded by Purpose of
34 robot
32

Figure 3. Data extraction

3.7 Peer assessment

The first two authors sat together and went through
the titles of all studies that resulted from identification
stage, to determine their relevance to the systematic
review. At the eligibility stage, the abstracts were
Figure 2. Quality appraisal summary results (out divided among the first two authors and the third author
of total number of articles: 51) in such a way that each abstract was reviewed by two
researchers independently of each other. All
3.6 Data extraction disagreements were resolved by discussion that included
all three researchers, before proceeding to the final stage.
During this stage, data was extracted from each of
Each of the 51 studies that remained was assessed
the 51 primary studies included in this systematic
independently by the authors, according to quality
review according to a predefined extraction form (see
assessment procedure.
Figure 3). This form enabled to record full details of the
articles under review and to be specific about how each
of them addressed the research question. All data from 4 Results
all primary studies were extracted by the authors in
consensus meetings. The aims, settings, research
4.1 Publishing framework
methods descriptions, findings, and conclusions, as
reported by the authors of the primary studies, were The chronological distribution of articles in Figure 4
tabulated in Microsoft Excel. indicated for a growing interest in performing research
related to the subject. 6 papers have been published
from 2000 to 2005 and 9 papers from 2006 to 2011.
While the period from 2012 to 2018 accounted for the
most published papers of 36 number. The analysis
results demonstrate that there is a substantial increase in
the number of literature during the last 6 years. This
would indicate for a promising established research area
in concrete building construction.

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 36th International Symposium on Automation and Robotics in Construction (ISARC 2019)

40 proposed technologies have targeted low rise building

36
35
projects and 35% focused on low to medium rise
buildings, while only 8% could target the medium to
30 high rise building category. This could indicate that
25
adapting most of the studies for the 3D printing
technology, has resulted in a major limitation to target
20
high rise building construction.
15 Spraying Robotics 1

10 9
General 1
6
5 Robotics for Insulated Walls 1

0
Robotic Construction Crew 1
Count of Literature
{2000, 2005} {2006, 2011} {2012, 2018} Wire robots for automated construction 3

Figure 4. Chronological Distribution of Wire robots for automated construction 3

publications (total number of articles: 51) Automated Building Construction System 2 3

Furthermore, Figure 5 shows the number of swarm robotics construction system 8

publications according to the different country for each
of the authors. When comparing the geographical 3D Printers 6 3 16

distribution of the total number of 51 papers, USA and 0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Germany are ahead of all others. However, by filtering for both on-site and off-site applications Off-Site On-site

out only the 23 articles of highly related studies to the Figure 6. Construction robots’ types &
review topic, research on the subject has been application (total number of articles: 51)
dominated by authors from USA, and France. While,
focusing on the 4 extremely related studies revealed that In parallel, Figure 7 shows that most of the
authors from Switzerland are leading the topic. researched robotic technologies were found to be either
under development or conceptual. At the same time,
20 Partially Related
their implementation in concrete building construction
18 Related is challenging. Only 10% from the proposed topics were
1
Highly Related classified as developed technologies, and merely 8%
16
Extremely Related could be implemented in a construction site.
14
Developed Acheivable but Implemented
10% Challenging 6%
12 6% Acheivable
12 Conceptual 8%
10 27%

6
1

4 2 2
2
Under
2 2 2 2
1 3 1 3 develop
2 2 ment Challengi
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 63%
0 ng
80%

Level of Development Implementation in Construction

Figure 7. Robotics technologies level of

Figure 5. Geographical distribution of development and implementation in construction
publications (total number of articles: 51)
Concerning the reasons behind proposing such
4.2 Implementation on a construction site technologies, nearly 70% of the papers shared the same
goal of enhancing the concrete building construction
The construction applications and techniques for the efficiency. While construction in space, besides
outcome are mainly on-site and related to the robotic proposing new construction technologies have attracted
technologies of 3D printers, automated building almost 20% from the authors. The remaining papers
construction system, and swarm robotics construction were interested in the construction in disaster or
system (see Figure 6). In context, 57% from the

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 36th International Symposium on Automation and Robotics in Construction (ISARC 2019)

hazardous areas, as well as reducing the accident rate. 52%

(See Table 2). 45%

Table 2. Purpose of the robotic technologies (total 29% 29% 28%

number of articles: 51) 21%

Purpose of the robotic technology Number 14%

12%
9% 9% 9% 9% 9% 9%
7%
of paper 4% 4%

Construction in disaster areas 1

Clay slurry

Mesh Wire
Silicon

Glass or carbon fiber tows

Geopolymer cement

Intellegent Prefabricated Blocks

Foam concrete

Filaments
fibre Polymer
Polymers

Metallic material
cementitious material

Ultra-high performance concrete

New Mortar mixture

Cables

Fiber glass
Regolith
Reducing high accident rate 2
Construction in a constrained/ hazardous 2
environment
New construction technology 5
Construction in space 5
Greater efficiency 36 Cement Material Concrete Mix Reinforcement Steel

4.3 Innovation in construction material and Figure 9. Alternative construction material

structural design 4.4 Impact on building construction activities
As illustrated in Figure 8, 53 % of the papers
Formwork fixing and striking, steel rebar fixing, and
proposed a limited novel structural design and 29%
concrete pouring and curing are the main direct
projected a complete novel design proposal, while the
construction activities could be replaced by the
remaining 18% adopted the conventional structural
proposed robotic technologies. The major indirect
design for the construction of concrete structures.
construction activities that could be eliminated comprise
Concerning the innovation in construction material, the
ready-mix concrete delivery to site, formwork
researchers could not introduce novel material to the
fabrication, steel rebar fabrication, and material
construction, however they have focused on finding
handling by cranes and manually (see Figure 10). This
alternatives to replace the conventional ready-mix
would have a huge impact not only on the overall
concrete and steel reinforcement.
productivity of the construction activities, but also on
the entire efficiency of the concrete building
construction. The proposed construction technologies
8%
will not depend on plywood, formwork systems and
10%
scaffolding to build any concrete structural element.
Indirect Construction Activities to be

Steel Rebar Fabrication (cut and bend) 1%

fabrication of moulds for precast concrete and GRC. 1%

Limited Novel design Erecting of Scaffolding beams 1%
Eliminated

Novel design
construct a large variety of structural elements 4%
53% Conventional design
Concrete pouring/ curing 29%
Conventional design
Steel Reinforcement Rebars Fixing 30%
29%
Formwork Fixing and Striking 34%
Direct Construction activities to be

Most of the indirect construction activities by assembly 2%

replaced

Scaffolding 6%

Ready Mix Concrete Delivery to Site 21%

Steel Reinforcement Rebar Fabrication 23%

Figure 8. Innovation in structural design Material Handling (by Cranes and Manually) 23%

Formwork Fabrication 25%

As presented in Figure 9, 45% of the papers
considered mesh wire as an alternative to reinforcement
Figure 10. Impact on construction activities
rebar, and around 79% from the total literature proposed
polymer based material and cementitious material to Regarding the applicability of the construction
replace the ordinary cement. While mortar mix, robotics to build all the structural concrete elements, 93%
intelligent concrete blocks, and ultra-high-performance of the literature claimed that their proposed technologies
concrete found to be the new alternatives to can build vertical RC elements on-site, while 4%
conventional concrete mix. suggested pre-casting and assembly, and only 3%
proposed a full solution to construct all RC elements on-

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 36th International Symposium on Automation and Robotics in Construction (ISARC 2019)

site for one story building. The same studies claimed to digital Assembly by
fabrication mutiple Autonomous
build vertical RC elements have shown incapability of Prototype robots mobile
4%
their proposed technologies regarding the construction 6% 2% robots
2%
of horizontal RC elements on-site, unless they were
temporary supported during the construction or pre- Assembly by
Manipulators
casted and assembled by cranes. 8%

4.5 Construction robotic features

Different types of robotic systems have been
adopted through the literature, however, rapid
prototyping and self-assembly found to be the most
appropriate systems for the purpose of concrete building Collective manipulator
construction Robot
construction (see Table 3). This outcome is in line with robot 63%
the results in 4.2 construction applications and 15%

techniques.

manipulator Robot Collective construction robot

Table 3. Robotic system
Assembly by Manipulators Prototype
Robotic system design/ programme % of digital fabrication Assembly by mutiple robots
literature Autonomous mobile robots
VR-assisted virtual prototyping 2%
Multi-robot construction and assembly 2% Figure 11. Category of construction robot
Automated assembly systems 2%
Generic, versatile mobile robotics system 4% 5 Discussion
Cartesian motions 6%
Self-organized construction 8% Most of the present attempts to implement robotic
Controlled assembly 8% technologies in concrete building construction were
Self-assembly 12% focusing on freeform construction for vertical RC
Rapid prototyping 56% elements, in the aim of improving the building
construction efficiency and reducing the dependency on
In terms of the construction robotic category, 63% formwork.
from the studies considered manipulator robots for their The concrete building industry is currently in need
proposed technologies, and around 15% adopted the for numerous researches to alter the conventional
collective construction robot category (see Figure 11). building process, by thinking out of the box in terms of
This is in consonance with rapid prototyping and self- innovating structural design and construction material.
assembly systems, in addition to the results in 4.2. Moreover, lessons should be learned from the past
Furthermore, nozzle, manipulator arm, and multiple attempts in the last three decades to robotize the
mobile robots were the most critical hardware building construction sector. Consequently, the future
components for such robotic categories. visionary is necessary for a systematic approach to
increase efficiency in this type of research. An example
for such visionary can be found in few innovative
researches adapted the swarm intelligence for building
construction by self-assembly.
Despite that the aim of this research is solely for
concrete building construction, some other industries
have attracted the researchers. Around 40% from the
explored papers have been interested in building
construction in extra-terrestrial environment. Their
researches are mainly funded by the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), in
addition to Kennedy Space Center Swamp Works and
the Office of Naval Research in the USA, as well as the
European Space Agency (ESA).
In this context, new research questions should
concentrate on what could be altered within the

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 36th International Symposium on Automation and Robotics in Construction (ISARC 2019)

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