BIOLOGY 12

Unit 5 ~ Learning Guide Name: Brandon Au-Young

INSTRUCTIONS
Complete the following notes and questions as you work through the related lessons. You
are required to have this package completed BEFORE you write your unit test. Do your
best and ask questions about anything that you do not understand BEFORE you write the
unit test.

5.1 Respiratory Structures

1. Nasal Cavity
- Air is warmed, filtered, and
moistened

2. Pharynx
- Back of throat
- Common passage for air and food

3. Glottis
- Top of the larynx
- Upper part of windpipe
- Covered by epiglottis when
swallowing food
4. Larynx
- Voice box, which contains the
vocal cords
- The Adam's Apple

5. Vocal Cords
- Vibrate, as air is forced past, producing sound

6. Trachea
- Windpipe
- Made of rings of cartilage to prevent collapsing
- Cilia: move debris laden mucous out of the respiratory system

7. Bronchi
- Branches of the trachea
- One to each lung
- Bronchus; singular

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8. Bronchioles
- Smaller branches of the bronchi
- No cartilage for support

9. Alveoli
- Rounded end of very small bronchioles
- Area where gas exchange occurs

10. Pleural Membranes

- Covers the surface of the lungs
- Double membrane
- Allows the surface of the lungs to slide over the body wall easily
- Seals off thoracic cavity

11. Thoracic Cavity

- Chest cavity
- From diaphragm to throat

12. Diaphragm
- Horizontal muscle
- Separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity

13. Ribs
- Protects internal organs
- When ribs contact with the intercostal muscles, they rise and increase volume in
the thoracic cavity

Several things happen to the air on its journey into the alveoli:

1. Cleansed of debris. This is a two-part process:

a. The initial cleaning is by the nose hairs and mucous in the

nasal Passageways.

b. The second is the process that occurs further along were the
accumulation of debris can no longer get out of through the nose.
This is the role of the mucous lining and the cilia along the trachea and the bronchi.
Pretty well any material other than the gasses of the inhaled air will get caught in the
mucous. The cilia are in constant motion beating the debris-laden mucous upward
towards the pharynx. When this material is detected at the back of the mouth, it is
swallowed (or coughed up and spit out)

2. Adjusted to body temperature.

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The more contact the air has with moist tissues that are 37°C, the closer the air itself
gets to 37°C. By the time air gets to the alveoli, there will be no difference in its
temperature than that of the surrounded tissues.
3. Adjusted to 100% humidity.

The air in the lungs is saturated with water. One of the things that happen to inhale air
is that it, too, becomes saturated with water. This is an obvious outcome of having
passed over the mucous lined passageways.

Specializations of Alveoli

1. They are very numerous. Up to 300 million alveoli in the human lung. This provides a
great surface area for diffusion.

2. Alveolar walls are only one cell thick. This aids in diffusion.

3. The alveoli have a coating of lipoprotein on their

inner surface. This helps to maintain surface
tension thus preventing them from collapsing
and sticking together during exhalation.

4. They are supplied with stretch receptors. These

are nerve endings that are sensitive to stretch.
During inhalation, the stretch receptors signal
when the alveoli are full enough (stretched). This
marks the onset of exhalation.

5. The alveoli surfaces have a very rich blood supply from the pulmonary capillaries to
ensure maximum diffusion. They are highly vascularized.

6. Made up of Squamous (flat) Epithelial cells.

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Pleural Membranes

2 sets of membranes

a. one joined to the lung

b. one joined to the ribs and diaphragm

- The two sets are close together separated by a slight amount of

fluid. (vacuum is created)

- If the membranes are punctured, air enters the intrapleural

space, destroying the vacuum. The lung collapses.

- They maintain an interpleural pressure that is less than

atmospheric pressure, keeping the lungs open.

Breathing is aided by:

1. huge surface area

2. Only 2 cell layers separate air in lungs from blood
3. moist

5.2 Inhalation and Exhalation

The Respiratory System supplies the body with oxygen for its energy production. Without
Oxygen, the body shuts down in minutes. The Respiratory System works closely with the
Circulatory System.

Four Processes make up the Respiratory System

1. Breathing

- Inspiration - bringing oxygen into the lungs

- Expiration - expelling carbon dioxide

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2. External Respiration

- exchange of gasses between blood and the lungs

3. Internal Respiration

- exchange of gases between blood and the body tissue

4. Cellular Respiration

- production of ATP energy within the cells.

The chest cavity is dome shaped. The top and sides are surrounded by the ribs. The bottom is
made up by the diaphragm. It is a closed system.

1. CO2 concentration and H concentration are the PRIMARY STIMULI that cause us to
breathe. When carbon dioxide and or hydrogen ion concentration gets too high, the
Breathing center in the medulla oblongata is stimulated.
2. A nerve impulse is sent from the medulla oblongata to the diaphragm and ribcage.
3. The diaphragm contracts and lowers; the rib muscles contract (intercostal muscles) and
raise the ribs. These actions increase the size of the chest cavity. Increased volume
decreases air pressure.
4. A partial vacuum is created in the lungs (air pressure in the lungs is reduced).
5. Air rushes into the lungs from outside to rebalance the pressure. This is the process of
inspiration.

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**NOTE: Air comes in because the lungs have already opened. The air does not force the lungs
open. Therefore, it is said that we breathe by negative pressure. (Low pressure sucks the air
into our lungs)
**NOTE: The lungs themselves have no muscles. Know the following table well. **

Inhalation Exhalation
(Side A) (Side B)
[CO2] or [H+] Stretch Receptors

↓Stimulates ↓Notifies
Breathing Center in the Medulla Oblongata Medulla Oblongata

↓Causes ↓Stops Sending Impulses

Diaphragm and Ribs to Diaphragm and Ribs to
Contract Relax
↓Results in ↓Results in
Increased Size of the Chest Smaller Chest Cavity
Cavity (Less Pressure) (More Pressure)
↓Causes ↓Causes ↓Stimulates ↓Which
Air Rushes in, Fills Lungs Air to Rush Out
(Side B) Removes CO2

↓
Breathing Stops Until
Is Too High Again

***Breathing can also be stimulated Voluntarily using other Rib Muscles***

1. When the lungs are full, stretch receptors in the alveoli are stimulated
2. The medulla oblongata is notified and stops sending messages.
3. The diaphragm and rib muscles relax.
4. The chest cavity gets smaller. decreasing volume, which increases the pressure in the
lungs. Air is forced out.

In addition to the Respiratory Center in the medulla oblongata, there are other receptors that can
respond to stimuli:

a. carotid bodies – carotid artery

b. aortic bodies – in the aorta

These respond to high concentration of hydrogen ions but can also respond to levels of carbon
dioxide in the blood.

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When carbon dioxide diffuses from the cells into the blood, only a small amount of it (9%)
reaching the blood is held in simple solution as dissolved carbon dioxide (CO2).

Another _27% attaches directly to the Hemoglobin to form carbon amino hemoglobin
(HCO2).

The remaining 64% reacts with water to form bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) and hydrogen
ions(H+).

5.3 Gas Exchange

Gas Exchange between the lungs and the blood.

1. High concentration of Oxygen in alveoli of the lungs causes oxygen to diffuse into
blood stream.
2. In the blood stream oxygen joins with reduced hemoglobin to form Oxyhemoglobin
and hydrogen ions.
3. H+ ions are picked up by bicarbonate ion to temporarily form carbonic acid which
breaks down right away to produce CO2 + H2O which diffuses into the alveoli of the
lungs and is exhaled.
4. Dissolved CO2 carried in the blood plasma simply diffuses into alveoli of the lungs
where it is expelled by normal breathing.
5. Carbaminohemoglobin breaks down to CO2 and a hemoglobin molecule. The CO2
diffuses into the lungs and is expelled, and the hemoglobin pick up oxygen.

**NOTE: H+ do not accumulate in the blood surrounding the lungs because as soon as it released
from reduced hemoglobin HHb, it combines with the bicarbonate ion HCO 3- to form carbonic

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acid which breaks down right away into Carbon Dioxide and water which diffuses into the lungs
and is expelled. In this way the bicarbonate ion HCO3- acts like a buffer at the lungs.

***Hemoglobin is essential in the blood because it serves as a carrier for oxygen, carbon
dioxide, and hydrogen ions (acts like a buffer at the tissues of the body). ***

At the lungs, the temperature is cooler, and the pH is higher which allows hemoglobin to grab
oxygen easier.

**Be sure you understand all the equations shown in the diagram. Be able to name all the molecules
and identify the equations as external respiration. It is easy if you just reverse the equations from
internal respiration. **

Gas exchange between blood and the tissues of the body.

1. 9% of CO2 diffuses from the tissues of the body into the blood stream and travels
through the blood as dissolved CO2.
2. 27% of CO2 binds to hemoglobin to form carbaminohemoglobin (HbCO2).
3. 64% of CO2 reacts with water to temporarily make carbonic acid (H2CO3) which
breaks down right away to the bicarbonate ion (HCO3-) and hydrogen ions (H+).
Carbonic Anhydrase is the enzyme that runs this reaction.
4. Most of the released H+ reacts with Oxyhemoglobin (HbO2) to form reduced
hemoglobin (HHB) which aids in the release of oxygen. The increase in
H+ concentration (lower pH) and the slight increase in temperature alter the
hemoglobin (protein denatures slightly) and releases oxygen easily.
5. moving from an area of high concentration to areas of low concentration.

The blood leaving the tissues now contains large quantities of hemoglobin carrying
carbon dioxide (carbaminohemoglobin HbCO2) and Reduced Hemoglobin (HHb ).The
blood also contains large amounts of bicarbonate ions (HCO3- ).No further changes occur
until the blood reaches the lungs.

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**Be sure you understand all the equations for internal respiration. Be able to name all the
molecules and identify the equations as internal respiration. To do this simply reverse the equations
for external respiration

U5: RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

1. Label the respiratory system diagram below and provide a brief description of each
structure's functions.

o alveoli o pleura o bronchial tube o diaphragm o

pharynx o bronchioles o larynx o trachea o
nasal cavity

Nasal Cavity: warms, moistens, filters air

Pharynx: where food enters esophagus and air

enters trachea
Larynx: voice box

Trachea: transports air from pharynx to bronchi

of lungs
Bronchial Tubes: extend from trachea into each
lung
Pleura: membrane that surrounds and protects
lungs
Bronchioles: small branches that extend off
bronchial tubes
Alveoli: air sacs where gas exchange occurs

Diaphragm: used for inhaling and exhalation

contracts—inhalation, relax—exhalation
2. Use a flow chart with arrows to describe the path of air flow from the nose to the
alveoli during inspiration.

nose/mouth→ pharynx→ glo s→ trachea→ bronchi→ bronchioles→ alveoli

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3. Describe how debris and particulate in air is removed from the lungs.
 Nose hair and mucous in nasal passage catch debris
 Mucous lining and cilia along the trachea and bronchi
 Cilia constantly beat the debris-filled mucous upward to pharynx
o This material is swallowed/coughed/or spit

4. Where is the respiratory center located?

Medulla oblongata in brain

5. What stimuli signal the respiratory center to initiate breathing?

Increased CO2 and H+ concentrations stimulate increased breathing by the respiratory center

6. What prevents the alveoli from over filling during forced inhalation such as when
exercising?
 Signals of an inflated alveoli are detected by alveolar stretch receptors
 Signals are sent to the respiratory centre of the medulla oblongata by the vagus nerve
 Muscles are relaxed→ body exhales

7. How does oxygen gas move from the alveoli to the blood across the walls of the
alveoli and the capillary?

Diffusion

8. Oxygen is transported throughout the blood primarily as a complex within red blood
cells, what is this complex called?

Oxyhemoglobin

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9. In what form is carbon dioxide found in plasma? Carbon dioxide reacts with water in
red blood cells to produce what compounds? What enzyme assists in this process?
How does hemoglobin help with carbon dioxide transported by red blood cells?
▪ Dissolved CO2 in plasma
▪ CO2 + H2O in red blood cells produce bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) and hydrogen ions (H+)
▪ Carbonic anhydrase helps with this process
▪ Hemoglobin reacts with CO2 to form carbaminohemoglobin

10. Hemoglobin helps to buffer the blood by binding to excess hydrogen ions. What is the
name of the complex that forms between hydrogen ions and hemoglobin?
Reduced hemoglobin

11. Give the full name for the following abbreviated compounds related to respiration and
gas exchange.

O2 = Oxygen CO2 = Carbon dioxide

Hb = Hemoglobin HbO2 = Oxyhemoglobin
HHb = Reduced hemoglobin HbCO2 = Carbaminohemoglobin
H+ = Hydrogen ion H2CO3 = Carbonic acid
HCO3- = Bicarbonate ion H2O = Water

12. List the set of equations that describe external respiration in the alveoli of the
lungs. Remember the alveoli supply oxygen to the blood and receive carbon dioxide
and water from the blood for removal.

Hb + O2 → HbO2
HbCOs → Hb + CO2
HHb → Hb + H+
H+ + HCO3-→ H2CO3 → H2O + CO2

13. List the set of equations that describe internal respiration in the capillary bed
between the capillary and the tissue fluid. Remember the tissues receive oxygen from
the blood and dump carbon dioxide and water into the blood.

HbO2 → Hb + O2

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H2O + CO2 → H2CO3 → H+ + HCO3-

Hb + CO2 → HbCOs
Hb + H+ → HHb

~ END OF BIOLOGY 12 UNIT 5 LEARNING GUIDE ~

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