KKKT4133

Data Communication and

Computer Networks
Dr. Nor Fadzilah Abdullah
Dr. Fais Mansor
 Teaching plan
Week Topic
1 Introduction to Data Communications & TCP/IP and OSI
model
2 Introduction to PHY Layer
3 Line coding (digital-to-digital conversion)
4 Bandpass modulation (digital-to-analog conversion)
5 Circuit switching
6 Packet switching
7 Introduction to Data Link Layer
8 Study week / Project title selection
Mid-Semester Break
9 Mid-semester Exam
10 Error Detection & Correction (Channel coding)
11 Media Access Control (MAC)
12 Wired LANs: Ethernet
13 Wireless LANs
14 Project Presentation
15-17 Final Exam
Digital-to-analog conversion
 Digital-to-analog conversion is the process of changing one of the
characteristics of an analog signal based on the information in
digital data.
 Digital data to an analog signal when a bandpass channel is
available.
 Most commonly used: public telephone system
 Was designed to receive, switch, and transmit analog signals at
frequency range of 300-3400Hz
 Not suitable for handling digital signals from the subscriber locations
 Uses modem (modulator-demodulator) to convert digital data to
analog signals and vice versa
Types of digital to analog conversion
Basic bandpass modulation
Terminology
 Bit rate: number of bits per second.
 Baud rate: number of signal elements per second.
 In the analog transmission of digital data, baud rate <= bit rate.

 Bandwidth: The required bandwidth for analog transmission of digital

data is proportional to the signal rate except for FSK, in which the
difference between the carrier signals needs to be added.
 Carrier signal: In analog transmission, the sending device produces a
high-frequency signal that acts as a base for the information signal. The
receiving device is tuned to the frequency of the carrier signal that it
expects from the sender.
 Shift keying: Digital information changes the carrier signal by modifying
one or more of its characteristics (amplitude, frequency, or phase).
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

 Encode 0/1 by different carrier amplitudes

 Both frequency and phase remain constant while the amplitude
changes
 Usually have one amplitude zero (binary 0)  also referred as
binary amplitude shift keying or on-off keying (OOK).
 Susceptible to sudden gain changes  inefficient
 Typical usage:
 Up to 1200 bps on voice grade lines
 Digital data over high speed optical fiber
 e.g. LED transmitter: one signal element is represented by a light
pulse & the other signal element is represented by the absence of
light
Binary ASK
 Bandwidth (B) is proportional to the signal rate (S) and
modulation and filtering factor (0<d<1).
 Bandpass channel with carrier frequency, 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐 is adjustable
Binary ASK: Implementation

 Example: Multiplying unipolar NRZ digital data with the

carrier signal coming from an oscillator  2 amplitude
levels
Binary ASK: example

We have an available bandwidth (B) of 100 kHz which

spans from 200 to 300 kHz. What are the carrier frequency
and the bit rate if we modulated our data by using binary
(r=1) ASK with d = 1?

Solution
The middle of the bandwidth is located at 250 kHz. This
means that our carrier frequency can be at fc = 250 kHz.
Using the formula for ASK bandwidth and S=N/r, the bit
rate (N) can be found:
Full duplex ASK

 In data communications, we normally use full-duplex links with

communication in both directions. We need to divide the
bandwidth into two with two carrier frequencies.

 Example: Total available bandwidth (B) of 100 kHz. With full

duplex ASK, the available bandwidth for each direction is now 50
kHz, which gives a data rate of 25 kbps in each direction.
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

 Digital data represented by varying the frequency of the

carrier signal
 frequency of the modulated signal is constant for the duration of
one signal element, but changes for the next signal element if
the data element changes.
 Both peak amplitude and phase remain constant for all
signal elements.
Binary FSK

 Most common form of FSK

 Two binary values are represented by two different
frequencies (near carrier)
 Less susceptible to error than ASK
 Typically used for:
 Up to 1200bps on voice grade lines
 High frequency radio (3-30MHz)
 Even higher frequencies on LANs using coaxial cable
Full duplex FSK on Voice-Grade Line
 Voice-grade line: 300-3400 Hz
 Full duplex: 2 sets of Tx/Rx frequencies to represent binary
data for each directions (fc1=1170 Hz, fc2 = 2125 Hz)
 Used by: Bell System 108 series modems
 Some interference due to overlap
Binary FSK
 Binary FSK: 2 carrier frequencies 𝑓𝑓1 and 𝑓𝑓2 to represent
data element 1/0
 modulation creates a non-periodic composite signal
with continuous frequencies.
 Proper modulation/demodulation (ensure no
overlapping) by min(2Δf)=(1+d)S
 Binary FSK: example
We have an available bandwidth B=100 kHz which spans
from 200 to 300 kHz. What should be the carrier frequency
and the bit rate if we modulated our data by using binary
(r=1) FSK with d = 1?

Solution
The midpoint of the band is at 250 kHz. We choose
minimum 2Δf = 2S, thus S=N/r gives:

Carrier frequencies, 𝒇𝒇𝟏𝟏 = 250-25 = 225 kHz and 𝒇𝒇𝟐𝟐 = 250+25 = 275 kHz
 Binary FSK: Implementation
 2 implementations of BFSK:
 Non-coherent: there may be discontinuity in the phase when one
signal element ends and the next begins; by treating BFSK as two
ASK modulations and using two carrier frequencies
 Coherent: phase continues through the boundary of two signal
elements; implemented by using one voltage-controlled oscillator
(VCO) that changes its frequency according to the input voltage
 E.g. When the amplitude of NRZ = 0, the oscillator keeps its regular
frequency; when the amplitude is +ve, frequency is increased.

NRZ

fc

BFSK
Multiple FSK (MFSK)

 Each signaling element represents more than one bit

 More than two frequencies are used
 More bandwidth efficient 
 More susceptible to error 
MFSK: Example
 An input bit stream of 20 bits is encoded 2 bits at a time ,
with each of the L=4 possible 2-bit combinations
transmitted as a different frequency.
 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 = 1/S = time to transmit a single 2-bit signal element
 B = 𝑊𝑊𝑑𝑑 = bandwidth
 Example: MFSK
We need to send data 3 bits at a time at a bit rate of 3 Mbps.
The carrier frequency is 10 MHz. Calculate the number of levels
(different frequencies), the baud rate, and the bandwidth.

Solution

We have L = 𝟐𝟐𝟑𝟑 = 8. The baud rate, S = N/r = 3 MHz/3 = 1 Mbaud.

This means that the carrier frequencies must be 1 MHz apart (2Δf
= 1 MHz). The bandwidth is B = 8 × 1 = 8 MHz
 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
 The phase of the carrier signal is varied/shifted to
represent data / signal elements
 Both peak amplitude and frequency remain constant as the
phase changes
 more common than ASK or FSK, but QAM is the dominant digital-
analog conversion
Binary phase shift keying (BPSK)

 Simplest: 2 phases represent the 2 binary digits

 E.g. 180° phase = binary 0, 0° phase = binary 1
BPSK: Implementation

 use the same idea as ASK but with a polar NRZ signal
instead of a unipolar NRZ signal
 Differential PSK (DPSK)
 Phase shifted relative to previous
transmission rather than some
reference signal
 binary 0: sends signal burst of the
same phase as the previous signal
burst.
DPSK
 binary 1: sends a signal burst of
opposite phase to the preceding one
 Avoids the requirement for an
BPSK
accurate local oscillator phase at the
receiver that is matched with the
transmitter
 if preceding phase is received
correctly, the phase reference is
accurate.
Quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK)
 each signal element represents 2 bits (r = 2)  more efficient BW usage
 L=4 signal elements: phase shifts separated by multiples of π /2 (90°).
 S/P: 2 data streams of I (in-phase) and Q (quadrature phase) modulated on
a carrier of frequency (fc )
 offset QPSK (OQPSK) or orthogonal QPSK: delay of one bit time in the Q
stream

N=
QPSK and its implementation

5.26
QPSK & OQPSK: Example
 OQPSK vs. QPSK
 Similar spectral characteristics and bit-error performance
 QPSK: maximum phase change of 180°
 OQPSK: phase change in the combined I & Q signal never
exceeds 90° (π/2)
 physical limitations on phase modulators make large phase shifts at
high transition rates difficult to perform
 superior performance when the transmission channel (including
transmitter and receiver) has significant non-linear components. The
effect of non-linearities is a spreading of the signal bandwidth,
which may result in adjacent channel interference  spreading
easier to control with smaller phase changes
 QPSK: Example

Find the bandwidth for a signal transmitting at 12 Mbps for

QPSK. The value of d = 0.

Solution
For QPSK, 2 bits are carried by one signal element. This
means that r = 2. So the signal rate (baud rate) is S = N × (1/r)
= 6 Mbaud. With a value of d = 0, we have B = S = 6 MHz.
Constellation diagram
Constellation diagram
 ASK: only in-phase carrier
 BPSK: only use in-phase carrier but with polar NRZ for
modulation resulting in signal elements of 0° in-phase &
180° out-of-phase.
 QPSK: uses 2 carriers (I & Q). All signal elements have an
amplitude of √2 (if carrier has amplitude of 1), but their
phases are different (45°, 135°, −135°, and −45°).
 Performance of Digital to Analog
Modulation Schemes

In
Bandwidth presence
of noise Bit error rate of PSK
ASK/PSK
and QPSK are
bandwidth directly
about 3dB superior
relates to bit rate
to ASK and FSK

MFSK and MPSK

have tradeoff
Multilevel PSK
between
gives significant
bandwidth
BW improvements
efficiency and
error performance
Bit error rate
Bit error rate

MFSK has better BER performance

Bandwidth efficiency = Data Rate / Tx BW

MFSK and MPSK have

tradeoff between
bandwidth efficiency
and error performance

 MFSK has inefficient

BW requirement, but
reduced the BER
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
 used in the asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL), cable
modems, and some wireless standards (WLAN, LTE, etc)
 combination of ASK and PSK (alter amplitude & phase)
 Logical extension of QPSK: PSK is limited by the ability of
the equipment to distinguish small differences in phase,
thus limits the potential bit rate
 Send two different signals simultaneously on the same
carrier frequency
 Use two copies of carrier: I & Q (shifted 90°)
 Each carrier is ASK modulated: different amplitude levels
 Two independent signals simultaneously transmitted over the same
medium
 At the receiver, the two signals are demodulated and the results
are combined to produce the original binary input
QAM: Implementation
QAM: Implementation
QAM: Constellation diagram
 Summary

Digital data, digital signals Digital data, analog signals

 Unipolar, polar Nonreturn to zero  Amplitude shift keying (ASK)
(NRZ/-L/-I)  Frequency shift keying (FSK)
 Bipolar: AMI/pseudoternary  Phase shift keying (PSK)
 Biphase: Manchester  Quadrature amplitude
 Multilevel: 2B1Q, 8B6T, 4D-PAM5 modulation (QAM)
 Multitransition: MLT3
 Block coding
 Scrambling
Analog Modulation
 Analog Data, Digital Signal

 Digitization is the  Analog to digital

conversion of analog conversion is done using
data into digital data a codec
which can then:  Pulse code modulation
 Be transmitted using NRZ-L (PCM)
 Be transmitted using code  Delta modulation (DM)
other than NRZ-L
 Be converted to analog
signal