Culture War

0/-*/&4637&:
*ODPMMBCPSBUJPOXJUI6OHMVFJU XFIBWFTFUVQBTVSWFZ POMZUFORVFTUJPOT

UP
MFBSONPSFBCPVUIPXPQFOBDDFTTFCPPLTBSFEJTDPWFSFEBOEVTFE
8FSFBMMZWBMVFZPVSQBSUJDJQBUJPOQMFBTFUBLFQBSU
$-*$,)&3&
"OFMFDUSPOJDWFSTJPOPGUIJTCPPLJTGSFFMZBWBJMBCMF UIBOLTUP
UIFTVQQPSUPGMJCSBSJFTXPSLJOHXJUI,OPXMFEHF6OMBUDIFE
,6JTBDPMMBCPSBUJWFJOJUJBUJWFEFTJHOFEUPNBLFIJHIRVBMJUZ
CPPLT0QFO"DDFTTGPSUIFQVCMJDHPPE
Culture Wars and Enduring American Dilemmas
contemporary political and social issues
In 2008, John McCain, always known as something of a centrist or moderate Re-

publican, picked the governor of Alaska, Sarah Palin, as his running mate. The mo-
ment he did so, the culture war returned to American politics. Although the econ-
omy was entering a tailspin and dangers were prominent around the world, once
again we were discussing whether elites had lost touch with the common people by
failing to appreciate religion and dismissing people’s concerns with morality.
The Palin selection raised a larger question: Did we ever have a culture war in the
‹rst place? In this book, Irene Taviss Thomson offers an original and important new
way of answering that question. Whether or not a culture war indeed existed out
there in Middle America, just about everyone who wrote on the topic agreed that
elites themselves were sharply divided between liberal and conservative views of the
world. And, the argument went, the raging culture war was especially apparent in
the media, whatever was happening in small-town America.
Rather than simply assuming the truth of this proposition, Thomson looks at the
media—speci‹cally, opinion magazines. Her research challenges the idea that our
opinion leaders are engaged in an implacable war with each other. Culture has his-
torically been de‹ned as the common values that bind together a society. Thomson
shows that this idea of culture remains very much alive. America remains a nation
where agreement is more striking than disagreement. No matter how bitter and po-
larized our politics can seem, this truth should never be lost, and Thomson provides
the evidence needed to back it up. Opinion leaders need to think about their own
role in the culture war; Thomson has helped them do it.
—alan wolfe
Putting Faith in Partnerships: Welfare-to-Work in Four Cities

Stephen V. Monsma
The New Imperial Presidency: Renewing Presidential Power after Watergate

Andrew Rudalevige
Self-Financed Candidates in Congressional Elections

Jennifer A. Steen
Trust beyond Borders: Immigration, the Welfare State, and Identity in Modern Societies
Markus M. L. Crepaz
America Beyond Black and White: How Immigrants and Fusions Are Helping Us
Overcome the Racial Divide
Ronald Fernandez
America at Risk: Threats to Liberal Self-Government in an Age of Uncertainty

Robert Faulkner and Susan Shell, Editors
Barack Obama’s America: How New Conceptions of Race, Family,

and Religion Ended the Reagan Era
John Kenneth White
Culture Wars and Enduring American Dilemmas

Irene Taviss Thomson
Culture Wars
and Enduring American Dilemmas
IRENE TAVISS THOMSON
THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN PRESS

ANN ARBOR
Copyright © by the University of Michigan 2010
All rights reserved
Published in the United States of America by
The University of Michigan Press
Manufactured in the United States of America
c Printed on acid-free paper
2013 2012 2011 2010 4 3 2 1
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval

system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, or otherwise, without the written permission
of the publisher.
A CIP catalog record for this book is available from the British Library.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Thomson, Irene Taviss, 1941–

Culture wars and enduring American dilemmas /
Irene Taviss Thomson.
p. cm. — (Contemporary political and social issues)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
isbn 978-0-472-07088-6 (cloth : alk. paper)
— isbn 978-0-472-05088-8 (pbk. : alk. paper)
— isbn 978-0-472-02206-9 (e-book)
1. Culture con›ict—United States. 2. United States—Social
conditions—21st century. 3. United States—Politics and
government—21st century. 4. United States—Moral conditions.
I. Title.
hn59.2.t525 2010
303.60973—dc22 2009033205
to michael
Contents
1. culture wars and warring about culture 1

The Culture Wars 3
Warring over Culture 12
The Culture Warriors 24
American Culture 26
2. respect for religion but uncertainty

about its role 31
The Public Sphere and Civil Religion 31
Dilemmas of Church-State Relations 39
Religious Belief and Secularization 47
Conclusions 55
3. moral but not moralistic 58

Through the Lenses of Morality 59
Abortion and Homosexuality 65
Moral Decline and Relativism 75
Moralizing and Legislating Morality 79
Conclusions 82
4. individualism but not to excess 84

Celebrating Individualism and Community 85
American Individualism: Complexities and Controversies 88
Critiquing Multiculturalism 93
Multiculturalism in Relationship to the Individual,
the Group, and the Society 100
Conclusions 1o8
5. pluralism within one culture 110
Historical Perspectives 110
Contemporary Images of Pluralism 115
Multicultural Education and the Canon Wars 125
The Dif‹culties of Tolerance 135
Conclusions 143
6. antielitist but respecting achievement 145

Who Are the Elites, and What Is Elite Culture? 145
Elitism and Funding for the Arts 154
Ambivalence toward Elites 157
Elitism in the Feminist and Gay Rights Movements 164
Conclusions 165
7. moderation, plain and simple 167
8. culture, class, and american exceptionalism 175

Cultural Politics 175
American Exceptionalism? 181
The Continuing Signi‹cance of Class, Race, and Gender 187
A Polarized Population? 194
Sarah Palin and a Renascent Culture War? 197
A Multitude of Internal Divisions 206
Conclusions 215
9. concluding comments 217
Methodological Appendix 221

References 223
Index 251
CHAPTER 1
Culture Wars and Warring about Culture
American culture appears to be deeply divided: those who believe there are
absolute moral truths contend with those who place moral authority in in-
dividual judgment. Armed with these competing visions, “orthodox” ver-
sus “progressive” culture warriors clash on issues of abortion, homosexual-
ity, feminism, school prayer, multiculturalism, popular culture, and
university curricula. The population is increasingly polarized as a result.
The problem with this image is that it is not supported by survey data.
American public opinion is considerably more ambivalent and internally
inconsistent than the image of a culture war implies. Most Americans are
moderate or centrist in both their political and religious beliefs. Very few are
consistently for or against abortion and same-sex marriage, for example.
Proponents of the culture wars thesis acknowledge that most Ameri-
cans occupy a position between the polar extremes. The issue, they con-
tend, is not about what people think or believe, but about the public cul-
ture—the meanings and understandings enunciated by elites who seek to
frame how we think. The competing moral visions of these elites inex-
orably pull all arguments into one or the other of the contending camps,
effectively eclipsing the middle ground.
The question thus becomes whether American public culture is divided
2 culture wars and enduring american dilemmas
into the two opposing camps of the culture war, or whether both sides
share the same American cultural ideas in propounding their differing vi-
sions. I ‹nd support for the latter view in my analysis of the 436 articles
dealing with culture war issues that were published in four popular politi-
cal magazines between 1980 and 2000. The culture war debaters in the
pages of National Review, Time, The New Republic, and The Nation—maga-
zines representing the mainstream American political spectrum, from Na-
tional Review on the right to The Nation on the left—adhere to remarkably
similar cultural principles.
Rather than dividing along the lines of “orthodox” versus “progressive”
morality, the arguments of culture war partisans are nuanced and riddled
with internal disagreements. There are abortion rights supporters who re-
gret the immorality of abortion and antihomosexuality advocates who dis-
pute whether or not homosexual behavior is a matter of morality. The sym-
bols and rhetoric of the two sides often mirror each other. Consider the
following statement: “A culture that is at once moralistic, self-righteous,
alienated, and in a minority will constantly be tempted to break the rules
of political discourse.” Are these the words of a progressive describing the
efforts of Christian Fundamentalists to in›uence American politics? No.
This is a description of the Left written by a well-known conservative (Bork
1989, 27).
While there are doubtless persons for whom the binary logic of the cul-
ture wars is all-important, the elites represented in the pages of these main-
stream media—the journalists and intellectuals, feminists and “family val-
ues” advocates alike—instead re›ect shared cultural patterns. These
discussions take place within the context of enduring American dilem-
mas—about the role of religion in politics and society, the tension between
morality and pragmatism, how much individualism should be sacri‹ced
for larger community goals, the meaning of pluralism in a “nation of im-
migrants,” and how to reconcile the will of the people with standards
enunciated by elites.
Though they disagree about speci‹c issues and policies, the partisans
on all sides subscribe to the following ideas: (1) respect for religion but un-
certainty about its role; (2) use of moral frameworks but without “moraliz-
ing”; (3) belief in individualism but not to excess; (4) respect for pluralism
but within one culture; (5) ambivalence toward elites; and (6) a high regard
for moderation. The ‹rst ‹ve of these items represent dilemmas to which
Culture Wars and Warring about Culture 3
the high regard for moderation is something of an answer. Thus, religion is

of great importance, but American society is both secular and diverse in its
religions. Individualism is a supreme American value, but the needs of the
community must be respected too. Ironically, the only unalloyed American
virtue is that of moderation. Moderation, of course, does not constitute a
dilemma. But the very vitality of moderation presents dilemmas for social
movements. In a society that views as beyond the pale both ardent femi-
nists and committed traditionalists, the strongly religious and atheists, fer-
vent supporters and opponents of abortion, those who attempt to alter the
culture are pressured toward a centrism that may be antagonistic to their
basic beliefs.
While issues such as abortion or same-sex marriage may be new, the un-
derlying dilemmas are of long duration. If every culture can be seen as
“a kind of theater in which certain contrary tendencies are played out”
(Erikson 1976, 82), these are classic American cultural conundrums. And
though they may not be the only dilemmas in American culture, they are
the ones that are central to the “culture wars.”
Participants and observers alike contend that the culture wars origi-
nated in the late 1960s, when challenges to traditional values were dubbed
the counterculture. The very idea of a “counterculture” suggests a new self-
consciousness about cultural struggles regarding values and lifestyles. In
the trajectory from the counterculture to the culture wars, what is new is
not the political struggle over cultural issues but rather a heightened aware-
ness of culture itself and those who seek to shape it. Both social scientists
and the general public have come to think of culture as changeable and
contested. And a self-conscious competition for cultural dominance has be-
come more evident. While the “social construction of reality” has not be-
come a household term akin to “charisma” or “lifestyle,” an awareness of
the provisional nature of social assumptions has “entered popular con-
sciousness” (Wrong 1990, 28).
The Culture Wars
In one of the earliest and best-known portraits of the culture wars, James
Davison Hunter (1991) described a fundamental split between orthodox
and progressive views of morality and suggested that this divide cuts across
class, religious, racial, ethnic, political, and sexual lines. In the eyes of one
partisan, the culture war is apparent in the simultaneous emergence of
“moral disarray” and “moral revival” symbolized by the success of both
gangsta rap and gospel rock (Himmelfarb 1999, 117).
A year after Hunter put “culture wars” on the social science map,
Patrick Buchanan popularized the idea in his speech to the 1992 Republi-
can National Convention. He told the audience in Houston that “a cultural
war” was taking place, a “struggle for the soul of America.” The de‹ning is-
sues were abortion, homosexuality, school choice, and “radical feminism.”
In the aftermath of this address, the idea of a “culture war” became a jour-
nalistic staple.
But for all the credence given to the idea of culture wars in the press,
public opinion analysts present a different portrait (see N. J. Davis and
Robinson 1996a, 1996b, 1997; DiMaggio, Evans, and Bryson 1996; J. H.
Evans 1997; Fiorina, Abrams, and Pope 2005; A. S. Miller and Hoffman
1999; C. Smith et al. 1997; Wolfe 1998; Wuthnow 1996). Only small per-
centages of Americans are consistently orthodox or progressive on such is-
sues as abortion, stem cell research, the morning-after pill, gay marriage,
and gay adoption (Pew Research Center 2006b). And while “the gap be-
tween the ideologically consistent liberals and conservatives may have
widened a bit,” there are now fewer Americans “in those fragments” than
there were in the 1960s (Fischer and Hout 2006, 238).
Religious conservatives and liberals differ in their religious beliefs, how-
ever, and there is a loose correspondence between people’s religious identi-
ties and their views on abortion, homosexuality, and school prayer (N. J.
Davis and Robinson 1996; Wuthnow 1996). But their views do not clearly
differ with regard to the values and moral orientations that are prominent
in American culture. Both are guided by self-interest and by what feels
good; both are dedicated to work and family and the desire to secure a com-
fortable life. Differences in political and social views are more related to
people’s religious activities than to their conservative or liberal religious
philosophies. Those who participate actively in religion “are in substantial
agreement on many aspects of their worldviews,” whether they are liberals,
moderates, or conservatives (Wuthnow 1996, 326). Furthermore, the reli-
giously orthodox do not take a conservative stance on issues of racial and
economic inequality (N. J. Davis and Robinson 1996a); three-quarters of
the members of this group favor sex education in public schools, and al-
most half support making contraception available to teenagers (N. J. Davis

and Robinson 1996b, 235; Kohut et al. 2000, 64). Even among people who
identify themselves as part of the Religious Right, some 30 percent are
Democrats, and 60 percent think abortion should be legal in some circum-
stances (C. Smith et al. 1997, 182). Among committed evangelical Protes-
tants, one-third believe that abortions should be available to women in cir-
cumstances other than rape, incest, or to save the life of the mother, and 41
percent of committed Catholics believe likewise (Kohut et al. 2000, 64).
The proportion of conservative Protestants who are so consistently pro-life
that they reject abortion even when a mother’s health is at stake is only 3
percent, a ‹gure that has not changed in recent decades (Greeley and Hout
2006, 125).
Not only do the religiously orthodox show “little ideological consis-
tency across a broad spectrum of attitudes,” but their attitudes also differ by
gender, race, social class, and age (N. J. Davis and Robinson 1996b, 237).
This ‹nding runs quite contrary to Hunter’s thesis that the fundamental di-
vide between orthodox and progressive views cuts across all other social
categories. Nor is there evidence of enduring alliances across faiths, as con-
servative Catholics do not share sociopolitical attitudes with fundamental-
ist Protestants (Billings and Scott 1994, 180). Older alliances between reli-
gious groups and political parties continue; to this day, white Protestants
are a majority of those who identify with the Republican Party, while
Catholics, Jews, and black Protestants are much more likely to be Demo-
crats (Layman 2001, 301). Even among the orthodox, younger people hold
more liberal views regarding sexuality and reproduction, gender, and racial
issues (N. J. Davis and Robinson 1996b, 242). And the role of moral beliefs
in predicting voting patterns and party loyalties appears to differ by gender,
again suggesting that something other than a culture war is at work (Kauf-
mann 2002; Layman 2001).
The division between the progressive and the orthodox camps is not
monolithic even with regard to religious doctrines. Thus, some one-third of
religious conservatives do not believe the Bible should be taken literally,
while almost 20 percent of religious liberals think it should be (Wuthnow
1996, 326). An ethnographic study of one evangelical and one mainline
Protestant seminary found that although they maintain competing moral
visions, “the more intense battles are internal to each culture” (Carroll and
Marler 1995, 18). Among religious elites, such as seminary faculty, neither
side appears uni‹ed in opposition to the other (Olson and Carroll 1992,
778). Even if religious elites present positions as if they were internally con-
sistent packages, group members show no such attitude consistency (Jelen
1990, 124). Furthermore, differences in religious beliefs are not necessarily
re›ected in actual behavior. Thus, the family behaviors of religious conser-
vatives were not found to differ from those of religious progressives
(Clydesdale 1997).
Within religious denominations, little evidence supports the idea of po-
larized views on culture war issues. Ironically, the one exception that has
been found is among Evangelicals and Fundamentalists. These presump-
tively orthodox groups manifest intradenominational ideological polariza-
tion (Demerath and Yang 1997, 35).
Remarkably, the attitudes of religious conservatives and liberals on
most social and political issues converged rather than further differentiated
during the 1970s and 1980s (DiMaggio, Evans, and Bryson 1996, 729). Atti-
tudes toward abortion may be the one exception. Evidence indicates
greater polarization here, though this phenomenon peaked in the 1980s,
and some analysts using different statistical techniques dispute the ‹nding
of polarization (Mouw and Sobel 2001). Evidence also shows increased in-
ternal division among both Catholics and mainline Protestants on the
abortion question (J. H. Evans 2002). Yet in some ways, realistically, “there
are not two political opinions on abortion—pro-choice and pro-life, but
three. The third is ‘It depends,’ and is larger than the other two put to-
gether,” with large majorities of the population favoring abortion if preg-
nancy was the result of rape or if the mother’s health is in danger (Greeley
and Hout 2006, 121, 123). Even with respect to this most polarizing issue,
one recent poll found that 66 percent of Americans support ‹nding “a mid-
dle ground,” and only 29 percent believe “there’s no room for compromise
when it comes to abortion laws” (Pew Research Center 2006b).
Those who take extreme positions on the issue of abortion do not share
a coherent worldview. Thus, pro-life supporters are deeply divided in their
attitudes toward the death penalty, civil rights, feminism, and other social
issues, while those most in favor of abortion are differentiated into liberal
and libertarian camps. Despite their collaboration in antiabortion cam-
paigns, the Catholic Church and the Southern Baptist Convention do not
share cultural or religious outlooks, and even their antiabortion rationales
differ substantially from each other (Dillon 1996).
The idea of multiculturalism also is less divisive an issue than some cul-
ture warriors suggest. Survey data show that while few Americans support
the “hard multiculturalist” position that calls on the government to help
racial and ethnic groups to maintain their original cultures, most Ameri-
cans prefer an “inclusive nationalism” that “coexists with the widespread
acceptance of pluralism in cultural practices.” Faced with the option of
having different ethnic groups “blend into the larger society” or “maintain
their distinct cultures,” 38 percent favored the melting pot position, 32 per-
cent chose the cultural maintenance option, and 29 percent said neither.
That a large segment of the public takes a middle position on this question
suggests that many Americans do not view assimilating and maintaining
elements of one’s ethnic heritage as mutually exclusive (Citrin et al. 2001,
260). And while 63 percent favored designating English as the of‹cial lan-
guage of the United States, only 37 percent agreed that ballots should be
printed in English only (261).
Americans appear to manifest both a center-seeking tendency and
strong ambivalence about culture war issues. Divisions between those who
side with Ozzie and Harriet images of family life and those who align with
Murphy Brown, for example, “do not take place between camps of people;
instead, they take place within most individuals.” In effect, “the culture
war lies within” (Wolfe 1998, 111). While Wolfe’s analysis is based on in-
depth interviews with two hundred middle-class suburbanites, Fiorina,
Abrams, and Pope report similar results based on national surveys of “tens
of thousands” of Americans (2005, 8).
Perhaps such ambivalence is understandable in light of the contradic-
tory pattern of American values. In the World Values Surveys, Americans’
high level of adherence to traditional values (strong beliefs in God and re-
ligion, conservative family values, absolute moral standards, and national
pride) resembles that shown by the populations of developing and low-in-
come societies. At the same time, however, Americans are attached to self-
expression values: “No other society is as traditional and as self-expression-
oriented as America” (Baker 2005, 39). Since traditional values and the
quest for self-realization may dictate contradictory behaviors, it is no won-
der that Americans may experience con›icts over culture war issues and
may simultaneously embrace both sides of the debate. Signi‹cant numbers
of Americans, for example, believe both that homosexual behavior is im-
moral and that homosexuals deserve civil rights (Loftus 2001). Conserva-
tive Protestants are more willing to censure homosexuals but are no less
supportive than are other Americans of hate crime laws designed to protect
gay men and lesbians (C. Smith 2000, 226).
Data from the World Values Survey also suggest that between 1981 and
1990, Americans became almost evenly divided between “moral abso-
lutists,” who believe there are clear guidelines about good and evil, and
“moral relativists,” who believe that what is good or evil depends on the
circumstances. This polarized distribution persisted through the 1995 and
2000 surveys (Baker 2005, 79). But such polarization does not indicate the
presence of a culture war, since these moral visions are only loosely linked
to attitudes and beliefs. Whether people are moral absolutists or relativists,
they “tend to share similar religious beliefs, cultural values, and attitudes
about social issues and policies” (104).
The orthodox and progressive camps thus are not polarized about social
policies. Close elections may re›ect not a deeply divided electorate but
rather an ambivalent one that is closely divided about the choices offered
by political elites who have become more polarized (Fiorina, Abrams, and
Pope 2005, 8, 14–15). For example, a 2003 poll found that although weekly
churchgoers are only half as likely to favor legalization of homosexual rela-
tions as those who never attend church, 40 percent nevertheless favored
such legalization (89). And the single largest disparity found in 2000 be-
tween voters in “red” and “blue” states was the 16 percent difference be-
tween the 60 percent of Democrats who support gays in the military and
the 44 percent of Republicans who do (26). There is little connection be-
tween party af‹liation and views about abortion, despite the party align-
ments with “pro-choice” and “pro-life” slogans. The population may well
be more divided over such labels than over the actual policy alternatives,
just as women are more likely to approve of government policies to im-
prove the status of women than they are favorably inclined toward the
term feminist (Fiorina, Abrams, and Pope 2005, 63). Over time, as the labels
have become more widely known, religiously orthodox people have be-
come more likely to categorize themselves as “conservative,” and religious
progressives identify themselves as “liberal,” even though their attitudes
on issues have not changed. This phenomenon would account for “the
paradox of a perceived increase in divisiveness despite a lack of empirical
support at the individual level” (A. S. Miller and Hoffmann 1999, 728).
It is not clear that the majority of Americans attach great political
signi‹cance to cultural issues. When asked to name the most important

problems facing the nation or to discuss party differences, less than one-
third of National Election Survey respondents in 1992 mentioned a cultural
matter (Layman and Carmines 1997, 765), despite the emphasis on cultural
issues at that time. Most churchgoing Protestants are not interested in ‹ght-
ing culture wars (C. Smith et al. 1997, 192), and attitudes among Evangeli-
cals are as complex and ambivalent as they are among most Americans. The
vast majority of Evangelicals, Fundamentalists, and conservative Protes-
tants do not think that public schools should teach Christian values and
morals or that teachers should lead classes in spoken Christian prayers. At
the same time, however, members of these groups believe that public
school instruction should include Christian views of science and history (C.
Smith 2000, 206). Evangelicals disagree among themselves about whether
to seek “Christian cultural hegemony” or to stress “liberty and pluralism”
(36). Furthermore, no “single evangelical elite [speaks] in accord”; evangel-
ical leaders are all over “the political and ideological map” (7).
For political attitudes and behavior to be consistent with the culture
wars thesis, voters not only must see cultural issues as salient, they must
also perceive the ideological or values standpoints underlying an array of
different policy questions and must link a political party to a particular ide-
ology. Such consistency of attitudes and viewpoints has not been com-
monly found in public opinion and political behavior. It is thus not sur-
prising that an examination of the 1992–2000 National Election Studies
‹nds that culture wars operate only rarely. And contrary to the culture wars
thesis, such factors as race and religious denomination still make a differ-
ence. Thus, more religiously committed black Protestants are still more
likely than their less devout counterparts to align themselves with the
Democratic Party and with liberal political views (Layman and Green
2006). It would appear, then, that the culture war thesis does not apply to
the majority of Americans.
James Davison Hunter has acknowledged that “most Americans oc-
cupy a vast middle ground between the polarizing impulses of American
culture” and that “public discourse is more polarized than the American
public” (1991, 43, 159). But he maintains that the culture war is not a mat-
ter of public opinion, about what is in people’s heads or hearts. Rather, it
is about the public culture. And in this culture, elites on both sides of the
dispute force attitudes or opinions into their molds, thereby eliminating
the middle ground. The two sides are in a struggle “over the meaning of
America” (50). Individuals “become subservient to” or “must struggle
against the dominating and virtually irresistible categories and logic of the
culture war” (1998, 14). The culture war is “not re›ected so deeply in pub-
lic sentiment” (Hunter and Wolfe 2006, 93). But this does not mean that
there is a centrist consensus. Rather, “the competing moral visions in pub-
lic culture” are “a reality sui generis” (Hunter 1996, 246). Any coherent
center that may exist is eclipsed by “the grid of rhetorical extremes” that
either labels moderates as “wishy-washy” or judges them by the standards
of the extremists—so that, for example, a moderate conservative on issues
of homosexuality will still be dubbed a homophobe (247). Those who ar-
gue against the culture war hypothesis are engaged in “a denial of deep dif-
ference” (Hunter and Wolfe 2006, 36).
But to critics such as Alan Wolfe, a “culture war is not autonomous from
the people who ‹ght it. It has no reality of its own” (Hunter and Wolfe
2006, 100). There is also no reason to assume that people become “sub-
servient to” the opposing logics of culture war rhetoric (Demerath and
Straight 1997, 216). People can and do sustain inconsistency and ambiva-
lence within their beliefs. This is not to deny that the opposing visions
themselves have social effects. As A. S. Miller and Hoffmann (1999) have
pointed out, people who come to identify with one side may feel increased
antagonism toward the opposing side. Evidence suggests, for example, that
anti-Fundamentalists harbor negative stereotypes about Christian Funda-
mentalists (Bolce and De Maio 1999a, 1999b). But people may also adhere
selectively to the ideas of each side.
Hunter argues that the culture wars are about the power to de‹ne real-
ity, to create and shape meaning. With competing worldviews in contest,
the representatives on each side seek to project their “vision of the world as
the dominant, if not the only vision of the world, such that it becomes com-
monsensical to people” (Hunter 2004, 5). If this is the case, a struggle over
the soul of America is indeed taking place, despite the absence of polariza-
tion in the population.
How, then, can one determine the truth of the assertion of a culture war?
How does one study the “public culture” or tap into the “deep differences”
within contemporary American culture? Hunter’s initial discussion of the
culture wars focused on the advertising and persuasive literature emanating
from culture war organizations and spokespersons. Yet scholars have long
recognized that organizations and movements that seek public support tend
to state their claims in exaggerated form. To overcome inertia and to moti-
vate ‹nancial contributions, they emphasize the dire consequences of doing
nothing or allowing the opposition to prevail. The public culture clearly en-
compasses more than the rhetoric of fund-seeking partisans.
Hunter recognizes that culture war issues ‹lled “the nation’s news-
papers, magazines, and intellectual journals” (1991, 176), yet he focused on
the sixty-second commercials, full-page advertisements, sound bites on the
evening news, op-ed pieces, and direct mail letters that resulted in “much of
public discourse” being “reduced to a reciprocal bellicosity” (170). Despite
the “extremism and super‹ciality” of these sources, Hunter argued that they
provided “the only objecti‹cation of the debate that really exists” (170).
But why should one make this assumption? Since the elites who shape
the public culture express themselves in many venues, it seems rather arbi-
trary to de‹ne “public discourse” in such narrow terms. An analysis of the
opinions and assumptions presented in large-circulation political maga-
zines offers an excellent opportunity to test the culture war thesis. The
journalists, academics, public intellectuals, and political ‹gures whose writ-
ing appears in these magazines offer a representative array of the partisan
views that constitute the public culture. I have also supplemented the mag-
azine articles with selected works by writers whose names are associated
with the culture wars—‹gures such as William Bennett, Allan Bloom,
Dinesh D’Souza, Thomas Frank, Francis Fukuyama, Henry Louis Gates,
Roger Kimball, and Michael Walzer.
Hunter has argued that “within the contemporary public discourse, one
risks being branded a ‘right-winger’ by even invoking moral criteria. In-
deed, the very word ‘morality’ has become a right-wing word” (1991, 323).
And “the concept of religion or transcendence is also very often dismissed
by secular progressivists as ‘right-wing’” (324). My analysis of the writings
of partisans on both the left and the right does not support such hyperbolic
images. Rather, the spokespersons for both sides have “drawn on the same
symbolic code to . . . advance their competing claims,” as J. C. Alexander
and Smith found in their analysis of discourse within earlier American civil
debates (1993, 197).
An empirical test of the culture war hypothesis is of some signi‹cance
to both social scientists and the general public. For the most part, empiri-
cal researchers have tended to reject the idea of a culture war based on sur-
vey data, while those who defend the hypothesis have done so without em-
pirical research into the “deep culture” whose existence they claim. I hope
that a systematic study of the public discourse about culture wars will shed
light on the topic in a way that goes beyond the persuasive analyses of sur-
vey researchers.
There is, of course, an intuitive appeal—a surface plausibility—to the
culture war idea, given the differences in the ideas espoused by Jerry
Falwell, Pat Robertson, and Patrick Buchanan, on the one hand, and femi-
nists, gay-marriage advocates, and abortion-rights supporters on the other.
Even some social scientists are so wedded to the culture war concept that
they behave like the proverbial pessimists who see only the doughnut hole.
Thus, they see only divergences within the population where other ana-
lysts see convergences. John Kenneth White, for example, argues that a
“values divide” exists in American politics, with one side emphasizing
“duty and morality” while the other stresses “individual rights and self-
ful‹llment” (2003, 65). Citing a 2000 Zogby poll that asked whether there
are “absolute moral truths that govern our lives,” he reports that among
those who classi‹ed themselves as “very liberal,” 48 percent agreed and 46
percent disagreed, while among those who saw themselves as “very conser-
vative,” 74 percent agreed and 25 percent disagreed. He concludes that “the
values divide between liberals and conservatives . . . has become a chasm”
(66). But surely there is room for disagreement about whether this degree
of difference constitutes a “chasm” or a culture war.
Why does it matter whether there is or is not a culture war? A society
experiencing a culture war would face grave dif‹culties. It would lack com-
mon standards and assumptions, and as a result, the ability to make public
policy decisions would be severely compromised. Indeed, a society without
such common ground could barely function. It is instructive to recall that
after Culture Wars appeared in 1991, Hunter’s next book was titled Before the
Shooting Begins (1994). My analysis of American public culture suggests that
such images are unwarranted.
Warring over Culture
The culture war debates are embedded within a larger contention concern-
ing the nature of culture itself. Unlike the culture wars, however, disputes
about the concept of culture are not new. The term culture, used in the an-
thropological sense to describe how people think and behave, is generally

traced to the 1870s. It was popularized in the 1930s and became an essen-
tial part of social science. Yet as early as 1952, some sociologists and an-
thropologists rejected the concept as “so broad as to be useless in scienti‹c
discourse” (Kroeber and Kluckhohn 1952, 5). Half a century later, the util-
ity of the concept is questioned not because it is too broad but because it is
too precise. Critics argue that culture implies a degree of structure, coher-
ence, and stability that is not found in social reality (Brumann 1999).
The reigning image of culture in the 1950s was that of a set of basic val-
ues internalized early in life and shaping one’s very being. By the end of the
twentieth century, culture was more likely to be viewed as a “toolkit”
(Swidler 1986), a repertoire of skills and styles, “a pastiche of mediated rep-
resentations” (DiMaggio 1997, 267).
Even in the early 1950s, however, Kroeber and Kluckhohn were cau-
tious about the sway of a uni‹ed culture. They noted that whole cultures
are composed of varying and overlapping subcultures and that “each indi-
vidual selects from and to greater or lesser degree systematizes what he ex-
periences of the total culture” (1952, 157). In a complex society such as
ours, there is overlap “only upon the broadest of issues” (114). Yet Kroeber
and Kluckhohn assumed that values were the key to the unity of cultures.
Without reference to values, any account of a culture becomes “a mere
laundry list,” they argued (173). By the late twentieth century, the idea that
culture shapes behavior through values or ultimate ends was largely re-
jected, as was the idea of culture as something deeply internalized.
Beginning with Dennis Wrong’s classic 1961 article, “The Oversocialized
Conception of Man in Modern Sociology,” the idea of culture as a deeply
internalized “latent” pattern that accounted for most human behavior
came under attack. Wrong argued that individuals had more independence
from culture than sociologists recognized, if only because of biological
characteristics or presocialized unconscious minds.
In the 1970s, Clifford Geertz reoriented the study of culture to public
and symbolic meanings. He argued that culture should be seen neither as a
“super-organic reality” that exerts pressure on people nor as the attitudes
and beliefs lodged within people’s hearts and minds. Rather, culture is the
context within which things become intelligible. It contains “webs of
signi‹cance,” an interpretive search for meaning. “Culture is public be-
cause meaning is” (1973, 12).
A focus on public symbols allowed analysts to avoid questions of how
widely shared or consensual the culture is (Swidler 2002, 313). The analysis
of public culture also might fail to appreciate the extent to which some
public cultures may represent “the authorized beliefs of a society about it-
self” (Swidler 2001, 213). Nevertheless, Geertz’s work was very in›uential.
But Geertz’s idea that culture should be understood “through the
(recording and) interpretation of the publicly available forms in which it is
encoded (the ‘symbols’)” did not come to grips with the problem that cul-
ture may no longer be “‘contained’ in a location and/or attached to a
particular group” (Ortner 1999, 6–7). Television, for example, makes such
containment problematic. Symbols are now “conveyed by media to indi-
viduals without the co-presence of other human beings” (Schudson 1989,
154). Television anywhere in the world contains an “articulation of the
transnational, the national, the local, and the personal,” making it dif‹cult
to continue to assume that any particular culture is the only or the most
powerful way “to make sense of the world” (Abu-Lughod 1999, 129).
Given the multiplicity and complexity of cultural ideas in the contem-
porary world, the view of culture itself had to change. In the newer view of
culture, as people draw on local, national, and global sources of cultural
ideas, such “ideas never form a closed or coherent whole” (S. Wright 1998,
10). Cultural “worlds of meaning” are normally “contradictory, loosely
integrated, contested, mutable, and highly permeable” (Sewell 1999, 53).
Indeed, in complex contemporary societies, attempts to pin down the
“mainstream” or “dominant” culture often lead to the “intellectually em-
barrassing” result that “homogeneity may vanish like a mirage” (Hannerz
1992, 80). It becomes “harder to say from what normative cultural world a
particular sub-culture deviates” (Eagleton 2000, 75). However, at least one
anthropologist suggests that distinctions between earlier and later concep-
tualizations of culture are exaggerated. Marshall Sahlins has argued that
early American anthropologists were too individualistic to assume that cul-
tures were monolithic or coherent. Rather, he suggests, contemporary an-
thropologists appear to be applying “the historiographic principle . . . of at-
tributing to one’s predecessors the opposite of whatever is now deemed
true” (1999, 404).
Be that as it may, by the late twentieth century, earlier notions that a
uni‹ed culture determined behavior were increasingly called into question.
Research in cognitive psychology suggests that “our heads are full of im-
ages, opinions, and information, untagged as to truth values to which we
are inclined to attribute accuracy and plausibility” (DiMaggio 1997, 267).

Some ideas are more accessible than others, and cues in the environment
may bring them to the surface. But the fact that the images are internally
inconsistent does not appear to affect people’s ability to retain and act on
those images. Such cognitive research challenges earlier assumptions that
culture is acquired only through socialization, and it suggests that people
have the capacity to participate in multiple cultural traditions (267–68).
In 1986, Ann Swidler suggested that only a “loose coupling” existed be-
tween culture and action. Culture provides people not with a set of values
or ultimate ends that shape their behavior but with “strategies of action”—
skills, styles, and informal know-how. People draw selectively on these cul-
tural “tool kits.” Individual adherents to the culture absorb things selec-
tively and inconsistently, remaining ambivalent toward some aspects of
the culture or even adhering to some cultural codes in which they do not
really believe (giving Christmas presents, for example) (Swidler 2001, 163).
Though the tool kit image suggests that culture does not determine hu-
man behavior, Swidler acknowledges that “when culture fully takes, it so
merges with life as to be nearly invisible” (2001, 19). Conversely, an in-
creased consciousness of culture may mean that there are fewer experiences
of such “unmediated apprehension of how the world is put together and
how we should conduct ourselves in it.” Whenever “culture is recognized as
culture,” detachment and doubt result (Carey 1988, 11). Indeed, the very idea
of culture wars suggests that such simple apprehension no longer exists.
A number of scholars have attempted to pursue a middle ground be-
tween a deterministic view of culture—in which culture shapes human ac-
tion—and a more voluntaristic position that allows for greater individual
agency in selecting from the available cultural repertoires. Schudson, for
example, has argued that neither of these positions is entirely satisfactory.
Instead, he suggests that “sometimes culture ‘works’ and sometimes it
doesn’t. Sometimes the media cultivate attitudes, sometimes not; . . . some-
times ideas appear to be switchmen, sometimes they seem to make no dif-
ference” (1989, 158). There is no “universal truth with respect to these prob-
lems” (Robertson 1992, 34). In a similar vein, Vaisey (2007) has argued that
culture provides both motivations and justi‹cations for action. The
justi‹cations are conscious and are chosen from the available tool kit,
while the motivations may be deep-seated and largely unconscious.
Swidler, in contrast, has argued that at least some of the time, culture may
have powerful effects when it is not deeply internalized (2002, 315). Sheer
knowledge of the public code exerts pressure on people to give Christmas
presents or to acknowledge their secretaries during National Secretaries
Week or their mothers on Mother’s Day. In such situations, “one is con-
strained not by internal motives but by knowledge of how one’s actions
may be interpreted by others.” If one does not follow the code, one “may
need to negotiate a way around it” (2001, 163).
Struggles over the rethinking of culture are occurring in all the social
sciences. Within sociology, the tradition stemming from Emile Durkheim’s
late-nineteenth-century images of culture as a thinglike external force com-
petes with newer images of the “social construction of reality” (P. L. Berger
and Luckmann 1966). And whereas religion has always been at the “core”
of studies of culture, those who study the sociology of culture today tend
“to ignore religion altogether” (Casanova 1992, 33). Presumably, if culture
is no longer about deep-seated meanings, religious understandings are no
longer central.
Within anthropology, earlier traditions of ethnographic accounts por-
traying culture as a whole contend with arguments about whether the con-
cept of culture remains useful. An anthropologist notes that the discipline
has largely avoided the study of popular culture even though those in “cul-
tural studies” who do study popular culture use de‹nitions that should be
attractive to “an anthropology that attempts to think of cultures as frag-
mented, hybrid, deterritorialized, and mutually entangled” (Traube 1996,
128–29). But another anthropologist points out that while contemporary
scholars generally view culture as “unbounded,” “neither ‘boundedness’
nor its absence is given in the world.” Therefore, “to say a priori that ‘cul-
tures’ are not ‘bounded’ . . . is misleading since local discourses do, in fact,
establish authoritative traditions” (David Scott 1992, 376).
A political scientist contends that “the concept of ‘political culture’ or
‘common knowledge’ with which most political scientists operate presup-
poses an internal coherence and stability that is indefensible empirically.”
Political scientists are instead urged to think of culture as the practices
through which “social actors attempt to make their worlds coherent”
(Wedeen 2002, 720). An American historian notes that following the
demise of “consensus history” in the post–World War II period, the em-
phasis shifted from an examination of “static national values to contingent
state structures and political processes” (Rodgers 2004, 32). In lieu of a sta-
ble culture, one now assumes change and contingency.
Nevertheless, older ideas of culture often remain “embedded in our

teaching,” as introductory textbooks portray cultures “with unproblema-
tized boundaries” and describe them in terms of “uniform and internally
integrated traits” (Goode 2001, 435). Such simpli‹cations no doubt have
their uses. But perhaps, too, they occur because people want to see culture
“in precisely the bounded, rei‹ed, essentialized, and timeless fashion that
most of us now reject” (Brumann 1999, S11). While we recognize that indi-
viduals share certain “commonalities in thought and behavior” because of
their membership in the same family, gender, age group, social class, ethnic
group, and so forth, there remain characteristics that many Japanese share
and that differ from those of Americans (Brumann 1999, S7).
Just as anthropologists are denying the existence of cultural bound-
aries, people all over the world are consciously and conspicuously marking
such boundaries (Sahlins 1999, 414). Within the United States, people in-
creasingly differentiate themselves from others by using the term culture—
whether it is the culture of a particular corporation, the culture of the deaf,
or the cultures attached to various forms of popular entertainment. In con-
temporary Western discourse, “we now literally experience difference as cul-
ture” (David Scott 2003, 103). Perhaps the summation of one social scien-
tist is apt: “we cannot do without a concept of culture” (Sewell 1999, 38).
In what appears to be the dominant view, then, culture is no longer
seen as a total way of life that evolves among a distinct people and is trans-
mitted to their children, who internalize and reenact it. Yet there is far from
total consensus on the understanding of culture as something that is ›uid,
contested, and changing. Consider the following contrast. Swidler main-
tains that culture does not exert in›uence “via enduring psychological pro-
clivities implanted in individuals by their socialization. Instead, publicly
available meanings facilitate certain patterns of action, making them read-
ily available, while discouraging others” (1986, 283). James Davison Hunter,
conversely, contends that culture is a matter of “commanding truths so
deeply embedded in our consciousness and in the habits of our lives that to
question them is to question reality itself” (1994, 200). Here lies perhaps
the ultimate culture war. Is culture a thinglike reality that exerts control
over us, as Hunter sees it? Or is it “a contested area, . . . in›ected with pol-
itics” (Suny 2002, 1485), a matter of struggle and inequality rather than
consensus (P. Smith 1998, 3), “a political process of contestation over the
power to de‹ne key concepts, including that of ‘culture’ itself” (S. Wright
1998, 14)? If the latter view is accepted, then culture wars and multicultur-
alism become normal features of society. Indeed, when “culture no longer

refers to shared meanings that re›ect a people’s way of life,” the political na-
ture of culture becomes clear: “cultural practices refer to the many institu-
tions, classes, and groups that compete in the articulation of the social
meaning of things” (McCarthy 1996, 26). It is no wonder, then, that some
analysts perceive not a culture war but a class war or a series of political
con›icts.
Academic arguments about the nature of culture are thus not as far re-
moved from disputes about culture war issues as they might appear to be.
At the most fundamental level, whether a culture war is really taking place
may hinge on how one understands culture. It is probably not accidental
that the originator of the culture wars concept within sociology views cul-
ture as something unitary and internalized. Though he asserts that culture
is always contested (J. D. Hunter 2004), Hunter nevertheless conceptualizes
culture as a matter of internally consistent and deep normative structures.
If the “deep culture” is a uni‹ed entity, disagreements appear as culture
wars. By contrast, those who adhere to the newer views of culture do not
see a single transcendent culture war. Instead, they perceive multiple
spheres of contention, signi‹cant internal disputes, and a shifting array of
players and policy disputes.
Furthermore, culture war contentions may appear and disappear over
time. Some disputes are resolved by an emerging consensus, and new ones
arise. Thus, some of the controversies originating in the 1960s (for exam-
ple, whether wives should work and whether premarital sex is always
wrong) have been largely resolved, while others (homosexuality and same-
sex marriage) have become more salient (Fischer and Hout 2006, 229–30).
At the end of the 1990s, even Evangelicals expressed more support for
women’s participation in both the labor market and politics than had been
the case a decade earlier, though Evangelicals still prefer traditional family
arrangements when children are involved. And though they are much less
accepting of homosexuality than is the rest of the society, Evangelicals
manifest greater tolerance than they did earlier (McConkey 2001, 169, 172).
Sometimes a culture war dispute disappears because the particular
provocation is removed. Thus, the intense controversy over funding for the
arts is “now over—not because we now have agreement on the meaning
and value of the arts, but simply because there is neither a policy issue at
stake, nor any sort of media attention on debates within the arts” (Kidd
2006, 6). Without speci‹c provocations such as those surrounding Robert

Mapplethorpe’s photographs of gay men or Andres Serrano’s photograph of
a cruci‹x submerged in urine, the larger issue has been removed from pub-
lic consciousness. The two-decade-long war over the university canon like-
wise appears to be of less concern now. The public is no longer engaged by
the “canon wars”—disputes over what constitute essential or “classic”
works to be included in university curricula.
Perceptions of the speci‹c issues of contention in the culture wars are
also signi‹cantly in›uenced by how one views culture. Multiculturalism,
for example, is attacked or defended through the lens of one’s understand-
ing of culture. Curiously, multiculturalism has been attacked for both un-
derestimating and overestimating the in›uence of culture. The idea of mul-
ticulturalism has been found wanting by those who subscribe to both older
and newer understandings of culture.
James Davison Hunter alleges that multiculturalists fail to recognize
that culture is a matter of norms and values that are deeply embedded
within us. “Within multiculturalism literature, culture is essentially re-
duced to life-style (choices about how one lives) or, at best, customs (prac-
tices that have the sanction of tradition but are not insisted upon as invio-
lable).” Multiculturalists assume that the individual is “free and
independent from culture, unencumbered by moral commitments de‹ned
by virtue of one’s membership in a community. But culture is much more
pervasive, powerful, and compelling than is allowed for in the liberal un-
derstanding of the self. . . . By reducing culture to a product about which
individuals may choose, multiculturalism further renders culture as a
tri›ing matter” (1994, 200–202). Bernstein argues similarly that multicul-
turalists do not really know or care much about culture: “The paradox is
that the power of culture is utterly contrary to the most fervently held be-
liefs and values of the advocates of multiculturalism. Multiculturalism is a
movement of the left. . . . But culture is powerfully conservative. Culture is
what enforces obedience to authority, the authority of parents, of history,
of custom, of superstition. Deep attachment to culture is one of the things
that prevents different people from understanding one another” (1995, 6).
And a historian has argued that in our zeal to imagine “a soft multicultur-
alist notion of a syncretic America,” we may well minimize “the pain of
cultural brokerage, . . . leaving Pocahontas Disneyized.” Those cultural bro-
kers “who were once reviled as ‘half-breeds’ of treacherously inscrutable
loyalties, emerge now as transcultural virtuosos, able to shift performative

identities at will” (Rodgers 2004, 39).
Multiculturalists are also criticized for failing to appreciate the unity
and integrity of culture. “A culture is, after all, a complete way of thinking,
feeling, and viewing the world. It is not a smorgasbord from which the
diner can select his favorite bits and pieces at will.” Multiculturalists oper-
ate with “a general ignorance of what a culture is” (O’Sullivan 1994a, 40).
“A moral tradition is an organic whole,” says another conservative; one
cannot accept only some of it. Making homosexual activity acceptable, for
example, will generate questioning of the whole tradition (Klinghoffer
1998, 26).
From the vantage point of those with the newer view of culture, how-
ever, Hunter, Bernstein, and others are “cultural fundamentalists” who are
frightened by “the ›imsiness of a culture where everything is in motion
and authority has perpetually to prove itself . . . and the fragments of iden-
tity are on sale everywhere from the university to the mall” (Gitlin 1995,
223). Multiculturalism appears to make a mockery of deeply implanted nor-
mative structures.
Critics who accuse multiculturalists of overestimating the signi‹cance
of culture, however, allege that multiculturalists make every group appear
to have a culture of its own, so that we become incapable of understanding
each other across cultural barriers. As one observer puts it, the multicultur-
alists “have created a cult of incommensurability. But if the differences be-
tween individuals and groups were as thick as the multiculturalists think,
then not even multiculturalism would be possible. Everybody would be
shut up in subjectivity” (Wieseltier 1994, 30). In “the exaggerated post-
modernist perspective” to which some multiculturalists adhere, human be-
ings are “pure products of cultural context,” so that no understanding or
communication between cultures is possible. This idea not only is false but
“provides intellectual backup for a political outlook that sees no real basis
for common ground among humans of different sexes, races, and cultures”
(Ehrenreich and McIntosh 1997, 15, 16). Multiculturalists treat culture as if
it were “a ‹xed entity, transmitted, as it were, in the genes, rather than
through experience” (Chavez 1994, 26). Left and Right converge here in cri-
tiquing the exaggerated in›uence that some multiculturalists impute to
culture.
As these critics of multiculturalism see it, no contemporary group can
maintain a ‹rm culture. “The onslaught of economic, organizational, and

technological change inexorably erodes the very ground on which one’s
parents walked” (Gitlin 1995, 206). While multiculturalism harbors the
“presumption that grandparents are destiny,” contemporary individuals
can choose their cultural af‹liations. Though there is “a common prejudice
to the effect that af‹liations based on choice are somehow arti‹cial and
lacking in depth, . . . super‹ciality does not follow from volition any more
than authenticity follows from submission to tradition and authority”
(Hollinger 1995, 119). After all, “the depth of . . . involvement is often
greater among converts than among birthright members of a particular re-
ligious community” (121). And the allegation that those who change reli-
gions are not “morally serious” is belied by such phenomena as the pro-life
activists who convert to Catholicism or those who switch religious denom-
inations because of agreement with the “moral culture” of their new groups
(R. S. Warner 1993, 1076–77).
Given the hostility toward multiculturalism from those with very dif-
ferent understandings of culture, it is perhaps not surprising that no com-
mentator in our twenty-one-year sample of political commentary defends
the basic concept of multiculturalism. To be sure, some writers are more
hostile to the idea than others, and some offer support for educating stu-
dents about cultural diversity, but enthusiasm for the fundamental concept
is strikingly absent.
Arguments about the workings of culture are also implicated in the cul-
ture war debates concerning popular culture. Re›ecting the greater likeli-
hood that progressives will adhere to the newer view of culture, most com-
mentators on the left do not see any one-to-one relationship between
popular culture and actual behavior. By contrast, those on the right are
more likely to see popular culture, art, literature, and other symbolic fare as
directly affecting behavior. An editorial in National Review, for example, ar-
gues that people who watch TV talk shows “will ‹nd it harder to reject
other kinds of behavior that are wrong but less extravagantly perverted,
like conventional adultery” (Editorial 1995b, 18). A liberal commentator, by
contrast, suggests that although “the culture now has a surfeit of coarse-
ness, from noxious rap lyrics to the Jerry Springer Show,” there is no evi-
dence of moral decline (Whitman 1999, 18).
Progressives similarly attack what they see as a “simple one-to-one cor-
relation between books and behavior” in the debate over the university
canon. If people are divided, as they have always been, about “what kind of
country they want,” then “books cannot mold a common national pur-
pose” (Pollitt 1991, 331). It is also wrong to treat works of art as if their pur-
pose is “therapeutic.” “Imbibe the Republic or Phaedo at 19, and you will
be one kind of person; study Jane Eyre or Mrs. Dalloway, and you will be
another” (Hughes 1992a, 47).
Progressives thus appear to attribute greater autonomy or agency to in-
dividuals in the face of cultural symbols than do the conservatives. Yet at
least one conservative, unwilling to tolerate government censorship of cul-
tural materials, suggests that the sex and violence in contemporary popu-
lar culture do not have dire consequences. He agrees with those who argue
that “as an in›uence on the development of my children, my words and
my example outweigh . . . anything Britney Spears does. . . . It’s the cul-
ture—but it doesn’t matter; it does no great harm” (Derbyshire 2000, 34).
Similarly, at least one progressive acknowledges that cultural imprinting
can have signi‹cant effects. Although we are aware of the social construc-
tion of cultural categories, they often act “as needless calci‹cations,” he
says. We know that “cultural de‹nitions of sexual and gender unorthodoxy
have shifted over time. . . . Most of us, alas, however attracted to the theory
of in‹nite malleability, have been trained in a culture that regards sexual
appetite as consisting of two, and only two, contrasting variations—gay or
straight. And most of us have internalized that perhaps false dichotomy to
such a degree that it has become as deeply imprinted in us—as im-
mutable—as any genetically mandated trait” (Duberman 1993, 22).
Commentators from all sides acknowledge the pervasiveness of popular
culture and the dif‹culty of disentangling one’s own thoughts from those
disseminated by the media (Gibbs and McDowell 1992; Labi 1998; Morrow
1994a). Conservative writers are more likely to ‹nd these in›uences perni-
cious and to attribute power over the culture to the Left. “Culture shapes
our lives and affects every action we take,” says one such commentator,
and “the current epidemics of drug use, AIDS, and crime are testimony
enough to the power of culture to in›uence our lives. Just think how im-
plicated the cultural agenda of the Left has been in these disasters,” since
the Left’s literature, music, and ‹lms have “glori‹ed every kind of libertin-
ism and polymorphous perversity” (Lipman 1991b, 53).
Despite disagreements about where power lies, most commentators
subscribe to the idea that culture is ultimately made by people in their on-
going social interactions. Though conservatives assume that “most people
aren’t pleased to have their most cherished values challenged” (Hyde
1990a, 26), while progressives assume that traditions are or should be
“open to criticism and renegotiation” (G. Graff and Cain 1989, 312), the
idea that culture is socially constructed and changeable appears to be
shared by all. Writers on the left and in the center may use the language of
“social construction” more frequently than those on the right, but all
seem to share some version of the following idea: “Each of us in our daily
lives helps shape the cultural images and assumptions that de‹ne the lim-
its of the permissible” (Pollitt 1990, 24). Debates about the meaning of
Columbus, for example, are seen as a way of reinventing ourselves, over-
turning earlier myths and replacing them with new ones (Gray 1991). More
generally, “America is a construction of mind. . . . America is a collective
act of the imagination whose making never ends” (Hughes 1992a, 44).
What is discussed in the culture wars is a matter of the rede‹nition of
morality—“a process in which all Americans, from born-again to New Age
to agnostic, are already participating” (Judis 1999, 56). A National Review
writer notes that if we capitulate to the demands of the multiculturalists,
we might “create a self-ful‹lling prophecy” and produce a multicultural
society, though none currently exists in the United States (Chavez 1994,
26). And a well-known conservative describes the process through which a
culture can erode over time. He argues that the essentially WASP American
character, rooted in hard work, civic-mindedness, and individual con-
sciences, has come under attack. “The danger is not that a new post-WASP
personality will emerge. A nation’s character is not so mutable; it takes ma-
jor upheaval—revolution, conquest—to transform it. What is possible,
however, is that the character America already possesses will slip into
chronic malfunction. Most of us will keep behaving the way we always
have, without knowing why, while the rest will act differently, simply for
the sake of being different.” (Brookhiser 1993b, 79). We are not powerless
to change the culture, another conservative suggests, as the example of
smoking illustrates. In the not-very-distant past, “the culture and its sus-
taining icons (Humphrey Bogart for example) loved smoking. Today smok-
ing cigarettes is disreputable. . . . Change the myth and the values follow”
(Morrow 1995, 90).
The Culture Warriors
Those who participate in the culture wars are, of course, intensely aware of
the struggle for control. As each side attempts to de‹ne the culture while
fearing its opponents’ ability to do likewise, a kind of mirror imagery ap-
pears in descriptions of the struggle. The Left says that at issue is “a power-
ful movement to impose intellectual and cultural hegemony on the whole
society. The New Right agenda not only includes compulsory prayer; it de-
mands compulsory heterosexuality, compulsory sobriety, compulsory
racism, sexism, and imperialism” (Editorial 1984, 308). The Right, in turn,
explains “the Left’s cultural agenda” as consisting of “primitivism, femi-
nism, racialism, multiculturalism, and sexual radicalism. The Left wishes to
. . . destroy every traditional social habit and institution, including
churches and ending with the family” (Lipman 1991b, 38). If a critic on the
left portrays the culture war as a contest between questioning authority
and Father Knows Best, between self-expression and deference to norms
(Ehrenreich 1993b, 74), an observer on the right suggests that what “drives
the culture war” is “the power of rationalization” that convinces people
that “heretofore forbidden desires are permissible,” whether such desires
are homosexuality or abortion (Reilly 1996, 60).
The two sides fear each other’s in›uences in very similar ways. A com-
mentator on the left cries out, “How long are we going to let conservatives
de‹ne the national agenda on social issues?” (Tax 1995, 378). And from the
right, the question is, “Why is culture formed so completely by the Left,
rather than by the Right?” (Lipman 1991b, 38). Those on the right argue
that support for the traditional family goes against “the reigning ortho-
doxy” (Marshner 1988, 39) and subjects one to “the charge of being a
bigot, a religious nut, or just hopelessly out of touch” (Tucker 1993, 28).
On the left, the contention is that “it’s even harder to get a serious public
hearing for a radical critique of the family than for a radical critique of
capitalism” (Willis 1996, 22). The Right accuses American society of a form
of religious intolerance, suggesting that “culture makers” bear a “disdain
bordering on contempt . . . for the deeply religious” (Krauthammer 1998,
92). The Left argues that it is not possible in American society to “mock re-
ligious belief as childish” or to “describe God as our creation” because such
sentiments violate “the norms of civility and religious correctness”
(Kaminer 1996, 24).
Both sides fear that their opponents have gained the upper hand in
framing the debates, in constructing the cultural realities. On the right,

there is concern that the gay movement has succeeded in de‹ning a reality
that makes opposition to homosexuals appear to be bigotry (Editorial
1998c, 16). On the left, there is fear that the Christian Right’s de‹nition
of acceptability has made all gays seek to demonstrate that they’re just as
worthy (Ireland 1999, 16).
Each side sees inadequacies in its own efforts to shape the culture. Con-
servatives worry that their relative absence in the culture-producing indus-
tries—the arts and entertainment—has left audiences more vulnerable to
the opposition’s in›uence. Without leadership from conservative culture
makers, audiences have continued “their passive consumption of cultural
artifacts and thus acquiescence in the dominant values” (Lipman 1991b,
53). Progressives, conversely, are worried that they have been so absorbed
in calling for cultural diversity that “we on the left no longer know what we
want from cultural life, nor what we should demand from culture” (Kriegel
1984–85, 714).
There is mirror imagery, too, in the motives that each side assigns to its
opponents. The Left argues that the culture wars are a right-wing effort to
distract attention from the increasing inequality of income and wealth.
“It’s the culture, stupid” (di Leonardo 1996, 25). The Right, in contrast, sug-
gests that for the Left, “culture—or rather cultures—replaces economics as
the engine of revolutionary social change”; “power to the cultures” re-
places “power to the people” (Lipman 1991a, 40).
Each side accuses the other of “politicizing” culture. If the Left has ar-
gued that “the personal is political” because issues of feminism, abortion,
and gay rights cannot be handled on a purely individual or personal level,
the Right sees this as “politicizing.” The Left politicizes everything, conser-
vatives have argued, by taking private behaviors—such as homosexual
acts—and bringing them into the public sphere. “The idea that one must
be either in the closet or out of it is an invention of those who would politi-
cize sex and abolish privacy” (Short 1990, 44). When conservatives see
politicization within their own ranks, it is with dismay. Thus, “the politi-
cizing of religion” is seen as disastrous for both public life and religion
(Neuhaus 1988a, 46). For the Left, however, the Right “politicizes” culture
when it disputes revisions of university curricula or the funding choices of
the National Endowment for the Arts. As seen by the Left, the campaign
against funding the National Endowment for the Arts is part of “the pop-
ulist right’s broader agenda” (Editorial 1995a, 152); it is based on “an amal-
gam of high culture reactionaries, antigovernment ideologues and faux

populists” (Pollitt 1997, 10).
The Left accuses the Right of denying its own—inevitably political—
stances. Thus, conservatives’ “uneasiness and sometimes distaste for mi-
nority subcultures: blacks, women, gays” goes along with “a tendency to
advance a supposedly depoliticized (which means strongly political) view
of culture that sees it as a museum of ‹xed consensual values” (Howe 1984,
29). The Right, in turn, accuses the Left of being “determined to politicize”
culture to undermine and destroy traditional habits and institutions (Lip-
man 1991b, 38).
The mirror images of the contending culture warriors—the idea that
criticism of the family is not acceptable versus the idea that the traditional
family is out of fashion; the idea that one cannot criticize religion versus
the idea that serious religious conviction is out of bounds; the idea that cul-
ture wars are a cover for increasing economic inequality versus the idea
that they compensate for the failure of egalitarian ideas—re›ect an under-
lying social reality in which both sides are true. Americans are highly indi-
vidualistic, yet they endorse the importance of the family far more than
their European counterparts do (see van Elteren 1998, 70). Americans are
highly religious but uncomfortable with extremists of any stripe. Ameri-
cans are egalitarian in ideology but uncomfortable talking about class;
thus, cultural issues cover for economic ones. The values of both sides in
the culture war appear to be strongly present in the American population.
Perhaps only in America does a conservative who sees the traditional
family as in tune with “the facts of human nature” nevertheless feel it nec-
essary to argue that teaching children about family values does not inhibit
self-expression. We need to train children in these traditional family values
to help them understand their own nature, she argues. Children so trained
are nonetheless free to reject these values when they mature, which is
“why, contrary to what the relativists insist, instilling them is not oppres-
sive” (Marshner 1988, 40).
American Culture
Can one subscribe to the newer view of culture and still speak of an entity
called American culture? Can one refer to American culture without doing
violence to empirical reality? To some extent, nations exist as “symbolic

communities” and “de‹ne themselves in opposition to one another.” Be-
ing anti-American, for example, may help to de‹ne some French people
(Lamont and Molnar 2002, 185). But is there some essence that de‹nes
American culture?
If one contends that there is no “war” over “the meaning of America,”
how is this meaning to be de‹ned? Over the years, various analysts—most
notably, perhaps, Robin Williams (1957), Herbert Gans (1980), and Sey-
mour Martin Lipset (1996)—have produced lists of core American values.
However credible these lists may seem to be, they remain both static and
simpli‹ed. They fail to indicate the ambiguities and contradictions at-
tached to each particular trait.
While most adherents to newer understandings of culture reject the
idea of values as central in understanding behavior, I argue that the values
discussed are rarely held without ambivalence. It is not simply that people’s
actions do not re›ect the ideals of the culture in a straightforward way.
Each value is accompanied by competing concerns, ambivalences that do
not allow for simple enactment. As Slater has noted, every culture frustrates
some needs by emphasizing others. Thus, American individualism repeat-
edly frustrates needs for community and dependence (1976, 8–9), and such
frustrated needs inevitably exert cultural pressures.
If Americans are notoriously individualistic, what exactly does that
mean? Survey data over many decades substantiate an American devotion
to laissez-faire policies and the belief that each individual is responsible for
his or her fate. But individualism is not a unitary phenomenon (Fischer
2000; Halman 1996). If Americans are supremely devoted to economic in-
dividualism, they are simultaneously concerned about the excesses of indi-
vidualism and the need for community. They also place more credence in
traditional authorities than the citizens of other advanced technological
societies do.
American devotions to religion and morality, to pluralism and pop-
ulism, are likewise riddled with inconsistencies and paradoxes. If Ameri-
cans are more given to religious and moral thinking than are citizens of
most other technologically advanced nations, they have never resolved
how much religion and morality should be matters of public consensus
and how much should be left to the individual conscience. Americans have
wrestled with issues of religion and morality in ways that manifestly differ
from those of their European counterparts, who have not experienced the
extremes of a constitutional amendment banning alcohol or the outright
ban on prostitution, for example.
Lipset and others have argued that unlike other nations, whose citizens
belong as a matter of birthright, the United States was born out of revolu-
tion, and its unity hinges on a shared creed. In Europe, for example, “one
cannot become un-English or un-Swedish. Being an American, however, is
an ideological commitment. It is not a matter of birth. Those who reject
American values are un-American” (1996, 31). Lipset’s critics reject the idea
that a set of enduring values can explain American history and politics,
maintaining instead that values result from at least as much as they cause
institutional practices and historical events. Lipset acknowledges the role
of institutional factors in producing values, noting that “a new settler soci-
ety, a Bill of Rights, Protestant sectarianism, wars, and the like” have pro-
duced American values. Nevertheless, he asserts that these values “result in
deep beliefs, such as deference or antagonism to authority, individualism
or group-centeredness, and egalitarianism or elitism, which form the orga-
nizing principles of societies” (25). Such an approach minimizes the roles
of both human agency and power differentials and exaggerates the degree
to which one end of each polarity is dominant.
Some adherents to newer understandings of culture question the utility
of the concept of values. Swidler argues, for example, that American indi-
vidualism should not be seen as a “value.” Rather, it represents the idea
that action depends on individuals’ choices. And the “individualistic way
of organizing action can be directed to many values, among them the es-
tablishment of ‘community’” (1986, 276).
If many contemporary scholars are willing to abandon the concept of
values and to question the idea of well-de‹ned cultures, others continue to
assert that “deep culture is more than the epiphenomenal product of polit-
ical and economic arrangements” (Wuthnow 2006, 28) and that cultural
assumptions often make change dif‹cult. Assumptions about “individual-
ism and the American dream,” for example, may “make it dif‹cult to con-
front inequality and discrimination” (Wuthnow 2005, 363). Yet as Bennett
Berger has observed, culture entails “a continuing historical process” in
which “the meaning of none of the key terms is ‹xed over time” (1995, 39).
Indeed, many aspects of the “American Creed” can be seen as persisting
while being subjected to change, con›ict, and the evolution of new mean-
ings. American culture is embodied in enduring dilemmas rather than en-

during values.
To some extent, the very religiosity and morality that appear to inhere
in the American Creed may help to generate con›icts. Many scholars have
argued that Americans are among the most religious people in Christen-
dom because voluntaristic sects rather than hierarchical churches have
dominated American religious institutions. “The sectarian is expected to
follow a moral code, as determined by his/her own sense of rectitude,
re›ecting a personal relationship with God.” The American sects have thus
“produced a moralistic people” (Lipset 1996, 19–20). Con›icts about public
policy are “intense” and “morally based” as “people quarrel sharply about
how to apply the basic principles of Americanism they purport to agree
about” (26).
From this perspective, the contemporary American culture wars can be
seen as an outgrowth of characteristically American culture patterns. Cul-
tural politics are certainly not new in American life, even if earlier manifes-
tations were not labeled as “culture wars.” Contentions regarding the abo-
lition of slavery, the prohibition of alcohol, and the reading of the Bible in
public schools, for example, were of major importance in earlier American
politics.
Like earlier cultural politics, the contemporary culture wars take place
within the parameters of some enduring cultural patterns. These patterns
are a matter not of stable values but rather of a series of dilemmas that are
revisited as new issues or situations evoke them. Dilemmas about the role
of religion and morality, about individualism, pluralism, and populism,
constitute American culture. In each case, as my analysis of public dis-
course in the culture wars shows, there is no simple solution. American cul-
ture is not a matter of either/or but rather of both/and. There is thus no
simple or unitary “culture war,” no “struggle for the soul of America.”
If the contemporary culture wars differ from those of the past, it is only
because we have become increasingly aware of such contention and in-
creasingly conscious of the tenuousness with which all cultural ideas are
held. One does not need to be a sociologist to recognize the speed with
which ideas about sexual practices, for example, have changed. Premarital
sex has become the norm. Homosexuality has lost its exoticism. Indeed,
gay activists were well aware that the more their members came out of the
closet, the less dif‹cult the struggle for acceptance would become. Self-con-
scious efforts to shape cultural meanings are now part of the political
agenda.
The chapters that follow explore each of the American cultural dilem-
mas in which the culture wars are embedded through the lens of two
decades’ worth of political commentary. Where data are available concern-
ing public sentiments on these issues, these data are incorporated into the
narratives. Also addressed are historical and theoretical arguments con-
cerning the larger issues—for example, questions about American religios-
ity and civil religion, the nature of American individualism and pluralism,
and how multiculturalism is related to individualism. Although there is
more agreement among the cultural antagonists than is usually imagined,
there is also more internal disagreement within each camp than is usually
acknowledged. These internal divisions are explored in the penultimate
chapter, which assesses the current forms of polarization in American soci-
ety, whether they result from an “American exceptionalism,” and whether
the 2000, 2004, and 2008 presidential elections demonstrate the
signi‹cance of the culture wars. A brief concluding chapter offers observa-
tions on ongoing cultural change.
CHAPTER 2
Respect for Religion but

Uncertainty about Its Role
When Alexis de Tocqueville visited the United States in the 1830s, he ob-
served that the American case belied the eighteenth-century philosophers’
assumption that religious faith would decline in the face of broader free-
dom and knowledge: “In America, one of the freest and most enlightened
nations in the world, the people ful‹ll with fervor all the outward duties of
religion” (1848/1961, 1:319). He also noted that although a politician could
attack a particular sect without being damaged, “if he attacks all the sects
together, everyone abandons him” (317). In this regard, little appears to
have changed.
The Public Sphere and Civil Religion
In keeping with the general American tendency to view religion as a posi-

tive force, all of the journals of political opinion show a respect for religion.
Although The New Republic editorializes against the Religious Right’s
“con›ation of religion with morality,” it nevertheless chides liberals not to
assume “that the godless have nothing to learn from the godful” (Editorial
1994a, 7). However, it is not only the Religious Right that con›ates religion
31
and morality. Five years after that editorial appeared, an article published
in the same magazine argued that we are now “more moral” than we were
earlier. The writer’s progressive sympathies are clearly indicated by his mea-
sures of moral progress: declines in sexism, racism, ageism, and discrimina-
tion against homosexuals and the disabled. Nevertheless, he also lists as
indicators of moral progress a slight increase in church attendance and
prayer and no decline in religious belief (Whitman 1999, 18).
A broad consensus holds that religion contributes to civil society. As
one commentator sees it, if all religious claims were to be deemed inadmis-
sible in the public arena, we would be “depluralizing our polity,” to its
detriment. Religious ideas and communities encourage civic participation,
mutual assistance, and humanistic values. And it is not possible for “per-
sons of faith” to “bracket their beliefs when they enter the public square.”
Much of the animus against religious participation in public life comes
from the style of that participation, which should be altered to be intelligi-
ble to those who do not share the faith (Elshtain 1996, 25).
Articles in magazines across the political spectrum suggest that debates
in the public square must be based on secular reasons, not on faith. Because
religious reasons are not persuasive to the nonreligious, the secular reasons
must be debated, even in matters such as abortion (Editorial 1994a, 7).
Whatever public policies arise from religious understandings “will have to
be justi‹ed, in the public square, on other grounds” (Pollitt 1996, 9). To be
sure, some conservative religious spokespersons contend that religious de-
baters can bring “a nuanced appreciation of complexity and a level of pub-
lic reasoning that can elevate the otherwise debased moral discourse in
American society” (Neuhaus 1986, 46).
Articles by William F. Buckley Jr. and Harvey Cox nicely illustrate the
convergence between Left and Right in their support for religious discourse
within the public sphere. While Buckley writes in National Review that pub-
lic ‹gures should be able to say that greed or adultery is wrong, as the New
Testament tells us (1996, 63), Cox argues in The Nation that religious dis-
course can enrich political discourse and that either politics is “linked to
morality or it withers” (1996, 20). A conservative writer in The New Repub-
lic also argues that “conservatives are not the only ones who are troubled”
by the question of “what happens to a free society when a major source of
its values—religion—declines” (Krauthammer 1981, 25).
Of the forty-six articles that deal with aspects of religion other than the
Respect for Religion but Uncertainty about Its Role 33
creationism disputes, half maintain a favorable view of religion, while only

six are clearly negative. The remaining seventeen articles are neutral. Even
within the sample in The Nation, six of the articles addressing religion are
neutral or positive (three of each), while ‹ve are negative. In the discus-
sions of creationism, only three of the nine articles are clearly hostile to re-
ligious encroachments against science; two are neutral, and four support
religion’s claims to be heard in the classroom, albeit not as science.
Support for religion in the public sphere includes the idea of strength-
ening American civil religion. The American civil religion—including a be-
lief in God and the hereafter, religious tolerance, and the notion that virtue
should be rewarded and vice punished—has enriched the nation for two
centuries, one writer argues. Though it is now jeopardized by the “Holy
War” between the Fundamentalists and the secularists, its purpose is “to in-
fuse American life with a sense of transcendence, not to impose a religious
order on individuals.” (Krauthammer 1984, 19). Keeping God out of the
public schools, says another commentator, “prevents people from drawing
on this country’s rich and diverse religious heritage for guidance and it de-
grades the nation’s moral discourse” (Gibbs 1991, 68).
Though calls for the rejuvenation of American civil religion are essen-
tially calls for consensus and unity, the concept itself is fraught with con-
troversy and con›ict. Attacked as a form of national self-righteousness, de-
fended as a transcendent standard of judgment for the American polity,
the idea of American civil religion embodies the long-standing connection
between religion and politics in the United States. Despite American devo-
tion to the separation of church and state, civil religion has served to legit-
imate and sanctify both the government and various social movements. As
numerous commentators have pointed out, the very language of the Dec-
laration of Independence contains tenets of American civil religion, sug-
gesting that God’s laws rule over humans and that God has given us “un-
alienable rights.” But the very “elasticity” of civil religion “as a symbolic
resource means that its content is contested” (Rhys H. Williams and
Alexander 1994, 4).
While the phrase civil religion originated with Rousseau, who saw it as a
creed developed and implemented by rulers to assure citizens’ loyalty, its
use has also re›ected the Durkheimean understanding that every social
group has a religious dimension. The application of the idea to American
society received its classic form in the work of Robert Bellah in the late
1960s. Bellah defended his concept against the accusation that it repre-
sented “national self-worship” by arguing that its central idea is “the sub-
ordination of the nation to ethical principles that transcend it and in terms
of which it should be judged” (Bellah 1970, 168). In Bellah’s understanding
at the time, the references to God in our currency and in our pledge of al-
legiance to the ›ag, in the oath of of‹ce and in the inaugural addresses of
most American Presidents signify that though sovereignty is in the hands
of the citizenry, it ultimately rests in God. There is thus a “higher criterion”
by which to judge the will of the people (171). The beliefs (including the
idea of America as the promised land and the idea that “God has led his
people to establish a new sort of social order that shall be a light unto all
the nations”) (175), the symbols (the ›ag), and the rituals (the presidential
inauguration, the Fourth of July, and Memorial Day) together constitute a
civil religion that is nonsectarian and is not tied to Christianity, though
they may share some ideas.
Bellah recognized that the American civil religion could be used for
good or for ill. Though it is “dif‹cult to use the words of Jefferson and
Lincoln to support special interests and undermine personal freedom,” the
theme of the American Israel was used to justify shameful treatment of the
American Indians, and “an American-Legion type of ideology that fuses
God, country, and ›ag has been used to attack nonconformist and liberal
ideas and groups of all kinds” (1970, 182). Yet his tone remained guardedly
optimistic. Even a decade later, he asserted, “I am not prepared to say that
religious communities, among which I include humanist communities, are
not capable even today of providing the religious superstructure and infra-
structure that would renew our republic” (1978, 200). This is of great im-
portance, Bellah argued, because civil religion is “indispensable” to the ex-
istence of a republic—a government in which there is an active political
community that has purpose and values (197).
But by 2001, when analysts saw a resurgence of American civil religion
in the aftermath of the September 11 attacks, Bellah was clearly skeptical of
the uses to which civil religious themes were being put. He was highly crit-
ical of an address given by President George W. Bush at the Washington Na-
tional Cathedral, calling it “stunningly inappropriate . . . because it was a
war talk” (Broadway 2001, B09). The use of the concept had clearly now be-
come so identi‹ed with conservative causes that Bellah and other liberals
no longer felt tied to it. Bellah’s initial discussion of civil religion had ap-
peared during the liberal era of the 1960s. At that time, he cited as an ex-
ample of American civil religion President Lyndon B. Johnson’s 1965 ad-
dress calling for a strong voting-rights act, which concluded, “God will not
favor everything that we do. It is rather our duty to divine his will. I cannot
help but believe that He truly understands and that He really favors the un-
dertaking that we begin here tonight” (Bellah 1970, 181).
Twenty years after this use of civil religious language to promote the
cause of civil rights, noted theologian Martin E. Marty asserted that civil re-
ligion “has been transposed in public perception, from moderate and
liberal contexts to conservative and nationalist ones” (1985, 16). Robert
Wuthnow proclaimed that there were now two versions of American civil
religion: conservative and liberal, with the former emphasizing biblical ori-
gins and economic and other freedoms and the latter concerned with peace
and security and America’s role in the world (1988, 281). Both sides talk of
“higher principles” that govern what America should be (Derek H. Davis
1997), but the Right emphasizes “one nation under God,” while the Left
stresses “liberty and justice for all” (Guinness 1993, 232). While it may seem
like an oxymoron to talk of competing civil religions, Bellah et al. argue
that the two do not represent “a polarization of American civil religion.”
Rather, American popular culture embraces the values proclaimed by both
sides; it’s not a matter of either/or (1991, 215).
In the wake of the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, “the ailing civil
religion” seemed to come back to life. Large numbers of Americans went to
church for comfort and displayed American ›ags everywhere—“an instinc-
tive melding of the religious and the civil” (McClay 2004, 16). Those on the
Christian Right, such as Jerry Falwell and Pat Robertson, who viewed the at-
tacks as evidence of “God’s displeasure at America’s having turned away
from its Judeo-Christian roots” were “quickly and soundly rebuffed”
(Machacek 2003, 157), their credibility damaged (McClay 2004, 6). Per-
haps, one analyst argued, “a great many Americans” understood that “their
brand of narrow-minded religiosity is not, after all, the ‘American way’”
and that American civil religion can be inclusive of all Americans
(Angrosino 2002, 265).
The search for a “common faith” remains (McClay 2004, 19), as does
the desire for a more expansive civil religion that af‹rms “religious diver-
sity as a positive value” (Machacek 2003, 157). Civil religion is seen as pro-
viding “a second language of piety” within a pluralistic society where “reli-
gious believers and nonbelievers alike need ways to live together” (McClay
2004, 19).
Struggles over how to de‹ne the civil religion are certainly not new. In-
deed, “it is doubtful whether America ever existed as an ideological whole”
(Demerath and Williams 1985, 163). The Durkheimean image of moral in-
tegration and cultural consensus was probably never accurate. Our newer
understandings of culture make it clear that the unifying characteristics of
a civil religion have been exaggerated.
Though Bellah disputed any necessary connection between Christian-
ity and American civil religion, such connections clearly are often made. As
one historian has noted, the idea that “Christians have a proprietary rela-
tion to the United States” dies a very slow death (Hollinger 2002, 863). Ef-
forts at greater inclusion through the use of the term Judeo-Christian are not
persuasive in a twenty-‹rst-century America whose population includes
many Hindus, Muslims, Buddhists, Sikhs, and members of other faiths. In
such a religiously pluralistic society, no “religious common denominator”
is possible, “no faith can be shared, public, all-American—and transcen-
dent” (Guinness 1993, 233–34).
While members of both the contemporary Left (as represented by
Bellah) and Right (as represented by Guinness) view civil religion as requir-
ing a standard of judgment that transcends the social system, some earlier
observers de‹ned American civil religion as the equivalent of a “folk reli-
gion” (D. G. Jones and Richey 1974, 15). Thus, for Will Herberg, the Ameri-
can Way of Life “is a civil religion in the strictest sense of the term, for, in
it, national life is apotheosized, national values are religionized, national
heroes are divinized, national history is experienced as . . . a redemptive
history” (1974, 78). To critics such as Bellah and Guinness, this is little short
of idolatrous. Indeed, the very Durkheimean understanding of religion as a
kind of societal self-worship makes civil religion “inescapably idolatrous”
(Guinness 1993, 225). Another critic points to the contradictory elements
in American civil religion. “Can American civil religion be anything other
than the patriotic cult of the manifest imperial destiny of the American na-
tion or the cult of a nation made up of individuals pursuing their own pri-
vate utilitarian forms of religion? Both would undermine republican
virtue” (Casanova 1994, 60).
The few efforts to test the idea of American civil religion with empirical
data have not produced convincing evidence. A study of editorials in one
hundred newspapers during the Honor America Day celebrations of July 4,

1970, found surprisingly few mentions of any of the themes of American
civil religion as enunciated by Bellah. The references that existed did not
contain religious connotations but were purely secular—for example, dis-
cussion of human rights without any suggestion that they come from God.
Contrary to researchers’ expectations, civil religious content was more
prevalent in large urban newspapers than in newspapers in small towns
and rural areas. Perhaps, the authors suggest, “a well-de‹ned thesis of civil
religion may be more the creation (and fantasy) of the liberal political in-
tellectual elite than active faith among the masses” (Thomas and Flippen
1972, 224). American churchgoers may well see public values as being
Christian or secular rather than a matter of civil religion (223).
Another study, using a small sample of conservative religious Protes-
tants, does ‹nd support for a separate civil religious dimension (Wimberley
et al. 1976). However, from the vantage point of more than three decades
later, the indicators for this civil religious dimension would likely be seen
as anathema by substantial portions of the American population. Far from
being a matter of cultural consensus, they would likely provide little more
than evidence of “culture wars.” The agree/disagree items in question in-
clude “We should respect the president’s authority since his authority is
from God”; “It is a mistake to think that America is God’s chosen nation to-
day”; and “National leaders should not only af‹rm their belief in God but
also their belief in Jesus Christ as Savior and Lord” (893).
More broad-based adherence to civil religious ideas is found in a 1975
North Carolina survey that called for agreement with the ideas that Amer-
ica is God’s chosen nation; that the ›ag of the United States is sacred; that
human rights come from God and not merely from laws; and that if gov-
ernment does not support religion, government cannot uphold morality.
In this study, while both religious and political conservatives show more
adherence to civil religion than do others, a majority of participants in lib-
eral religions and more Democrats than Republicans and independents
also support civil religion. But while support for civil religion is found
across most social segments, those at or near the top of both social and re-
ligious hierarchies—“professionals, ministers, and of‹cials”—are not sup-
porters (Christenson and Wimberley 1978). Bellah suggests that questions
asking respondents whether political leaders or institutions have a religious
or sacred quality do not tap civil religion. Instead, he argues, we should be
asking if respondents agree that all men are created equal, that they are en-
dowed by their creator with certain inalienable rights, and that govern-
ments derive their just powers from the consent of the governed (1976,
155).
Perhaps the main conclusion to be drawn from this brief review of four
decades’ worth of discussion of American civil religion is that the idea of
viewing political issues in religious and moral terms remains a signi‹cant
element in American culture. Whatever the ongoing contests, however
varying the interpretations of civil religion that reign at different times,
there is the continuing tendency to seek divine legitimation for American
political ideas and social movements. If today the conservative uses of civil
religion seem dominant, it is well to remember the role of civil religion in
the Populist movement of the late nineteenth and early twentieth cen-
turies. William Jennings Bryan declared in 1896 that “every great economic
question is in reality a great moral question,” and the Populists condemned
economic inequality “as a violation of God’s ‘natural order’” (Rhys H.
Williams and Alexander 1994, 6). They repeatedly recalled the image of
Jesus throwing the moneychangers out of the temple. “American Pop-
ulism—so often considered an ‘economic’ ideology—was also a religio-
moral enterprise” (12).
Despite—or because of—the perceived conservative domination of civil
religious thought in the contemporary period, several articles in The Nation
discuss the contributions that religion can make to progressive causes (Cox
1996; Ferber 1985; Kazin 1998). These articles note that the “religious re-
vival” in contemporary American society includes movements for social
justice and disarmament. All agree that the Left must not relinquish the
terrain of values and transcendence to the Right. “We must recover some of
our own lost traditions—such as the Romantic rebellion against early in-
dustrial capitalism—which were infused with moral and religious themes.”
Moreover, the secular Left needs the Religious Left. Religious institutions
“provide a space that is relatively untouched by the commercialization of
the larger society” and can thus serve as “centers of a counterculture, pock-
ets of resistance [to] the dominant bureaucratic culture” (Ferber 1985, 12).
“To rule out religious imagery is to ignore a discourse that at its best can
speak out powerfully against greed, ennui and coldness of heart.” Religion
can help us “to imagine creatively different ways of organizing economies
and politics” (Cox 1996, 23). “The bashing of religious faith serves neither
our democratic principles nor the practical need to build a culturally inclu-
sive mass movement” (Kazin 1998, 19). Railing against “popular religion vi-
olates the ‹rst principle of democratic politics: Empathize with the con-
cerns of everyday people, even if they are not your own” (16). The writer
identi‹es himself as a Jew and an atheist but sees his own beliefs as irrele-
vant in view of the need for democracy and democratic social movements
to take religion seriously. Barack Obama’s 2008 campaign clearly heeded
this message.
Whether one believes that religion should speak to public issues is per-
haps less a matter of what one’s religion is than a question of what the is-
sues at hand are. During the 1960s, mainline Protestants advocated taking
public stands, whereas evangelical and fundamentalist Protestants more of-
ten do so now (Regnerus and Smith 1998). Nevertheless, some highly reli-
gious evangelicals would prefer “religious separationism” (Jelen and
Wilcox 1997, 286). And recent evidence suggests that their numbers are
growing. In 2008, 36 percent of white evangelical Republicans thought that
churches should keep out of politics, an increase of 16 percent since 2004
(Pew Forum 2008b).
Dilemmas of Church-State Relations
Those who argue that religion has an important role in civil society must
nevertheless deal with the question of how exactly church and state are to
be separated. Many commentators insist that religion must not be ruled out
of public life. Thus, an opinion piece in Time suggests that “a healthy coun-
try would teach its children evolution and the Ten Commandments” and
that biblical creation should be taught not as science but for its “mythical
grandeur and moral dimensions.” Furthermore, although “creationism is
back door to religion, brought in under the guise of . . . science,” secularists
have been doing the same thing. Teaching the proper way of using a con-
dom “is more than instruction in reproductive mechanics. It is a seminar—
unacknowledged and tacit but nonetheless powerful—on permissible sexual
mores” (Krauthammer 1999, 120). An article in Time about the separation of
church and state argues that “for God to be kept out of the classroom or out
of America’s public debate by nervous school administrators or overcautious
politicians serves no one’s interests” (Gibbs 1991, 68). Supreme Court rulings
against prayer in the public schools, says one conservative, go against “the
intended meaning of the First Amendment from its inception.” It “was the
work of people who believed in God and who expressed their faith as a mat-
ter of course in public prayer” (M. S. Evans 1995, 76).
In the enduring American view, religion provides the basis of morality,
moral behavior, and social values. Thus we are told that the rigid wall of
separation between church and state mandated by recent Supreme Court
decisions has helped to bring “deterioration in American life” (Buckley
1994, 86–87) and that “how the nation de‹nes itself spiritually will have
much to do with its future political directions and with the strength of its
moral foundations” (Ostling 1989, 94). “It is a mistake to assume that re-
jecting the lunacy of the far right means we must deny the value to society
of a religious sensibility” (Krauthammer 1981, 25).
A commentator on the right suggests that “the bent condition of hu-
man existence in these closing decades of the twentieth century is an af›ic-
tion resulting principally from the decay of belief in an ordered universe
and in a purpose for human existence” (Kirk 1983, 626). And one on the left
proposes that “the Christian left offers Americans something its secular
counterpart no longer seems to favor: a sincere faith in moral progress”
(Kazin 1998, 18).
Articles in both Time and The New Republic decry the fact that religion
has been relegated to a minor role in school textbooks. The writer in Time
suggests that schoolchildren deserve “a more profound image of, say,
Thanksgiving than as a pumpkin-pie party with the Indians” (Bowen 1986,
94). The discussion in The New Republic suggests that for the most part, his-
tory textbooks “place religion at the lunatic fringe of American society”
and that liberals should view this situation as a serious de‹ciency (Pasley
1987, 20). Some scholars, however, dispute the contention that contempo-
rary textbooks give less attention to religious history, a point to which I will
subsequently return.
It is also a sign of respect for religion that various commentators are dis-
mayed by the use of religion for purposes of therapy, “lifestyle,” or other
reasons of social utility. One writer notes that from Norman Vincent Peale
in the 1950s through Robert Schuller in the late 1980s, religion itself has
been transformed “into primarily a social and therapeutic activity. . . .
[R]eligion has become a lifestyle strategy,” as when a Dallas Cowboys rep-
resentative told a talk show host that “being a Christian has become Deion
[Sanders]’s lifestyle” (Judis 1999, 56). Another commentator suggests that

one must be careful to avoid “using culture, as many have tried to use reli-
gion, as a kind of social therapy” (Howe 1991, 47). Creationists who say that
adopting Darwinian ideas would deprive life of its meaning are taken to
task for their admission “that the moral and social utility of religion is what
recommends it” (Editorial 1999, 11).
Perhaps, too, the sheer amount of attention paid to religion in these
magazines signals its importance in American life. The two ends of the po-
litical spectrum, represented here by The Nation and National Review, tend
to devote more attention to attacking the views of their opponents than to
af‹rming their own positions. Thus, for example, National Review pub-
lished seventeen articles discussing the general idea of multiculturalism,
while The Nation published only one. Similarly, The Nation printed two ar-
ticles about multicultural education, compared with eight in National Re-
view. By contrast, the number of articles dealing with “family values” was
greater in The Nation (seven) than in National Review (four). On religious
matters, however, the two magazines published almost identical numbers
of articles: on church-state relations, The Nation has ‹ve and National Re-
view has six; on internal religious issues, six pieces appear in The Nation,
and seven appear in National Review.
Of the nine articles in our sample that discuss creationism, four appear
in Time. Two of these works offer straight reporting on the struggles be-
tween the two sides, one is clearly hostile to religious intrusion into sci-
enti‹c education, and the remaining article advocates teaching the Bible
for values and morals, not as fact or science: “if we were a bit more tolerant
about allowing the teaching of biblical values as ethics, we’d ‹nd far less
pressure for the teaching of biblical fables” (Krauthammer 1999, 120). An
editorial in The New Republic sides with “science,” suggesting that any effort
to “delegitimate” it “is a counsel of despair and an American disgrace” (Ed-
itorial 1999, 12). The three articles in National Review argue that science and
creationism (or intelligent design) can be reconciled (Buckley 1997; Glynn
1999; Kirk 1983). The one article in The Nation, perhaps surprisingly, advo-
cates teaching both evolution and creationism as an object lesson in what
science is about. If students receive the tools to evaluate a scienti‹c the-
ory—ideas of falsi‹ability and the ability to generate reliable predictions—
there is no doubt which theory will emerge as superior. Liberals and pro-
evolutionists seem to fear that religion will undermine scienti‹c belief, just
as the religious feared the teaching of evolution in 1925. But creationism

needs to be taught because “it has a hold on the minds and emotions of
large numbers of Americans” (Postman and Postman 1986, 5).
A 2005 national survey by the Pew Research Center found 64 percent of
Americans amenable to the idea of teaching both creationism and evolu-
tion. This majority included secular respondents and liberal Democrats as
well as conservative Christians, those who believe in natural selection and
those who do not. A majority of those who accept natural selection theory
(62 percent) support teaching creationism along with evolution. The pub-
lic apparently favors having more viewpoints offered where there is con-
troversy (Pew Research Center 2005). The well-publicized debates on this
issue apparently have increased uncertainty in the population. Between
1985 and 2005, the proportion of Americans who were not sure about evo-
lution increased from 7 percent to 21 percent, while those accepting the
idea of evolution declined from 45 percent to 40 percent and those reject-
ing the idea declined from 48 percent to 39 percent (Jon D. Miller, Scott,
and Okamoto 2006, 765).
Only a small number of commentators seek a reduction in religious
in›uence. They express frustration that remarks that are deemed “offen-
sive” to religion are not tolerated anywhere. Contrary to allegations about
“liberal intellectual elites who disdain religious belief and have denied it a
respected public role,” it is not possible to attack religion in American soci-
ety without being seen as violating the norms (Kaminer 1996, 25). This sen-
timent echoes Tocqueville’s observation that in America, “those who do
not believe conceal their incredulity,” whereas “those who believe display
their faith” (1848/1961, 1:324).
At the same time, supporters of religion claim that American society ex-
cludes “anyone who takes seriously religious belief or traditional moral
norms” (Wagner 1986, 28). Though we tolerate all who treat their religion
as if it were no different from any consumer preference, there is intolerance
for those who take religion seriously; we tolerate only “people who don’t
believe in anything” (Krauthammer 1998, 92).
Given the American taste for moderation, it can be argued that both the
supporters and the detractors of religion are correct. Thus, four-‹fths of
Wolfe’s small middle-class suburban sample believed “there is such a thing
as being too religious” (1998, 83). National surveys between 1988 and 1996
found that approximately one-‹fth of the respondents expressed intense
hostility toward Christian Fundamentalists, rating them no more highly

than illegal aliens (Bolce and De Maio 1999a, 39). At the same time, how-
ever, a 2003 national survey found that “from a list of groups that also in-
cludes Muslims, recent immigrants, and homosexuals, Americans name
atheists as those least likely to share their vision of American society. They
are also more likely to disapprove of their children marrying atheists”
(Edgell, Gerteis, and Hartmann 2006, 212). In interviews, respondents por-
trayed atheists either as “immoral people who threaten respectable com-
munity” from below or as “rampant materialists and cultural elitists that
threaten common values from above” (227).
Americans reject not only extremes in religious beliefs but also what
they perceive as extreme views concerning the role of religion politically.
Thus, in a 2006 survey, 69 percent of respondents answered yes to the ques-
tion, “Have liberals gone too far in trying to keep religion out of schools
and government?” At the same time, 49 percent said yes to the question,
“Have conservative Christians gone too far in trying to impose their reli-
gious values on the country?” (Pew Research Center 2006a). Similarly, 48
percent of the population in 2008 believed that religious conservatives
have too much power over the Republican Party, and 43 percent believed
that nonreligious liberals have too much power over the Democratic Party
(Pew Forum 2008b).
Historically, of course, religious groups have spoken publicly about
most of the major issues facing the nation. Sometimes, as in the case of the
slavery debate, they have been arrayed on both sides. And those who decry
the excessive liberal in›uence in keeping religion out of American schools
and government cut across party lines: large majorities of Republicans,
Democrats, and independents share this view; only those who identify as
liberal Democrats do not (Pew Research Center 2006a). Americans’ uncer-
tainty about the role of religion is well illustrated by a January 2007 Gallup
Poll that asked whether the in›uence of organized religion on the nation
should increase, decrease, or stay the same. Thirty-nine percent of the pop-
ulation want the level of religious in›uence to remain the same, 27 percent
want an increase in religion’s role, and 32 percent favor a decrease (Feld-
man 2007, 13). The complexity of American attitudes toward religion in the
public sphere is compounded by the fact that Evangelicals are themselves
ambivalent on the subject, given their concerns for individual spiritual
conversion and their sense that the political sphere does not deal in the
eternal (McConkey 2001; C. Smith 2000; Wolfe 1998). Some analysts have
argued that evangelical Protestants abandoned their reluctance to get in-
volved in politics when the Republicans articulated concerns about moral
decline in American society (Leege et al. 2002, 89).
The relatively small contingent of political commentators who are op-
posed to religious in›uences argue that there is no true separation of
church and state in American society. Rather, they contend, we “live in a
society that favors all religions equally” (Pollitt 1983, 24), a society in which
religious institutions are exempt from equal opportunity statutes and do
not lose their tax exemptions when they use their money for political
causes (Pollitt 1983; Vidal 1997). “The of‹cial American civil religion” cur-
rently appears to be that “what religion you have” is “your own business,
. . . but it’s society’s business that you have one” (Pollitt 2000, 10).
These critics argue that there is neither equal treatment of the nonreli-
gious in American society nor recognition of the connections between
church and state powers. In the United States, one critic asserts, even those
on the left tend to be more respectful of religion than is the case in other
societies. Elsewhere it is recognized that “the Church is part of the material
reality of the ruling order” and that “temporal ruling elites” need religion
in some form to “convince themselves that they rule in the interests of all.”
In the United States, by contrast, “the left is either actually religious or sec-
ular in a semi-apologetic way” (Hitchens 1984, 230). Another critic of reli-
gion argues that as religion and politics “are once again mingled, . . . it is
time that humanists wipe the respectful smile off their faces when
organized religion is discussed.” There are, after all, “no events on record
where the orthodox acted more humanely or nobly than the unorthodox”
(Koning 1980, 501).
This critic of religion and others argue that the nation’s laws and insti-
tutions are public, but beliefs “are purely private matters.” They “may give
comfort to those who hold them, but they have no brief to give discomfort
to those who do not. They have been private matters since the last public
burning of a heretic” (Koning 1980, 501). Put with more civility by another
critic of the sacredness of religion in American life, “Secularists are often
wrongly accused of trying to purge religious ideals from public discourse.
We simply want to deny them public sponsorship” (Kaminer 1996, 32).
Supporters of religion, by contrast, do not see such mingling of religion
and politics. They contend that religion is effectively ruled out of the pub-
lic sphere. While “every manner of political argument is ruled legitimate in

our democratic discourse, . . . invoke the Bible as grounding for your poli-
tics, and the First Amendment police will charge you with breaching the sa-
cred wall separating church and state” (Krauthammer 1998, 92).
The idea that religion needs to be protected from too close an alliance
with politics or the state can also be seen as an aspect of the American re-
spect for religion. Thus, an editorial in The New Republic argues that we
must be vigilant about the “crevices” in the wall of separation between
church and state not because “American democracy is . . . crumbling before
American religion” but because of “the damage that politics may do to re-
ligion.” Religion is cheapened and trivialized by things like “Jesus Day”
(proclaimed in Texas by Governor George W. Bush). “A faith that requires
the support of a government is an in‹rm faith,” and believers must recog-
nize that “the freedom from religion is also the freedom for religion” (Edi-
torial 2000b, 9).
To be sure, those hostile to religion also see this connection. They con-
tend that school prayer may help undermine religion, since established re-
ligions generally have less public support than religion has had in Ameri-
can society (Editorial 1984, 308). If schools must scrupulously avoid
religion, there is the possibility that religion will gain “the romantic aura of
the forbidden—Christ is cool” (Pollitt 1994b, 788). Once again, one can
hear echoes of Tocqueville in this discussion. The American clergy, he ar-
gued, perceived that to avoid the vicissitudes of politics, it was wise to re-
nounce state support. As a result, religion in American society may be less
powerful than it has been elsewhere and at other times, but “its in›uence
is more lasting” (1848/1961, 1:323).
Conservatives, too, suggest that religion must not succumb to political
involvements. Indeed, one conservative argues that “conservative activism
has contributed powerfully to the politicizing of religion that most conser-
vatives deplore. . . . Far from providing a common resource of belief, tradi-
tion, and moral judgment, politicized religion turns societal con›icts into
crusades. This is bad for public life; it is worse for religion” (Neuhaus 1988a,
46). When religion and politics are too closely aligned, religion is compro-
mised (Gibbs 2000, 38). The mainline Protestantism that has de‹ned the
spiritual and moral ethos of American society for more than three centuries
is in decline, in part because of “a preoccupation with political and social
issues at the expense of good old-fashioned faith”(Ostling 1989, 94).
While various writers on the left value the moral critique that religion
can offer to society, some conservatives fear that a politicized church can
no longer serve moral purposes. Today, “churches that once served as
sources of clear moral guidance are . . . grappling uncertainly . . . as they try
to decide whether their sexual standards will derive from biblical tradition
or the ›uid folkways of modernity” (Ostling 1991, 50). In contemporary
theological discussions, everything seems up for debate—homosexuality,
premarital sex, even adultery. “The obvious secular explanation for this
hubbub is that America’s churches are internalizing the mores of a devel-
oped society. . . . Like most obvious secular explanations, this one is shal-
low. American churches don’t just passively receive ideas from the general
culture. They also stimulate them.” In fact, innovators and traditionalists
within the church disagree about sex, as they do about everything else.
“The disputants are primarily motivated not by policy considerations, but
by what they believe to be right. That is what makes this ‹ght so all-Amer-
ican, and so angry” (Brookhiser 1991, 70).
Those who see churches as yielding to the norms of secular society fear
that this process is ultimately self-defeating. The “watering down of moral
requirements” and the “substitution of politics for morality” produce a
“kitsch religion” that is “free of troublesome moral obligations.” This dilu-
tion provides a feeling of spirituality without requiring orthodox belief and
action. The result is that the church loses members to such alternatives as
the gym, politics, and New Age movements (Klinghoffer 1996, 52). If the re-
ligion that is currently ›ourishing is “religion on our own terms,” then
“secularization has triumphed after all,” since religion of this sort “is de-
voted to need-meeting rather than truth-telling” (Neuhaus 1989a, 20).
Along with respect for religion and a tendency to cast issues in moral
terms, Americans often manifest a great reverence for the Founding Fa-
thers, and disagreements on issues of the separation of church are state are
often formulated as different interpretations of the intent and religiosity of
the Founding Fathers. People have commonly argued that the Founding
Fathers were attempting to protect religion from political in›uences (Edi-
torial 2000b, 9), to prevent the establishment of a national religion that
would threaten the religious diversity of the states (M. S. Evans 1995, 58), to
invoke God to give “America’s rights a Source beyond the state’s power to
modify or amend” (Editorial 1994b, 18), to remind people that our rights
derive from natural laws and “Nature’s God” (Brookhiser 1994, 84). The dis-
senters—those who would reduce religious in›uences—argue instead that

the Founding Fathers did not all believe in God and intended the separa-
tion of church and state to serve as a way of minimizing the power of both
the church and the state, since the latter would gain from any implication
of divine authority (Ehrenreich 1992b, 72).
Religious Belief and Secularization
Elite opinion in the United States confers respect on religion and its role in
the public sphere. In recent American politics, Democrats and Republicans
alike have supported “faith-based initiatives.” There is no “culture war” at
issue here, no dispute between advocates of moral absolutes and supporters
of individual discretion. While policy disputes arise about how to imple-
ment faith-based initiatives—for example, whether churches should be re-
quired to employ nonmembers—most Americans appear to accept the ba-
sic principle. There are some dissenters, of course, just as there are a small
number of commentators in our sample who are unhappy with the role of
religion in American society and politics.
The culture wars are clearly related to the strength of religion among
some Americans. For example, between 1984 and 1996, a dramatic increase
occurred in the percentage of survey respondents who identi‹ed “family
decline” as the “most important problem” facing the United States. The
proportion of the population responding in this way rose from just under
2 percent to almost 10 percent, and the vast majority of those who re-
sponded this way were evangelical Protestants who attended church regu-
larly (C. Brooks 2002, 198, 203).
American political campaigns also have been exceptional. Where else
“could one ‹nd in the year 2000 a political campaign in which voters were
obliged to choose between two more-Christian-than-thou candidates?”
George W. Bush declared Jesus Christ to be his favorite philosopher, and Al
Gore claimed to solve ethical questions by asking, “What would Jesus do?”
(Hollinger 2001, 143).
The increased relevance of religion to American politics in the late
twentieth century might appear to be anomalous in view of secularization
and declines in religious participation. Yet perhaps the empirical reality
does not match the cultural perceptions here. A majority of Americans be-
lieve that religious in›uence is in decline (Pew Research Center 2002), but
those who study religion are not as certain.
In recent American politics, the Christian Right has mobilized voters
for various causes and candidates. A study of the factors that make people
susceptible to having their votes in›uenced by the Christian Right found
that those who see themselves as “culturally embattled” are more likely
than others to be so in›uenced. The sense of cultural embattlement was
measured by questions asking whether or not the mass media, feminists,
and the public schools “are hostile to your moral and spiritual values.” To
be sure, there are possible reciprocal in›uences involved: having a sense of
being embattled makes one more receptive to the Christian Right, but be-
ing in the Christian Right constituency increases consciousness of such is-
sues. The political involvement of the devoutly religious is motivated by a
desire to protect the “private lifeworld” rather than for reasons of econom-
ics or status. “Those who ‘vote their pocketbook’ do not care to vote by the
Christian Right’s suggestions” (Regnerus, Sikkink, and Smith 1999, 1391,
1392, 1394).
Some analysts have speculated that the increased political involvement
of committed white Christians might well be a reaction to the growth of a
more secular and diverse society (Kohut et al. 2000, 123) or at least the per-
ception thereof. Between the late 1980s and the late 1990s, increases oc-
curred in the intensity of religious belief, in the number of people who
“strongly agreed” that God exists, and in the number of people who be-
lieved that divine judgment is inevitable and that there are clear guidelines
about good and evil (Kohut et al. 2000, 28). This increased intensity of be-
lief occurred among all groups, including seculars. One may indeed wonder
what secular means in American society when Pew Research Center data
from 1997 show that 44 percent of those identi‹ed as secular “strongly
agree” with the statement, “I never doubt the existence of God” (Kohut et
al. 2000, 28–29).
What, then, is the status of religious belief and participation in con-
temporary American society? Ambiguities abound, despite the fact that
Americans are notoriously more religious than citizens of other Western in-
dustrialized societies. In 1995, 50 percent of Americans rated the impor-
tance of God in their lives as a 10 on a ten-point scale; no other advanced
industrial society even came close (Baker 2005, 40).
Analysts have long suggested that American religious strength is based
on the absence of an established church, on the voluntary nature of Amer-

ican religion. More recently, this idea has been formulated in terms of an
economic model: “an open market is conducive to religious vitality” (R. S.
Warner 1993, 1057). However, religious pluralism in European societies
does not seem to be conducive to individual religiosity. While government
subsidies to established churches and government regulations might make
the competition less open in European societies than in the United States,
religious pluralism in Europe appears to undermine certainties and to in-
crease religious tolerance. The result is less rather than more religiosity in
the population (Halman and Draulans 2006, 268, 285).
It has also long been noted that immigrants to the United States have
retained their religious practices while otherwise assimilating into Ameri-
can life. Famously, Herberg noted in the middle of the twentieth century
that being Protestant, Catholic, or Jewish is a way “of being an American,”
that not to identify with a religion “is somehow not to be an American”
(1956, 53, 274). Survey data from 2003 show that many Americans con-
tinue to believe that “af‹rming a religious identity is an important way of
‘being American’” (Edgell, Gerteis, and Harmann 2006, 216). That migra-
tion to the United States increases one’s religious belief is suggested by a
study that attempts to account for the signi‹cant recent increases in belief
in an afterlife among Catholics, Jews, and those with no religious af‹lia-
tion: “immigrants are signi‹cantly less likely to believe in an afterlife than
are their grandchildren” (Greeley and Hout 1999, 813). The authors suggest
that “religious competition for the hearts and souls of the immigrants and
their children led to a more vigorous religious socialization in the United
States than that experienced by youth in most of the countries that sent
emigrants to this country” (819–20). One of the authors of this study has
also argued that in a pluralistic society without an of‹cial religion, religion
plays more of a role in conferring identity and hence generates higher lev-
els of devotion than it does in societies that have established churches. But
within a society that has an established church, being a member of an
alternative church or denomination would also have importance in
conferring identity and should thus predict greater loyalty. By this logic,
non-Anglicans in England should be as likely as Americans to believe in
God and to attend church regularly, and the data support this hypothesis
(Greeley 1991, 114–15).
Commentators have also noted that the cultural respect for religion in
the United States and the social acceptability of religious participation have
likely led to some exaggeration in the portraits that survey data reveal. For
many Americans, expressions of belief in God and reported levels of reli-
gious participation may reveal more about “cultural expectations” than
about the reality of their beliefs and practices (Demerath 2002, 17). If in-
deed it is true that the actual church attendance of Americans is approxi-
mately half of what they report, and if similar studies in other societies re-
veal less of this overreporting, then “a different sort of ‘American
exceptionalism’ is at work. Americans may not differ much in terms of be-
havior, but rather in how they report that behavior” (Hadaway, Marler, and
Chaves 1993, 749). While various methodological criticisms have been of-
fered of the studies that show a gap between actual and reported church at-
tendance (see Hout and Greeley 1998; Woodberry 1998), other research has
demonstrated that the apparent misreporting is likely “caused mainly by
social desirability pressures associated with interviewer-administration.”
Both self-administered questionnaires and time-use studies minimize such
overreporting (Presser and Stinson 1998).
That norms of social desirability encourage Americans to overstate their
religious participation—just as they similarly overstate their participation
in voting—is itself a commentary on American attitudes toward religion. In
addition, while young people in the United States are less religious than
their elders, few “are irreligious—compared with young people in most
wealthy industrialized nations, most are remarkably religious” (Zukin et al.
2006, 166), or at least they claim to be. It may well be true that in a religious
society such as the United States, “irreligion . . . replicates itself across gen-
erations less effectively than active religious preference” because people
“are surrounded more by religion than by irreligion” (R. S. Warner 1993,
1077). And the ‹nding that the overwhelming majority of Americans be-
lieve people should arrive at their religious beliefs independently of any
church or synagogue attests to the signi‹cance of the voluntary nature of
American religion (1075, 1080).
While belief in God has remained remarkably stable, hovering around
95 percent for more than half a century, questions may be raised about this
‹nding as well. For one thing, the proportion of the population that is ab-
solutely certain of God’s existence has declined, although the percentage
remains quite high (Bishop 1999, 423). For another, the proportion that be-
lieves not in a personal God but rather in “a higher power of some sort” has
slowly but steadily increased from 5 percent in 1964 to 10 percent at the

end of the century (425). Perhaps, then, the addition of the phrase “or a
universal spirit” to the “Do you believe in God?” question has masked
trends in religious beliefs (426). Nevertheless, 87 percent of the population
in a 2003 survey agreed with the statement, “I never doubt the existence of
God.” And while only 69 percent “completely agreed” with the statement
(the equivalent to “absolute certainty” in other surveys), this number rep-
resented an increase from the 60 percent who completely agreed in 1987
(Pew Research Center 2003).
There is no doubt that since the late 1960s, increases have occurred in
the number of people who never attend religious services and in the num-
ber who identify as seculars or religious “nones” (Kohut et al. 2000, 123;
Layman 2001, 313). But it is dif‹cult to understand the meaning of these
‹gures in light of the fact that in 1998, for example, “almost 60 percent of
‘nones’ said that they believed ‘that God watches over me,’ and nearly 40
percent reported praying at least weekly” (Fischer and Hout 2006, 193). By
contrast, among Europe’s unchurched, 27 percent identify themselves as re-
ligious, while 57 percent say they are not religious and 16 percent identify
themselves as atheists (Halman and Draulans 2006, 282).
Whether the importance of religion has declined in modern societies,
as many sociologists and laypersons alike believe, has been a matter of con-
siderable scholarly debate. The idea of secularization has long been one of
the taken-for-granted elements of modernization. Like industrialization,
urbanization, and bureaucratization, secularization was so well integrated
into the modernization paradigm that few questioned the idea, and it “be-
came sacralized” (Hadden 1987, 588). Yet some contemporary sociologists
debate both the extent of secularization and its meaning. Does seculariza-
tion simply indicate religious decline (that is, a decline in religious belief or
participation)? If so, since belief and participation do not necessarily go to-
gether, which of the two is more essential? Or does secularization simply
mean the separation of religion from all other social and cultural institu-
tions, the differentiation between religious and other institutions? One so-
ciologist has argued that if secularization just means the differentiation of
religious from secular institutions, there is no basis for disagreement, since
all can agree that the political power of Catholic bishops is less today than
it was centuries ago (Stark 1999, 252). If differentiation is the central mean-
ing of secularization, so that most public institutions no longer fall under
the sway of religious institutions and values, has religion also become “pri-
vatized”? If so, has religion necessarily been weakened at the individual
level? Or could private religious experiences ›ourish “even as public reli-
gious institutions ›ounder?” (Gorski 2000, 162). Perhaps secularization
means competition or pluralism in de‹ning the sacred. The competing in-
stitutions are not simply alternative religions but other institutions in
which people place faith, such as education and science (Swatos and Chris-
tiano 1999, 225).
Those sociologists who take issue with the secularization hypothesis
contend that it has exaggerated both the religiosity of people in past cen-
turies and the irreligion in contemporary societies. There really was no
golden age of faith, and even the most seemingly secular societies today
have large numbers of believers in their midst. In Iceland, for example,
only 2 percent of the population attends church services weekly, yet the
1990 World Values Survey found that 81 percent of Icelanders say they be-
lieve in life after death, 82 percent say that they sometimes pray, and only
2.4 percent describe themselves as “convinced atheists” (Stark 1999, 264).
Other sociologists, however, point to a decline in religious authority
over both societies and individuals. To be sure, much variation exists
among social groups in contemporary American society, with white Protes-
tant Fundamentalists and African Americans showing lower levels of secu-
larization than other religious groups. But, for example, by 1990, only 12
percent of American Catholics accepted the church’s ban on arti‹cial con-
traception (Chaves 1994, 768). The increase in religious intermarriage like-
wise suggests the decreased salience of religion. When religious authority is
strong, religion signi‹cantly affects behavior, and religious endogamy is
high. “If religious differences are increasingly irrelevant for marriage deci-
sions, then religious authority’s scope surely is narrowing” (768). Moreover,
members of conservative Protestant denominations report having more
sexual partners than do mainline Protestants, quite the opposite of what
would one expect based on the beliefs of these denominations (Greeley and
Hout 2006, 135).
While few doubt the signi‹cance of religion for those who are seriously
committed to it, much less clarity exists about the signi‹cance of the kind
of religious af‹liation that is little more than nominal—identi‹cation with
a religious tradition that does not translate into religious participation or
agreement with its doctrines. This form of “cultural religion” may have
public as well as personal signi‹cance because it may be activated during

periods of crisis or con›ict. “It is the stuff of civil religions,” a “reservoir of
meanings and values” tapped by religious and cultural leaders (Demerath
2002, 17–18). Tocqueville observed this sort of connection between religion
and societal unity, noting, “I do not know whether all Americans have a
sincere faith in their religion—for who can search the human heart?—but
I am certain that they hold it to be indispensable to the maintenance of re-
publican institutions. This opinion is not peculiar to a class of citizens or to
a party, but it belongs to the whole nation and to every rank of society”
(1848/1961, 1:316). More recent analysts see “strong beliefs in religion and
God” as embedded in “America’s traditional values” (Baker 2005, 54) and
part of the “imagined community” on which American society rests.
Yet Americans’ religiousness has long seemed to lack depth or serious-
ness. Even during the 1950s, large numbers of people were attending reli-
gious institutions and identifying themselves in religious terms while
seeming disconnected from “matters central to the faiths they profess”
(Herberg 1956, 14). Herberg’s classic treatise on American religion detailed
the “triple melting pot” of Catholics, Protestants, and Jews and noted that
even people who valued the Bible as revelation were unable to name the
‹rst four Gospels (14). Almost half a century later, Chaves noted that “reli-
gious faith in the United States is more broad than deep,” as only half of
those who believe the Bible is the Word of God can name the ‹rst book,
and even evangelical or born-again Christians simultaneously believe in
“ideas foreign to traditional Christianity,” such as reincarnation and astrol-
ogy (2002, 20). Herberg characterized American “religiousness” as being
“without serious commitment, without real inner conviction,” although it
generates “the sincere feeling of being religious” (1956, 276). Chaves simi-
larly noted that although more than 90 percent of Americans believe in a
higher power, “only one-third say they rely more on that power than on
themselves in overcoming adversity” (2002, 20).
Religiosity in the United States may well be based more on the cultural
encouragement that it receives than on deep personal convictions. Thus,
there is more religious belief and practice among the nonchurchgoing pub-
lic in the United States than in Canada, suggesting the pervasiveness of
“American culture-religion,” the sheer social desirability of religiosity in
American society (Reimer 1995). This cultural religiosity is also manifest in
the greater difference in Canada than in the United States between the be-
liefs and practices of those who attend church regularly and those who do
not. And even secular Americans and those with weak religious ties believe
that American society would be better off if religion’s in›uence were on the
rise (Pew Research Center 2002).
The secularization thesis has included the idea that in modern societies
religion becomes privatized, con‹ned to the realm of personal individual
beliefs. But though the secularization thesis remains accurate insofar as the
secular spheres are emancipated from religious institutions, religious de-
cline and privatization do not necessarily follow. Indeed, it can be argued
that a deprivatization of religion became widespread in the 1980s. Varieties
of “public religion” now act as “normative critiques of dominant historical
trends,” raising questions about the moral norms or human considerations
inherent in institutional activities (Casanova 1994, 43).
The belief that religious expression can contribute to American democ-
racy has a long history, as does the belief that any religion is a good thing.
Yet such ideas must “seem like a deplorable heresy to the European church-
man” (Herberg 1956, 97) and may also deny the reality of tensions among
religious groups. In the United States, Herberg suggested, “every tension
between religious communities, however deep and complex it may actually
be, tends to express itself as a con›ict over church-state relations” (248).
Disputes about the First Amendment often occur as con›icts between those
who argue that there is not enough religion in the public square and those
who think there is too much. Many of those in the latter camp see a con-
tinuing mainstream Protestant hegemony, so that diverse religions are mar-
ginalized and kept that way (Beaman 2003, 318).
The political salience of being an evangelical Christian appears to be
greater in areas where there are higher proportions of secularists (religious
nonadherents). In such areas, Evangelicals are more likely to vote Republi-
can (Campbell 2006, 109). Observers suggest that Evangelicals feel threat-
ened by larger number of secularists in their midst and that this tension is
but the latest example of religious con›ict in American politics, similar to
earlier Catholic-Protestant con›icts (113). Perhaps, too, those who are anti-
Fundamentalist feel threatened by the perceived increased political visibil-
ity of Christian Fundamentalists. They thus perceive Christian fundamen-
talist leaders as “too pushy” in asserting traditional values and exaggerate
the degree to which they maintain ideologically “extreme” positions (Bolce
and DeMaio 1999b, 514, 515).
Criticism of contemporary Fundamentalists comes from within as well.

In Beyond Culture Wars, Michael S. Horton takes Christian Evangelicals and
Fundamentalists to task for participating in culture wars that view “moral
issues as ultimate instead of as effects of one’s deeper theological and philo-
sophical beliefs” (1994, 38). “It is a recovery of the Christian faith within
the church itself, not the imposition of Christian values over a hostile soci-
ety, that holds the only possibility for meaningful change” (281). Members
of evangelical churches are just as worldly as liberals. Horton writes, “Our
own people cannot name the Ten Commandments, and yet we are out-
raged that they are removed from the public halls” (123). “The ‘testimony’
(‘what Jesus did for me’) and personal experiences are often the most au-
thoritative tests of truth in evangelical circles today” (67). Evangelical spir-
ituality now contains the same “self-centered, self-deifying impulse” as sec-
ular humanism and New Age spirituality (63). Horton’s view receives some
con‹rmation in the work of a sociologist who analyzed the Lincoln-
Douglas debates about slavery in comparison to the culture war discussions
during the 1992 election. While the former legitimated arguments through
the use of religion, the latter were largely therapeutic on both sides of the
divide (J. L. Nolan 1996, 184).
The political behavior of Christian activists also receives criticism from
within for negating the chief contribution that faith can make to politics:
ensuring that the transcendent perspective of faith judges politics. When
Christian “report cards” are issued, measuring how members of Congress
vote on “key moral/family issues,” the resulting anomalies are shameful.
Members of Congress who have been involved in corruption and sex scan-
dals may receive high scores, while highly moral Democrats get low scores.
The problem is that “politics, not piety or ethics, was the ruling criterion”
(Guinness 1993, 191).
Conclusions
When culture was understood to consist largely of values that were inter-
nalized and that shaped people’s behavior, churches were seen as exercising
a bene‹cial in›uence on the society by in›uencing individual members’
values. When this view of culture began to come into question, churches
began to exercise their power by attempting to in›uence the morality that
was “lodged in the culture at large rather than in individuals” (Wuthnow

1988, 69). As the social movements of the 1960s—beginning with the civil
rights movement—challenged churches to take a stand on social issues, a
split arose between those that supported activism and those that main-
tained their role in guiding individual consciences (147–48).
Since that time, churches and their parishioners have wrestled with the
question of their proper public role. Although religion undoubtedly “pro-
pelled some people into politics” during the 1990s, “the politicization of re-
ligion might have caused people who dissent from the conservative agenda
of vocal Christian leaders to stop identifying with those religions.” This
phenomenon could account for the increase in “unchurched believers”—
people with conventional religious beliefs who nevertheless express “no re-
ligious preference” because they are alienated from organized religion
(Hout and Fischer 2002, 179). Fears of alienating parishioners by political
activism have also led to the dismissal of several celebrated pastors, as their
congregations’ lay leaders saw activism as “getting in the way of the
Gospel” (Kirkpatrick 2007, 39).
In the late 1990s, in a moment of despair about the progress of the Re-
ligious Right’s causes, a leading spokesman for the movement, Paul
Weyrich, suggested that Evangelicals needed “to get out of politics, go back
to the churches and change hearts one at a time, in the belief that the cul-
ture will someday follow” (Gibbs 1999, 47). After the 2004 election, how-
ever, Weyrich was exultant. He issued a letter to Evangelicals that read,
“God is indeed a Republican. He must be. His hand helped re-elect a presi-
dent, with a popular mandate” (Rosin 2005, 120).
Cycles of increasing and decreasing separation of church and state and
increasing and decreasing secularization are probably inevitable in a soci-
ety that respects religion but lacks consensus about its public role. It is
clear, however, that the very waging of the culture wars over the past few
decades belies the claim that religion has been privatized. And this very
public argumentation has produced internal dissension on all sides. Evan-
gelicals debate their public involvement, while nonbelievers on the left
contend with the majority who see religious in›uences as bene‹cial.
While most Americans maintain a “quiet faith” that entails respect for
the beliefs of others, even nonbelievers (Wolfe 1998, 50–54), many church-
going Protestants maintain the contradictory beliefs that “everyone should
be free to live as they see ‹t” and that “Christian morality should be the
primary authority for American culture and society” (C. Smith et al. 1997,
190). Reconciling these contradictory ideas has become more challenging
as the non-Christian population in the United States has increased.
Increased religious diversity has also made consensus about American
civil religion more dif‹cult, although disputes about civil religion began
during the Vietnam War, when arguments about America’s role in the
world were compounded by theological disputes about the meaning of
God. Theologians no less than social scientists have shown a heightened
“concern for the symbolically constructed character of reality” (Wuthnow
1988, 299).
CHAPTER 3
Moral but Not Moralistic
Observers since the time of Tocqueville have noted Americans’ propensity

to “see the world in moral terms” (Robin M. Williams 1957, 397). The dom-
inant Protestant denominations have called on people to follow their con-
sciences, and even agnostic and atheistic reformers have tended to be
“utopian moralists who believe in the perfectibility of man and of civil so-
ciety and in the immorality, if not speci‹cally sinful character, of the op-
position” (Lipset 1975, 144). Perhaps Americans share this view because the
“founding myth” of the United States is that of the Pilgrims at Plymouth
Bay Colony rather than merchants in Boston, planters in Virginia, or in-
ventors in Philadelphia. American political discourse has often been a mat-
ter “not of tariffs and raw metals but of a Cross of Gold, not of a rival hege-
monic power but of an Evil Empire” (Leege et al. 2002, 41). Contemporary
Americans are more likely than Canadians to think that “raising moral
standards” is a highly important goal (Hoover et al. 2002, 361). The lan-
guage of morality so dominates discourse in the United States that even a
writer decrying the “God-drunk society” in which 240 million of the 300
million Americans believe in the return of Jesus Christ contends that Amer-
icans have “a moral responsibility” to give up such “abject superstition” (S.
Harris 2007, 44).
58
Moral but Not Moralistic 59
Far from one side advocating moral judgments while the other eschews
them, all sides in the culture wars frame issues in the language of morality
while speaking disparagingly of their opponents as either immoral or
“moralistic.” No one argues in favor of “moral relativism.” Conservatives
tend to lump together moral and cultural relativism (see Arkes 1989; J. Gray
1992; Lipman 1991b; Mans‹eld 2000) and to accuse the Left of espousing
relativism, but progressives argue that the cultural relativism that they en-
dorse does not imply that “there are no ultimate moral principles” (di
Leonardo 1996, 29). And all agree in principle that it is foolish to attempt
to legislate morality, even if such legislation might be the outcome of their
preferred policies.
Through the Lenses of Morality
Although their understandings of morality may differ, both Left and Right
clearly see their perspectives as moral. The Right speaks of the “moral foun-
dations of capitalism” (Gilder 1986, 31) and suggests that capitalism breeds
virtues such as honesty, achievement, and cooperativeness (Hyde 1990b,
53). The Left talks of the “moral principles” underlying progressive pro-
grams for economic democracy, antiracism, feminism, and gay rights (di
Leonardo 1996, 29) and suggests that some immorality—such as the intol-
erance of social differences—is espoused by those “who claim the mantle of
God” (Judis 1999, 56).
In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the progressive
movement railed against the immorality of individual greed and wealth ac-
quired through ‹nancial manipulation rather than hard labor (Rhys H.
Williams and Alexander 1994, 10). In our more conservative era, a connec-
tion is often made between the free market and religious fundamentalism.
Evangelicals share a conviction that “economic and spiritual freedoms go
hand in hand” (J. D. Hunter 1991, 111). Regardless of the ideology, ideas
“without explicit ethical support risk appearing individualistic to an im-
moral degree” (Hicks 2006, 508).
Well-known conservative and liberal commentators have long seen
economics and morality as intertwined. Both sides see extramarket forces
as important in shaping the economic system. Conservatives such as Fran-
cis Fukuyama (1999) argue against the frequently heard allegation that the
amoral drive for pro‹t and ef‹ciency undermines the moral basis of capi-
talism. Rather, he suggests, people who repeatedly do business with each
other establish norms to ensure trust. Self-interested individuals seek to ac-
quire a reputation for honesty or fairness. Religion may help, but it is not
required. In this view, contemporary conservatives hark back to the obser-
vations of Tocqueville, who saw “the principle of self-interest rightly un-
derstood” as disciplining people “in habits of regularity, temperance, mod-
eration, foresight, self-command” (1848/1961, 2:131).
Liberals such as Paul Krugman, conversely, see an immorality in con-
temporary economic life because of the permissiveness that has altered ear-
lier understandings of fair compensation. The norms of fairness that had
been in place since the New Deal began to unravel in the 1980s and the
1990s. In their stead, a new “anything goes” ethic has arisen, allowing for
soaring rates of executive compensation and generating extreme social in-
equality (Krugman 2002). While Fukuyama and other conservatives see the
sexual revolution as the root of immorality, Krugman here appropriates the
“anything goes” idea to explain ‹nancial rather than sexual licentiousness
and self-indulgence.
If Krugman and other liberals decry the excesses of executive pay, con-
servatives, too, see moral failure in the absence of self-restraint. But their
concern is a broad one about the decline of the work ethic, and their tar-
gets of criticism are lower down in the class hierarchy. Thus, a National Re-
view editorial argues that our system is “in deep trouble because it lacks
the traditional moral imperatives of self-restraint and delayed
grati‹cation.” The result is “non-competitive shoddy workmanship, an
underclass locked in dependency, and widespread cultural vulgarity” (Ed-
itorial 1988a, 21). To the contrary, says a more progressive analyst. Con-
sumer hedonism has transformed the old Protestant Ethic values. But
“what is at stake is not the decline of morality but its rede‹nition” (Judis
1999, 56).
Commentators on the right portray themselves as the defenders of
“‘bourgeois morality’ (which is drawn in the main from classic Jewish and
Christian morality)” while labeling the Left as devoted to “a radical and
thoroughgoing moral relativism” (Hyde 1990a, 25). The Left has created
an “upside-down moral world” in which free choice is all that matters
(Chiusano 1996, 56). Individual freedom is the supreme concern, even
among children. Thus, the sex education supported by liberals is “unin-
formed by any value base but the moral autonomy of the child and the pur-
ported objectivity of the educator” (Nadler 1997, 50). Children are taught
“the value-free science of sex” and are “trusted to make sexual decisions all
on their own, rationally, using the evaluative and normative criterion of
personal comfort” (Mindus 2000, 46).
Conservatives in our sample of political commentary contend that the
‹rm exercise of authority is required to make people good. One writer in
National Review notes that this statement is perfectly obvious but must nev-
ertheless be voiced because authority is currently on the “Index of Prohib-
ited Concepts and Words” (Martin 1991, 26). For their part, those on the
left characterize many conservatives as “authoritarian” (Ehrenreich 1993b;
Hitchens 1985). The New Left that emerged in the 1960s, as progressives see
it, was all about questioning authority. The New Right, in contrast, devel-
oped to defend authority—whether legal, familial, religious, or military—
in distinction to the Old Right, which had an antiauthority streak, as rep-
resented by the likes of Ayn Rand (Ehrenreich 1993b, 74).
The Left rejects the accusation that its programs are based on “license or
rebellion” (di Leonardo 1996, 29), just as the Right rejects the idea that an
inherent opposition exists between the workings of the capitalist market-
place and adherence to traditional values. All agree that individuals can
and do make moral choices. “Blaming ‘the system’ for the moral failures of
individual Americans is a cop-out,” says a well-known conservative (Hyde
1990b, 53). All of us “must subject our choices to moral criticism,” says an-
other (Lipman 1991b, 53). Both sides face dif‹culties here, however, as a
writer in Time points out: “Just as conservatives think they can restore a
moral center without making concessions to government activism, liberals
think they can revive the language of morality without being judgmental”
(R. Wright 1996, 45).
Writers on the left see themselves as espousing causes of bene‹t to all.
Movements in support of women’s rights or gay rights, for example, do not
simply serve the interests of these groups. Ideally, “every outgroup carries
with it a critical perspective, forged in the painful experiences of rejection
and marginalization.” The aim of the women’s movement is “to improve
an imperfect world,” not just to have women exchange places with men
(Ehrenreich 1990, 15; see also Gevisser 1988). Feminists are called on to
reaf‹rm “the moral legitimacy of women’s liberation” and to recognize
that “a repressive sexual politics “ makes people “feel guilty about aspiring
to freedom and happiness, and thus more inclined to bow to corporate and
governmental authority” (Willis 1981, 495).
Disputes over the university canon and political correctness have also
been seen through the lens of morality. One conservative sees the debates
as representing a “moral divide” where one side is wrong and the other is
right (Teachout 1992, 54). Political correctness “in its purest forms is evil,”
and liberalism is unable to “supply the moral basis for effective resistance
to evil.” Liberalism entails radical tolerance of all competing values; it in-
sists that “opponents of right reason are never evil but merely misin-
formed” (55). On the other side, a progressive criticizes “political correct-
ness” for failing to support true diversity, though “morally, it may pose as a
compliment to pluralism and ‘diversity’” (Hitchens 1991, 472). Since critics
on the right similarly note that the claim of “diversity” is often used to en-
force conformity to certain ideas, a Left-Right consensus exists against the
ills of political correctness.
Popular culture fare presents both moral issues and the dif‹culties of
weighing considerations of morality against those of censorship. Media
companies that do not censor rap artists’ violent messages are accused of
exhibiting “moral irresponsibility,” but companies that restrict such mes-
sages are accused of “corporate censorship” (Kinsley 1992c, 88). Several
commentators advocate media self-censorship regarding sex, violence, and
drug use (C. P. Alexander 1990; Kinsley 1992c). Conversely, a progressive ar-
gues that given our culture’s violence, obscenity, sexism, and racism,
smothering the messages we do not want to hear with “morally bankrupt,
politically self-serving Muzak” also is not desirable. Isn’t it odd, he ob-
serves, that the free market reigns “except when rap music captures a lion’s
share of the multi-billion dollar music market. Then, in the name of de-
cency and family values, we’re duty bound to regulate it” (quoted in Sachs
and Washburn 1995, 33). But The New Republic takes liberals to task for fail-
ing to recognize that “lives are ruined by the ethos of ‘anything goes.’”
Since licentiousness in popular culture harms children, and liberal activists
support government intervention for the public good, why not here? (Edi-
torial 1988b, 7). During the controversy surrounding rapper Ice-T’s album,
Cop Killer, a progressive argued that “our free market of ideas and images
. . . shouldn’t be any less free for a black man than for other purveyors of
‘irresponsible’ sentiments” (Ehrenreich 1992a, 89). And a writer in Time
contended that “X-rated pop deserves its First Amendment cloak” because
“it speaks from the gut of disenfranchised America.” One cannot argue, he
said, that the material offends “community standards” because its popular-
ity means that “a lot of the community is laughing and singing along”
(Corliss 1990, 99).
If those on the right decry the immorality and depravity of television
talk shows, those on the left ‹nd it “morally repulsive” that the guests “for
the most part . . . are so needy—of social support, of education, of material
resources and self-esteem—that they mistake being the center of attention
for being actually loved and respected” (Ehrenreich 1995, 92). Thus, the
Right appears to criticize the immorality manifest in popular culture, while
the Left focuses on the structural injustices that it sees as the underlying
causes of immorality.
Aspects of the feminist movement are likewise fraught with issues of
morality. A conservative attacks the feminist “gender sliming” that labels
all men rapists or potential rapists (Morrow 1994a, 55). Such a contention
is not only outrageous but also “a moral stupidity,” since it eliminates the
distinction between decent men and rapists (57–58). A progressive assails
the “difference feminism” that seeks to portray men and women as having
different needs and accuses it of selling women domestic labor “as a badge
of moral worth” (Pollitt 1992b, 805). A conservative notes that feminist
concerns about women’s health issues that have the effect of portraying
women as ill might re›ect “a subconscious way of saying that they want
their moral superiority back”—a superiority women had in the days when
they used illness as “a protective coloration” (King 1992, 64). From the per-
spective of the Left, of course, this alleged moral superiority came at the
cost of economic and social inequality. And “there is no moral justi‹cation
for treating women as having lesser rights than men” (Etzioni 1993, 76). A
critic of radical feminism, however, sees earlier “‹rst wave” feminism,
which had an equity agenda, as carrying a “moral authority” that is lacking
in newer, more radical, feminism, which seeks to eliminate all hints of male
dominance (Sommers 1992, 32).
For some conservatives, “the woman’s morality is the ultimate basis of
all morality.” Most of what we de‹ne as humane and individual “originates
in the mother’s love for her children,” and “the woman in the home with
her child is the last bastion against the amorality of the technocratic mar-
ketplace when it strays from the moral foundations of capitalism” (Gilder
1986, 31). In the battles between the feminists and the traditionalists,
women will decide what happens next, since “women transmit culture”
(Charen 1984, 27).
Conservatives also assert that gender traits “make a tremendous differ-
ence in the way people can and will act. Any worldview that pretends
otherwise is either dishonestly or maliciously inviting human misery”
(Marshner 1988, 39). While feminists assert that the real differences be-
tween men and women are “merely cultural” and therefore are amenable
to elimination, this idea is clearly false. No society really believes that
women could be as aggressive as men or men as nurturing as women (S.
Goldberg 1993, 34–35). The behavioral and emotional differences between
men and women “are rooted in male and female physiologies,” and “all so-
cial systems conform to the limits imposed by that reality” (S. Goldberg
1991, 30). An editorial in National Review that advocates single-sex schools
because they boost girls’ achievement notes that feminists view sex as a so-
cially constructed category, like race. “But sex is not at all like race. Sex mat-
ters a whole lot, particularly for adolescent girls, who are wont to exchange
concern over grades for concern over appearance in the presence of boys.
That’s not an artifact of sexism; it’s a fact of life” (1998b, 17–18). In the dom-
inant conservative view, biology trumps culture and has great signi‹cance
for human behavior and morality.
Progressives are more likely to see behavior and morality as rooted in
cultural realities, though at least one article on the progressive side cau-
tions against the currently fashionable view that denies that “any biologi-
cally based commonalities . . . cut across cultural differences” (Ehrenreich
and McIntosh 1997, 12). It is too simple, the authors contend, to see biol-
ogy as deterministic while viewing culture “as a domain where power rela-
tions with other humans are the only obstacle to freedom.” In truth, cul-
ture is not “a realm of perfect plasticity” (15). A similar concession is made
on the other side, as a conservative writer concedes that however much the
reality of male and female behavior is biologically based, cultural de‹ni-
tions matter: “the attitudes and values held by men and women do deter-
mine whether they live their lives on a dance ›oor or a battle‹eld, and this
is not such a little thing” (S. Goldberg 1993, 36).
While liberal feminists early on sought to improve women’s standing in
the public spheres of business and politics, more radical feminists argued
that one could not separate the public and private in this way. As one pro-
gressive writer in our sample has explained, radical feminists have always
“emphasized the connection between women’s exclusion from full partici-

pation in the public world and their subordination in the so-called private
sphere of familial and sexual relations” (Willis 1981, 494). Of course, the
idea that marriage is not a purely private matter is also endorsed by a con-
servative who sees “the increasing privatization of marriage” as “a key legal
and cultural factor contributing to our current marriage crisis.” Govern-
ment must recognize, protect, and strengthen marriage in much the same
way that government acts with respect to private property (Gallagher 1999,
40). To be sure, Left and Right have different perceptions about what mar-
riage should look like.
Abortion and Homosexuality
On abortion and homosexuality, the issues most closely associated with

morality in the public mind, a surprising degree of complexity exists. The
arguments of both supporters and opponents are more nuanced and am-
bivalent than one might expect in a “culture war.”
Unsurprisingly, those on the right see abortion as immoral and express
grave concern about the “lack of moral revulsion” regarding abortions
(“The America We Seek” 1996, 38), while those on the left question whether
it can “ever be moral for a woman to be pregnant against her will” (Houp-
pert 2000, 7). Yet the antiabortion side is willing to consider matters of per-
sonal interests and happiness, and the proabortion side is willing to engage
with issues of morality and “sin.”
Most Americans, suggests one writer in National Review, “deliberately
refuse to face up to the moral character of abortion because morality no
longer seems to serve our interests.” But since the “new morality” of femi-
nism has not made most women happy—“many of them are poorer and
more lonely”—“the missing piece of the puzzle is the link between the
moral life and the happy one. Life without abortion is often more dif‹cult;
life with abortion promises to be easier. But in the end it creates its own
problems. And in a sense not meant by whoever coined the phrase, living
well is the best revenge” (Cunningham 1992, 48). This statement represents
a thoroughly American blend of moralism and pragmatism.
Supporters of abortion rights disagree internally on the issue of moral-
ity. Some feminists consider abortion to be essential to women’s freedom
and therefore view abortion as a moral demand. A “feminist moral vision

proposes to extend to women—and to the entire realm of familial and sex-
ual life—the democratic principles of self-determination, equality, and the
right to pursuit of happiness.” Feminists should therefore not accept the
terms dictated by the Right but should “assert women’s moral right to au-
tonomy and sexual love, and therefore their moral right to kill an un-
wanted fetus” (Willis 1981, 494–95).
In contrast, another supporter of abortion rights argues that women are
entitled to feel a “sense of sin” regarding their abortions (Wolf 1995, 34).
We need to “mourn the evil—necessary evil though it may be—that is abor-
tion” and to treat the decision to abort the fetus with the “moral gravity”
that it deserves (28). The abortion decision is “a place of moral struggle, of
self-interest mixed with sel›essness” (32). Abortion rights should be de-
fended “within a moral framework that admits that the death of a fetus is
a real death.” The failure to address the moral issues of abortion puts us in
danger “of losing what can only be called our souls” (26). Another pro-
choice writer proposes that abortion should be legal in the ‹rst two
trimesters but banned in the third, when the fetus exhibits full brain activ-
ity. Banning third trimester abortions “would harm the rights of American
women, but the harm would be small, while the moral foundation of abor-
tion choice overall would be strengthened” (Easterbrook 2000, 25). A fem-
inist responds with disdain to this suggestion, however, noting that abor-
tion is “an issue of sexual politics and morality” and that the fetus is, after
all, “being carried inside a woman’s body” (Houppert 2000, 7).
Another attempt to support abortion as a moral right contends that
abortion may be seen as a pro-family and pro-social act, since under some
circumstances choosing to give birth “may be socially dysfunctional,
morally irresponsible or even cruel.” Whereas the right-to-lifers believe it is
“a moral imperative” to keep an anencephalic infant alive, those who sup-
port middle-class family life believe fertility must be effectively and ratio-
nally controlled using all the technologies available, including prenatal
screening and abortion. The issue is not the furtherance of individual free-
dom but the needs of the family (Muller 1995, 27). The idea that abortions
might be necessary for the bene‹t of the family of course runs directly con-
trary to the assumptions of those in the pro-life movement who view the
pro-choice arguments as a manifestation of excessive individualism. They
see the rights of the autonomous individual, embedded in court decisions,
as threatening “to give us an America in which the only actors of conse-

quence are the individual and the state; no other community, including
the community of husband and wife, or the community of parents and
children, will have effective constitutional standing” (“The America We
Seek” 1996, 38–39). Some abortion rights advocates contend that the issue
is not individual privacy but rather the larger society’s responsibility to
help women with both child rearing and abortion (Petchesky 1990, 734).
Issues of class are pervasive in the culture wars, and advocates of abor-
tion rights are mindful of class differences. One of them differentiates be-
tween the “middle-class vision of family life”—one that assumes that fer-
tility is to be rationally controlled, with a repertoire that includes
abortion—and those of other social classes. An “elite culture” emphasizes
career advancement for both men and women while conceptions of family
life among the lower-middle and working classes are more fatalistic (Muller
1995, 28). A conservative writer characterizes the abortion debates as a
“class-based Kulturkampf” (Neuhaus 1989b, 42). And a progressive writer
decries the use of individual privacy claims in abortion disputes as “a class-
biased and racist concept” because it fails to provide the economic and so-
cial conditions under which poor and nonwhite women would be able to
exercise their individual rights (Petchesky 1990, 734).
The Left also criticizes the moral stance of such “antichoice militants”
as Operation Rescue, which commits violence to rescue the helpless “un-
born.” These groups see themselves as engaged in a moral protest akin to
the antislavery or anti-Holocaust movements. Yet their targets, likened to
slaveholders or Nazis, are women who enter abortion clinics. These women
“are to be treated as being without rights or freedom from assault: that is
the moral sensibility of Operation Rescue” (Green 1989, 178).
Some who see abortion as morally abhorrent greet with derision the
idea that there can be any moral complexity attached to abortion. What,
then, is “the source of the intellectual and moral dif‹culty?” one such critic
asks. “Is a mortal assault on a fetus something on the order of assault
and battery? Or is it no different from stuf‹ng a tomato into a blender?”
(Buckley 1990a, 62). Americans should “consider the possibility of a connec-
tion—cultural as well as legal—between the virtue de‹cit in contemporary
American life and the abortion license” (“The America We Seek” 1996, 41).
Commentators of all persuasions recognize the ambivalences and
hypocrisies attendant upon abortion decisions. Americans appear to favor
both pragmatic and moral responses to the issue. As one commentator per-
ceives, “Americans want to register their moral disapproval and keep the
procedure available at the same time” (Caldwell 1999, 15). Most Americans
say that they oppose abortions for lifestyle reasons, such as not wanting an-
other baby now, not being able to afford one, and not being married. Yet
they use abortion for precisely such reasons. Because abortion has become
an “indispensable part of the normal middle-American toolkit,” there is “a
rock-solid, European-style support for abortion, with American moral pos-
turing plastered on top” (16). “A pro-life regime is not really something
Americans want—it’s just something they feel they ought to want” (14).
Most Americans see abortion as a “necessary evil” (Forsythe 1999, 42).
For many Americans, the way to resolve this dilemma is to avoid think-
ing or talking about abortion. We fear that “to voice any doubts might
jeopardize our tenuous hold” on the issue “and could give aid and succor
to the other side” (Carlson 1997, 40). “Not thinking about the issue is the
way a majority of the public can say that abortion is ‘murder,’ but not feel
obliged to do anything about it” (Ponnuru 1999, 43). Americans agree with
the idea that the fetus is a human baby and killing it is wrong, but they also
accept the idea that a woman has a right to choose (Mathewes-Green 1997).
The abortion issue has made “hypocrites of us all” (Kinsley 1989, 96). The
majority of Americans clearly want to keep abortion legal, but they are
“passive and quiet.” Shifting the debate to partial-birth abortions gave mo-
mentum to the pro-life movement. “By failing to acknowledge the moral
questions raised, pro-choice leaders stilled the voices of many of their
allies, ashamed to be on their side” (Carlson 1998, 60). Yet, a pro-choice
pastor is quoted as saying, “as long as the bottom line is the protection of
the conscience of the individual woman to do what she has to do, we’re in
our tradition” (M. P. Harris 1988, 44). There is clearly recognition here of
the pulls of both moral and pragmatic considerations.
The existence of both pro-life feminists (see Gallagher 1987) and of a
well-known “Jewish, atheist, civil libertarian, left-wing, pro-lifer,” Nat
Hentoff, offers further testimony to the complexities of moral argument re-
garding abortion. Hentoff argues that abortion is, in fact, inconsistent with
“the liberal/left worldview,” since “respect for human life demands opposi-
tion to abortion, capital punishment, euthanasia and war. . . . It is out of
character for the left to neglect the weak and helpless” (1992, 24).
Antiabortion advocates who perceive “a war over the moral de‹nition
of American culture” nevertheless recognize the signi‹cance of law and

practice in in›uencing moral sentiment. The “pedagogical force of law” is
so great that popular attitudes toward abortion will change only when Roe
v. Wade is overturned, says one conservative (Neuhaus 1989b, 39). Another
conservative contends that only when abortions become much more rare
will a broad consensus emerge in favor of the right to life (Forsythe 1999,
45). Progressive writers likewise see changing social conditions as in›uenc-
ing our views of morality. For example, a progressive argues that “as an in-
creasing number of gay people live open and honest lives, the public view
of the morality of gay conduct will continue to change, ultimately
in›uencing both the courts and the legislatures” (Feldblum 2000, 25).
Some abortion rights advocates allege that the so-called moral opposi-
tion to abortion is really opposition either to female sexuality (Tax 1989,
632) or to the “empowerment” of the young and poor women who are the
main users of abortion. The availability of abortion “symbolically threatens
white patriarchal control over ‘their’ young women’s sexual ‘purity’”
(Petchesky 1990, 733). “Feminists are the bearers of the only authentic fam-
ily values” (Gordon 1998, 5). The “postpatriarchal family” is not only more
loving but also “more moral” (Wolf 1992, 25).
Abortion opponents, by contrast, maintain that abortion hurts women
by encouraging male irresponsibility and contributing to the marginaliza-
tion of fatherhood. (“The America We Seek” 1996, 38; Editorial 1998a, 12).
Many women have abortions because they are forced to do so by their irre-
sponsible boyfriends (W. Shalit 1998, 29).
Even those opponents of abortion who view it as “the most serious
moral question facing America” may still disapprove of the tactics of an-
tiabortion crusaders such as Operation Rescue (Editorial 1991c, 13). Never-
theless, despite disagreements about tactics, abortion opponents generally
seem more uni‹ed on questions of morality than its supporters do. On is-
sues related to gays and lesbians, however, there appears to be more divi-
sion among those who disapprove of homosexual activity.
The majority of those who oppose homosexual behavior view it as im-
moral. They therefore assume that “hostility” toward gays “proceeds in
large part from sincerely held moral beliefs” (Klinghoffer 1989, 23). There is
some contention, however, regarding whether homosexuals are morally
responsible for their sexual proclivities. One conservative argues that
homosexuals are “fundamentally unable to change their offensive ways”
(Teachout 1983, 1412). And a gay conservative takes offense at the many
cruel things uttered by conservatives against “people who through no fault
of their own happen to be different in their sexuality” (quoted in “Notes
and Asides” 1990, 17).
Yet other conservatives balk at the idea of absolving homosexuals of
moral responsibility. They argue that even if homosexuality is in some
sense “natural,” it is still not right. If we found a gene for arson, we would
still expect people to exert self-control, and “we would hardly waive our
moral reservations about arson” (Arkes 1993, 44). It is false to believe that
when something is biological, there is no volitional element. Nor is it true
that the degree of volition determines “the moral status of homosexuality”
(Editorial 1993b, 16–17). Furthermore, “the precise mix of genetic and envi-
ronmental in›uences is morally irrelevant. They can cause a predisposition
toward homosexuality; they cannot cause homosexual conduct itself” (Ed-
itorial 1998c, 16).
How to translate a moral distaste for homosexual behavior into practice
is unclear, however. The conservative movement is split between those
who advocate “institutionalized repression of the homosexual commu-
nity” and those who prefer what one writer considers “a more sensible and
less strident way.” Before the gay rights movement, a kind of “tolerance
contract” was in effect whereby homosexuals agreed to be discreet and the
law left them alone. Now that such is no longer the case, conservatives in
some communities are taking repressive measures against what they per-
ceive as subversive elements. The “sense of the community” must be re-
spected (Teachout 1983, 1412).
Conservatives ‹nd the gay rights movement offensive because it is “an
attack on privacy and on the very idea of sexual morality. It seeks public ap-
proval for every variant of sexual activity.” Behaviors that are socially
harmful may be tolerated in private life—a matter of discretion, not
hypocrisy. Gay people who are conservative “neither hide nor proclaim
what they are.” Their friends know; others have no business knowing
(Short 1990, 44). Many conservatives see the public acceptability of homo-
sexuality as a challenge to the whole “moral tradition.” God judges na-
tions, says one conservative, “less on what the nation does in private than
on what it sanctions in public” (Klinghoffer 1998, 26). “The demand for
‘gay rights’ is essentially a demand for respect and approval rather than for
rights” (van den Haag 1991, 35).
But another conservative suggests that the gay rights movement is

merely a rebellion against the persecution to which gays are subjected.
Though such rebellions “are often childish and self-destructive, . . . they are
also typically American reactions to moral hypocrisy and politicized lying.
The persecutors of gays bear signi‹cant responsibility for gay militancy and
have no right to cite it as an excuse for more persecution” (Woolman 1986,
29).
If many conservatives speak of tolerating behaviors practiced discreetly
in private but not publicly ›aunted, one conservative has argued precisely
the reverse. The very idea of morality, John Gray contends, is that it is part
of a common culture. If government must practice neutrality with respect
to different ways of life, if it cannot encourage or support “some ways of
life . . . deemed by . . . the moral common sense of society, to be undesir-
able or inferior,” the consequence “is nothing less than the legal disestab-
lishment of morality. As a result, morality becomes in theory a private
habit of behavior rather than a common way of life” (1992, 20). For Gray,
then, a common morality must be understood and endorsed by social poli-
cies. In a free society, those who do not conform to the accepted morality
are to be tolerated but seen as inferior. People are imperfect and are not al-
ways perfectible. In their efforts to eliminate prejudice, movements for po-
litical correctness produce “a dissociation of private thought from public
life and so undermine the freedom of their institutions” (35).
Gray’s view thus differs substantially from Short’s argument that “pri-
vate life is a place where faults which it is best to tolerate, but inimical to
society to approve, may be abided” (1990, 44) and Klinghoffer’s notion that
God judges nations more on what they publicly sanction than what they
privately practice (1998, 26). Gray maintains that the gay rights movement
has been brought into being by the actions of a government that does not,
in fact, practice the radical neutrality that some contemporary liberals
preach. In reality, the government favors and gives legal privileges to cer-
tain “fashionable” minorities. Policies of positive discrimination for mem-
bers of certain cultural minority groups have meant that “some who may
not hitherto have considered themselves members of a cultural minority—
such as many homosexuals—are encouraged by such practices to constitute
themselves as one” (J. Gray 1992, 30).
At least one progressive agrees that “the liberal neutrality rhetoric” is
“disingenuous” with respect to antidiscrimination laws for homosexuals. It
is not true, she argues, that such laws merely establish basic equality and
are neutral with respect to the morality of being gay. Rather, they “effec-
tively stand for the proposition that discrimination based on homosexual-
ity is as reprehensible as discrimination based on race or gender.” More-
over, judges who think homosexuality is immoral will continue to see
discrimination against them as legitimate (Feldblum 2000, 24).
As conservatives view the matter, the law cannot and should not com-
pel people to regard homosexuals as “morally equal” to heterosexuals (van
den Haag 1991, 38). “The heterosexual community would ›atly resist, and
quite properly so, any demand for a modus vivendi the implications of
which are that the difference between the two lifestyles is on the order of
the difference between people who like Pepsi Cola and those who like
Coca-Cola” (Buckley 1993a, 70). Most Americans are hostile to same-sex
marriage precisely because it “constitutes the ultimate societal declaration
of the moral equality of homosexuality and heterosexuality” (Kraut-
hammer 1996, 102).
Charity and toleration toward homosexuals are desirable but should
not come at the cost of “convictions rooted . . . in theological and moral
truths” (quoted in “Notes and Asides” 1990, 18). There is concern that if re-
quired to interact with gay people in more intimate settings, such as in Boy
Scout troops, people will be unable to express their moral views about ho-
mosexuals (Cloud 2000).
As a result of such concerns, some conservatives take a dim view of laws
that compel association with gays. Such laws, one conservative argues, “re-
distribute rights from straights to those gays willing to use the power of the
state to compel social acceptance.” Landlords must rent to them, employ-
ers must hire them, and “nondiscriminatory” school curricula have given
gays “the right to have the city proselytize on their behalf” (Sobran 1986,
24). But another conservative suggests that laws requiring nondiscrimina-
tion in housing and employment do not forbid anyone from disapproving
of homosexual acts. Nor do “morally neutral” descriptions of homosexual-
ity in school curricula constitute “proselytizing” (Woolman 1986, 30).
Yet another conservative maintains that although homosexuals should
have the same civil rights as heterosexuals, laws should not prohibit private
discrimination. Churches, for example, have a right to discriminate. And
the law should not interfere with the right of parents not to have their chil-
dren taught by “persons whose conduct they abhor and who they think
will set a bad example for their children.” This right should take prece-
dence over anyone’s right to be employed in a school (van den Haag 1991,
37). A well-known gay conservative, Andrew Sullivan, argues that while all
public discrimination against gays should be eliminated, private discrimi-
nation is another matter. There should be “no political imposition of toler-
ance” (1993, 36). Indeed, argues another conservative, using state force to
bar private discrimination is “immoral,” and “state immorality is much
more dangerous than personal immorality” (Woolman 1986, 58).
From a strictly libertarian perspective, neither gay rights laws nor anti-
sodomy laws are good, since government should not be used for such pur-
poses. The same libertarian logic should apply to both kinds of laws, argues
one conservative. Nevertheless, conservatives have not called for the repeal
of sodomy laws (Woolman 1986, 58). Others in the conservative camp argue
that antisodomy laws represent a widely shared defense of a set of “binding
norms.” Thus, William F. Buckley Jr. takes Senator Barry Goldwater to task
for calling the ban on gays in the military “just plain un-American.” That,
Buckley says, is a peculiar way to talk about banning a practice (sodomy)
that until recently was outlawed by forty-seven states (1993a, 70).
Similarly, for one conservative writer “the conservative view, based as it
is on the inherent rights of the individual over the state, is the logical po-
litical home of gay men and women” (quoted in “Notes and Asides” 1990,
17–18). Not so, says another, since conservatism recognizes that “freedom
also depends on moral character—on habits of self-control” (Short 1990,
44). Yet another insists that a clash arises between the Judeo-Christian tra-
dition as a “way of life” and homosexuality as “another way of life”
(quoted in “Notes and Asides” 1990, 18). He cautions that conservatives
should not abandon their belief that “the practice of homosexuality is a vi-
olation of an organic moral code. Those in favor of gay rights must guard
against a kind of extortionate moral egalitarianism” that sees any opposi-
tion to gay practices as bigotry (Buckley 1992b, 71).
If those on the right fear falling into the de‹nitions set by the Left, so
that opposition to gay practices is seen as bigotry, an exquisite parallel to
this sentiment exists on the left, where the concern is that gays might buy
into the Christian Right’s de‹nition of acceptability. As gay images and gay
culture have become increasingly visible, the national movement has be-
come more conservative, say progressive critics. There is now the risk that
gay leaders appear to be saying, “We’re just as good as any Christian, white
American family” (Ireland 1999, 16). There is a danger that the Right has a
“lock on the way gay issues are framed. . . . We present ourselves as ‘just like
heterosexuals,’ when most people—straight and gay—believe we are in fact
quite different. . . . We argue for civil rights at a moment when the entire
paradigm of that phrase has been shifted by conservatives to be equated
with special rights” (Vaid 1993, 28).
Gays now have the opportunity to change American values and politics,
to subvert traditional gender and sexual roles and counter the oppressive
uses of male power (Kopkind 1993, 592). Homosexuals must seek to “go be-
yond mere identity politics to bind equality for gay people with equality for
all people” (Vaid 1993, 28). To seek only acceptance by the larger society
means setting “narrowly self-serving goals” divorced from “the larger battle”
(Gevisser 1988, 414). While the gay rights movement adopted the strategy
and tactics of the civil rights movement or of identity politics—“How else do
you get ahead in America except by banding together and hoisting a ›ag?”—
the true signi‹cance of the movement lies in making everyone aware that
sexuality is ›uid, that our conventional categories may not be valid (Ehren-
reich 1993a, 76). The struggle for gay rights is thus, like the struggle for
women’s rights, an issue with broader social and moral implications.
In disputes about same-sex marriage, both sides argue that morality is
on their side. Those opposed to same-sex marriage consider homosexuality
morally inferior to heterosexuality and hence see homosexuals as not enti-
tled to the same privileges (Buckley 1992b; Krauthammer 1996). Supporters
argue that legalizing gay marriage would provide a “long-overdue correc-
tion of a moral anomaly that dehumanizes and excludes a signi‹cant por-
tion of the human race” (Editorial 2000a, 9). Marriage acts as both an in-
centive and a reward for “moral behavior” (Sullivan 1996, 12); “not to
promote marriage would be to ask too much of human virtue” (Sullivan
1989, 20).
All in all, it is hard to ‹t the culture war rubric to issues regarding ho-
mosexuality. Conservatives disagree among themselves on the stance to be
taken; gays are divided in their goals and the de‹nition of their identity.
There is no neat division between the “orthodox” and the “progressive.”
What is apparent, however, is that all sides share the tendency to frame is-
sues in moral terms. And when “rights” rather than “morals” are the cho-
sen framework, sympathetic onlookers suggest that such framing is in-
suf‹cient. Thus, observers argue, if gay student organizations seek not just
legal rights but “social and cultural acceptance,” they need “to confront
the issue of morality more directly. . . . The possibility exists here to de‹ne
the action of protecting and supporting gay students as a moral imperative
as well as a legal matter of civil rights” (Miceli 2005, 609).
Moral Decline and Relativism
While all sides use the language of morality, they do not agree about
whether the prevailing situation is one of moral decline or moral progress.
Differing opinions exist even within the conservative side. Thus, Paul
Weyrich, who coined the term moral majority, is cited as arguing at the end
of the 1990s that such an entity no longer exists. “Abortion is still legal; the
NEA is still funded, the Greater Adulterer is still in of‹ce; the Republican es-
tablishment still thinks social issues are too thorny to embrace; and too
many evangelical leaders have been seduced by their power at the expense
of their principles” (Gibbs 1999, 47). Only a few months earlier, another
conservative had suggested that conservatives could claim credit for turn-
ing the tide in the culture wars. The divorce rate had fallen; the marriage
rate had stabilized; births to unmarried women had fallen somewhat; the
teen birthrate had dropped; the number of abortions had dropped; fewer
teenagers were sexually active; and suicide and violent crime rates were de-
creasing (Nadler 1998, 26).
For the most part, writers on the left do not speak of moral decline. For
all the “hand-wringing about moral decline,” says one, “there is surpris-
ingly little evidence that Americans act more immorally today than they
did a quarter-century ago. . . . Americans are less likely to drink too much,
take drugs, cheat on taxes, drive drunk, rely on the dole. . . . They also give
more to charity, volunteer more, and spend more time in church” (Whit-
man 1999, 18–19).
Progressives, of course, do not always accept the conservative designa-
tions of what is immoral behavior and sometimes look askance at some of
the movements to improve morality. Thus, one liberal writer questions the
motives of those involved in promoting “family values,” suggesting that
“most of the impulses that propel people toward the right-wing profamily
movement” are “nasty ones: misogyny, racism, sexual repressiveness and a
punitive attitude toward young people” (Ehrenreich 1982, 305). Another
liberal argues that people “divorce for all kinds of reasons, not because they
lack moral ‹ber.” If what people want from family life is more intimacy, sex-
ual pleasure, and shared goals, and if single women want to be mothers,
“why shouldn’t society adapt? Society is, after all, just us.” Yes, such behav-
ior has costs, but the reasons for the suffering “lie not in moral collapse but
in our failure to acknowledge and adjust to changing social relations.” Most
of the harm associated with family dissolution is economic (Pollitt 1992a,
90, 92, 94). A writer in Time notes that the very idea of “family values” rep-
resents “an American warehouse of moral images, of inherited assumptions,
of pseudo-memories of a golden age, of old class habits” (Morrow 1992b,
26). He also suggests that politicians and government cannot “have much
to do with improving a society’s values—family or otherwise. Surely the val-
ues if worth anything, must be more deeply embedded in the culture than
the slogans of transient politicians” (25).
The one clear reference to moral decline in a liberal publication occurs
in the context of an argument against the “cultural conservatives” who
“would have us believe that government, politics, and public policy should
be instruments through which to affect a moral revival.” This writer argues
that “cultural politics and the law” do not provide answers to moral prob-
lems. And “when thinking about moral decay in the inner city,” it is im-
portant to remember that “we should be embracing these people, not de-
monizing them” (Loury 1998, 17).
The general thrust of conservative discussions of moral decline is that
the culture has become exceedingly permissive. The “moral education” of
children has been shaped by rock music, with only ineffectual efforts made
to deal with it, argues Allan Bloom in his best-selling The Closing of the
American Mind (1987). The Left “has in general given rock music a free ride”
in part because liberals “regard it as a people’s art” and enjoy its revolu-
tionary potential (77–78). Moreover, “the uneasy bedfellowship of the sex-
ual revolution and feminism produced an odd tension in which all the
moral restraints governing nature disappeared” (105). With the help of sec-
ular liberals, the media, and Hollywood executives, an “anything goes”
aura has been established.
For many conservatives, much of the moral decline in American society
can be traced to the countercultural movements of the late 1960s and early
1970s. William F. Buckley Jr., for example, wrote a scathing piece attacking
the New York Times for its praise of the counterculture. After the 1994 elec-
tion brought Republican control of Congress, Speaker of the House Newt

Gingrich expressed the hope that the country might ‹nally be liberated
from the counterculture. In response, the Times editorialized in favor of the
counterculture, even praising its music. Buckley responded by suggesting
that “the countercultural music is the perfect accompaniment for the cul-
ture of sexual self-indulgence, of exhibitionism, of crime and illegitimacy
and ethnic rancor and victimology. We have to hope that the Times editor
will one day grow up, like Jerry Rubin,” a famed hippie who abandoned the
counterculture for Wall Street (1995, 79).
In his book on how the counterculture changed America, Roger Kimball
alleges that “it is now practically taken for granted that going to college in-
volves not so much the ‘questioning’ as the repudiation of traditional
moral and political values” (2000, 129–30). Our degraded popular culture,
our addiction to sensation, and our inadequacies as citizens and “moral
agents” all can be traced to the countercultural revolution. But the coun-
terculture is so much “part of the air we breathe” that even conservatives
sometimes seem to deny how bad things really are. “It is both ironical and
dispiriting to realize that the counterculture may have won its most insidi-
ous victories not among its natural sympathizers on the Left but, on the
contrary, among those putatively conservative opponents who can no
longer distinguish between material af›uence and the moral good” (Kim-
ball 2000, 282).
Yet liberals, too, are “uneasy with a consumerist, individualistic culture
that often violates their sense of community, decency, and mutual obliga-
tion” (Dionne 2006, 135). And both sides see remnants of the countercul-
ture in the arts, universities, and the media. Even a supporter of govern-
ment funding for novel or experimental art concedes that there is
something irritating about “people wanting to be a counterculture on the
majority’s nickel” (Kinsley 1992a, 41). An opponent of such funding, con-
versely, argues that “countercultural crowds now gather to demand, not an
end to war or the start of Revolution, but the right to a government grant”
(Eichman 1990, 24).
The relativism of the multiculturalist intellectuals also comes under
conservative attack as a contributor to the moral decline of American soci-
ety. “The moral lesson of multiculturalism is a lazy, cynical relativism of
‘nothing matters.’” We need “to return to simple right and wrong. . . . Not
all moral questions are complex” (Mans‹eld 2000, 26). Furthermore, if
there is really no way of distinguishing right from wrong, if there is “no ra-
tional ground for our moral judgments,” then “the enterprise of moral
judgment” is “dissolved” (Arkes 1989, 36). Almost all of the discussion of
moral relativism appears in National Review (see Arkes 1989; J. Goldberg
2000; J. Gray 1992; Hyde 1990a; Lipman 1991b; Short 1990). There, Holly-
wood is seen as celebrating “the message of moral relativism” and “the idea
that we are all our own priests” (J. Goldberg 2000, 62, 64). And conven-
tional wisdom is seen as supporting relativistic and subjective approaches
to issues that deny the existence of moral truths. That we harbor different
ideas of ultimate good, one conservative argues, does not mean that we
cannot distinguish between good and evil. Thus, “the goods expressed in
the lives of Mother Teresa and Oscar Wilde are incommensurable,” but we
can “con‹dently assert that the life of a crack addict is a poor one” (J. Gray
1992, 36).
Yet for all their concerns with the evils of moral relativism, some con-
servatives acknowledge that views of what is moral are always changing,
that moral absolutes are not always appropriate. Indeed, one conservative
writer takes radical feminists to task for being “absolutists.” Not so long
ago, he notes, many people—including women—were indignant at the
idea of giving spinster schoolteachers the same pay as men who were sup-
porting families. “Lost in a dream of absoluteness, feminists are ill
equipped to face the inevitable somersaults of modern moral pluralism”
(Minogue 1991, 48).
As noted earlier, writers on the Left reject the assertion that their views
amount to moral relativism. The “cultural relativism” that conservatives at-
tack as meaning “moral relativism” is simply an attempt “to empathize
with the moral logics of others” (di Leonardo 1996, 29). Some conservatives
appear to understand the distinction, pointing out the dilemmas faced by
liberals. According to O’Sullivan, some “principled” liberals are “equally
hostile to all cultures, for instance overriding both Christianity and Islam
without distinction where they con›ict with sexual equality.” Then there
are “instinctive” liberals who are “equally friendly to all cultures, for in-
stance embracing even those cultures that have no truck with individual
rights.” The two groups have fought “over whether clitoridectomy was a
horrible violation of women’s rights or a legitimate expression of Third
World culture beyond our ken” (1994b, 39).
For all their disagreements, some commentators suggest that American
society has more consensus than meets the eye. Writing in National Review,
one analyst says, “we are mostly agreed about good and bad. . . . A consis-
tent moral relativist is hard to ‹nd” (Martin 1991, 25). Another writer in
The New Republic contends that all of the combatants in the culture war
“stand for visions of the good society and not simply the good life” (Judis
1999, 56). In the early 1980s, a writer in Time suggested that the “right-wing
insurgency in America today . . . may resonate in a certain moral harmony
with large numbers of American citizens” because there is now a move-
ment toward “the ‹rmer, commonsense moral ground that radicalism and
experimental youth abandoned years ago” (Morrow 1981, 74). Several years
later, a writer in The New Republic pointed out that for people under the age
of forty, a return to “traditional values” does not mean a return to the pre-
vailing middle-class values of the 1950s. Even young conservatives now
“avidly pursue extramarital sex, occasionally enjoying pornography, often
listen to rock music, usually tolerate and sporadically use recreational
drugs, typically regard abortion as a matter of personal choice. . . . These
young conservatives share the American ethic of social permissiveness that
holds many of these cultural innovations to be beyond the coercive reach
of government” (Morley 1986, 12).
Moralizing and Legislating Morality
For all their moral consciousness, writers on all sides deride the “moralism”
of their opponents. Neither side wishes to be seen as imposing its values or
morals on the larger population. The Left may notoriously celebrate indi-
viduals’ freedom to make their own moral and lifestyle decisions, but so
does the Right: “as the party of liberty, conservatives ‹nd it hard to pre-
scribe thought and behavior for others” (Lipman 1991b, 53).
Numerous commentators on the left take aim at the “moralistic im-
ages” of “the new family warriors” (Stacey 1994, 121, 119) and the “moralis-
tic approaches” to family matters that conceal underlying economic reali-
ties (Pollitt 1992a, 92). These liberals consider “the packaging of sexual
orientation as an issue of ‘morality’” to be part of the repressive forces op-
erating in contemporary society (LaMarche and Rubenstein 1990, 526).
They deride “cultural feminists” (who believe that “female values” are su-
perior to male values) as engaging in “moralistic attacks on women whose
attitudes are deemed too aggressive, openly sexual or otherwise ‘male-

identi‹ed’” (Willis 1981, 495). Some progressives note that appearances to
the contrary, television talk shows are in fact “moralistic”—preaching the
middle-class virtues of responsibility and self-control (Ehrenreich 1995, 92).
In any event, “the legions of outraged moralists have little enlightenment
to offer” about why these shows are so popular (Willis 1996, 19). Those on
the left denounce the “moralistic scheme” of some conservatives to ‹ght
AIDS by preaching chastity and monogamy (Fumento 1988, 21). A com-
mentator on the left suggests that the dispute over the canon is moralistic
because concerns about what students read are based on the idea that “the
chief end of reading is to produce a desirable kind of person and a desirable
kind of society. . . . How pragmatic, how moralistic, how American!”
(Pollitt 1991, 331).
Meanwhile, the Right accuses liberals of being “moralizers and up-
lifters” because of their efforts to combat antigay feelings (Brookhiser
1993a, 74). New Left “intellectuals” are seen as “moralistic” actors who
frame policy disputes as “moral assaults” (Bork 1989, 27). And a 1996 opin-
ion piece in Time derides Republican and Democratic politicians alike for
their “politics of virtue”: “politicians have always been willing to go on the
record as ‹rmly pro-morality. But seldom have they done it so relentlessly”
(R. Wright 1996, 43).
Some writers suggest that in American culture, sleaze and immorality
go hand in hand with soul-searching and Puritanism. We worry about the
“deterioration of American morals” but savor “every lurid manifestation of
the decadence.” Perhaps moralizing has become “just another variety of
entertainment,” suggests a writer in Time (Morrow 1994b, 158). Another
Time writer similarly contends that tension has always existed in the
United States between “the pursuit of individual liberty and the quest for
Puritan righteousness.” Thus, the “crusade to reassert family values” is “a
reaction to the sexual revolution” (Stengel 1986, 17). Both the Murphy
Brown debates and the Clarence Thomas–Anita Hill hearings represented a
kind of “moral pageant,” at once “amazingly stupid” and “somehow im-
portant at the same time” (Morrow 1992a, 29).
All sides are guilty of moralizing: “The rise of virtue-talk—which gener-
ally takes the form of communitarianism on the left and nostalgia for Vic-
torianism on the right—has resulted in a striking re-moralization of public
policy debates” (Kaminer 1996, 26). Both the “politically correct left” and
“the right wing minions of moral correctness” have attacked the arts
(Brustein 1997d, 31). Unlike Europe, in America, the arts “have always had
to prove how moral they are” (Hughes 1995, 64). Our “New Puritanism,”
with its obsessive devotion to health and longevity, has meant that joggers
and vegans have become “favored minorities” that can obtain legal privi-
leges, while smokers and drinkers have become “unfashionable minorities
. . . subjected to . . . moralistic intervention in their chosen styles of life” (J.
Gray 1992, 30).
Perhaps this tendency to take some moral offenses seriously while over-
looking others (and dubbing those who do manifest concern about those
offenses as “moralists”) is a long-standing American characteristic. Thus,
Tocqueville noted that Americans treat certain vices differently than
others. Those connected with the “love of wealth,” for example, “are
lightly reproved, sometimes even encouraged,” whereas “all those vices
that tend to impair the purity of morals and to destroy the conjugal tie are
treated with a degree of severity unknown in the rest of the world”
(1848/1961, 2:248–49). In the contemporary United States, sociologists
characterize middle-class Americans as favoring “nonjudgmentalism”
(Wolfe 1998), while a leading conservative writer decries this development
in language usage: “to pass moral judgments is to be ‘judgmental’ and
‘moralistic’” (Himmelfarb 1999, 118).
Ambivalences about morality and moralizing are well demonstrated in
the popular response to the scandal involving President Bill Clinton’s affair
with Monica Lewinsky. While European allies mocked the Clinton im-
peachment as evidence of a peculiar American Puritanism, Americans re-
acted somewhat curiously. To the surprise of many analysts, “Clinton’s job
approval ratings climbed throughout the scandal.” When asked about this
increase, “65 percent said they had adopted a more ‘realistic’ view that
presidents should be judged on their performance, not on their personal
lives. Yet, in another twist, 56 percent said that Clinton’s high approval rat-
ings re›ected a national decline in personal standards and morality”
(White 2003, 30).
Whatever the desire to see one’s view of morality ensconced in the cul-
ture, all agree that legislation is not the appropriate route for doing so. At-
tempting to legislate morality while behavior contradicts it leads only to
cynicism, as Prohibition demonstrated (Loury 1998, 17). Moral disapproval
or censure is a better technique. Most civilizations have expressed their
moral values by mobilizing social opprobrium. Such opprobrium, rather

than legislation, has changed the treatment of minorities in ‹lms and tele-
vision, for example (Wills 1989, 71). A gay conservative argues against using
the law “to legislate culture” (Sullivan 1993, 36). A Time article asserts that
the state should legislate morality only if there is an overwhelming moral
consensus and the behavior in question poses a serious threat to social or-
der (Church 1995, 108). A conservative argues similarly that because of our
diverse views of homosexuality—speci‹cally, of its morality or even
whether any moral question is involved—attempts to legislate in this area
are likely to cause more fragmentation and provoke more intolerance (J.
Gray 1992, 30). Both the Moral Majority and its liberal opponents must
learn that “virtue cannot be enforced by law” (Morrow 1981, 74). Translat-
ing all of morality into law would only overburden the law and bring it
into disrepute (Neuhaus 1989b, 39). Yet conservatives and liberals agree
that advocates attempt to use the courts to try to impose a particular sense
of morality (Bork 1989; Feldblum 2000). Perhaps, indeed, the general op-
position to legislating morality accounts for Americans’ ability to see ho-
mosexuality as immoral while still supporting the civil rights of gays and
lesbians (Loftus 2001, 779).
Conclusions
Invoking moral criteria is a characteristically American pattern, by no

means con‹ned to the Right. While Left and Right may pursue different
moral goals, both groups seek the moral course. And even if a misguided
exit poll question in 2004 made it appear that predominantly conserva-
tives were concerned with “moral values,” considerable evidence shows
that most Americans exhibit such concerns. Indeed, an August 2008 survey
found relatively little difference in this area between McCain and Obama
supporters. Among those voters who said they were certain to vote for
McCain, 71 percent rated “moral values” as a very important issue; among
those certain to vote for Obama, 55 percent did so (Pew Forum 2008b).
Neither the moral outlook nor its con›icts with pragmatism are new in
American culture. Indeed, if one were to remove the culture war trappings,
the critique of contemporary morals in 1980–2000 would appear remark-
ably similar to such a critique in the 1920s. Critics then as now attacked
“the pursuit of personal liberation, especially sexual liberation” (J. Gold-

berg 2000, 64). Similarities abound between the cultural currents of the
Roaring Twenties and the counterculture of the late 1960s and early 1970s.
Both were hostile to “bourgeois morality” and celebrated personal libera-
tion—or “narcissism,” in critics’ eyes. Perhaps the one difference here is
that the Great Depression of the 1930s muted or repressed the cultural
changes of the 1920s, whereas aspects of the later counterculture were ab-
sorbed into the larger culture. The “moral relativism” criticized by so many
at the end of the twentieth century was likewise assailed in the 1920s. In
the 1920s, sociology, anthropology, comparative religion, philosophy, and
“higher criticism” were seen as undermining morality and conveying the
idea that “right conduct depends . . . on conditions and not on any eternal
rules” (Adams 1926, 581).
What is new, once again, is the greater self-consciousness about culture
and heightened attention to those attempting to shape it. That young
people in the 1960s were seen as advocating a counterculture rather than
simply manifesting generational wildness (as in the Roaring Twenties)
testi‹es to the truth of this statement, as do the exaggerated responses
found among culture warriors who perceive every disliked program or piece
of legislation as critical to the moral stature of the society. As an example,
the Catholic Church in Boston saw the presence of a birth control clinic in
or near a school as establishing an “of‹cial state philosophy of situation
ethics and moral relativism” (Leo 1986, 63).
A greater sensitivity to cultural difference has brought with it a reluc-
tance to be “judgmental” in some quarters and a reaction against such sen-
sitivity in others. Is being “nonjudgmental” a virtue or a vice? But the fun-
damental moralism of American culture remains evident—even in attacks
on the excesses of individualism.
CHAPTER 4
Individualism but Not to Excess
In the American cultural lexicon, individualism is always good. When it is

“excessive,” however, it becomes “sel‹shness,” which is not good. Con-
trary to culture war stereotypes of individual licentiousness being advo-
cated on the progressive side and deference to larger purposes on the or-
thodox side, elite opinion on both sides of the cultural divide supports
individualism and individual rights while condemning their excesses. Both
sides reject “sel‹sh” individualism in favor of the “greater good”—whether
that is de‹ned in terms of justice, liberty, and the social welfare or of spiri-
tuality, human dignity, and the sanctity of life and family. All sides wish to
support the “community,” which is also a good in the American cultural
vocabulary. Here too, however, excesses are likely to be criticized. In the
past, the excesses of community were dubbed conformity; more recently,
they have been called tribalism.
Regardless of the issue under discussion, all contenders in the culture
wars seek to show respect for both individual rights and the welfare of the
larger community. In the case of multiculturalism, however, much confu-
sion arises about how it relates to individualism. Is multiculturalism an ex-
pression of individualism or a corrective to it? Are individuals empowered
by their cultures or enslaved by them?
84
Individualism but Not to Excess 85
Celebrating Individualism and Community
Because individualism is perhaps the quintessential American value, com-

mentators on all sides accuse their opponents of squashing individualism.
As seen by a conservative, the Left attacks individualism by seeking to im-
pose its own cultural views and by its devotion to class struggles. “The Left
wishes to use culture to remold man and society on radical lines, with de-
struction of individual autonomy and reason” (Lipman 1991b, 38); it
prefers “proletarian community” to “bourgeois individualism” (Lipman
1991a, 40). From the perspective of progressives, the Right seeks to crush in-
dividualism with its “attack on free expression” (Editorial 1995a, 152), its
“distrust of creativity in all spheres of life other than those of corporate
pro‹tability” (Mattick 1990, 358), and its “discrediting of the idea of a pro-
freedom, pro-pleasure revolution in everyday life” (Willis 1996, 22).
Yet attacks on “rank” or “radical” individualism appear across the polit-
ical spectrum, too. Both opponents and supporters of abortion declare their
cause to be a matter of more than individual rights. For opponents of abor-
tion, those who support abortion rights represent a “radical individualism
that recognizes no restraints such as family or community.” They believe
that “all relationships—family, church, community, as well as mother-
hood—are barriers to self-ful‹llment, unless the individual actively
chooses them” (Cunningham 1992, 46). The pro-choice forces, says an-
other abortion opponent, have “seized the liberal banner for a radical indi-
vidualism that, in the pursuit of self-actualization, acknowledges no bonds
of community or duty to others” (Neuhaus 1989b, 40). But some abortion
advocates argue that abortion rights should be viewed not as “a civil liber-
ties struggle for individual privacy” but rather as a matter of social rights.
Society has a responsibility to help women with abortion and child rearing,
and “the bearers of this right are not so much isolated individuals as they
are members of social groups with distinct needs” (Petchesky 1990, 734).
Conservative commentators see excessive individualism as fostered by
an “elite” that must be displaced (Cunningham 1992, 47). The family, for ex-
ample, is under attack from “the individualism and hedonism of much of
our popular and elite culture” (Muller 1995, 28). But some progressives view
contemporary portraits of sel‹sh individualism as greatly exaggerated. They
argue that “moralistic images of hedonistic adults who place sel‹sh emo-
tional, erotic and ‘career’ ambitions above the needs of neglected children”
do not accord with the realities of working America (Stacey 1994, 121). The
Right equates feminism with individualism, as in the idea that “feminism—
and radical individualism generally—is a bust outside academia and the ac-
tivist groups” (Cunningham 1992, 48). But all sides disavow the exercise of
merely sel‹sh pleasures.
Excessive individualism or sel‹shness in the economic sphere also
comes under attack. The Left assails the conservative culture for its “pos-
sessive individualism, ideological narrowness, social meanness, and Social
Darwinist arrogance” (Howe 1984, 29), while a leading conservative
spokesman argues the need for “a new conversation about the common
good,” since self-aggrandizement alone is “empty, ignoble, and in the end,
profoundly unsatisfying” (Hyde 1990b, 54). The latter idea is certainly
shared by the Left, where one feminist warns that the women’s movement
must not lose its idealistic vision of reform lest it end up “degenerating into
a scramble for personal advancement” (Ehrenreich 1990, 15).
Writers from across the political spectrum suggest that Americans need
to cultivate more of “the sense of what the individual owes to his commu-
nity.” They need to remember that “in many other cultures, individual is a
pejorative, suggesting an antisocial elevation of one’s own welfare above
the welfare of everyone else” (Morrow 1981, 74). Individualism alone is in-
suf‹cient to hold a society together. Without a common sense of what is
good, without a common culture, constant battles over policy will erupt
(O’Sullivan 1994b, 41).
Conservatives and liberals alike feel discomfort when they must choose
between protecting individual rights and freedoms on the one hand and
protecting the social good and exercising moral judgment on the other.
Such dilemmas arise in connection with censorship of offensive or morally
suspect popular culture. As one conservative puts it, “We must recognize
that in a free society, private choices in culture must be subject to mini-
mum restraint. But we must also be careful not to confuse rights with
virtues: the exercise of the right to free cultural choice is not a good in it-
self, but rather must be subject to moral criticism and judged by the con-
tent of the choice” (Lipman 1991b, 53). An editorial in The New Republic
suggests that while songs such as “Cop Killer” should not be censored, lib-
erals should be concerned with such lyrics just as they were justi‹ably up-
set by the Willie Horton ads (used by Republicans to convey racist notions
of blacks as criminals). The message is that “the contents of American cul-
ture cannot be hidden behind the freedom of American culture. For culture
brings news.” Therefore, “we must hear the news that culture brings. But
then we must engage it, and challenge it” (Editorial 1992, 7).
Whether one gives preference to individual rights or to the welfare of
the community hinges on the speci‹c issue at hand. For all their attach-
ment to laissez-faire economics and to individual self-suf‹ciency, conser-
vatives are likely to condemn individualism if it appears to be wreaking
havoc with certain institutions. The family is, of course, a prime example.
Yet even here, unanimity is not present, as one conservative writer points
out. For all the conservative desire to strengthen and preserve marriages,
the Wall Street Journal is leery of changes in the tax code that would consti-
tute “a marriage bonus” (Gallagher 1999, 40).
Whether or not feminists are ultimately “pro-family” is a matter of
some dispute among progressives—again largely because of the individual-
ist/communitarian split. Thus, one progressive has argued that feminist-
backed measures such as child care support, ›exible work schedules,
parental leave, health care, and housing assistance can only help the fam-
ily (Connell 1986, 106). But another progressive contends that such mea-
sures may be pro-family but will not necessarily produce the family stabil-
ity so valued by the Right. After all, socialized medicine and day care would
make women less dependent on their husbands’ bene‹ts and thus might
encourage some young mothers to stray. By the same token, cutting off le-
gal aid for divorce is pro-family but not progressive (Ehrenreich 1982,
303–4). One should af‹rm “individual desire and imagination” because
“they are not disruptive, or sel‹sh, but pre‹gurative of a happier World.”
This idea means, among other things, that “spouses whose lives are de-
pleted by sexual boredom ought to be able to consider alternatives to
monogamy” (306). Americans’ classic ambivalence about family issues—
wanting to protect the family while guarding individual rights—is to some
extent re›ected in the “neoliberal” or communitarian arguments that
emerged in the early 1990s. This movement sought to bolster the family, ar-
guing that individuals were happier within intact families. As seen by one
progressive, these arguments exploited a yearning for “simpler family
times” while offering a “gesture toward gender equality” (Stacey 1994, 120).
In addition to the family, conservatives see the military as another in-
stitution whose well-being is more important than the rights of individu-
als. In writing about the controversy concerning gays in the military, one
conservative bemoans the waning of the “old” military culture, which is of

much greater signi‹cance than “the posturing by both sides in the contro-
versy over gays.” The old military culture was conservative and was com-
mitted to the supremacy of society over the individual, unlike the liberal
orthodoxy and individualism of the surrounding culture. In the aftermath
of the Vietnam War, the military sought to recruit new people and thus to
become less “different” from the larger culture. That movement, unfortu-
nately, continues (Bacevich 1993, 30–31). For many on the left, the military
represents a rather different cultural institution, one that “stands entirely
against the humanistic values behind the gay rights movement.” Thus,
while gays must ‹ght to remove the ban on their presence, they must also
oppose “militarism” (Editorial 1993c, 157).
American Individualism: Complexities and Controversies
If the idea of juggling individual versus collective rights and well-being of-
ten lies at the heart of culture wars issues, the question of just how indi-
vidualistic Americans are is a contentious one. In one respect, the evidence
is clear: Americans are more supportive of economic individualism than are
citizens of any other nation and are more likely than others to believe that
individuals’ fates lie in their own hands. Beyond this, however, there is
considerable room for debate. Survey data reveal ambivalences and incon-
sistencies. Historians and sociologists offer varying portraits of individual-
ism and its relationship to American society, both past and present.
Americans have consistently and unambiguously supported the values
of free enterprise and competition. More than 75 percent of Americans in
four different national surveys during the 1970s and 1980s supported the
value of free enterprise and endorsed “the right to one’s own opinion” and
the view that “what happens to me is my own doing” (Inkeles 1990–91,
109). Of the sixteen nations included in the 1990 European Values Study,
the United States ranked highest in preferring personal freedom to equality,
blaming the individual for being poor, and favoring jobs that encourage in-
dividual initiative over those in which everyone works together (van
Elteren 1998). To be sure, if one asks Americans questions about “social re-
sponsibility” rather than “economic individualism”—that is, beliefs about
the obligation to meet the basic needs of all people in society and to redress
unfair levels of social inequality—one ‹nds substantial agreement here as

well. Using National Opinion Research Center data from 1984, Bobo found
that 49 percent of Americans were ambivalent, scoring close to the mean on
measures of both social responsibility and economic individualism, while
20 percent were individualists and 30 percent were collectivists (1991, 86).
Historians have debated the degree to which economic individualism
(or Lockean liberalism) has been the dominant philosophy in the United
States. In the middle of the twentieth century, observers generally assumed
that the Lockean tradition prevailed, but by the 1970s, some historians ar-
gued that republicanism was a better description of the philosophy of the
American revolutionary generation. Republicanism rests on the idea of the
public good as opposed to the sway of individual interests. It entails a com-
mitment to an active civic life rather than concentration on individual
rights. By the end of the 1980s, the idea of republicanism “had passed into
general intellectual currency” as one of the “core traditions of American
culture itself” (Rodgers 1992, 32).
The issue is a contentious one, however, with both the prevalence and
the merits of republicanism a matter of dispute. While the much-discussed
Habits of the Heart (Bellah et al. 1985/1996) celebrated republicanism as a
worthy competitor or complement to the more familiar individualism,
some historians allege that it was a philosophy of the elite and not appro-
priate to the needs of ordinary Americans. One historian has pointed out
that “although the Founding Fathers never self-consciously conceived of
classical republicanism as the coherent tradition we’ve created, they at least
talked about ‘republicanism’ and invoked ‘republican principles,’” whereas
they never used the term liberalism (Wood 1987, 634). Nevertheless, the
eventual domination of American life by liberalism represented a victory
for democracy, “since a leisured gentry and an aristocratic disdain for direct
market interests and working for pro‹t were at the heart of classical repub-
licanism” (640). Another historian has suggested that while elite views per-
meated all classes, competing views were not excluded and “in time exer-
cised greater interpretive powers for those differently positioned in society”
(Appleby 1985, 468–69). It is thus plausible that as economic issues became
more important, Americans embraced the need to be “industrious,” and
with industriousness came the emphasis on individualism and liberalism
(Barkalow 2004, 498). If republicanism and liberalism coexisted in the days
of the early republic without either attaining “ideological hegemony,”
there is probably a consensus among historians that liberalism had

achieved the ascendancy by the Jacksonian era (1830s–40s) (Curry and
Valois 1991, 26).
While Americans have long noted their devotion to individual ad-
vancement, they often fail to take note of the ›ip side: the respect for au-
thority and morality that also characterizes American culture. Bellah has
argued that from the days of early New England, “Calvinist ‘individualism’
only made sense within the collective context. Individual action outside
the bounds of religious and moral norms was seen . . . as the very archetype
of sin” (1975, 18). Another scholar has noted similarly that in “positing a di-
rect relationship between God and each recipient of Christian grace,”
Evangelicals “created a powerful spiritual individualism.” But mindful of
the “sinful nature of individuals, they sought to encapsulate the height-
ened self-consciousness of individuals within a community of believers
that constrained individualism” (Calhoon 1991, 53).
In American cultural lore, however, the ideal is an individualism that
struggles against both the conformity imposed by groups and the unwar-
ranted exercise of authority by government and other institutions. We
have often been told that “Americans, from the days of the Revolution on,
have resisted authority” (Lipset 1990, 44). Lipset repeatedly notes that
Americans have reacted more strongly than have Canadians to the impo-
sition of governmental authority. Yet he reproduces without comment
survey results showing that Americans conform more than Canadians do
to the authority exercised by their employers: 68 percent of Americans, 57
percent of English Canadians, and 45 percent of French Canadians re-
ported that “they followed their ‘superior’s instructions on a job’ ” (1990,
128).
Americans see themselves as individualists in part because “the rights of
the individual are balanced against the authority of the state. But there is
no way to refer to the authority of the welter of intermediate groups be-
tween the individual and the state” (Fukuyama 1995, 278–79). With regard
to the authority of such groups, comparative survey data reveal that Amer-
icans defer to family and church at least as much and often more than
other Westerners do (Fischer 2000, 13–14). Americans are more supportive
than are British, Canadian, and Australian respondents of established au-
thority and are less likely to favor serious forms of civil disobedience, such
as participating in unof‹cial strikes and occupying buildings (Baer et al.
1995, 184). Americans strongly favor following a supervisor’s instructions

even when they are perceived to lack merit and strongly believe in the ex-
istence of absolute standards of good and evil (Halman 1996).
More than any other nationality in the European Values Study, Ameri-
cans view the family as very important and support the idea that more em-
phasis on the family would be a good thing (van Elteren 1998). Perhaps, as
Gans has concluded, “many values of popular individualism are familistic”
(1988, 3). In Gans’s depiction, “middle American individualism”—the indi-
vidualism of the lower-middle and working classes—blends personal free-
dom with commitments to family and friends. It is about freedom from un-
welcome constraints but not about separation from groups or society. And
it is not concerned with individual uniqueness.
Americans are not just more familistic than others but are also more
likely to defer to church and to nation, and they are among the least likely
of seventeen nationalities to reject the idea of “my country right or wrong”
(Fischer 2000). Perhaps, as Fischer suggests, “voluntarism” might more ap-
propriately characterize American responses than “individualism.” Individ-
uals join groups voluntarily, but defer to the group while they are mem-
bers. One can choose to join or to leave, but while a member, one must be
loyal, whether the group be a family, a church, or the nation (Fischer 2008,
368). One scholar goes so far as to suggest that “the United States, like
Japan and Germany, has historically been a high-trust, group-oriented so-
ciety, despite the fact that Americans believe themselves to be rugged indi-
vidualists” (Fukuyama 1995, 10). Another observer maintains that a “per-
sistent tension between authoritarianism and individualism” has always
existed in American history (Kammen 1972, 292).
As Gans has suggested, differences may exist between popular and elite
understandings of individualism. Individualism, either in its classically lib-
eral form or as tempered by social responsibility, may have been a philoso-
phy held by the national elite (Grabb, Baer, and Curtis 1999). In this view,
the population at large was dominantly communal or familistic in orienta-
tion, even while the elites offered individualist or republican ideas.
The American literary canon endorses strong individualism, while pop-
ular or best-selling writing does not. A study of canonical and best-selling
novels in the United States and Canada ‹nds the best sellers to be quite
similar in both countries, while the literary works are different. In the for-
mation of the literary canon, national elites undertake a conscious effort to
mold the nation’s identity. American canonical novels focus on strong and
autonomous self-de‹nition. They “stress the dangers of social identity, the
constraints of human connection.” This “emphasis on individualism, the
freedom of each man from his family, birthplace, and ancestry was one of
the central myths” in the effort to construct an American nation. By con-
trast, in the development of Canadian identity, the need was rather to dif-
ferentiate Canadian culture from those of the United States and Great
Britain (Corse 1995, 1288).
Elite culture thus represents Americans as the highly individualistic be-
ings they imagine themselves to be. International comparisons indicate
that Americans place a high value on individual self-expression, although
the United States does not lead the world in the self-expression dimension
of Inglehart’s postmaterialism scale, an honor that goes to Sweden and the
Netherlands (Inglehart and Baker 2000, 31). Then, too, ambiguities and
ambivalences exist in American attitudes toward self-expression. When
asked about child rearing, Americans rank near the top among seventeen
nations in endorsing the desirability of children’s “independence.” But
they are simultaneously among the highest in approving of “obedience”
(in separate questions) (Fischer 2000, 6).
Americans are also the “least likely among citizens of large Western na-
tions to agree that ‘right or wrong is a matter of personal conscience’” and
are among “the most likely to agree that the church provides answers to
moral problems” (Fischer 2008, 366). As Alan Wolfe has noted, there really
are not two mutually exclusive categories of people: those devoted to God
and those devoted to the self (2001, 12). Americans combine the two. They
defer to authority and respect self-expression.
Indeed, one might ask why critics of American life have recently fo-
cused exclusively on the negative qualities of self-expression despite the
fact that it coexists with traditional morality and obedience to authority.
Wolfe has observed that in both the Victorian and the contemporary peri-
ods, American “moralists tend to think that self-discipline is a virtue and
self-indulgence is a vice. Yet over and over again, Americans told us that
they agreed with the ‹rst half of that sentiment—but not the second.”
Some forms of self-indulgence are seen as humanizing people (Wolfe 2001,
75–76). Are late-twentieth-century critics of American individualism such
as Christopher Lasch (1979) and Robert Bellah et al. (1985/1996) who focus
on the narcissistic self-indulgence of contemporary Americans also engag-

ing in “moralism” (Goodhart and Curry 1991, 202)?
Critiquing Multiculturalism
The animus against expressive individualism often stems from an underly-

ing assumption that strong individualism necessarily detracts from the col-
lectivity, that there is an inherent con›ict between the individual and the
larger society. Much of the commentary about multiculturalism partakes of
such con›ict imagery. The individual and by extension the individual’s inti-
mate groups are often seen as harboring needs and desires that con›ict with
those of the society as a whole. But is con›ict always or necessarily present?
And are the ethnic and cultural groups that form the basis of multicultural-
ist arguments an asset or a detriment to the health of the larger society?
In the 1930s and 1940s, some analysts saw virtue in “the cultural vigor
of different ethnic groups” because such cultural pluralism could counter
the dangers of mass politics—dangers that arose from individual isolation
and alienation (Gerstle 1994, 1072). As one mid-twentieth-century sociolo-
gist viewed it, “If we look at the city of the twenties from the perspective of
the city of the ‹fties, the widespread ‘marginality’ caused by exposure to di-
verse sub-cultures appears almost attractive when compared with the su-
per‹cial homogeneity of . . . modern city life” (M. Stein 1960, 43–44). At
least one contemporary observer has also seen the search for distinct cul-
tural identities as a response to standardization: “as people feel threatened
by standardization, they search out and cultivate differences. This should
not be disparaged, as if individual choice and commitment were irrelevant.
Nor should it be fetishized” (R. Jacoby 1994, 159).
To be sure, the fraternal organizations of the late nineteenth and early
twentieth centuries that appeared to represent fellowship and communal
engagement may in fact have impeded members’ ability to integrate into
the larger society (Kaufman 2002). But perhaps the earlier communities
were seen as but transitory—a way station on the road to eventual assimi-
lation—whereas the cultural associations in a multiculturalist society ap-
pear to be more permanent and hence more threatening.
The newer cultural associations also seek public rather than merely pri-
vate recognition. And to its critics, this public quality renders multicultur-
alism undesirable. Multiculturalism represents “not just an empirical de-
scription of culturally diverse societies, but also a normative claim that cul-
tural difference is to be publicly recognized and instituted, and thus to be
made the business of state rather than of private initiative” (Joppke 1996,
487).
If, in the early or mid–twentieth century, cultural groups were viewed as
a healthy counterweight to standardization or “mass society,” by the late
twentieth century they were more likely to be seen as an undesirable form
of “social capital.” Putnam’s “social capital”—the trust and reciprocity nec-
essary for a healthy society—was divided into two categories, bonding and
bridging social capital. “Bonding” entails strong in-group ties that may
generate out-group hostility or lack of concern with the larger society, as
compared with the societal involvements of “bridging” social capital. The
examples of bonding social capital Putnam cites include “ethnic fraternal
organizations, church-based women’s reading groups, and fashionable
country clubs”; examples of bridging social capital include “the civil rights
movement, many youth service groups, and ecumenical religious organiza-
tions” (2000, 22).
Thus, ironically, while those commentators who fear the decline in so-
cial capital are concerned about individuals’ withdrawal from participation
in group life, they also fear the kind of intensely meaningful participation
that binds individuals into tightly knit groups. Tight-knit groups are not as
socially constructive as those that are less well integrated. It appears, then,
that the fear of excessive individualism has come to include a fear of exces-
sively individualistic—or “sel‹sh”—groups (Thomson 2005). Hence the
dominant concern in our sample of political commentary is to counter the
antisocial or sel‹sh tendencies of the groups that gather under the multi-
culturalist umbrella. In the words of one commentator, multiculturalism
“promotes group loyalties at the expense of a larger national identity”
(Steel 1998, 13).
That all groups do not have equal power makes the matter somewhat
more complex, as the loyalties of dominant and subordinate groups to the
larger society may differ. Indeed, some evidence suggests that high-status
groups may more readily retain allegiance to both their ethnic groups and
the larger society than do lower status groups. Perhaps unsurprisingly, one
study has found that the patriotism and nationalism of Euro-Americans are
signi‹cantly higher than those of African Americans (Sidanius et al. 1997,

114).
Because the rights of individuals generally have primacy over the
claims of the collectivity in American society, multiculturalism is widely
criticized for promoting group rights. In part for this reason and in part be-
cause of fears of social fragmentation, this sample of writings includes no
defenders of multiculturalism per se. While essays in The Nation and The
New Republic defend some aspects of “multicultural education” or changes
in the university canon, no one in the sample supports the general idea of
multiculturalism.
Of the thirty-eight articles devoted to a discussion of multiculturalism,
twenty-seven assail multiculturalists for failing to appreciate that there is
an American culture. Whether American society is a melting pot or a WASP
culture, it is composed of individuals and based on individual rights; it is
multiracial and multiethnic but also monocultural. Whether there is a
“centrist consensus” at its core (Henry 1993, 75) or “mutual respect” among
heterogeneous groups (Hughes 1992a, 44) or a “time-honored American
mixture of assimilation and traditional allegiance” (F. Siegel 1991, 35),
American culture is to be protected against the fragmentation or Balka-
nization that multiculturalism would bring.
Of the remaining eleven articles dealing with multiculturalism, seven
deal with the internecine battle among conservatives about the wisdom of
limiting immigration from Third World countries: ‹ve favor restricting im-
migration, while two oppose such restrictions. Two of the remaining four
articles consist of progressive criticisms that oppose multiculturalism be-
cause it fails to help the groups it is intended to help (Daryl Michael Scott
1998; Walzer 1996). One article celebrates the “post-multiculturalism” that
now ›ourishes among those in the arts whose bonds are based on aesthetic
tastes (Breslauer 1995, 22). And the remaining article discusses the tension
between “celebrations of difference” and a commitment to universal hu-
man rights (Elshtain 1998, 11), suggesting that sensitivity to cultural differ-
ences must not be used to undermine commitment to universal human
rights (12).
Multiculturalism goes against the grain of American culture primarily
through its failure to honor the ideals of individualism. According to a
writer in Time, “Put bluntly: Do Americans still have faith in the vision of
their country as a cradle of individual rights and liberties, or must they re-
linquish the teaching of some of these freedoms to further the goals of the
ethnic and social groups to which they belong?” (P. Gray 1991, 13). The cur-
rent “celebration of cultural diversity” entails an “insistence on group
rights over individual rights” (Krauthammer 1995; see also Auster 1994; J.
Gray 1992); it “emphasizes the betterment of the group” (Henry 1993, 74).
It advocates a nation of “inviolable ethnic and racial groups” rather than a
nation “of individuals making their own choices” (Schlesinger 1991, 21).
“Imagine places where it is considered racist,” says a critic of multicultural
curricula in universities, “to speak of the rights of the individual when they
con›ict with the community’s prevailing opinion” (Henry 1991, 66). Mul-
ticulturalism entails a “revolutionary” change from America as “a nation of
individuals, voluntary associations, and ethnic groups to a confederation
of diverse ‘peoples’ with separate worldviews and different ‘cultures.’” This
phenomenon represents a shift from individual citizens entering the pub-
lic arena to groups entering the public arena, a change from a “multiethnic
America” to a “multicultural America.” (Fonte 1996, 48). Multiculturalism
might be called “the socialist theory of American nationality, in contrast to
the liberal theory that sees Americans as rights-bearing individuals” (O’Sul-
livan 1994a, 38). The dreaded result is Balkanization (Krauthammer 1990,
1995; O’Sullivan 1994b).
Multiculturalism “turns upside down” the principle on which America
is based: “the freedom to create a new personal identity” and “to become
part of a nation of people who have done the same thing” (P. Gray 1991, 17).
Indeed, “the American achievement is not the multicultural society, it is
the multicultural individual” (Wieseltier 1994, 30). Diversity does not
mean simply the presence of different racial, ethnic, or sexual groups. “True
diversity lies in acknowledging that every human being is an individual,
and not simply a member of racial, ethnic or sexual groups. The variety of
these individual differences is what bonds us all to each other.” We must
recognize that “we are individuals ‹rst, Americans second and tribalists
third” (Brustein 1997a, 34). One writer cites Woodrow Wilson to the effect
that “you cannot become thorough Americans if you think of yourselves in
groups. America does not consist of groups” (Hart 1996, 52).
Furthermore, individuals can and do transcend their groups and sub-
cultures. “The great artists and thinkers of every culture have always looked
for what is individual in humanity rather than what is general” and have
celebrated the capacity of people “to transcend externally imposed roles to
achieve a richer individuality” (Brustein 1991, 34). Students’ minds should
not be made to conform to any of the “socially constructed group minds”

but should instead be encouraged “to ‹nd their way to an individually
achieved sense of culture” (Howe 1991, 47). The American experiment is
about individuals pursuing their own private views of happiness (Crain
1993, 16).
By contrast, the “cult of multiculturalism” is seen as introducing a ten-
sion between individual uniqueness and group identity. “Blacks are forced
either to deny their individuality by being made ‘representatives of their
race’ . . . or to deny their race by insisting on their individual uniqueness”
(F. Siegel 1991, 34). The tension between individual uniqueness and group
identity is, of course, a classic sociological dilemma, well described by
Georg Simmel at the beginning of the twentieth century. Simmel saw that
for the group to maintain a unique identity, it must sti›e individuals’ pro-
clivity to deviate from group norms. Either the group itself is unique, or the
group enlarges to allow for more individual diversity at the expense of its
own individuality (Simmel 1908/1971, 257). Some observers have argued
that African Americans today face the dilemma of reducing their opportu-
nities for individual advancement by adhering to “the culture blacks have
built in opposition to oppression” or abandoning this culture and its at-
tendant solidarity to seek individual success (Merelman 1994, 6).
Tensions between individualist ideals and group-based commitments
exist in popular consciousness as well as scholarly and critical discussion.
Thus, in-depth interviews with respondents who are “well-informed and
articulate about diversity” reveal that some see the ideal of diversity as a
matter of treating all individuals the same regardless of their social differ-
ences, while others believe that diversity means that group differences are
“consciously valued, celebrated, and sustained.” It is almost impossible to
endorse both of these ideals at the same time because “they represent two
fundamentally different conceptions of the proper role of the individual
and the group in social life.” Many respondents applauded the idea of ac-
cepting diverse individuals into the group and seeing their diversity as en-
riching the group. At the same time, however, respondents viewed collec-
tive representations of diversity as problematic. They thus found it hard or
undesirable to incorporate literature from diverse groups into school or col-
lege reading lists and complained of the dif‹culties of communication
among different groups in community settings (J. M. Bell and Hartmann
2007, 898, 903).
One commentator notes that American society has long harbored “a
contradiction between . . . commands to be oneself while also being part of

a common culture, a creative tension that has produced a literature popu-
lated by loners, rebels, and mis‹ts.” It has also produced much stress. “No
one ever said it was easy to be an American, to learn the rules anew each
day, every day” (P. Gray 1991, 17). Another observer suggests that the in›ux
of Latin American immigrants might begin to subtly change this individu-
alist culture: “The glamour of the United States is the Easter promise: you
can be born again in your lifetime. You can separate yourself from your
past. . . . Immigrants still come for that promise.” But the more communal
cultures of Latin America and Asia are now presenting alternatives that
“beckon the American imagination.” The Latin American culture offers “an
undistressed leisure, a crowded kitchen table, even a full sorrow. . . . We will
change America even as we will be changed” (Rodriguez 1988, 84).
According to one writer, Americans are currently so individualistic that
U.S. society contains a new kind of “tribalism of conviction.” People in the
new tribes may live in the same towns or even in the same houses, “but
their minds might as well be in separate countries.” In their personal lives,
Americans readily handle such differences, he suggests. But “Af‹rmative
Action and ethnic politics, supposedly designed to bring people into the
system, have the effect of turning people against each other.” What is
needed are “some myths of commonality, and some actual commonalities,
to keep us from ›ying apart, . . . some notion of an American way of life”
that goes beyond “diversity.” The older American way of life, replete with
republican virtue and Poor Richard’s Almanac, can serve this purpose. “The
tribes won’t disappear. . . . But they will ›ourish a lot more harmoniously if
the main lines of American civilization are a little more ‹rmly drawn”
(Brookhiser 1990, 65).
The sole article in The Nation that deals with the overall philosophy of
multiculturalism is highly critical of it, not because of its threat to social
unity but because contemporary multiculturalism—postmodern multicul-
turalism—insuf‹ciently supports black identity groups. These multicultur-
alists “couple their celebration of group differences with a concerted effort
to blur group borders. . . . They promote ›uid notions of group identity,
emphasizing cultural differences and fragmentation among African-Ameri-
cans.” They thus undermine the possibility of “a vibrant black community
in which people have stable identities, grapple with internal differences,”
and are committed to a common culture (Daryl Michael Scott 1998, 26–27).
Progressives, the author argues, must recognize that “black politics should
address economic inequities” and must therefore reject postmodern multi-
culturalism (27). For if it fails to maintain a vibrant group life, “the black
community will continue to be vulnerable to AIDS and crack epidemics,
and must await salvation from without or resort to rank individualism”
(29). This piece demonstrates that social scienti‹c discourses about culture
have affected the thinking of some activists who are struggling to support
a kind of multiculturalism that recognizes the looseness and ›uidity of
“culture.”
Another liberal commentator in The New Republic shows some sympa-
thy for those who assert multiculturalism but similarly suggests that their
tactics are misguided. Michael Walzer argues that the groups involved are
not well served by multiculturalism because it is “a symbolic politics” that
“challenges dominant beliefs . . . where the emotional pull of oneness—›ag
and country, God and family—is most deeply felt” (1996, 39). Instead of
cultural symbolism, he argues, political and economic power are needed.
Concern for preserving group identity is not con‹ned to the Left, how-
ever. All sides recognize the need for groups or communities to maintain
their own cultures and identities. Being open to others’ ideas must not
mean having no commitments to beliefs of our own. If we are “liberated
from tradition and particularity,” we will not have much to say to each
other, says a conservative writer (Neuhaus 1988b, 24). When the mainline
Protestant churches “persuaded people to embrace tolerance and inclusive-
ness,” they “lost their internal sense of identity” (Ostling 1989, 95).
For all the ethos of the group and group rights that is embodied in mul-
ticulturalism, however, some commentators view multiculturalism as an
outgrowth of individualism. It is seen as a form of “collective narcissism”
(Brustein 1995, 30), a kind of “tribal solipsism” in which blacks, women,
and the Moral Majority, for example, assume that true understanding is
available only to their own membership (Morrow 1981, 73). If I love some
work of art or music “because it is mine,” says another critic, “properly
translated, this means: I do not love it, I love me” (Wieseltier 1994, 32). For
those who de‹ne the United States as “a nation almost like any other,”
re›ecting a “sense of common nationhood in the European sense,” multi-
culturalists’ demands point up the fallacies of the liberal theory that Amer-
icans are united by their devotion to individual rights. This theory cannot
resist the claims of multiculturalism because “if people believe they can
‹nd self-expression only in ethnic and linguistic enclaves, the theory of in-
dividual rights allows them to do so” (O’Sullivan 1994a, 43).
Multiculturalism in Relationship to the Individual,

the Group, and the Society
A number of well-known sociologists also perceive a link between multi-

culturalism and individualism in American culture. James Davison Hunter,
for example, argues that because multiculturalism assumes an “au-
tonomous individual whose cultural identity is a matter of relatively un-
constrained choice,” it does not challenge “radical individualism, it only
reinforces it” (2002, 44–45). Only “creedal communities” can resist “the
excesses of radical individualism” (47–48). What is ultimately wrong with
multiculturalism is its failure to appreciate the power of culture. Multicul-
turalism equates culture with “the ethic of individual choice,” seeing reli-
gion as something one “can choose to embrace or choose to reject” and
race and ethnicity as something one can “choose to feel good about or be
ashamed of” (J. D. Hunter 1994, 201–2). As a result, multiculturalism does
not provide a way of understanding difference; “it only acknowledges dif-
ferences among individuals in the choices they make” (J. D. Hunter 2002,
45). Thus, ironically, a philosophy that of‹cially celebrates diversity re-
duces all to sameness (200). Because “individualism is paradigmatic in
America,” it is powerful enough to “suppress innovation when innovation
is subversive to the basic commitments of the paradigm. This is what you
have in multiculturalism. . . . Alternatives are offered but only in ways that
are consistent with the assumptions, rules, and social practices of individu-
alism” (J. D. Hunter 2002, 47).
Robert N. Bellah argues similarly that the ideology of multiculturalism
operates as an agent of the dominant American culture; “multiculturalism,
which has become so widely accepted in America, is part of the process of
assimilation into the dominant culture, . . . and thus not in any real sense
the expression of a genuine cultural pluralism.” Its underlying message is
that we must respect the fact that “we’re all different; we’re all unique”
(2002, 27).
In Bellah’s understanding, as in Hunter’s, “deep cultural codes,” often
derived from religion, operate beneath the level of conscious awareness. In
American society, Protestant religious individualism operates in this fash-

ion. It is reinforced by economic individualism, and both the state and the
marketplace inculcate the common American culture of individualism. As
Bellah sees it, “something is wrong not on the surface of American life but
deep in the core of our common culture” (2002, 28). “What economic in-
dividualism destroys and what our kind of religious individualism cannot
restore is solidarity, a sense of being members of the same body” (20).
American society needs “to recover an idea of the common good toward
which we can aspire in the face of the disintegrative tendencies not of cul-
tural pluralism but of radical individualism” (28).
While sharing Bellah’s view of what ails American society, Michael
Walzer places multiculturalism in a different frame. Like Bellah, Walzer sees
individual withdrawal rather than “multicultural cacophony” as the wor-
rying aspect of American society. But unlike Bellah, Walzer sees multicul-
turalism as an antidote to excessive individualism. Leaders of movements
for multiculturalism, he argues, lack power over their membership and
consequently “demand governmental programs (targeted entitlements,
quota systems) that will help them press their own members into line.
From their perspective, the real alternative to multiculturalism is not a
strong and substantive Americanism, but an empty or randomly ‹lled in-
dividualism. . . . The critical con›ict in American life today is not between
multiculturalism and some kind of cultural hegemony . . . but between the
manyness of groups and of individuals, between communities and private
men and women” (1994, 188). In Walzer’s understanding, then, multicul-
turalism represents the collectivity against the individual, a way of righting
the imbalance between “culture and selfhood” (191). Because of the need
for balance between the individual and the group, we must not consis-
tently defend either multiculturalism or individualism, he argues, but
rather should support “now one, now the other, as the balance requires”
(191).
While Walzer thus frames multiculturalism rather differently from
Hunter and Bellah, he lumps together ethnic and racial groups, groups
based on gender or sexual preference, unions, interest groups, and political
parties. All need assistance in the face of individual withdrawal, he argues.
He thus appears to give ammunition to those detractors of multicultural-
ism who assert that no genuine cultural differences are at stake, merely self-
interested politics in a new guise.
The allegation that various cultural claims are false and simply self-in-
terested has been framed by one anthropologist as a manifestation of the
larger clash between what he calls “liberal theory” and “culture theory.”
Liberal theory, which is dominant politically, sees individuals as forming
society based on their own self-interested concerns; culture theory, in con-
trast, assumes that culture is important in shaping individuals. Liberal the-
ory does not “allow for persistent cultural difference” or for “the legitimacy
of claims based on it.” Thus, if Native Americans claim that a given loca-
tion is a “cultural site,” local non-Indians respond by suggesting that “to-
day’s Indians had lost their original cultures” and therefore cannot “claim
legitimate traditional connections to it” (Boggs 2002, 604).
Multiculturalism can also be viewed as a different way of incorporating
people into the larger society. Jeffrey C. Alexander sees multiculturalism as
offering a more welcoming mode of “incorporation” into society for groups
outside the mainstream. Unlike both the assimilation and hyphenation
models, multiculturalism does not maintain a separation between one’s
public and one’s private identity. It thus erases the suggestion of inferiority
that is attached to difference in these other models. It celebrates difference
and encourages the maintenance of these diverse cultural communities. Its
aim is not separation but a “more democratic mode of civil integration”
(2001, 238). In multiculturalism, the qualities that make one an outsider
are to be understood by all, rather than relegated to the private realm. “It is
the qualities of being woman, of being nonwhite, of being homosexual or
lesbian, of being handicapped that core group and out-group members
struggle to understand and experience. . . . Insofar as such understandings
are achieved, rigid distinctions between core and out-group members break
down, and notions of particularity and universality become much more
thoroughly intertwined” (246). As the proponents of multiculturalism
have long noted, they seek “cultural pluralism without hierarchy” (Asante
1992, 309).
In somewhat similar fashion, Richard M. Merelman argues that African
Americans have developed their own culture in response to the larger soci-
ety’s racism. Indeed, multiculturalism claims that “racial domination has
contributed to blacks and whites becoming culturally different groups. Sym-
bols of commonality, such as ‘individualism,’ ‘Americanism,’ and ‘citizen-
ship’ not only hide this fact, but also protect ‘meritocratic’ practices which
impede real political and economic parity between the races” (1994, 17). Be-
cause blacks have been isolated and subordinated, whites have controlled
“the de‹nition and ›ow of cultural capital in most universities, in the me-
dia, and in primary and secondary schools. . . . Blacks are asked to absorb
some types of knowledge and certain speci‹c values which many in their
own group suspect and which—being unfamiliar—are dif‹cult to acquire”
(5–6). As blacks and whites increasingly interact, and cultural capital be-
comes increasingly important for economic and political power, “a height-
ened awareness of culture as such may well develop,” and con›ict over cul-
ture emerges (6). Citing a study of student life at Rutgers University,
Merelman notes that when confronted with racial realities on campus,
“white students reluctantly are forced to acknowledge that race and culture
do in›uence most [people’s] choice of friends. In order to defend individu-
alism in the face of this challenge, white students at Rutgers distinguish be-
tween spheres—such as friendship—where they think individualism
should continue to apply—and other spheres—such as politics—where
they think the group has the right to come ‹rst. In effect, students protect
individualism by ‘choosing’ multiculturalism as a public norm and by
‘choosing’ individualism as a private norm.” In this process, “multicultur-
alism transforms individualism itself,” since the earlier idea was that racial
group choice was to be con‹ned to private life and proscribed in the public
sphere. If this newer view were to take root in the larger society, “a public
norm of racial, ethnic, and cultural diversity” would be erected “at the very
time when the private, organic foundations of such diversity in ‘ethnically
pure’ families, schools, neighborhoods, universities, and churches have
substantially eroded” (16).
If advocates of multiculturalism celebrate it as a mode of incorporation
into society, opponents see it as precisely the opposite. Spencer (1994), for
example, characterizes it as a form of “minority nationalism” that com-
petes with both American nationalism (white Christian supremacy) and
cosmopolitan liberalism. The difference between American nationalism
and African American nationalism, he argues, lies only in their power dif-
ferentials; all nationalisms are essentially ethnocentric. Because it lacks
power, African American nationalism must call for “diversity” and “inclu-
siveness,” just as religious groups that are politically weak and the victims
of repression call for toleration and religious freedom while those that are
politically strong repress other religions “in the name of the ‘one true
faith’ ” (556). Other analysts, such as Ravitch, have talked of two different
kinds of multiculturalism: pluralistic and particularistic. Whereas “the

pluralists seek a richer common culture, the particularists insist that no
common culture is possible or desirable” (1992, 276–77). Defenders of mul-
ticulturalism, by contrast, see a choice rather between the reigning Euro-
centric hegemony and those who seek genuine cultural pluralism (Asante
1992, 309).
Multiculturalism thus appears as a kind of Rorschach test. Does it pro-
mote individualism or the collectivity? Does it promote social integration
or separation? Is it bene‹cial for the larger society? Is multiculturalism un-
desirable because it is essentialist or ascriptive and thus violates the volun-
tarism of American society? Or does its very openness and choice violate
traditional patterns of community allegiance?
As Hollinger and others have suggested, a tension exists within multi-
culturalism, between “cosmopolitan and pluralist programs for the defense
of cultural diversity.” Whereas pluralism defends and preserves existing
groups, cosmopolitanism favors voluntary individual af‹liations and views
individuals simultaneously as members of multiple communities. Cos-
mopolitanism “is willing to put the future of every culture at risk through
the sympathetic but critical scrutiny of other cultures” (Hollinger 1995, 85).
Individuals may well be “eager to escape” their traditional cultures
“through new out-group af‹liations” (107).
If the individual is the ultimate basis for association in society, then cos-
mopolitanism is plausible, and so is assimilation. If, conversely, groups
form the basis of social association, then pluralism results. The assimila-
tionist model rests on a classically liberal view of democracy, whereas the
pluralist perspective is based on a more communitarian view (Wuthnow
2006, 168–69). Hartmann and Gerteis (2005) present a more thorough ty-
pology of the ways in which individuals and groups are incorporated into
society, noting that theorists differ not only about whether the social asso-
ciation is based on individuals or requires the mediation of groups but also
about whether cultural cohesion requires strong substantive moral bonds
(“thick” culture) or whether procedural norms and common legal codes
(“thin” culture) suf‹ce. Using these two distinctions, Hartmann and
Gerteis produce a fourfold typology, with individuals as the basis of associ-
ation producing either “assimilationism” (under thick culture) or cos-
mopolitanism (under thin culture) and groups as the basis of association
producing either “interactive pluralism” (under thick culture) or “frag-
mented pluralism” (under thin culture) (224). In the assimilation model,

the individual adheres to a cohesive culture, whereas the cosmopolitan in-
dividual gives basic loyalty to the larger society while choosing which
group memberships to retain and which to abandon. In the fragmented
pluralism model, allegiance to the larger society is minimal, as there is
maximal attachment to the group. The groups have clear and strong
boundaries, they are not freely chosen, and membership within a group is
essential and ascriptive. The national order comes from respect for group
rights. While groups remain the basis of association under interactive plu-
ralism, they are subordinate to the larger society. Groups recognize and re-
spect each other, and the larger societal order emerges via group interac-
tion. The specter of fragmented pluralism clearly leads critics of
multiculturalism to condemn it for social disunity and moral relativism
(230). The political commentators in our sample supported assimilation,
cosmopolitanism, and interactive pluralism but not fragmented pluralism,
which relegates the larger society to lesser concern than the social groups
composing it.
Fears of fragmented pluralism account for much of the hostility toward
multiculturalism. Hostility toward multiculturalists is based not just on
their favoring group rights over individual rights but also on their per-
ceived unwillingness to join in a common or unitary American culture.
Proponents of this view assert that the majority of multiculturalists are
hard-liners who “damn as racism any attempt to draw the myriad of Amer-
ican groups into a common American culture” (F. Siegel 1991, 35). As a re-
sult, the melting pot ideal “that was universally celebrated until about
twenty years ago” is being abandoned, and the “common American iden-
tity” is in danger of becoming a “diluted legal one” (O’Sullivan 2000, 22).
Multiculturalists take seriously every culture except for “the traditional
American culture, now given such epithets as hegemonic Euro-American-
ism” (O’Sullivan 1994a, 40).
Some critics acknowledge that competing strands of multiculturalism
exist, with the bene‹cial strand showing an appreciation of “transcultural
blending,” while the harmful one celebrates a single culture and seeks “the
empowerment of disadvantaged people through the agency of culture”
(Brustein 1991, 32). The latter is akin to Ravitch’s distinction between plu-
ralistic and particularistic multiculturalism.
Everyone opposes what is called separatism, tribalism, or balkanization.
In addition, a number of conservative commentators point out that real

multiculturalism would pose insuperable dif‹culties: “What would it
mean? The promotion of clitoridectomy among African-Americans? Amer-
ican volunteers to implement the fatwa against Salman Rushdie?” (O’Sulli-
van 1994a, 40). An “incompatibility” clearly exists between “our own cul-
ture and that of the fundamentalist Muhammadan” (Buckley 1993b, 71). A
critic of multicultural education derisively speaks of the “liberating ‘other-
ness’ of diverse civilizations (suitably purged, of course, of castes, canni-
bals, and clitoridectomies)” (Melzer 1991, 10–11).
How one evaluates multiculturalism hinges on one’s implicit models of
how society and culture operate. Can one “exit” a culture? Are individuals
autonomous agents or “determined as members of particular groups?”
(Eller 1997, 250). Considerable disagreement has arisen within the liberal or
progressive camp on the issue of multiculturalism because of such issues.
On the one hand, the Left sympathizes with movements that speak for sub-
ordinate groups and cultures. On the other hand, there is much support for
individual autonomy.
Despite some liberal misgivings about multiculturalism because of con-
cerns that individuals might be oppressed in cultural communities, Joseph
Raz has argued that a liberal case can be made in support of multicultural-
ism: “Only through being socialized in a culture can one tap the options
that give life a meaning.” The moral claim of cultural groups to receive re-
spect thus “rests entirely on their importance to the prosperity of individ-
ual human beings” (1994, 71–72). To be sure, “opportunities of exit should
be encouraged . . . for members who cannot develop and ‹nd adequate av-
enues for self-expression within their native culture” (77).
Raz’s essay prompted David Bromwich to critique the “culturalist argu-
ment” that sees “a universal human need to belong to a culture.”
Bromwich contends that in the strong sense, culturalism means that “‘my
culture’ is a fact endowed with a dignity and deserving of a respect compa-
rable to the dignity and respect I would claim for myself,” and this “idea
seems to me a lie” (1995, 89). The culturalist argument weakens the liberal
commitment to individual artists and thinkers who choose “to cease to be-
long as reclaimable property to the culture that ‘constitutes’ them” (102).
In response to Bromwich’s arguments, Michael Walzer has noted that
the useful lives that individuals lead all differ and that “the differences are
culturally determined.” Furthermore, the “autonomous self-creating indi-
vidual” that Bromwich celebrates “is a cultural ideal” too—“ours” (1995,

105). Liberal societies, to their credit, allow “ordinary people to live freely
within more than one cultural community.” And liberalism “protects its
own competition—by tolerating, say, religious faith and practice. . . . Some
of the protected groups are, no doubt, illiberal” (106).
Charles Taylor responds to Bromwich by suggesting that an argument
about giving priority to the group or the individual can occur only in “a
dissociated world of self-enclosed theory.” In the real world, individuals
and groups are intertwined. Taylor “realize[s] that we are still struggling to
know what we mean by ‘culture.’ I know it has something to do with what
has de‹ned the important, the holy, the worthwhile for many people over
time” (1995, 103–4).
Just as our understanding of culture has changed over time, so too has
our image of the individual-society relationship. The dominant under-
standing of individualism within American culture has long been a kind of
con›ict model in which individualism and conformity are antagonistic to
each other and individualism and social cooperation are at opposite ends
of the continuum. But evidence indicates that Americans no longer de‹ne
authentic selfhood as requiring con›ict with the surrounding society.
When mid-twentieth-century social critics and theorists perceived “confor-
mity” to be the scourge of middle-class America, an implicit con›ict model
often became explicit. William Whyte, whose study of The Organization
Man (1956) was a best-selling indictment of “groupthink” at the of‹ce and
in suburbia, put it quite clearly. However benevolent the organization may
seem, he argued, the organization man must not “hold before him the
dream that ideally there need be no con›ict between him and society.
There always is; there always must be” (448). Half a century later, an article
in the New York Times Magazine made “The Case for Fitting In” (Berreby
2008). Included here was a reinterpretation of classic psychological experi-
ments in individual capitulation to the group or obedience to an authority
‹gure. The article suggests that such experiments might reveal not “the
evils of conformity” but the virtues of trust and social cooperation (25).
For many Americans in the late twentieth century and beyond, identi‹-
cation with groups and subcultures has become an essential aspect of the
self. It is no longer necessary to renounce such ties in the name of “au-
thenticity” or the “true self.” Quite unlike the earlier self-help literature,
advice books as early as the 1980s counseled readers to reject cultural
images of a totally independent self. They also told readers to reject inter-
personal manipulations of the kind taught by Dale Carnegie and Norman
Vincent Peale. Survey data similarly re›ect a heightened concern over time
with the interpersonal dimensions of all roles and a more relational view of
the self (Thomson 2000, 73–84). A self that is ›exible, capable of change,
and embedded within a variety of groups has become a more culturally ap-
proved model than one that is in con›ict with the society.
This newer view of the individual self mirrors the change in paradigm
that has taken place with regard to culture. Rather than seeing the self as an
integrated, stable, and well-de‹ned entity, newer understandings see the
self as ›uid rather than ‹xed, constantly in process of change and rede‹ni-
tion. This kind of self is nurtured as well as constrained by cultures and re-
lationships (Gergen 1991; Leinberger and Tucker 1991; Thomson 2000). As
one sociologist has described our current view of self, “whether we ›ee
from it or embrace it—we know ourselves as a ‘construction’ of culture”
(McCarthy 1996, 84).
Paradoxically, however, the decrease in con›ict between the individual
and the society may have generated greater levels of con›ict—or at least
the perception of con›ict—among groups and between groups and the
larger society. To the degree that Americans now embrace groups as vehi-
cles for individual well-being, even reinventing themselves through groups
of Fundamentalists or gays or Eastern mystics (FitzGerald 1986, 23), the
groups come to be seen as sel‹sh, perhaps particularly where the groups are
de‹ned in cultural rather than interest group terms, since interests can
more readily be compromised than cultures.
Conclusions
In valuing individualism but not to excess, culture warriors replicate a

long-standing American practice. Both major American political parties si-
multaneously endorse aspects of individualism and communitarianism.
What is new here is the emergence of a multiculturalism that demands
public recognition of subcultural differences. Culture war contentions
notwithstanding, all seem opposed to this idea.
Multiculturalists are following in the tradition of feminists and others
who recognized that “the personal is political.” Confusions about whether
multiculturalism represents a form of group supremacy or extreme individ-

ualism can be clari‹ed by taking into account late-twentieth-century Amer-
ican conceptions of the self in society that allow for authentic individual-
ity to emerge within group contexts.
In what is perhaps the dominant image of multiculturalism, multicul-
turalists worldwide appear to challenge the “cultural content” of their na-
tions, reducing them to “civic communities committed to the same proce-
dural rules” (Joppke 1996, 486). But the United States differs from other
nations “because it alone has made the immigrant experience part of its na-
tional identity” (490). The question then becomes how it handles cultural
pluralism.
CHAPTER 5
Pluralism within One Culture
Historical Perspectives
The debate about multiculturalism had a precursor in the much less con-
tentious discussion of cultural pluralism beginning in the 1910s. In the
early decades of the twentieth century, assimilation or Americanization
was so much the dominant idea that cultural pluralism hardly received no-
tice. While Horace Kallen claims to have ‹rst used the term during a class
at Harvard in 1906 or 1907, half a century later he noted, “it has taken these
two generations for the term to come into more general use and to ‹gure in
philosophical discourse” (1957, 119). Through the ‹rst decades of the cen-
tury, cultural pluralism was opposed for much the same reasons that mul-
ticulturalism has been. Critics argued that it failed “to consider each indi-
vidual personality as primary” and that it “made race a greater factor than
it deserved to be” (Wacker 1979, 331).
Then as now, no unitary view on the issue prevailed. Even during the
Progressive Era, some people adhered to the right-leaning view that sought
to impose superior American ways on the immigrants, while others es-
poused a left-leaning perspective that saw immigrants’ “heritages as cul-
tural treasures too important to destroy” (Gerstle 1994, 1051). Unable to re-
110
Pluralism within One Culture 111
solve this dispute, liberals abandoned the issue in favor of economic con-
cerns. But Nazism brought a “shift in liberal sensibilities” in the United
States as well as new concerns about racial and religious prejudices (1070).
By the 1950s, Kallen suggested that Americanization as “a cultural
monism” was “slowly and unevenly being displaced” by Americanization
as “a cultural pluralism” based on “the American Idea” (1956, 97). In
Kallen’s understanding, the American Idea meant equality and freedom as
enunciated in the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution. Plu-
ralism within one culture is thus not a new idea.
Though lacking the language of multiculturalism, the United States may
have been more multicultural in the past than it is today. In 1776, a greater
proportion of the population consisted of racial and ethnic out-groups than
is now the case. Today’s immigrants learn English at least as quickly as those
of the past and probably more quickly because of the mass media (Parrillo
1994, 525, 531, 543). “Too little remembered in the contemporary discus-
sion, except by historians” are the widespread existence in the early twenti-
eth century of bilingual public schools, teaching in English and German,
and a Catholic school system that perpetuated French (Alba 1999, 8).
By the middle of the twentieth century, most Americans understood
the term pluralism to mean a diversity of interest groups that contended for
power and in›uence rather than a diversity of cultures that simultaneously
gave allegiance to the American nation. The idea of pluralism largely fo-
cused on occupational groups and functional associations, with economic
self-interest or advocacy of certain causes at the root of most contentions.
Only toward the end of the century did the newer social movements based
on cultural identity enter into discussions of political pluralism (Bickford
1999, 90).
Yet an earlier, more philosophical understanding of pluralism saw it as
a matter of multiple perspectives based on the differing experiences and
circumstances of diverse individuals and groups. In the writings of William
James, for example, these different perspectives were justi‹ed and valid,
and no unitary perspective was possible. Contemporary multiculturalists
have returned, in essence, to this view of pluralism—to an understanding
of multiple subjectivities or situated knowledge (Schlosberg 1998). But their
views about diversity are complicated by concerns about inequality (Bick-
ford 1999), since multiethnic or multiracial societies almost always entail
the dominance of some groups over others. Because of their awareness of
issues of dominance and subordination, many contemporary multicultur-

alists have maintained the internally contradictory views that there is no
common standard by which cultures can be evaluated and that all cultures
are of equal value (Barry 2001, 252).
Finding a way to incorporate differing opinions and perspectives has
become more pressing in the face of what has been called deep pluralism, a
pluralism that runs along a number of overlapping and intersecting di-
mensions (Bohman 2003). Arguments about pluralism have become more
complex as they now address the nature of democratic inclusion as well as
issues of cultural, ethnic, religious, political, and economic differences. Po-
litical commentators of all stripes struggle to de‹ne the kind of tolerance
that is desirable under such circumstances.
The cultural pluralism enunciated by Kallen did not confront subcul-
tures of feminists, Evangelicals, and homosexuals or the multiple complex-
ities of white versus black and middle-class versus working-class feminists
or gays. For the most part, too, manifestations of difference were assumed
to be private rather than public matters. To be sure, earlier cultural plural-
ism was never as simple as myth would have it. Given the regional differ-
ences within the home country, Italian Americans, for example, existed
more as an “imagined community” constructed after migration to the
United States than as a cultural reality. Nevertheless, the sheer multiplicity
of contemporary subcultures and their overlapping dimensions has made
pluralism more complex and again raises the meaning of a “common” or
“unitary” American culture. The disappearance of the communist enemy at
the end of the Cold War might also have unleashed the centrifugal tenden-
cies that multiculturalism and the culture wars embody (Gitlin 1995, 80).
Nevertheless, many analysts have argued that multiculturalism arose as
a social movement at a time when real cultural differences were fading.
Racial and ethnic group cultures within the United States have been getting
weaker rather than stronger. When ethnic group consciousness began its
resurgence in the late 1960s and early 1970s, one writer dubbed its adher-
ents the “unmeltable ethnics” (Novak 1972). Yet even he acknowledged
that “one belongs to an ethnic group in part involuntarily, in part by
choice” (47). One chooses to identify with an ethnic group because of a de-
sire to feel an ethnic identity. Such voluntary identi‹cation is the key to
what Gans has dubbed “symbolic ethnicity,” which coexists with assimila-
tion and does not re›ect strong “cultural practices or group relationships”
(1979, 204). Rather, it is constructed by individuals and families, who are
often unsure about “what constitutes ethnicity as opposed to idiosyncratic

family values and practices” and who may need to learn ethnic behavior
and beliefs from the mass media (Waters 1990, 115).
“Traditional group identity was largely unconscious and intuitive. . . .
But as group isolation has receded, group identity must now be publicly de-
clared. Rather than indicating the splintering of society, such declarations
show how dif‹cult it is to maintain old differences. . . . Subcultures that
once manifested their identities locally . . . now look to television for
veri‹cation of their existence. The clamoring for inclusion in the national
television arena makes everyone in the culture much more aware of differ-
ences that have always existed—and once were much greater” (Meyrowitz
and Maguire 1993, 42, 48). Ethnic group identity may thus have little “cul-
tural content” (Barry 2001, 22). “The cultural differences invoked by multi-
culturalists are fundamentally identity markers or labels rather than ways
of life or sets of values that contrast sharply with those of most native-born
Americans” (Wrong 1997, 299).
If the reigning mid-twentieth-century image of immigrant and ethnic
group behavior was that of assimilation to the dominant Anglo-American
culture, the idea of assimilation lost favor after the turmoil of the 1960s and
the accompanying rebellion against “Anglo-conformity.” Yet by the late
1970s and early 1980s, new ideas of assimilation began to be considered,
ideas in which American identity would be “contested terrain, fought over
by ethnics with their own de‹nitions of Americanism” (Kazal 1995, 461).
The newer idea of an “American core” resembles more recent ideas of cul-
ture, “subject to change and contestation” (438). Furthermore, American
culture in›uences its constituent ethnic group cultures, so that Irish Amer-
icans, for example, are culturally Irish American, not simply Irish (Walzer
1999, 612).
For all the contemporary discussion about multiculturalism, then, cul-
tural pluralism today is arguably no greater than in the past and may well
be weaker. The “myth of bygone cultural homogeneity” has made us un-
aware of the reality of cultural pluralism in the colonial and early national
periods of American history (Parrillo 1994, 525). Yet culture is taken very se-
riously in contemporary American society, so that even if “the persistence
of unique cultures within American society is increasingly questionable,
. . . the debate assumes ‘culture’ is sacred, almost beyond discussion”
(R. Jacoby 1994, 156).
The present situation may also differ from the past insofar as some
groups are creating new identities rather than holding onto old ones. If
ethnic groups previously hesitated to give up aspects of their native cul-
tures, Latinos, African Americans, and Native Americans now construct
their identities based on “the particular circumstances that these groups
face in contemporary American society” (Spencer 1994, 564). If older white
ethnic groups fought to hold onto their cultural characteristics, newer
groups often must construct their own identities. As Appiah has suggested,
“the new talk of ‘identity’ offers the promise of forms of recognition and of
solidarity that could make up for the loss of the rich, old kitchen comforts
of ethnicity” (1997, 33).
Curiously, however, the black middle class, which is larger and doing
better than ever, has “led the ‹ght for the recognition of a distinctive
African-American cultural heritage” and has done so “at a moment when
cultural differences are diminishing” (Appiah 1997, 32). The tensions that
now exist with regard to race and gender are not really cultural ones. “Be-
cause on many occasions disrespect still ›ows from racism, sexism, and ho-
mophobia, we respond, in the name of all black people, all women, all
gays. . . . But the truth is that what mostly irritates us in these moments is
that we, as individuals, feel diminished. And the trouble with appeal to cul-
tural difference is that it obscures rather than illuminates this situation. It
is not black culture that the racist disdains, but blacks. . . . Culture is not the
problem, and it is not the solution” (36). Talk of multiculturalism rather
than structural obstacles may be harmful (Barry 2001, 307).
To the contrary, argues Henry Louis Gates Jr., it is important for African
Americans to construct themselves culturally. “Self-identi‹cation proves a
condition for agency, for social change. And to bene‹t from such collective
agency, we need to construct ourselves, just as the nation was constructed”
(1992, 37). “One must learn to be ‘black’ in this society, precisely because
‘blackness’ is a socially produced category” (101). Although some aspects of
black culture are the products of encounters with white racism, “black cul-
ture . . . is radically underdetermined by the social dynamism of white
racism” (103). “To say that ethnic identity is socially constructed is not to
say that it is somehow unreal” (127). The differences matter. But blacks
must not “resurrect our own version of the Thought Police, who would de-
termine who, and what, is ‘black’” (127).
“Whether a particular grouping of persons is or is not ‘a culture’ is not
simply a fact” (Segal and Handler 1995, 396). Indeed, the current de‹ni-
tions have a certain circularity: “If a grouping of persons is perceived as ‘a

culture,” then differences of power within it are masked; and if differences
of power are perceived, then multiple cultures are said to exist” (397). The
cultures that are a matter of concern in multiculturalism are based on race
or perceived victimization. The particularities that differentiate the subcat-
egories of Europeans are no longer discussed.
Contemporary Images of Pluralism
The assumption that the United States had a unitary culture into which im-
migrants would be assimilated remained dominant into the middle of the
twentieth century. At that time, American culture was understood as hav-
ing a set of overarching or mainstream beliefs and practices. Those who dif-
fered from these practices—groups that would now be seen as subcultures
or as part of our multicultural society—were characterized as alienated. As
one empirical sociologist of the time noted, “a high or moderate intensity
of alienation” was to be expected among individuals in “religious, ethnic,
political, educational, occupational, associational, status, ‘residential,’ and
other minorities” (Hajda 1961, 761). Social commentators frequently char-
acterized students, intellectuals, blacks, and poor whites as alienated
(Finifter 1972, vii). By contrast, contemporary commentators rarely use the
language of alienation.
It is of interest, therefore, that the term has reappeared in the writings
of some conservative spokesmen who seek to portray contemporary Amer-
ican society as essentially uni‹ed except for the few dissidents. William J.
Bennett, for example, asserts that a cultural split exists between “most
Americans” and “a liberal elite” that is “marked by alienation” (1992, 27).
He characterizes the (liberal) leaders of mainline churches as showing “a
profound alienation from the American experiment” (223). Another con-
servative commentator sees both “the overclass” (or the “knowledge class”)
and the “underclass” as “profoundly alienated from the American experi-
ence” (Neuhaus 1995, 66). Still another observer argues that the Left is so
mistrustful of American society and its institutions that it can be seen as in
a “state of alienation” (Bork 1989, 27). And after arguing that Americans
“should take pride . . . in the historic content of their culture,” another con-
servative commentator suggests that “if there are Americans who feel as
alienated as the Amish, let them live like the Amish—without harassment,
but without subsidized proselytizing for their rejectionist world views”
(Brookhiser 1992, 74). Implicit in such remarks are the ideas that there is
one agreed-upon American culture and that those who depart from it are
aberrant.
By contrast, the few progressive writers in our sample who talk of alien-
ation use it in the Marxist sense of disconnection from one’s fellows and
lack of power to effect social change. One such writer argues that the nega-
tive and stereotypical portraits of the members of poor and minority
groups who appear as guests on television talk shows eradicate any under-
standing of their plight. The audience “feeds off the misery and humilia-
tion of others. Less obvious is the price we all pay . . . in increased alien-
ation, contempt and hatred” (Nelson 1995, 801). Another notes that these
talk show guests appear to the audience “as alien and unreal” (Willis 1996,
22). In this view, it is not the absence of mainstream characteristics that
makes one alienated but the inability to understand the social conditions
underlying individual behaviors.
Discussions of American culture during the last two decades of the
twentieth century are fraught with concern about whether the United
States retains a common culture. Within the conservative camp, a contin-
gent of writers argues that American society “is not multi-cultural—at any
rate, not at or near the top,” where behavior conforms to the modern
American version of the English gentleman (Hart 1996, 56). American cul-
ture is fundamentally Anglo-Saxon (Brookhiser 1992; Editorial 1991a;
O’Sullivan 1994a, 1994b).
Other conservatives express concern that when “ethnic cultures thrive,
the sense of national solidarity is weakened” and that if immigrants are in-
troduced into a multicultural America, they may never become American
(O’Sullivan 1994b, 45). Our “universalist immigration policy” has un-
leashed the “forces of cultural separatism and group rights” (Auster 1994,
54). If nations are “imagined communities,” held together by shared cul-
ture, multiculturalism works against the creation of such communities
(Custred 1997, 39). A multiethnic society will survive only if it becomes
monocultural (O’Sullivan 1994a, 44).
But no unity exists within the conservative camp on the topic of immi-
gration. For all the hostility that social conservatives bring to bear against
unlimited immigration, some economic conservatives see immigration as
bene‹cial. Moreover, as portrayed by a liberal, some neoconservatives have

viewed Third World immigrants as “cannon fodder in the culture wars” be-
cause they have strong “family values,” unlike the “aliens among us”—the
black underclass, gays, writers and academics, and a signi‹cant proportion
of American religious leaders (Lind 1993). Those conservatives who are hos-
tile to unlimited immigration suggest that the neoconservatives and the
Republican establishment have denied the connection between immigra-
tion from Third World countries and the multiculturalism that they abhor.
These “pro-immigration conservatives subscribe to an organizing myth”
that “America was built on universal principles of human rights, equality
and open borders” and has an in‹nite capacity to absorb people of any race
and culture (Auster 1994, 49). As a result, proponents of this view do not
see the “prospect of cultural dispossession” when “citizens in New York or
Los Angeles often feel like strangers in their own land” (50). Some members
of this group, such as Francis Fukuyama, have argued that any group en-
dowed with “family values” will ‹t into American society, but this idea is
clearly absurd: stable Mexican or Cambodian families might “still not be
American in any meaningful sense of the word” (54).
Those who favor immigration see things very differently. “The claim
that America is ‘a nation no different from any other,’ far from being ‘the
conservative view,’ is akin to national heresy. . . . The image of an ‘immi-
grant nation’ is not an idea imposed upon the lived experience of Ameri-
can culture; it is the lived experience of American culture” (Neuhaus 1995,
65). Furthermore, multiculturalism is generated not by immigrants but by
left-wing academics and elites. Many Hispanic and Asian college students
“‘discovered’ their ethnic identity after they arrived on campus” (Chavez
1994, 30).
Those conservatives who welcome immigration assume that new ar-
rivals will assimilate to American ways, while those who are hostile see im-
migrants as triggering movements of multiculturalism. Liberals and con-
servatives alike see assimilation as real: the United States is not in fact “a
congeries of ethnic and racial groups, and nothing more. Assimilation is a
reality. . . . Millions . . . owe no allegiance to any identity other than Amer-
ica” (Glazer 1991, 22). Most people in the United States see themselves as
Americans despite the “romantic ideologues” and “unscrupulous con men”
whose claims to represent their people are “carelessly accepted by the me-
dia” (Schlesinger 1991, 21). Although the melting pot has been something
of a “myth,” it was an ideal that produced a “uni‹ed country” (Steel 1998,

13). Still others insist that “the melting pot never melted,” as America con-
tinues to de‹ne and rede‹ne itself (Hughes 1992a, 44).
One conservative notes that only those groups that strictly forbid in-
termarriage, such as Orthodox Jews and the Amish, have preserved “dis-
tinct, full-blown cultures within American society” (Chavez 1994, 30). In-
termarriage is the ultimate form of assimilation, and at least one liberal
commentator sees it as the likely future. He notes that the large number of
Latin Americans currently in the United States “will disappear with you
into a new miscegenation. . . . For generations, Latin America has been the
place, the bed, of a con›uence of so many races and cultures that Protes-
tant North America shuddered to imagine it. The time has come to imagine
it” (Rodriguez 1988, 84).
Some critics of multiculturalism contend that rather than representing
truly differing cultures, multiculturalists often tend to con›ate race and
culture (Brustein 1991; Chavez 1994; Henry 1990). Treating race and eth-
nicity as synonymous with culture makes culture something genetic rather
than acquired through experience (Chavez 1994, 26). Yet an editorial in Na-
tional Review comes close to con›ating the two in a way that all is too
common. The piece chastises Harvard University for a committee report
suggesting that minority students are isolated from the college mainstream
and face the choice of “conforming to the cultural norm” or defending
their “identity to the point where the bene‹ts of a diversi‹ed student pop-
ulation are compromised.” The university itself had sanctioned “social
apartheid” in the late 1960s and 1970s—had indeed encouraged it “in the
name of ‘cultural identity’ and ‘racial pride’”—says the editorial (1981a,
140). The fact that the university’s policies generated the current bitterness
is not acknowledged. Moreover, the talk of conformity to the cultural norm
makes it appear “as if grim Brahmins waited to corset the souls of their
manservants’ grandsons. . . . If Harvard is not tolerant of racial differences,
who or what on the North American continent is?” (141). Is the issue one
of “racial differences” or of “cultural norms,” or are the two synonymous?
The tendency to use multiculturalism as a code word for race leads to an-
other example of mirror images among the culture warriors, with each side
accusing the other of using multiculturalism for political gain. Thus, a pro-
gressive commentator suggests that race is the real reason why President
George H. W. Bush “turned his attention to P.C., with Willie Horton’s
equivalent in ‘92 being ‘extremists’ eroding Western values with their mul-
ticulturalism and contempt for Great Books” (Cockburn 1991, 704). In the
eyes of another writer, “Republican attack politics turned on culture and
suddenly both academe and the arts were full of potential ‘Willie Hortons’”
(Hughes 1992a, 46).
Conservatives view the connection between race and multiculturalism
in a different but equally political way, arguing that proponents of multi-
culturalism have associated the common American culture with whiteness
and have thus made opposition to “diversity” appear racist. As one conser-
vative puts it, “The common American culture has been relativized as
‘white’ culture, [and this] lie serves to delegitimize assimilation, by charac-
terizing it as the imposition of an alien culture on all non-Anglo Ameri-
cans. . . . And once America is relativized as a ‘white’ construct, it can
hardly be defended, let alone celebrated by whites with a guilty conscience
about race. Hence the weakness of the opposition to diversity” (O’Sullivan
2000, 22). Once the “traditional reference points” such as “our Western
heritage” or “our Founding Fathers” are ruled out because “a critical num-
ber of us are no longer from the West” or because Founding Fathers sounds
racist, a “massive deculturation” takes place (Auster 1992 , 43).
A recent study that employs in-depth interviews suggests that the
con›ation of race and diversity is quite prevalent even among a sample of
people active in urban organizational life. Respondents “typically de‹ne di-
versity in broad and inclusive terms, but when asked to describe personal
experiences with difference, their responses are almost exclusively tied to
race” (J. M. Bell and Hartmann 2007, 905). The language of both diversity
and multiculturalism assumes a “white center” to which racial others “add
›avor” (909).
While critics of multiculturalism see it as divisive, some liberals accuse
the “monoculturalists” of being divisive. “Identity politics,” says one lib-
eral, is attacked as divisive “by people who cling to the vision of a singular
America. . . . But perhaps their love of singularity also divides us” (Walzer
1996, 39). Perhaps, too, it is no longer possible to maintain a uni‹ed cul-
ture. For one thing, technology is now “dividing a culture once clustered
around a common core into distant, discrete clumps, making it harder for
any one preacher, however high the pulpit, to reach the whole nation” (R.
Wright 1996, 44). For another, globalization creates an international class
of managers whose “cultural and political loyalties” are no longer clear.
Their “primary allegiances are to themselves and their current employers.”

Globalization thus adds to the “divided loyalties” of various immigrant
groups and “makes the very notion of a single national identity seem
anachronistic” (Steel 1998, 14).
Class differences thus compound or intersect with those of race. One
writer notes that black students in a multiracial seminar at an Ivy League
university de‹ned black identity largely in terms of class. One such student
said, “I have relatives on welfare and others in prison. That means I see
things differently.” Another argued that “we’ve been robbed of our culture.
. . . We have no culture . . . except the so-called culture of the ghetto”
(T. Jacoby 1991, 29–30). Some progressives contend that “class is itself a cul-
tural as well as an economic issue.” A kind of cultural nationalism applies
to class just as much as to race or sex, “which is why blue-collar unions
have been reluctant to organize white-collar workers, and why in certain
circles preference for beer and pretzels over wine and cheese is elevated to
a political badge of honor” (Willis 1998, 19).
The complexities of multiple and intersecting subcultures have led nu-
merous commentators to note the dif‹culties of maintaining any strong
cultural attachments. One conservative critic argues that multiculturalists’
demands appear to contradict the idea that their subcultures are strong and
resilient. “Cultural identi‹cation” must be “fragile” if it needs to be “rein-
forced” in the schools “lest these youngsters be seduced by American cul-
ture” (Chavez 1994, 30). A writer on the left likewise contends that “ho-
mogeneous communities” are more myth than reality (Mattick 1990, 357).
There is one source of agreement among the commentators: all applaud
pluralism. While it may be tempting to assume that pluralism, like moral-
ity, is merely a buzzword to which everyone can assent, evidence suggests
a desire to retain subcultural variations. To be sure, differences exist among
the speci‹c groups that are the objects of concern. Liberals seek to protect
the disadvantaged, while conservatives are more likely to concern them-
selves with “traditional” groups such as religious and rural communities.
Yet both sides suggest that pluralism offers a solution to the culture wars.
Some critics suggest that if the multiculturalists were not such extrem-
ists, they would recognize that their goals are really those of American plu-
ralists. Like American pluralism, multiculturalism rests on the idea that mi-
nority groups “can play a part in molding the larger culture even as they are
molded by it” (F. Siegel 1991, 35). Our founders were European, but immi-
grants have come from all over the world, attracted by our democracy and
our economy. “This blend produced a genuinely pluralist society—indeed,
the very concept of pluralism is itself a product of the European (or ‘Euro-
centric’) tradition” (McConnell and Breindel 1990, 21). The multicultural-
ists often fail to appreciate this idea as well as the many “American gains in
cultural pluralism” (Sullivan 1990, 21).
Pluralism could not only replace the extremism of the multiculturalists
but also defuse the culture wars. As opposed to the “bogus pluralism of
multiculturalism,” with its ethnic, religious, and sexual militias, true plu-
ralism is bred by decentralization and consumer choice, says a conserva-
tive. School vouchers, for example, would allow parents to choose their
children’s curricula (Brookhiser 1993a, 74). In the past, this genuine form of
pluralism was “based on the relative isolation of internally homogeneous
communities” (Wagner 1986, 32).
As seen by conservatives, liberals have rede‹ned pluralism as “manda-
tory exposure to con›icting viewpoints” (Wagner 1986, 52). The public
schools and the mass media wield “tremendous cultural power” against the
family, church, and small town. In the face of the ban on school prayer, the
legalization of abortion, and sex education and “values clari‹cation” cur-
ricula in the school, traditionalists attempted to take back their culture. As
they did so, civil libertarians argued that they were blocking pluralism. Yet
the “old-fashioned pluralism” of internally homogeneous communities
can be restored via school vouchers and parental choice, cable television,
greater local control of public schools, and generally through competition
“in the various culture-making arenas” (52).
If some liberals oppose school choice because they see it as establishing
“cultural, religious, or ethnic ghettoes” (Wagner 1986, 32), a conservative
also acknowledges that parental control, school vouchers, and decentral-
ization would yield so much diversity that “children of neighboring fami-
lies would end up learning none of the same things.” It would also be irra-
tional to have public money ‹nancing the teaching of Satanism, for
example. Yet opting for a centralized educational system brings the danger
that professional educators will be able “to clarify your child’s values, to tu-
tor him in paci‹sm, multi-culturalism, and atheism” (Finn 1986, 35). The
author, writing as an administrator in the U.S. Department of Education
during the Reagan administration, ‹nds a self-serving solution to this
dilemma. Today, he argues, one can trust the federal government because it
is “amplifying the voice of common sense,” encouraging “the purposeful

development of character, the primacy of parents, . . . the centrality of dis-
cipline” (37).
The American people are more likely to support national rather than
state-level approaches to controversial issues. When asked whether the na-
tional or state governments should make decisions regarding gay marriage,
abortion, stem cell research, and teaching creationism, majorities or plural-
ities favored national decision making in all cases. This preference is seen
across all demographic groups and does not appear to re›ect political strat-
egy, since those who live in areas where their values are widely shared are
no more likely to favor a state-by-state approach (Pew Research Center
2006b).
Conservatives argue that “true pluralism,” resting on internally homo-
geneous communities and on mechanisms such as school choice, can offer
a solution to the culture wars. In the eyes of some liberals, school choice is
an easier solution than ‹ghting the culture wars associated with “family
values.” While more militant culture warriors on the right, such as Patrick
Buchanan and Gary Bauer, have continued to attack “liberal ‘lifestyles’”
and “to assert themselves as the moral guardians of the past,” more mod-
erate culture warriors such as Jack Kemp and William J. Bennett have
turned to “parents’ rights” issues such as school choice. “Once seen as a
›aky libertarian crusade, school choice is rising to the top of the family val-
ues litany for conservatives who lack the stomach for the culture war” (R.
Shalit 1993, 13).
Liberals, too, contend that pluralist institutions can provide “the right
way out of the ‘culture wars.’” They argue that many groups really need
“resources and institutions, political and economic power, not ›ags of their
own.” “What distinguishes contemporary America is that multiculturalism
is now asserted from below—by the very groups that once responded to ac-
cusations of difference with fearful denial.” If we could help these histori-
cally disenfranchised groups build institutions, we “would have a more vis-
ibly diverse but also less divided society” (Walzer 1996, 39). Religious
communities run their own schools, hospitals, and day care centers, some-
times with government assistance. These institutions are not seen as prob-
lematic in “provid[ing] space for a culture’s enactment and reproduction.
. . . Helping new groups provide similar services would produce a more
egalitarian multiculturalism” with “less division.” Such institutional reali-
ties as female-operated banks, black Baptist nursery schools, and gay men’s
health centers matter more than debates about feminism, homosexual or-
ganizing, or “sun people and ice people” (39). “Groups need a well-rooted
institutional life to ›ourish. Pluralist theory accommodates both a shared
civic culture and the room for private-sphere institutions to maintain a vi-
brant group life” (Daryl Michael Scott 1998, 29). Even in the matter of fund-
ing for the arts, one commentator suggests that if one believes all citizens
should have access to art, what we need is not a National Endowment for
the Arts but “art vouchers for the needy” (Chait 1997, 14).
Sociologists also have noted that pluralism defuses culture wars. Thus,
even Christian Evangelicals in the United States who believe that Christian
morality should dominate in the culture have a commitment to freedom of
religious belief that neutralizes cultural warring. Historically, this “plural-
ism-versus-Christendom dilemma” was fairly readily resolved, since Protes-
tantism dominated American public discourse. Today, individuals manage
the dissonance by compartmentalizing their beliefs (C. Smith et al. 1997,
189–91).
In addition to this convergence about the desirability of pluralist com-
munities, both sides agree that indifference to values or to cultural differ-
ences is a form of false pluralism. A number of conservative writers make
this point. Pluralism, says one, is not to be confused with “moral indiffer-
entism.” “It is sad to see so many college students who think that pluralism
means moral relativism. . . . Such relativism reduces genuine pluralism to
molasses. It is powerless before ugly passions” (Novak 1984, 48). Nor does
pluralism require one “to transcend the particular in order to embrace the
universal.” Such a response really represents a “denial of pluralism” be-
cause it rests on “pretending that our deepest differences make no differ-
ence. Genuine pluralism is the vibrant engagement of differences.” We
need to have strong beliefs to discuss with others; it is hard “to suppose
that we have much to say to one another unless we have internalized the
tradition that distinguishes our contribution to the conversation”
(Neuhaus 1988b, 24).
A writer in The New Republic similarly argues that the absence of strong
beliefs does not produce pluralism and tolerance. Unfortunately, he main-
tains, it is all too easy for “people who grow up in a world of great skepti-
cism and diversity” to become complacent and not self-critical. “The dan-
ger that people will arrogantly impose their beliefs on others is happily
diminished,” but people who “do not believe in anything strongly enough
to engage in systematic persecution . . . also lack the strength of principle
that would lead them to stand up to the intolerance of others, and the in-
tolerance within themselves. Students today . . . are too morally mellowed
out to object to racist jokes” or to “mock slave auctions at a fraternity
party.” The loss of certainty that arises in a diverse or multicultural society
generates the danger of dogmatism and closed-mindedness (Melzer 1991,
11). Another writer in The New Republic expresses concern that modern life
has destroyed many of the traditional channels for transmitting the culture
to new generations. As a result, there is the threat of a “hitherto unknown
in‹rmity: deculturation.” For this reason, Americans should learn Ameri-
can traditions—the institutions or concepts of public life, not just the orig-
inal cultures of individual inhabitants, many of whom are recent immi-
grants (Todorov 1989, 29).
Nor does pluralism require us to challenge all of our own sincere beliefs.
One conservative alleges that the people who today run the schools in-
clude liberals who appear to de‹ne pluralism in this way. “So ‘pluralist’ are
we that we cannot allow traditional moral norms to be propounded to the
next generation without a challenge” (Wagner 1986, 32). By the same to-
ken, those academics who proclaim “cognitive and moral relativism” to be
a matter of expert consensus and exclude those who view truth as “neither
a dogma nor a chimera” fail to manifest the “pluralism” of which they
boast (Todorov 1989, 29). One commentator on the left argues similarly, at-
tacking “the P.C. felons” whose “emaciated terminology leads in the direc-
tion of a mini-consensus that does not welcome dissent” (Hitchens 1991,
472). Efforts to do away with ethnic humor in the name of political cor-
rectness not only may back‹re but also do little to deal with real power dif-
ferentials. That ethnic humor “is often deployed by the powerful against
the powerless is best answered not by silencing the powerful (that hardly
takes away their power) but by unleashing the humorous abilities of the
powerless.” Let blacks make fun of whites, gays mock straights, women de-
ride men (David Segal 1992, 10).
For all the self-consciousness about cultural pluralism, some old-fash-
ioned ethnocentrism appears in the writings of both conservatives and lib-
erals, although agreement does not always exist about precisely which as-
pect of “our culture” makes us superior. One liberal takes offense at the
notion that multiculturalists sometimes portray “Europe—the unique
source of the liberating ideas of democracy, civil liberties and human

rights” as “the root of all evil” (Schlesinger 1991, 21), while a conservative
argues that “Americans should take pride in the historic content of their
culture,” which is “clearly superior to Europe” (Brookhiser 1992, 74). An-
other argues more stridently that for all the scorn heaped on Eurocentrism
and the legacy of Columbus, the culture that developed on American soil is
far superior to that, say, of the Incas, who lived “beehive-like,” lacking in
individual freedom. “Is it Eurocentric to believe the life of liberty is superior
to the life of the beehive?” (Krauthammer 1991, 74).
How, then, can one maintain pluralism within one culture? For all the
hostility directed toward multiculturalism, questions of how to provide ed-
ucation for a diverse society loom large, and more support exists for multi-
cultural education than for the philosophy of multiculturalism.
Multicultural Education and the Canon Wars
Much debate was generated by questions of whether schools should include

more instruction about other cultures and whether the university canon
might be expanded to include the works of those previously excluded.
While the response to multicultural education was dominantly negative, it
was not entirely so. Of the twenty-seven articles devoted to multicultural
education, sixteen are mostly hostile, eight are largely supportive, and three
are neutral or mixed. Among those hostile to multicultural education, the
specter of balkanization looms large. Of concern, too, is the idea that mul-
ticultural education provides therapy, cheerleading, or an attempt to raise
the self-esteem of minority students rather than genuine education. One
conservative critic captures several of these ideas simultaneously: “the ‹xa-
tion on feeling is leading to the Balkanization of American education. The
battle cry is ‘inclusion’ in the teaching curriculum for every politically situ-
ated minority. . . . This is ideology masquerading as education and aspiring
to psychotherapy” (Krauthammer 1990, 78; see also John J. Miller 1993; F.
Siegel 1991; Tifft 1990). Critics also suggest that school curricula are increas-
ingly “fragmented” (J. S. Siegel and Delattre 1981) and promote “interethnic
strife” (McConnell and Breindel 1990, 21).
An editorial in National Review connects programs of multicultural edu-
cation to the need for school vouchers and parental choice: “Diversity
through choice would certainly be less disruptive than having the myths of
multiculturalism fed to all school children by a state monopoly” (1991b, 16).
The population at large did not appear to share in these commentators’
negative assessments. National survey data from 1994 found that only 26
percent of the population believed that “ethnic history is getting too much
attention,” 50 percent agreed that “there’s now about the right amount of
attention to ethnic minorities in history classes,” and 24 percent believed
there should be more such material (Citrin et al. 2001, 259–60). Moreover,
while 92 percent of the sample agreed that we should “choose teachers
based on ability, not ethnicity,” only 44 percent agreed that we should
“choose history teachers based on ability, not ethnicity” (258). The differ-
ence in the two numbers presumably indicates sensitivity to ethnicity in
the teaching of history, an indirect suggestion of support for multicultural
education.
Defenders of multicultural education suggest that it bene‹ts not just
oppressed minorities but all of us, since we all need “to navigate a society
that truly is multicultural and is becoming more so everyday” (Ehrenreich
1991, 84). All students need “to learn how to develop multiple perspec-
tives” (quoted in “What Do We Have in Common?” 1991, 19); acknowledg-
ing the contributions made by different groups is a way of “strengthening
our unity” (20); “America has always been a study of different cultures op-
erating on one continent” (20). Conversely, a critic notes that two- and
three-year-old children in nursery school are now being taught about “cul-
tural differences.” Families that have been American for generations are re-
quired to produce some other heritage for show-and-tell. The result is that
children are now “talking about things that separate rather than connect”
them (Konig 1997, 46).
If support for Afrocentric curricular changes in the schools amounts to
“the politicizing of history,” says one supportive commentator, so be it:
“teaching the young is necessarily and inevitably political. It entails the au-
thoritative promulgation of values as well as information” (Loury 1997, 25).
But a more right-wing commentator argues that it is absurd to consider
every choice of college textbooks a political one: “what makes it political?
That it is a choice? . . . Would the choice of textbooks in a course in math-
ematics be political too?” (Hook 1989, 32). To claim that all texts have po-
litical dimensions, says another, that “politics or ideology is everything,” is
to diminish both politics and literature (Howe 1991, 46).
Despite a strong hostility to curricular revision in the pages of National

Review, some of its commentators’ views converge with those of writers in
The Nation. For example, from the left, Elizabeth Pochoda endorses the idea
that we should teach Shakespeare and Darwin as well as the excellence of
Pygmy bushcraft and of Fuegian survival in the world’s harshest climate
(1991, 615). Similarly, from the right, Harvey Mans‹eld comments that
“multiculturalism can be saved if it is improved—in courses of world his-
tory that focus on the excellence of each nation and its contribution to
progress. Here is genuine pluralism without ›atness, unafraid to pass judg-
ment and eager to teach respect” (2000, 26). Thomas Sobol argues that
“there is no inconsistency between teaching the common democratic val-
ues and traditions that unite us and teaching more about our differences”
(quoted in Russell 1991, 20).
A more challenging defense of multiculturalism about which there is
less agreement suggests that minority students bene‹t from feeling a sense
of identi‹cation with great ‹gures of their own tradition who are included
in the curriculum. “A wonderful thing happens when you encounter im-
ages of your cultural self in a book at an early age,” says Henry Louis Gates
Jr. Therefore, it makes sense to “change the curriculum so that the experi-
ence of identi‹cation can occur for people who are not Anglo-Saxon”
(quoted in Clarke and Durham 1991, 18). Exposing ghetto children to
Shakespeare is not “what ‘culture’ should mean. . . . The educational event
we call empowerment . . . replaces fetishized respect for culture as a stag-
nant secular religion with respect for culture as a living historical process,
in which one’s own experience is seen as an authentic part” (Robinson
1989, 321). While serving as New York’s state education commissioner,
Sobol suggested that one can get “otherwise alienated blacks to feel com-
fortable with a larger tradition in which they had a role” (quoted in Russell
1991, 20). And Glenn Loury compares inner-city black students who seek
an Afrocentric curriculum to Christian Fundamentalists who advocate the
teaching of “creation science.” Both are responses to the stresses and anxi-
eties of modern life; both exude “an aura of defensiveness and tragic folly—
and yet, ultimately a certain dignity.” The desire to use school curricula to
give black students “a strong, positive sense of racial identity” should be
“accommodated rather than denounced.” After all, “it makes little sense to
tell blacks in the Oakland ghetto that they should drop their racial ‹xation
and get on with the job of integration” (Loury 1997, 25).
If conservatives rail against the new history curricula as representing

the tendency of previously excluded groups to “turn to remaking the past
in the image of their desires” (Henry 1990, 30), some progressives also crit-
icize “a sanitized, feel-good history, whether inspired by the desperate
plight of inner-city youth or by the passion for conformity” in patriotic
self-celebration (Foner 1995, 302).
Various commentators attack the idea that revising the school curricu-
lum to include works by and about previously excluded groups can en-
hance the self-esteem of minority students. They argue that such programs
do not work (John J. Miller 1993) or are unrelated to academic success
(Glazer 1988; Krauthammer 1990). But, Sobol argues, “Our goal is intellec-
tual honesty. . . . [I]f it happens to promote self-esteem along the way, why
would anyone object?” (quoted in Russell 1991, 20).
In the discussions about the university curriculum—the canon wars—
the commentary is more evenly split and more given to nuance. Observers
on all sides agree that adding works to the curriculum based solely on the
race, sex, or class of their authors rather than their merit is patronizing and
wrong (see Brustein 1997b, 1997c; Hook 1989; Howe 1991). Irving Howe, for
example, maintains that it is “grossly patronizing” to suggest that middle-
class white students can read diverse literary works but that students from
minority groups should be given literature that is “racially determined”
(1991, 47). There is also broad agreement that it is wrong to evaluate the
truth content of a work based on the race, class, or gender of its author
(Hart 1989a; Howe 1991; Pollitt 1991; Todorov 1989). Furthermore, art
“works to transcend differences of race and gender. . . . We do not attend a
performance of Hamlet as whites or blacks, males or females, but as human
beings” (Hart 1989a, 45). Another commentator suggests that if I as a white
man listen to the music of Duke Ellington, “I am certain that I don’t hear
these pieces the way a black man hears them. But I am also certain that I
hear them rightly, that I hear them as music” (Wieseltier 1994, 32). De-
fenders of curricular change, of course, maintain that the added works are
of high artistic or literary merit. They also mock the idea that modifying
the curriculum is tantamount to the “destruction of Western civilization”
(Robinson 1989, 319).
Indeed, the defenders of curricular change contend that much of the
criticism directed at it has this quality of exaggeration. The Left is not dom-
inant in academe (D. A. Bell 1986); there is no “radical hegemony” on cam-
pus (Robinson 1989, 319); free expression is not being sti›ed (Kinsley 1991).
Traditional classics are still being taught (G. Graff and Cain 1989), and stu-
dents can still take many courses about “dead white males” (Kinsley 1991).
Debate and change are healthy, and curricular change always accompanies
continuity (Bowen 1988; Howe 1991; Todorov 1989). Furthermore, only 20
percent of college students actually take core courses in Western civiliza-
tion (Cockburn 1991, 691). And books neither determine behavior nor
“mold a common national purpose” (Pollitt 1991, 331).
Supporters of curricular change note that all too often, “a different aes-
thetic is presumed to be no aesthetic. And the female, black, working-class
or homosexual experience is uncritically assumed to be, at best, an unlikely
candidate for canonization, precisely because it is the marked variant,
whereas the experience of straight white men has a unique claim to uni-
versality.” The idea is not to eliminate the canon but rather to add to it. The
whole tradition can then be read “from a perspective informed by our sense
of what is usually omitted and what that omission itself teaches” (Robin-
son 1989, 319). We must learn to see ourselves from the outside: “it is cru-
cial to study not only our own history, but also other cultures . . . in order
to convince ourselves there is more than one way of being human”
(Todorov 1989, 30). History and philosophy necessarily subsume “forms of
inquiry into the strange and unsettling.” Therefore, adding gay studies, for
example, to the university curriculum makes sense (Nussbaum 1992, 35).
Critics of curricular revision, however, see the changes as wrongheaded,
silly, or pernicious. “Eccentric reading lists” accompany “a combative po-
litical agenda” (Henry 1991, 66); “fad is king” as 1960s radicals continue to
“promote their own progeny” (Hart 1988, 32). The “multicultural fads” on
campus promote student ignorance of history (Giesea 1997, 64). Academic
freedom is threatened (Roche 1989); assaults take place on both free speech
and common sense (Teachout 1992, 54); and diversity becomes “an excuse
for suppressing real intellectual differences” (Sykes and Miner 1991, 31).
Most of these criticisms come from the Right, but at least one progressive
joins in, suggesting that much nonsense has entered cultural life as pro-
gressives in academe have littered the curriculum with courses in the hu-
manities that are manifestations of race, ethnicity, regionalism, or class
(Kriegel 1984–85, 714).
In a critique that harks back to the idea of multiculturalism as a form of
individualism, one conservative argues that “the gravest fault of our edu-
cation today is that its content gives us nothing to aspire to.” The goal of
education should be to produce citizens who “can love, admire, respect
something or someone above themselves” (Mans‹eld 2000, 26). Rather
than fostering diversity, the prevalence of multicultural curricula may end
up encouraging solipsism. “The future may well lie with the Stanford stu-
dent who, when asked about studying important non-Western trends such
as Islamic fundamentalism and Japanese capitalism, responded, ‘Who gives
a damn about those things? I want to study myself’” (F. Siegel 1991, 40).
Just as some conservatives have expressed their acceptance of an earlier
accommodation with homosexuals that rested on their sexual practices re-
maining private, so too a conservative writer has suggested that the litera-
ture of blacks, females, Jews, and others had long been taught within uni-
versities but only to “insiders”—everyone studied the traditional classics,
while blacks also studied what blacks had done, women learned about
what women had done, and so forth. This “benign consensus” of the 1970s
later fell apart when the curriculum became a matter of contention and the
“new humanities” were “promoted for parochial purposes (to give blacks
self-con‹dence, to persuade Jews to remain Jewish).” Their promoters thus
“turned themselves into mere pressure groups on the campus, extensions
of political forces deriving from outside the campus” (Neusner 1984, 44).
Much of the animus against revisions of the curriculum, whether in
schools or universities, is based on the idea that these changes seek to deny
the existence of objectivity or truth. An editorial in The New Republic, for
example, objects to “a curriculum geared primarily to attack the notion of
objectivity itself.” Yet the editorial writers, like many other contemporary
commentators, are simultaneously wedded to the idea that reality is so-
cially constructed. The dilemma is nicely captured here: “Nobody, least of
all this magazine, is recommending a smug return to a naïve positivism.
But . . . the facts (even at this late date, we insist, the term may be used
without embarrassment) are far less contestable—and contested in Ameri-
can society today—than the multiculturalists claim.” The editorial ac-
knowledges, however, that “objectivity is often a mask for interests” (Edi-
torial 1991d, 5–6). Others, too, make that connection, arguing that we need
to distinguish between the power of an idea and its rightness. Nevertheless,
works created by particular people with particular political concerns can
contain universal truths (Todorov 1989, 30).
A fairly wide consensus holds that objectivity and truth do exist and
that the truth of a statement is independent of who proclaims it. On the

one hand, all disagreements are not related to power, and to reinterpret cul-
ture in this way is “tantamount to denying the distinction between ‹ction
and history” (Hook 1989, 33). On the other hand, it is not unreasonable to
analyze the politics of culture: “The notion that all political interpretation
of Shakespeare is invalid—because it offends against ‘the autonomy of cul-
ture’—is surely more philistine than any theory academic Marxists have
cooked up” (Kinsley1991, 8). “Any large group with a common purpose . . .
has dif‹culty tolerating those nuances and subtleties and complications
that characterize the search for truth” (Brustein 1997a, 31—-32).
Whatever their differences, most commentators reject the extremes of
postmodernist arguments that posit the impossibility of objective truths.
This is important, as Barry has pointed out, because “democratic politics
rests on the assumption that it is possible to give reasons for taking one
course of action or another that are good or bad reasons—not just my rea-
sons or your reasons.” The minority cannot accept decisions reached by the
majority “unless both sides occupy a common universe in at least this min-
imal sense” (2001, 236). This is akin to the idea that religious beliefs must
be translated into secular reasons for presentation in the public square.
Because many critics maintain that the reigning academic orthodoxy
questions the possibility of objective truth by asserting that all knowledge
is political or socially constructed, there is much room for derision. One
critic notes, for example, that “the same faculty who once demanded that
religion be excluded from the curriculum now teach that objectivity is just
another Western myth” (Hudson 1996, 40). Conversely, defenders of newer
scholarship are pushed to argue that not all scholars of female studies or
gay studies, for example, are “politically motivated”; nor are the scholars
themselves gay or lesbian or deconstructionists or Foucauldians (Nussbaum
1992, 35).
Among progressives and centrists alike, the canon wars represent “a
con›ict over a society’s vision of itself,” since what is included in the cur-
riculum constitutes “an index of what the culture deems important.”
When disagreement arises, it “becomes part of what is important” and
should be examined within university curricula. Traditions within demo-
cratic societies are not simply ‹xed; they are critiqued and renegotiated (G.
Graff and Cain 1989, 312). What exactly constitutes the “classical heritage”
is “composed and fought over by cultivated men and women” (Howe 1991,
43). American culture has always been open to new regions, new oppressed
classes, and immigrant communities. Democratic cultures move along
through internal con›icts—of classes, ethnic groups, literary schools, and
popular audiences (Howe 1984, 26). The debate about the canon “may be
the healthiest thing to have happened around academe in years” (Bowen
1988, 67). Efforts to suppress hurtful words and ideas to bring peace to a
racially diverse America are wrongheaded. “Up to now, . . . America’s genius
has not been in its civility, but in its raucous barroom brawl in search of
truth” (Henry 1993, 75).
One writer sympathetic to the idea of curricular changes suggests that
the concept of a canon, of the Great Books of Western Civilization, is itself
something of a myth. He argues that anything resembling such a canon
was ascendant only in the period from shortly after World War I through
the decades just after World War II. The inclusion of writers such as Shake-
speare and Walt Whitman had previously occasioned intense battles
(Levine 1996, 15). And even a conservative critic of contemporary trends ac-
knowledges that “con›icting cultural traditions” have “shaped the pres-
ent.” The curriculum should not be ‹xed; the texts selected “can be varied
from time to time” (Hook 1989, 30). Another conservative commentator ar-
gued against a “reversion to the old world of institutionalized prejudice
and cultural snobbery” and in favor of previously neglected works by
blacks, Jews, and women that should be taught for “what is general and ac-
cessible, suggestive beyond itself” (Neusner 1984, 44, 61).
Yet by far the dominant stance among writers in National Review is to
mock the idea of bene‹cial con›ict about the canon. Thus, Arthur
Schlesinger’s assertion that debates over beliefs and values in schools and
colleges are bene‹cial is derided as being “dismally squishy.” At stake in the
canon war are not simply “different styles of intellectual discourse” but
rather a struggle over “the power to teach the young and shape the cul-
ture.” And because the beliefs of the current curriculum revisers are “Lenin-
ist” or “totalitarian” in nature, it is not possible to compromise with them
(Teachout 1992, 55). In contemporary academe, left-wing fads are so domi-
nant that graf‹ti is studied as literature (Hart 1989b, 39), and serious intel-
lectual life will move outside the university (Hart 1988, 32).
One of the major conservative books against the revision of the cur-
riculum, Dinesh D’Souza’s Illiberal Education (1991), similarly argues that
the revisionists seek not so much to include diverse materials as to repre-

sent a point of view. The “multicultural project” smacks of “its own para-
doxical provincialism” (75), since those who promote “diversity” actually
seek to spread conformity to their own ideological thinking. Thus, “to be
‘for diversity’ you must believe that homosexuality as a sexual preference is
morally neutral, or that women have been victims of domestic incarcera-
tion through history” (214). National Review editorializes against multicul-
tural education because of its lack of true diversity and its failure to provide
the kind of knowledge that children should have. “Most parents, whatever
their ethnic background, want their kids to master the English language,
and to learn that Washington prayed at Valley Forge. This kind of knowl-
edge is . . . increasingly rare in the feverish and arti‹cial world of public ed-
ucation” (Editorial 1991b, 16).
From the perspective of the revisionists—as represented, for example,
in Henry Louis Gates Jr.’s book on the subject, Loose Canons (1992)—there
has long been a tendency to depict anything outside of Anglo-American
culture as “tribal” or “parochial” (175). The real challenge will be to shape
“a truly common public culture, one responsive to the long-silenced cul-
tures of color.” Multiculturalism exists; the curriculum merely follows it.
Ethnicity, class, and gender have long fragmented American society. To
make multiculturalism “the culprit for this fragmentation is to mistake ef-
fect for cause” (176).
A variety of commentators see compromise in the canon wars as quite
feasible. Not only can one teach about “current challenges to the estab-
lished classics from the popular media and non-Western cultures,” one
could examine why Moby Dick became a classic and Uncle Tom’s Cabin did
not (G. Graff and Cain 1989, 312). And rather than removing Huck Finn
from the curriculum, one could teach it and understand why it is racist
(Todorov 1989, 30).
Because the revisionists argue that the criteria for making judgments of
value “are socially constructed in ways tied up with political interests and
consequences,” their critics often accuse them of being either totalitarian
or nihilistic. But their defenders say that by raising questions about the
meaning of “good” and “bad,” they are reviving rather than debasing the
issue of value (G. Graff and Cain 1989, 310). Though concerns about the ex-
cesses of curriculum revision can be found on both the right (see, for ex-
ample, Hart 1988, 1989a; Sykes and Miner 1991) and the left (see, for exam-
ple, Howe 1991; Kriegel 1984–85), there is also a fair amount of agreement
that adding works to the standard curriculum is permissible and even ad-
mirable as long as the number added is not so great as to “dilute” the tra-
ditional curriculum. There is, after all, “more to culture than Western cul-
ture, and one might well explore the standard list of classics for expansion
and replacement” (Glazer 1988, 21). Stanford University’s compromise is a
recognition of “the essential pluralism of Western civilization” (Bowen
1988, 66).
Critics of multicultural education and of changes in the university
canon allege that the underlying motivation for these program alterations
is to improve the employment opportunities of various minority group
members. Thus, it is argued, support for bilingual programs is high among
Hispanics even though such programs do not help students academically.
The bene‹ts of such efforts lie in providing “employment and political op-
portunities, as schools are forced to hire Hispanics without regular teaching
credentials” (Thernstrom 1981, 16). Another critic contends that matching
professors’ ethnic or gender identities with the ‹elds in which they work is
not a good idea: “The whole idea of history involves putting yourself in the
shoes of someone else.” Moreover, one could argue that minority students
“feel empowered” when they see a black female English professor teaching
the Shakespeare course (Barnett 1991, 26). And the idea that only blacks
and Asians can and should play black and Asian theater roles means “turn-
ing theater into an arena of entitlement” and promoting “racial exclusion-
ism” (Brustein 1991, 33). Some progressives take a more benign view of such
matters but acknowledge this role of multicultural programs. Thus, Katha
Pollitt suggests that when academic feminists de‹ne women as having a
separate culture, they are carving out a safe space for themselves: “It works
much like multiculturalism, making an end-run around a static and dis-
criminatory employment structure by creating an intellectual niche that
can be ‹lled only by members of the discriminated-against group” (1992b,
806).
If pluralism within one culture is to mean more than separate enclaves
replete with their own special employment opportunities, how is it to oc-
cur? If it means the coexistence of internally homogeneous communities,
how are they to be created?
The Dif‹culties of Tolerance
The liberal solution to the problem of pluralism within one culture lies in
promoting tolerance, though all liberals do not agree on how to de‹ne it.
Conservatives exhibit even less consensus on the issue. Thus, one conser-
vative derides multiculturalists’ tendency to place the “normative rights of
the community” above those of individuals (Henry 1993, 74), while an-
other suggests that such rights may be more important than pluralistic tol-
erance. During the struggles over homosexuality in the early 1980s, this
second commentator had suggested that “the community has a right to
preserve its conception of the American consensus by repressing those
whose actions would tend to undermine it” (Teachout 1983, 1433).
Yet another conservative maintains that only conservatives are capable
of “genuine tolerance.” Because the Left sees humans as perfectible and
wishes to use state power to root out imperfection, leftists are intolerant of
anything of which they disapprove. But since tolerance is an American
principle, the American Left has had to rede‹ne it as approval, and the re-
sult has been moral relativism. “Genuine tolerance, which is tolerance of
those with whom one disagrees or of whose behavior one does not wholly
approve, thus becomes uniquely a conservative virtue. A practicing homo-
sexual can remain on the Left only as long as the Left decides that homo-
sexuality is just as good as heterosexuality, but he can join the Right even
if conservatism condemns homosexual acts” (Short 1990, 44). A conserva-
tive gay commentator clearly distinguishes between tolerance and ap-
proval, noting that the struggles of the gay rights movement have gone
along a road from intolerance to tolerance to acceptance, with the last stage
not yet having been reached (Bawer 1994, 26).
The idea that tolerance serves as a cover for moral relativism begins
with the observation that liberals tolerate all sorts of lifestyles and are un-
willing to attach sanctions or stigma to misbehavior (R. Wright 1996, 44).
Liberals view all faiths and philosophies in our culture “not as objects of re-
spect in their own right” but rather as the “the raw material for construc-
tion of a society whose only absolute is tolerance” (Wagner 1986, 32). In
rede‹ning “tolerance as approval,” the American Left has sanctioned moral
relativism (Short 1990, 44).
The relationship between tolerance and moral relativism is, in actuality,
not a simple one. On the one hand, those Americans who believe in grant-
ing civil rights and liberties to groups of whom they disapprove—whether
homosexuals, atheists, or communists—have done so on the grounds of
tolerance. On the other hand, sociologists concede that some of the items
in standard scales that supposedly measure tolerance may actually measure
“attitudinal ‘moral relativism’ rather than actual behavioral graciousness
towards those with whom one disagrees” (Woodberry and Smith 1998, 41).
The distinction between tolerance and social approval is signi‹cant. In
the eyes of many conservatives, homosexuals deserve our tolerance but not
our “coerced approval” (Editorial 1998c, 16). School curricula that include
books such as Heather Has Two Mommies are seen as “going beyond tolera-
tion to approbation” (Brookhiser 1993a, 74). “Moral failure” is increasingly
“rationalized” by convincing oneself that one’s previously illegitimate
wishes are now acceptable. But for the rationalizations to succeed, every-
one must agree with them. Hence “the necessity for self-justi‹cation re-
quires the complicity of the whole culture.” Gays and supporters of abor-
tion, for example, thus “moved naturally from a plea for tolerance to
cultural conquest” (Reilly 1996, 61). An article in Time cautions, however,
that social conservatism must be accompanied by tolerance because “in
every era when moral fervor held sway, a counterreaction began to build
when the community became intolerant of individual liberties” (Stengel
1986, 18).
Some conservatives express concern about the deleterious effects of tol-
erance on the unity of American culture, contending that “even the most
tolerant American culture” could not “incorporate other cultures whole-
sale” (O’Sullivan 1994a, 40), that Americans should take pride in “the his-
toric content of their culture” rather than in “empty formulas of tolerance
and diversity” (Brookhiser 1992, 74). These conservatives decry liberals who
rank all philosophies and faiths as subservient to the all-important value of
tolerance (Wagner 1986, 32). And they argue that the “gratuitous insults to
the religious sensibilities of fellow citizens by artists . . . are damaging to
democratic tolerance” (Hyde 1990a, 27), quite in contrast to the assump-
tion of many supporters of the National Endowment for the Arts that their
side represented the virtues of “reasonableness and toleration against nar-
row-minded Philistinism” (Chait 1997, 14).
But if some conservatives portray tolerance as a prime liberal value, at
least one liberal characterizes it as a basic American cultural theme. Ameri-
can society, he argues, was founded on the ideal of an “open society”—tol-

erant, heterogeneous, and pluralistic. Though tolerance is a dif‹cult ideal,
it is “not only a good idea but also particularly our own idea, our heritage
as Americans” (Melzer 1991, 12). In contrast, a progressive writer attacks
those liberal intellectuals who have moved rightward in their zeal to sup-
port unity and patriotism. Cockburn alleges that these liberal intellectuals
condemn their fellow liberals for supporting “an overpermissiveness aris-
ing from the fear of being considered intolerant” (1985, 70).
Neither conservatives nor liberals can agree among themselves about
the kind of tolerance that is required in a pluralistic society that retains a
common culture. Many but not all conservatives see clear dangers attached
to tolerance in a period of signi‹cant immigration. Because culture is es-
sentially the “common sense of the community,” when large numbers of
immigrants from different cultures enter the United States, the status of the
American culture is reduced. “It becomes merely the ‘Anglo culture,’ whose
rules, standards, and conventions are thought to be alien to non-Anglo cit-
izens and hence cannot be ‘imposed’ on them. And, paradoxically, because
tolerance is such a strong component of Anglo-American culture, Ameri-
cans are much more vulnerable to this cultural sapping than, say, the
French” (O’Sullivan 1994b, 41). In a similar vein, another conservative
critic takes Arthur Schlesinger to task for suggesting that the alternative to
multiculturalism is “an open society founded on tolerance of differences.
. . . If the toleration of differences is the be-all and end-all of America, then
why not tolerate multiculturalism?” (Brookhiser 1992, 74).
The dif‹culties in negotiating differences of opinion within a pluralis-
tic society are apparent in the case of parental objections to educational
materials used in the public schools. In one example of “pluralistic democ-
racy at work,” numerous full-›edged battles take place among groups en-
deavoring to shape the school curriculum. Public education in the United
States “can work well only in a pseudo-democracy or a pre-democracy
where citizens are reluctant to exercise their right to protest against gov-
ernment decisions. . . . As more parents and taxpayers begin to feel their
democratic oats—and become more empowered in their children’s educa-
tion—the number of these disputes will multiply. . . . The public schools are
being driven toward extinction by the ›owering of democracy itself”
(Payne 1995, 60, 62).
The question of whether Americans are truly tolerant of others is a mat-
ter of some dispute. One writer notes that “while polls show that many
Americans have a renewed appreciation for traditional values, their toler-
ance of their neighbor’s right to reject these values has not declined at all”
(Stengel 1986, 17). Yet critics on all sides see their opponents as producing a
less tolerant nation. Opponents of multiculturalism and political correct-
ness argue that they foster intolerance rather than tolerance. The new
thinking in academe, which sees most of American history as racist, sexist,
and classist, is “fostering a decline in tolerance and a rise in intellectual in-
timidation” (Henry 1991, 66). Those who advocate an Afrocentric curricu-
lum do not seek interracial tolerance; rather, their spirit of racial pride is
“synonymous with racial intolerance” (Sullivan 1990, 21). And an increase
in “diversity” in the newsroom is seen as “driven by truly totalitarian im-
pulses” that promote “cheerleading” rather than newsgathering and work
“to suppress ideas and information” (Seligman 1993, 28, 34, 32). On the
other side, a liberal accuses the Religious Right of preaching a “rabid intol-
erance of social differences (yes, lifestyles!)” (Judis 1999, 56). And right-
wing PC, no less than its left-wing counterpart, is seen as representing “an
intolerance of opposing views that verges on censorship” (Kinsley 1993,
66). Another progressive notes that although pressure groups on the right
frequently demand political correctness, the term is never applied to them
(Elson 1994, 64). And in a more humorous formulation: “Criticizing
gangsta rap for demeaning women is defending ‘American values.’ Criticiz-
ing right-wing talk radio for doing the same is ‘politically correct’” (quoted
in Sachs and Washburn 1995, 34).
The issue of how tolerant Americans truly are is a complicated one. On
the one hand, survey respondents say that all persons should be free to
think and believe as they see ‹t; on the other hand, respondents are quite
willing to see unpopular views being censored. If one asks people whether
their most disliked groups (for example, atheists, homosexuals, racists, mil-
itants, communists) should be allowed to give speeches, run for of‹ce, or
even legally exist as a group, surprisingly few Americans say yes (Gibson
1992). While some evidence indicates that Americans are becoming more
tolerant, in part because of higher levels of education (see, for example,
T. C. Wilson 1994), the use of a more stringent measure of tolerance—
putting up with views that one ‹nds objectionable—produces evidence of
only very minor improvements in tolerance. An analysis of survey data
from 1976 through 1998 found that “strong majorities of Americans were
willing to limit civil liberties for members of unpopular groups”; in 1998,

more than 79 percent took this position (Mondak and Sanders 2003, 501).
Questions of how to reconcile tolerance with strong beliefs and with
cultural unity bedevil all sides. Are we a society based on “enlightened self-
interest” or on shared moral beliefs? Can a deeply pluralistic society be held
together on the basis of tolerance, or is tolerance to be sacri‹ced for the
larger good of communal cohesion? Does republican civic virtue require
the curtailment of some individual freedoms?
The liberal understanding has often included the idea that the United
States is an association of citizens in which pluralism applies culturally but
not politically. “The people are Americans only by virtue of having come
together,” and they may retain “whatever identity they had before becom-
ing Americans.” Politically, however, Americans are one, not many. The
symbols of American citizenship are “culturally anonymous, invented
rather than inherited, voluntaristic in style, narrowly political in content:
the ›ag, the Pledge, the Fourth, the Constitution” (Walzer 1999, 595, 602).
This idea is, in essence, a recapitulation of Kallen’s earlier idea of cultural
pluralism lodged within the American Idea. The “essence of the American
identity” here “rests on democratic political values,” and instead of cultural
nationalism, there is tolerance (Spencer 1994, 562). One liberal commenta-
tor has suggested that it is easier to live in a society of shared moral and re-
ligious beliefs, and thus “all traditional societies and all pre-modern
philosophers of society have been hostile to the mixing of religions, mores,
and cultures in one society.” But the modern liberal state is premised on the
idea that people can be tied together “through an alliance of enlightened
self-interest rather than through shared moral and religious beliefs”
(Melzer 1991, 11).
In practice, of course, the United States has a long history of nativist
movements that seems to suggest the dif‹culties of maintaining a hetero-
geneous society based on self-interest and tolerance. As Lipset has pointed
out, “The crusade to keep America Protestant by barring massive non-
Protestant immigration is actually almost as old as the United States itself.”
Conservative politics from Thomas Jefferson’s time to Woodrow Wilson’s
included “efforts to impose ascetic Protestant morality on the lower
classes—often viewed as largely immigrant in composition—and attempts
to limit immigration or to withhold equal rights from the foreign-born.”
Through much of American history, such movements came into con›ict
with “more culturally cosmopolitan and egalitarian opponents” (1990,

184). This con›ict continues unabated into the twenty-‹rst century. That
nativist upsurges did not result purely from the high proportion of immi-
grants in the United States can be demonstrated by the experiences of other
nations. In South America, some nations received more immigrants than
did the United States without generating nativist movements. Italian im-
migrants were more readily accepted in Argentina at the turn of the twen-
tieth century than was the case in the United States (Degler 1987, 10).
In an era of large-scale immigration from non-European societies and
the propounding of philosophies of multiculturalism, renewed debate has
occurred about the very nature of American society. If liberals can unite
around the idea of a society that combines cultural pluralism with political
unity, conservatives argue among themselves about the essence of Ameri-
can society. Several conservative commentators argue against the “of‹cial
rhetoric” of the United States as “a nation of immigrants, an idea rather
than a nation,” instead seeing America as “a common culture evolving into
an ethnicity that encompasses other ethnicities” (O’Sullivan 1994b, 40).
They are concerned that current immigration policies are “bringing in cul-
tures and peoples too diverse to be incorporated within a single national
and civilizational identity” (Auster 1994, 54). They fear that “precipitately
changing an historically European-majority country into a multiracial,
white-minority country must result in a breakdown of the common cul-
ture” (Auster 1992, 43). What emerges here is the idea of an American eth-
nicity. Conservative opponents, however, argue that ethnic homogeneity
does not make sense in the American context. Rather, “one might say that
the homogeneity of America is in the shared recognition that there are
many ethnic identities that, for limited public purposes, are subordinated
to a common enterprise” (Neuhaus 1995, 65).
Those conservatives who insist that shared moral beliefs are essential to
the maintenance of a society reject the notion that a society can be politi-
cally united but culturally pluralistic. In their eyes, the idea of “a ‘multicul-
tural’ nation” constitutes “an oxymoron if ever there was one.” The “ratio-
nalist” idea that America can be reduced “to nothing more than a set of
abstract principles (freedom! opportunity! pluralism!)” does not work. “A
civic bond cannot long endure in the absence of an experienced cultural
bond” (Auster 1994, 49, 51, 54). “If America consists of very different peo-
ples, with very different understandings of what is virtuous, sensible,
noble, or merely comfortable, and united only in their allegiance to liberty,

equality, and prosperity, then they will eventually wage wars over the
proper de‹nition of the ‹rst two terms, and over the proper allocation of
the third” (O’Sullivan 1994b, 37). Moreover, if being American means giv-
ing allegiance to certain political principles, then one ceases to be an Amer-
ican when one does not endorse these principles. By contrast, if being an
American is a matter of “ethno-cultural solidarity,” then one is free to dis-
sent (O’Sullivan 1994a, 45).
In this conservative perspective, “a stable liberal civil society” obviously
depends on “an undergirding common culture.” Though such a culture
does not need a shared religion or ethnic homogeneity, it does require
“more than subscription to legal or constitutional rules—it requires com-
monality in moral outlook. . . . We can live together in deep disagreement
about abortion, but not if we also disagree about the propriety of using
force on our opponents.” In contemporary society, disagreements arise
even about what constitutes a moral issue. For example, is homosexuality a
matter of morality? What is required is therefore a “radical tolerance of in-
difference,” so that others’ sexual habits are not a matter of concern. But a
different form of tolerance is also required: toleration, which implies judg-
ments. To tolerate a practice or belief means to allow something inferior or
undesirable to exist. If we are to have a common culture, toleration is re-
quired. “A common culture—even if one de‹ned thinly in terms of the
practices and virtues that make up a liberal civil society—is essential if we
are not to drift into chaos; and even such an attenuated common culture
will be renewed across the generations only if it is animated by a shared
sense of history and nationality.” Such a culture requires the “inescapably
judgmental” form of tolerance that can be called toleration (J. Gray 1992,
36). As expressed by another conservative, what is required is “censure”
rather than “censoring.” Rather than prohibiting certain forms of expres-
sion (for example, hate speech), we need to censure it; “censure is the free
expression of moral disapproval.” We have not been using censure because
“a false ideal of tolerance has not only outlawed censorship but discour-
aged censoriousness (another word for censure)” (Wills 1989, 71).
Scholars have noted that in an earlier era, liberal communities tolerated
all kinds of pursuits in private—that is, at home, in churches, in voluntary
associations. This kind of tolerance provided a “safety valve,” enabling
“natural enemies to live together in peace” (Kautz 1993, 620). More re-
cently, however, being left alone no longer seems suf‹cient, as numerous

commentators on both the right and the left have noted.
Democratic societies in an era of multiculturalism must constantly ex-
amine the bases of their decisions. If all are to participate equally in the for-
mulation of democratic decisions, then “cultural minorities may challenge
the regime of toleration because they cannot accept it without subordina-
tion” (Bohman 2003, 772). A case in point might be some religious Funda-
mentalists’ desire to ban some reading material in the public schools be-
cause it violates their sense of what is moral and true. From the perspective
of liberal tolerance, it has seemed reasonable to reject the requests of par-
ents who will not allow their children to be exposed to diverse literature.
That is, “liberal toleration . . . defends diversity by not tolerating the intol-
erant.” But if one wishes to treat all parties as “members of the same open
and inclusive deliberative community,” alternative modes of solving the
problem could be found. Thus, school of‹cials could exempt the children
from the offensive material or could generate lists of books that are accept-
able to all (769).
Put somewhat differently, “toleration can be manifest either in the
blindness and indifference of the state to diversity, or in a more equalizing
respect for the representatives of varied positions,” and the latter position
has been more characteristic of contemporary pluralists. Thus, color-blind
hiring policies have been replaced by a conscious effort to produce a di-
verse workforce (Schlosberg 1998, 603). Similarly, observers have argued
that greater sensitivity rather than blindness to differences is required in
the religious sphere as well. “Religious cultures and identities are not
treated fairly by declaring that religion is a private matter or by excluding
religious arguments from political or constitutional debate.” Equal treat-
ment of different religious groups and of religious and nonreligious people
requires taking into account “structural inequalities between majority reli-
gions and minority ones” (Bader 1999, 608). The recognition of such struc-
tural and political realities has meant that many groups are no longer con-
tent with merely private tolerance, that for all kinds of groups, “the
personal is political.” Perhaps, too, the recognition of selves as cultural con-
structions existing within cultural groups makes the demand for recogni-
tion so much greater. Tolerance thus means more than indifference; it
means recognition. Given deep pluralism, the result is a kind of “agonistic
respect” (Schlosberg 1998, 606).
For most commentators, “agonistic respect” among competing view-

points does not mean that the United States is “merely a container of cul-
tures that come and go rather than a cultural entity in itself” (Hollinger
1995, 160). Rather, the common culture continually emerges from the in-
teraction of subgroups (Hartmann and Gerteis 2005). And relations among
groups continue to evolve so that there is no ‹nal “consensus on identity,
truth, or a social order. . . . The ongoing generation of different antago-
nisms, and the discourses among them, keep us from ‹nally constituting
ourselves” (Schlosberg 1998, 608).
Conclusions
However much most mainstream writers reject multiculturalism as a phi-

losophy, it is nevertheless correct that “we are all multiculturalists now, “ as
Glazer’s (1997) book title suggests. In Glazer’s account, multiculturalism has
“won” despite being “strongly denounced” by “powerful voices in Ameri-
can life” and being “at odds with the course of American culture, society,
and education” (4). Glazer makes clear that his title signi‹es not an en-
dorsement of multiculturalism but rather a recognition that it is “unavoid-
able”—much in the way that Sir William Harcourt, after the passage of a
progressive tax on estates in 1889, declared that “we are all socialists now”
(160). Whereas public education had long functioned to integrate immi-
grants into American life, school curricula now pay attention to minority
groups and their distinctiveness as well as to “the oppression of the minor-
ity culture by the majority” (11). The demands for multicultural curricula
arose, Glazer argues, because of American society’s failure to integrate
African Americans. While contemporary immigrants generally seek to as-
similate to American ways, African Americans have been excluded. Their
rates of intermarriage remain low, and residential segregation remains
high. Educators supported multiculturalism in the hope that the incorpo-
ration of black themes would improve black students’ achievement. Most
blacks embrace multiculturalism because “they want . . . to become more
like other Americans—for example, in educational achievement—not dif-
ferent from them, and believe that the way to becoming more like them is
to take more account of difference, and yes, of ill-treatment, of past and
current achievement, even if exaggerated” (Glazer 1991, 22).
In Glazer’s version of multiculturalism, then, there really is but one

American culture. And, indeed, from the perspective of at least some ob-
servers from other societies, the cultural differences subsumed under the
umbrella of multiculturalism are not profound. Thus, one British philoso-
pher has argued that true multiculturalism is a matter of “deep moral di-
versity.” Therefore, he says, “when I refer to multiculturalism I do not
mean the tri›ing local debate on American national identity that has oc-
cupied many in the USA” (J. Gray 2000, 325). In addition, the overwhelm-
ing majority of the population, regardless of educational attainment, does
not support the kind of proportional representation that some more ardent
multiculturalists advocate. Thus, 87 percent of the most educated and 89
percent of those without high school degrees disapprove of having Con-
gress mirror the country’s ethnic makeup (Citrin et al. 2001, 263).
If both “multiculturalism” and “culture wars” in American society are
new in their labels but not in their essence, some aspects of the struggles
over cultural pluralism clearly are novel. For one thing, the sheer extent of
diversity has grown as people from all continents and numerous religious
and racial groups have arrived in substantial numbers in the United States.
Globalization has meant a more radical interpenetration of very different
cultures and cultural ideas than was previously the case. Another new ele-
ment is that the de‹nition of what constitutes a cultural group has been
broadened. No longer con‹ned to race and ethnicity, cultural groups are
now based on gender, sexuality, disability, religion, and other shared sys-
tems of meaning. Thus, even if the United States as a “nation of immi-
grants” had long been accustomed to dealing with cultural differences, the
differences are now more numerous and cut across more aspects of daily
life, both public and private. Perhaps, too, self-consciousness about culture
presents new issues. Debates about multicultural education and the canon
wars represent deliberate efforts by all sides to shape the culture via educa-
tional change.
CHAPTER 6
Antielitist but Respecting Achievement
One staple of American political discourse is de‹ning one’s opponents as

elitist while portraying one’s own side as re›ecting the will of the people.
All sides in the culture wars manifest this tendency. What is unusual here
is only the number of elites at issue, since every sphere of culture wars con-
tention is characterized by splits between the leadership and the grass
roots—in the churches as in the arts world, among gays as among femi-
nists. Yet as with all the polarities under discussion, ambivalence and a will-
ingness to praise or emulate the elites also exist.
Who Are the Elites, and What Is Elite Culture?
While conservatives may eschew the language of cultural politics, the two
sides nevertheless converge in recognizing that some actors are more
powerful than others in in›uencing the culture. Conservatives clearly see
power in the hands of an “establishment” or “new class” or “knowledge
class” whose tastes and values conservatives dislike. Sometime during the
1960s, says one conservative commentator, “the power of explaining Amer-
ica to Americans fell to a liberal, sometimes radical ‘new class’—academics,
145
elitists, journalists—which, although accurate up to a point, somehow got

the story wrong or told it from a vantage point of supercilious and fre-
quently privileged hostility” (Morrow 1981, 73). The “Woodstock Genera-
tion elites” are very powerful now, says another conservative, though their
views are not widely shared. But one must distinguish between such elites
and a “true cultural elite” that “stands by enduring values” (Buckley 1992a,
54). “The traditional moral imperatives of self-restraint and delayed
grati‹cation” are currently absent because culture-transmitting institu-
tions—mainline churches and universities—have “almost entirely gone
over to liberationism” (Editorial 1988a, 22).
Media elites are an obvious target of attack from all sides. The Right as-
serts that media elites are less religious and more socially liberal than the
population at large and are therefore “out of touch with the public” (Edi-
torial 1981b, 533). As the Right sees it, parents are left struggling to inculcate
values that the media ignore, attack, or “aloo›y patronize.” The media do
not praise marital ‹delity, for example, or appreciate the struggles of wed-
lock (Novak 1984, 48). When the “Don’t ask, don’t tell” policy regarding
gays in the military was not eliminated, a National Review editorial noted
that “conventional sexual behavior and morality was shown to have
stronger social roots than the media normally allow” (1993a, 14). Since
many media people are remnants of the 1960s counterculture, they “re-
main cultural revolutionaries” who exert their in›uence on the general cul-
ture despite their “alienated” and mistrustful stance toward American soci-
ety (Bork 1989, 27). Liberals have an inside track with such cultural
institutions as book publishers, a position that allows liberals to engage in
behind-the-scenes censorship of school textbooks by lobbying sympathetic
publishers, rather than by launching public challenges and court cases
such as those brought by conservatives. In the eyes of sympathetic people
in the book publishing industry, “critics who wanted books to feature more
working women were a ‘positive pressure group,’ those who wanted more
homemakers were ‘censors’” (Bates, 1993, 69).
By contrast, the Left is concerned about the “rise of a veritable Culture
Trust” that controls the major media, seemingly with little popular concern
or opposition. Amazingly, the population has bought into the “great Myth
of the Culture Trust” that there are many channels from which to choose
(Tom Frank 1996, 16). People fail to see how fundamentally similar all of
the channels are and fail to recognize that although capitalists themselves
Antielitist but Respecting Achievement 147
promulgate messages that appear to be against the system, being “hip” is

no longer an oppositional stance. To resist “puritanism, homogeneity and
conformity” is no longer a means of dissenting from the system. Capitalists
endorse such resistance, thereby sidetracking popular discontent (18).
It is not entirely clear who is a part of the cultural elite. Are Hollywood
and TV writers to be included? The Right appears to think so, but the Left
is uncertain. Thus, Michael Kinsley noted that Vice President Dan Quayle’s
attack on Murphy Brown represented in part an attempt to blame the “cul-
tural elite” for what ails our society (Kinsley 1992b, 6), but Katha Pollitt
found it strange that Quayle thinks of TV writers as part of a cultural elite
rather than as “crowd-pleasing lowbrows” (1992a, 88).
In the eyes of some culture warriors, the culture war itself is provoked
by errant elites. Thus, William J. Bennett de‹nes the culture war as a battle
between “elite” and “mainstream” America, where the elites are liberals
who “belittle mainstream American values.” The public, he argues, “has
been too quiescent and too accepting about what has been in›icted on
them from the upper strata of society,” though they “are regaining the
con‹dence to express publicly the common sense sentiments they hold
privately” (1992, 13, 256).
If those on the right characterize cultural elites—whether in the media,
the arts, or schools and universities—as subscribing to liberal ideas, those
on the left suggest that the contents of popular culture depend largely on
the pro‹t motive that drives economic elites. Commentators in Time take
note of the economic realities that underlie television content. Thus, the
1997 television season contained an unprecedented number of shows with
religious themes, as “people have begun to seek out the comfort of religion
in all aspects of their lives—even on TV.” Nevertheless, “the young and the
reckless still rule. Sinners, after all, have killer demographics” (J. Stein 1997,
98, 100).
By contrast, a writer in National Review during that same year suggested
that television shows about religion remained scarce relative to the interest
of the American population. He also noted that the viewing population
had succeeded in giving high ranking to Touched by an Angel, a show
panned by critics, while making a ›op of Nothing Sacred, a show about a
with-it Catholic priest who saw the Bible as irrelevant to abortion, homo-
sexuality, and premarital sex (Gahr 1997, 44, 45). In this version of reality,
the good sense of the people may override the foolish liberalism of the
elites who construct the media content. While this populist sentiment ap-
pears on both the left and the right, the audiences in question appear to
differ.
While crediting the intelligence of average Americans over that of the
critics, conservatives may also suggest that lower-class populations are all
too easily in›uenced by the images they receive from the liberal media
elite. As one conservative commentator notes, “common sense suggests
that the pictures of the world disseminated by cultural elites would have an
impact over time.” Justifying their actions on the basis of white indiffer-
ence and failure to provide jobs to ghetto residents, black and Hispanic
gang members are echoing TV commentators, whose statements are picked
up from the culture elites (Rothman 1992, 35). In contrast, a liberal com-
mentator remarks that “young African Americans are not so naïve and sug-
gestible that they have to depend on a compact disc for their sociology
lessons.” They know that police stereotype and arrest blacks more than
whites for the same offenses. Critics of rap music imagine “empty-headed,
suggestible black kids, crouching by their boom boxes, waiting for the
word.” This view is clearly false (Ehrenreich 1992a, 89). An editorial in The
Nation similarly contends that the “culture war” propagated by the 2000
Democratic presidential and vice presidential nominees”implicitly portrays
American teens as empty vessels at the mercy of corrupting entertainment”
(Editorial 2000c, 3). And a writer in The Nation notes that those who wish
to censor certain publicly funded artists manifest a “faith in the power of
images” that “appears to involve a deep suspicion that seemingly decent
Americans will be overwhelmed by dark forces within them that such
images might unleash” (Mattick 1990, 356).
It is easy to see that the interests of various groups in›uence their per-
ception of media in›uences. Thus, a conservative writer who decries the
in›uences of Hollywood points out that “liberal activists who denounce
Joe Camel as a pied piper of social coercion swear that screen idols have no
in›uence on human behavior. Television executives who make billions of
dollars off the persuasive power of 30-second commercials declare that the
26- and 54-minute programs those ads punctuate have no net impact on
their views” (Goldberg 2000, 62).
If media elites have undue in›uence, those on the left see this phe-
nomenon as a consequence of the economic interests represented by the
major media. The media, they contend, are necessarily biased in a conser-
vative direction. As a result, they ‹nd political correctness on the left to be

newsworthy while ignoring that on the right. No attention is paid, for ex-
ample, to the removal of a painting commemorating a 1912 strike from a
congressional hearing room (Pollitt 1998a, 10). Nor is any notice given to
what really destroys our language and thinking: the “everyday lying and
jargon,” the newscaster babble, that is “sanctioned and promulgated at the
highest levels of media and politics”—terms such as business community
and peace process (Hitchens 1991, 472).
The media’s conservative bias is also evident in portrayals of contem-
porary social movements. The “conservative counterrevolution” against
feminism leads to “a mediawide misimpression that young women are
marching back into the kitchen with virginity intact” (Alterman 1999, 10),
that women are rejecting feminism (Pollitt 1994a, 224). And the gay move-
ment is dominantly represented by conservatives, as a small number of gay
writers appear in all the media and promote ideas that “range from right to
far right” (M. Warner 1997, 15).
During the 1980s and 1990s, Right and Left converged in their attacks
on the media for being run by elites or elitists who are out of touch with
the people. In a 1950s incarnation of a similar convergence, the attack was
on mass or popular culture itself. At that time, the Left feared media ma-
nipulation of the masses and the dumbing down of the population
through market-based entertainment, while the Right feared that mass cul-
ture would drive out high culture and diminish or trivialize cultural stan-
dards. By the end of the century, both sides disowned the earlier critique of
mass culture, with portions of the Left now seeing the populace as smart
enough to resist manipulation and portions of the Right disavowing cul-
tural elites that produce immoral, antibourgeois art. At the same time, well-
educated segments of the population appeared to have shifted from being
“highbrow snobs” to being cultural “omnivores,” with 95 percent of col-
lege graduates in one survey agreeing that “excellence is just as likely to
be found in folk culture or popular culture as in traditional high culture”
(Peterson 2002, 36).
The degree to which antielitism has grown since the middle of the
twentieth century can be illustrated by examining almost any critic of mass
or popular culture during that era. For example, a well-known sociologist of
popular culture wrote in the American Journal of Sociology in 1950, “We wish
to know whether the consumption of popular culture really presupposes a
human being with preadult traits or whether modern man has a split per-
sonality: half mutilated child and half standardized adult” (Lowenthal
1950, 332). It is hard to imagine any of today’s culture warriors on the right
or the left subscribing to such sentiments.
Distinctions between popular and high culture had become suspect by
the late twentieth century as observers recognized that what merits elite
status in the cultural realm is a matter of social construction and the power
to confer it. In an era when a major art museum (the Guggenheim) pre-
sented an exhibition titled The Art of the Motorcycle, the older distinctions
made no sense. Yet what exactly belongs in the mainstream remains a mat-
ter of dispute.
One writer looks at contemporary American popular culture and de-
clares that whereas a mainstream culture once existed, there are now “two
streams: one traditional and tranquil, the other torrential and caustic.” At
midcentury, “there was a single of‹cial pop culture: white middle class,
mid-cult, status quo.” Today, this group remains tranquil, but there is a
large pop culture that is based on the rage of those who are ignored: the
homeless, the junkies, the insane, the ghetto underclass, and “the young
white working class, in tattered towns and trailer parks, who feel left out of
bland, sitcom America” (Corliss 1990, 97). Another commentator in the
late 1990s suggested the presence of a new countercultural trend. Unlike
that of the 1960s, however, it is “inchoate” and neither united nor politi-
cal. Growing up around alternative music and the Internet, its members
seek original identities and are “far more sophisticated and authentically
nonconformist than Woodstock Nation ever was.” But theirs is an “apolit-
ical tribalism. . . . The belief in a singular ‘system,’ and a ‘counterculture’ in
opposition to it, comes from a time when there was a consensus reality
constructed of centralized media, personi‹ed by the three TV networks”
(Sirius 1998, 88–89).
A liberal defender of middlebrow culture suggests that “it provides
some unity in a culture where political, social, and intellectual fragmenta-
tion is now the norm.” Highbrow culture, he argues, “has never been so
high—so removed from daily discourse. And lowbrow has never so mes-
merized the masses or carried such highbrow chic. . . . We have lost appre-
ciation for the art that was once the mainstay of American culture and the
unguilty delight of intelligent readers, listeners, and viewers.” Middlebrow
art “appeals across barriers of age or station” because it offers both amuse-
ment and instruction. It also engages with the world and can produce so-
cial change, as novels such as Uncle Tom’s Cabin and The Jungle illustrate
(Friend 1992, 24, 27). A writer in The Nation applauds this defense of mid-
dlebrow culture and reinforces the suggestion that accessible art can
change minds and hearts (Pochoda 1992, 344).
Another progressive writer contends that a “democratization of cul-
ture” has taken place, so that the barriers between high and low culture
have broken down, much to the displeasure of social conservatives (Willis
1996, 22). And indeed, one noted conservative art critic decries the fact that
“all distinctions between high and low culture, including outright trash,
are considered too invidious to be given a hearing.” In fact, he argues, the
priority given to “the lowest forms of popular culture and media entertain-
ment at the expense of literature and the ‹ne arts in the ‘quality’ press is
now so advanced that it amounts to a cultural revolution. So does the
politicization of reviewing, where the tenets of political correctness and
multiculturalism are now regularly substituted for criteria of aesthetic judg-
ment” (Kramer 1993, 37). Another critic agrees that “high art in America is
dying” (Brustein 1992, 38).
A commentator on the left suggests that the “sleaze and moral degra-
dation” of contemporary popular culture is less worrying than the “brutal-
ity and emptiness of our political culture.” The excesses of TV talk shows
demonstrate the problem. “Pop-bashing is the humanism of fools: In the
name of defending people’s dignity it attacks their pleasures and their mea-
ger store of power. On talk shows, whatever their drawbacks, the proles get
to talk. The rest of the time they’re told in a thousand ways to shut up”
(Willis 1996, 23).
To be sure, even this supporter of the “proles” who “get to talk” on tele-
vision talk shows notes that they are often subjected to “the manipulative
condescension of their producers and hosts” (Willis 1996, 23). And as noted
earlier, some progressives suggest that these programs merely exploit the
poor and minority groups. In addition, not all progressives see cultural de-
mocratization as a good thing. Thus, what some progressives perceive as
the “democratization” of culture others see as “a consequence of the left’s
inability to make distinctions. Because we tend to see all cultural expres-
sion as a manifestation of political ideology, ideology itself has ceased to
serve any de‹nable purpose, except as a leveler of distinctions. As a result,
cultural life is overwhelmed by nonsense. . . . It was the left that favored
education in the humanities for all; it was the left that wanted to make cul-
tural life widely available. . . . When those of us on the left called for cul-
tural diversity, we questioned, justi‹ably at the time, the obeisance to West-
ern culture that pervaded American colleges and universities.” But this
“cultural politics . . . was disastrous. . . . Courses in the humanities became
manifestations of race, of ethnicity, of regionalism or of class. And by al-
lowing all values, all opinions, all feelings, all ideas—no matter how ridicu-
lous or ill-conceived—to be considered equally, we made humanistic edu-
cation a minor branch of what might be called ‘arts for living’” (Kriegel
1984–85, 714). Irving Howe has noted similarly that “the deep suspicion of
the making of distinctions of value”—long part of American populism—
has “found a prominent place in the universities” since the counterculture
of the 1960s (1991, 42).
The debates about the university canon appear to pit academics against
their critics. This situation is unfortunate, says one liberal commentator,
because there is clearly something wrong “if society no longer wants to lis-
ten to its intellectuals, and if intellectuals cannot bear to hear how they are
judged by society.” Academics argue that specialization of knowledge is re-
quired and even that it makes thought possible. “This is an outrageous
claim. It implies, among other things, that outside of universities people do
not think.” This goes along with the elitism that sees “popular” books as in-
evitably being too simple (Todorov 1989, 26, 28).
While writers on the left and the right share an undertone of populist
distaste for elites, the attacks on elites for behaving in a self-serving fashion
appear more prominently from conservatives. The elites in question are
those whose work is seen to in›uence the culture. Not just artists, intellec-
tuals, and academics, but experts in the school system and supporters of
multiculturalism come under such suspicion. The Right sees those who
support multiculturalism as part of an establishment that is out of touch
with reality. “It is only the political class and the intelligentsia” who do not
know that there is a common American national identity (O’Sullivan
1994a, 45). “Multiculturalism is not a grassroots movement”; it would die
without government support (Chavez 1994, 32). And immigrants them-
selves are not the problem. They are here because they believe in American
values. The problem lies in an indigenous overclass intent on balkanizing
American society and exploiting immigrants and the poor to that end
(Neuhaus 1995, 66). Elites either “acquiesce in” or “actively promote”
balkanization (Custred 1997, 40). Immigrants do not seek bilingual educa-

tion; indeed, the gap between the advocates of such education and their
“putative bene‹ciaries” is widening (Editorial 1990b, 14).
Those who promote multicultural education and design sex education
curricula are particularly vulnerable to the Right’s accusations of elitism.
Thus, “multicultural professionals . . . often earn exorbitant incomes ped-
dling identity. Thousands of consultants with little or no real experience
sell feel-good programs to school systems across the nation” (Chavez 1994,
30). And mainstream sex educators advocate “the kind of anti-majoritari-
anism conservatives fear most: a group of experts who use the power of
government to reinvent the culture” (Mindus 2000, 46). “Just as the ciga-
rette makers wanted to get the kids hooked on their product, so the sexol-
ogists want to get the kids hooked on theirs” (Bethell 1997, 36).
In the eyes of conservatives, both secular and religious elites are guilty
of “cowardice and silence” in response to the assault on family and reli-
gious values in the schools and the media. The leadership of the mainline
Protestant, Catholic, and Jewish religions as well as of the Republican and
Democratic Parties is chastised for seeming to acquiesce to current politi-
cally correct fashions (Simon 1993, 21). While “feminism and sexual libera-
tion are the religion of the intellectual class in America,” only the elite
wants feminism; the people do not (quoted in Gibbs 1992, 54). The in-
creasingly dumbed-down nature of American masculinity—where men’s
culture is de‹ned in terms of sex, sports, beer, gadgets, clothing, and
‹tness—is also to some degree a function of the cultural elite’s response to
feminism. As areas of public life such as business and politics that once “in-
culcated a form of re‹ned masculinity” have become “unsexed,” and as
men’s clubs and schools have been “de-gendered,” men need to ‹nd some-
thing in common beyond beer and gadgetry. While the reestablishment of
single-sex schools and colleges and all-male clubs could help, “a decent
amount could be accomplished simply by stopping the intolerance of
such things that now passes for civilized consensus among American
elites” (Sullivan 2000, 6).
Before Roe v. Wade, abortion was supported by the “elite culture” of the
“knowledge class.” The “democratic culture” has subsequently organized
its response (Neuhaus 1989b, 42), and mainline churches are reconsidering
their proabortion positions because of grassroots pressures (M. P. Harris
1988, 44). Decisions about abortion “must not be imposed by elites, or by
institutions subservient to elites, or in the obscurity and mists, penumbras

and prejudices of elites” (Novak 1997, 48). Those ‹ghting to outlaw abor-
tion must “unseat the social ideal of radical individualism” by “persuading
or displacing the elite that fostered that ideal” (Cunningham 1992, 46–47).
The population is more religious and more conservative than its leaders
and has begun to express discontent. While the media focus on the Moral
Majority and “the wilder manifestations of the emerging reality,” they have
ignored “the deeper and broader social currents, thereby proving again that
they are out of touch with the public” (Editorial 1981b, 533).
Some on the right see the establishment as having engineered its own
downfall by attempting to co-opt the 1960s counterculture. Instead, these
“primitive forces” have taken over; the new elites prefer “primitive authen-
ticity” to “learned sincerity” (Lipman 1991a, 40). The “Mapplethorpe Wing
of American culture” now dominates “elite cultural opinion” (Buckley
1992a, 55).
Elitism and Funding for the Arts
To many conservatives, artist Robert Mapplethorpe became a symbol of the

distasteful art that was being supported by cultural elites and subsidized by
unwilling taxpayers. But the very de‹nition of what constitutes elitism in
the arts is a matter of considerable contention. Is the National Endowment
for the Arts (NEA) elitist because it supports “an irresponsible avant-garde”
or “snobbish un-American homosexuals” or insuf‹cient numbers of mi-
nority grantees (Brustein 1997c, 30)? Or is it elitist to assume that ordinary
Americans are not interested in the humanities and that culture should be
the private property of those who can pay for it (Hughes 1995, 65)?
While opponents view the NEA as elitist because it takes tax dollars
from lower-income Americans and bene‹ts wealthy patrons of the arts,
supporters counter that the NEA helps nonestablished artists and minori-
ties, the young, the poor, and the “provincial.” Without the NEA, American
public culture would depend wholly on corporate support and thus would
re›ect the interests of one class, one race, and one mentality (Hughes 1990,
47). Defenders of the arts also note that political leaders such as Vice Presi-
dent Quayle, who beat “the populist drum on cultural and moral matters”
and attacked the “cultural elite” for undermining American values, are
themselves part of the elite. Quayle is the millionaire son of media mil-
lionaires (Hughes 1992b, 43). Observers have also suggested that conserva-
tive Republicans were free to criticize the “cultural elites” in the arts and
humanities because these audiences were no longer so dominantly Repub-
lican (Jensen 1995, 28).
The controversy surrounding federal funding for the arts drew such
high-level political ‹gures as Republican speaker of the house Newt
Gingrich and Senator Henry Hyde into writing articles against the NEA.
Gingrich argued that Americans should not be forced to pay for “political
statements masquerading as art,” should not be required to support views
that contribute to our “cultural fraying” instead of our unity, and should
not be “forced to underwrite cultural dependents who add to our decay and
undermine our values” (1995, 70, 71). Hyde similarly proclaimed that the
public need not pay for offensive art or art that re›ects merely the narcis-
sistic self-expression of the artist rather than a quest for the good, the true,
and the beautiful. Yet the two disagreed about the desirable outcome.
Whereas Gingrich thought that removing cultural funding from the federal
budget was the solution, Hyde hoped that such a drastic measure would
not be necessary since it would mean that “we simply can’t reach agree-
ment on a reasonable approach to issues at the intersection of politics and
culture,” a result that would be “deeply saddening” (Hyde 1990a, 26).
Some on the left, by contrast, have no problem endorsing art that is
“overtly political.” “The demand that art must be representative of the
whole community or must be universally accepted . . . is reminiscent of
that used in totalitarian states to condemn any work of art that does not
represent the whole community or that breaks with convention” (Neier
1980, 376). Some traditional art critics’ animus against the “misdeeds of the
NEA” may re›ect their sense that it re›ects a loss of their own power
(Mattick 1990, 356). And in the climate of the culture wars, the arts have
become “scapegoats, grotesquely politicized culture-war stereotypes,” so
that many people now believe that preserving the NEA means preserving
“sodomy, blasphemy, and child abuse” (Hughes 1995, 66). Conversely, at
least one liberal who disapproves of the NEA is concerned that it offers lit-
tle money to the arts while wielding lots of power as a consequence of the
prestige associated with its grants. This combination of little money and
lots of control “is the worst of all possible worlds” (Chait 1997, 16).
All sides are concerned about the incompatibility between the interests
of the art establishment and those of ordinary citizens. Some on the right
argue that given this incompatibility, a libertarian argument is the best so-
lution: let artists do what they want, but don’t make taxpayers fund it (Fer-
guson 1989, 21). An editorial in The New Republic similarly contends that
“taxpayers ought not to be expected to support displays that do violence to
deeply held community values” (Editorial 1989, 6).
Both the Left and the Right accuse the art world of remaining aloof
from the world of ordinary people. Some liberal commentators suggest that
the lower classes’ concerns and tastes are excluded. Arts producers and con-
sumers display a “broad condescension” toward working people, who
“sense that their lives and opinions are uninteresting to arts-world decision
makers” and whose “rage was there long before it was tapped by . . . right-
wing churches” (Spillane 1990, 739). In controversies regarding the place-
ment of art in public squares, the rights and interests of those who use
those spaces must be considered more important than the aesthetic value
of the art. A commentator on the left thus argues against placing Richard
Serra’s large sculpture, Tilted Arc, in New York’s Federal Plaza. Despite his
personal admiration for the sculpture as a work of art, this commentator
opposed such a placement because the public “has an interest in not hav-
ing all of its open spaces treated as though they were museums” (Danto
1985, 776).
Observers on the right perceive that the art world has deliberately cho-
sen to distance itself from the respectable world of the middle classes. Be-
cause the members of the bourgeoisie are afraid to look bourgeois, they are
no longer shocked by art and are willing to pay high prices for Andy
Warhol’s soup cans. The NEA funds whatever the arts community produces
because it too is afraid to look bourgeois, with the result that artists have
become more violent and lewd and the public taste is further corrupted
(Berns 1990, 35–36). Some on the right question whether offensive art—
such as Mapplethorpe’s photography and Serrano’s Piss Christ—is indeed
art as opposed to political statement (Buckley 1990b, 62).
Yet some commentators on the left defend the arts and art institutions
against the charges of elitism. Unlike so many other institutions, “Ameri-
can art institutions are among the most zealous in reaching out. . . . How
else explain the preoccupation with multiculturalism, the debate over qual-
ity, the effort, with whatever success, to dismantle the barriers of race and
gender? (The contradictory fallback position of those who can’t get the
label ‘elitist’ to stick is that arts institutions are too ‘politically correct’!)”
(Danto 1997, 6). Those who condemn the excesses of multiculturalism and
political correctness indeed suggest that being politically correct means be-
ing “deeply skeptical toward the very idea of a ‘masterpiece,’ because it im-
plies that one idea, culture or human being can actually be better than an-
other” (Henry 1993, 74).
Those concerned about the fate of art fear that the very controversies
about artistic merit have been detrimental because the effort to avoid po-
litical controversies has made public art increasingly bland. Artists increas-
ingly must fend off criticisms from all sides of the political spectrum—from
“religious and cultural conservatism” as well as “identity politics” and “or-
dinary philistinism” (Grant 1999, 47). And the increased pressure against
subsidizing provocative art may lead some theater producers, for example,
to “decide that survival is more important than social commentary” (Yeo-
man 1998, 33).
Ambivalence toward Elites
While elites in many areas of American life may be seen as out of touch
with popular sentiment, they nevertheless remain objects of respect and
emulation. Indeed, the con›ict between elitism and democratic populism
plays itself out in a variety of spheres, with commentators from both con-
servative and liberal perspectives siding with the elites. Thus, a conserva-
tive commentator has argued that “the idea of the gentleman has been part
of American culture from the earliest days” (Hart 1996, 52). Though it em-
anates from the English model, its American form is characterized by “self-
control, subordination of the ego, understatement, respect for solid
achievement, courtesy (especially to social inferiors), respect for women,
family responsibility, professional obligation, respect for education, regard
for athletics” (55). To be sure, “the whole idea of the gentleman is an of-
fense against the idea of social equality.” But then the extreme individual-
ism of the American literary canon also “constitutes a polemic against the
leveling tendencies of democratic culture.” Despite the leveling pull of
democracy, “the idea of the gentleman has been a powerful presence in
America,” and it “operates within, and is not in radical opposition to, soci-
ety itself” (54). A liberal defender of high culture likewise suggests that the
leveling tendencies of American culture make it dif‹cult to sustain high

culture. He speculates about whether Tocqueville has “been con‹rmed in
his belief that a meritocratic art cannot survive in a democratic society”
and suggests that “the serious artist ‹nds it harder and harder to resist the
pressures of popular taste” (Brustein 1997d, 32).
Conservatives are nevertheless careful to insist that their support of tra-
ditional university curricula and their revulsion at the revisionists are nei-
ther elitist nor undemocratic. Kimball, for example, assails the “pernicious”
idea that establishing a canon in humanistic studies is “undemocratic.”
This “common” notion, he argues, incorrectly sees democracy as “inimical
to authority, tradition, and rigor in its cultural institutions” (1990, 6). In-
deed, suggests Bloom, the average student suffers from lack of familiarity
with great literature. “As the awareness that we owed almost exclusively to
literary genius falters, people become more alike, for want of knowing they
can be otherwise. . . . Instead of being overwhelmed by Cyrus, Theseus,
Moses or Romulus, [students] unconsciously act out the roles of the doc-
tors, lawyers, businessmen or TV personalities around them” (1987, 64, 67).
Another conservative commentator asks if the classic texts of Western
civilization were written by the elite for the elite. Of course they were, he
maintains, but why does that matter? The origins of art and literature have
little to do with their quality. And Karl Marx, after all, did not seek slave art
or proletarian literature. Rather, he wanted the best of art and culture to be
“part of the cultural birthright of the working classes” (Hook 1989, 31). Sim-
ilarly, that most authors of the Western tradition are white males of high
social class does not mean that their works are elitist or racist or sexist. In-
deed, to believe that is itself racist, sexist, or elitist, “since it implies that the
color of your skin decides the content of your thought” (Todorov 1989, 30).
The classic American ambivalence toward elites is strikingly manifest in
the conservative literature, where conservatives accuse each other of pan-
dering to the elites. Thus, many Americans, including corporate leaders
and the Republican establishment, are seen as “chronic appeasers who
know they are viewed with contempt by the cultural elite” (quoted in
Scully 1993, 27). There’s “social-class anxiety” among conservatives that
makes them unwilling to cite Scripture or speak of gay sex as a sin because
this puts them in the “ranks of hillbillies” (Klinghoffer 1998, 24). Because
“society’s leaders” are pro-choice, the status climbers feel a need to acqui-
esce to it: “acceptance of abortion is necessary for the approval of our bet-
ters” (Cunningham 1992, 44). In “elite circles,” supporting abortion rights

is “de rigueur,” and politicians and the media therefore assume that since
everyone they know favors abortion, everyone does (Editorial 1998a, 12).
An “oppressive assumption” holds “that no one of any learning or sophis-
tication could possibly be a religious believer,” and “social penalties” are
“meted out to those who nonetheless are” (Krauthammer 1998, 92).
Catholics who mute their abortion views to make themselves appear more
socially respectable are “social climbers aspiring to be accepted by a Protes-
tant establishment already in eclipse” (Neuhaus 1986, 46). As the Left takes
over more of the culture, what develops is “a subtle paternalism that re-
gards moral conservatives as intellectual and social infants who have to be
educated out of their backward ways” (Wagner 1986, 52). Conservatives
have been charged with philistinism for so long that “they have accepted
the characterization invented for them by their enemies. Instead of realiz-
ing that the accusation of philistinism is merely a way of smearing their de-
fense of traditional standards and values, they have assumed that the realm
of mental culture was a liberal preserve” (Lipman 1991b, 53).
The status anxieties within the conservative camp may be exacerbated
by evidence suggesting that the most distinguished faculty and the bright-
est students tend to show greater af‹nity for leftward causes. While liberals
may dominate all college campuses, they are strongest at the most presti-
gious ones (Lipset 1996, 180, 183). Cultural conservatives tend to have de-
grees from less prestigious institutions than do cultural liberals, and the
grassroots membership of progressive causes is more educated and likely to
be upper middle class, while conservatives are dominated by members of
the lower middle class (Hunter 1998, 9). Nevertheless, evidence shows that
Evangelicals have become increasingly prominent within elite circles in the
United States since the late 1970s, even though their numbers within the
population have not greatly changed. This development belies the conven-
tional wisdom that people become more secular as their wealth and status
improve (Lindsay 2008, 68, 79).
One Christian critic of the way in which the culture wars have been
waged suggests that conservatives have blundered in identifying “the en-
emy as the ‘cultural elite.’ What does that make conservatives? The ‘cultur-
ally impaired’? The ‘backward fundamentalists’?” All too often, he argues,
Evangelicals are so much a part of the culture that they believe that the cul-
tural elite is evil simply because they are part of a cultural elite rather than
because of their positions (Horton 1994, 31, 44). Yet this critique may be
missing the intended irony in the use of the term cultural elite. According to
Lakoff, conservatives subordinate culture to morality so that “the idea of a
real cultural superiority that isn’t moral superiority makes no sense. . . . For
this reason, the term ‘cultural elite’ can only be ironic, referring to a self-
sustaining in›uential group with false claims to superiority” (2002, 240).
The Right aligns itself with elites insofar as it defends WASP culture but
characterizes WASP culture as little more than the traditional American cul-
ture. WASP ideals—of industry and success, of conscience and civic-mind-
edness—have continued to dominate American society even as WASPS
themselves have slipped to minority status because “being a WASP was a
game anyone could play. Over the years, everyone has, including descen-
dants of the people Lincoln freed” (Brookhiser 1993b, 79). Attachment to
this elite is thus acceptable because it represents the democratic potential
of American society. Or does it?
Conservatives have reached no consensus here. One commentator ar-
gues that despite cultural myths of universalism and of the United States as
an immigrant nation, “in real life what was important was the assimilation
to a WASP norm” (O’Sullivan 1994b, 36). But another conservative con-
tends that “there is no Anglo copyright on the characteristics that make for
assimilation and success in America: hard work, thrift, civic-mindedness,
devotion to faith, family, and freedom. The successful third-generation Pol-
ish-American is not a WASP but a successful third-generation Polish-Amer-
ican” (Neuhaus 1995, 64). Yet a third conservative writer suggests that
whatever the ethnicities and cultures of those at the lower levels of the so-
cial pyramid, the culture at the top remains Anglo-American (Hart 1996, 52,
56). An editorial in National Review argues that not just the top of the social
hierarchy remains WASP-like but rather pretty much everything above the
bottom. “The important social divisions in American life are those between
the Knickerbocker Club, the Nashville Kiwanis, and Teamsters Local 137—
but to a foreign eye they all look WASPish.” (1991a, 18). As seen by the Left,
of course, the WASP nature of the hierarchy is offensive. That is, those at
the top are always “indisputably American,” seemingly without culture or
race. White ethnic groups and then nonwhite ethnic groups follow the
elite. These “hierarchies of worth” are “perpetuated by dominant groups”
(Chock 1995, 317).
If some conservatives align themselves with WASP elites, other com-
mentators are willing to align themselves with an elite by defending the

cause of high art. The idea of “elitist” as meaning exclusionary rather than
excellent is helping to kill the idea of high art in American society, one
writer argues. He points out that “the charge of ‘elitism’ was hurled not
only against the wealthy consumers of art but also against its often penni-
less creators. . . . You were elitist if you created works of art and you were
elitist if you bought them. No wonder so few people were willing to come
to the defense of elitism” (Brustein 1997d, 30). Another defender of the arts
argues that if the NEA funds established institutions in the major cities, it
is accused of “upper-class elitism,” but if it funds “a suburban orchestra in
Ohio or a young, unfamous poet in Oregon, that’s subsidizing the second-
rate.” Why does no one complain about funding the space program when
few people care “what kind of rocks Mars has”? (Pollitt 1997, 10). And some
liberals perceive the “realm of mental culture” as a “liberal preserve.” The
Right began its attack on culture, the arts, and academe in the 1980s, at pre-
cisely the time when the Left had disappeared as a political force but not as
a cultural one (Hughes 1992a, 46).
It is probably not accidental that the Right appears to defend the elite
at the top of the class scale, while the Left primarily defends the elite in the
arts. Yet in both cases, the argument suggests that elites are either holding
out ideals to which all can aspire (as in the case of the gentleman or the
WASP) or producing goods of direct bene‹t to the people. Thus, one liberal
suggests that if one can ‹nd race, class, or gender bias in both Louis
L’Amour and a classical Greek play, rejecting elitism might mean teaching
the L’Amour. Doing so, however, would do violence to the ideal of democ-
racy, which is to bring true education to the people (Howe 1991, 42). Hence,
elitism and democracy are reconciled in the need to bring the best of the
culture to the masses.
Both the Left and the Right are mindful of the pitfalls of “antielitism.”
While “elitism” is in disfavor, all applaud “standards” and “quality.” All as-
sert the need to make distinctions of literary or artistic merit. If antielitism
means rejecting classic works of literature, no one is for it. Indeed, one
commentator suggests that the survival of the NEA may be a kind of
Pyrrhic victory, since the agency now avoids any discussion of what con-
stitutes “excellence in the arts” and thus does not ful‹ll its mission
(McCarter 1999, 17).
Writers on the left do not comment on experiences of being patronized
by a cultural elite, but they, too, distance themselves from such elites—of-
ten as defenders of popular culture and of what they call the democratiza-
tion of culture. Thus, one writer notes that “social conservatives have been
notably unsuccessful at stemming the democratization of culture, the
breakdown of those class, sex, and race-bound conventions that once reli-
ably separated high from low, ‘news’ from ‘gossip,’ public from unspeak-
ably private, respectable from deviant” (Willis 1996, 22). But critics includ-
ing Thomas Frank have pointed out that little of substance has been
accomplished by those in the Academic Left who have celebrated the “de-
mocratization” of culture. During the 1990s, he argues, academic specialists
who engage in cultural studies proclaimed “a populist celebration of the
power and ‘agency’ of audiences and fans, . . . and of their talent for trans-
forming just about any bit of cultural detritus into an implement of rebel-
lion.” They studied these “lowbrow” samples of popular culture and
“turned their attention from the narrow canon of ‘highbrow’ texts” as an
“assault on the powers that be” (2001, 282–83). Yet their studies of resis-
tance were not far from the “stuff of market populism.” Rather than being
“daringly counterhegemonic,” their ideas seemed like an “apologia for ex-
isting economic arrangements” (295); “our newfound faith in active, intel-
ligent audiences made criticism of the market philosophically untenable”
(303). In a more conventional and old-fashioned vein, Robert Brustein be-
moans the fact that “criticism is largely left to the mass media, which arbi-
trates . . . literary and cultural approval.” This situation differs substantially
from the earlier time of little magazines and small publishers, of avant-
garde theaters, adventurous galleries, and listener-supported radio—a time
when respected critics helped to develop new tastes and identify new talent
(1992, 37).
A progressive writer cites TV talk shows as a product of cultural democ-
ratization and suggests that they are “anathema to social conservatives, for
whom the only legitimate function of popular culture is instructing the
masses in the moral values of their betters.” Because it “would be a breach
of American democratic etiquette” for critics to suggest that their cultural
tastes are superior, they blame either money-hungry media corporations or
“a perverse New York and Hollywood cultural elite” for such popular fare
(Willis 1996, 19).
The Right is not alone, however, in deriding “Hollywood liberals.”
Frank, for example, paints an ugly portrait of this genre as seen in the pages
of People magazine: “Here you read about movie stars who go to charity
balls for causes like animal rights and the ‘underprivileged.’ . . . Minor TV
personalities instruct the world to stop saying mean things about the over-
weight or the handicapped. . . . Here liberalism is a matter of shallow ap-
pearance, of fatuous self-righteousness; it is arrogant and condescending, a
politics in which the beautiful and the wellborn tell the unwashed and the
beaten-down and the funny-looking how they ought to behave, how they
should stop being racist or homophobic” (2005, 240–41).
Division exists within the Left about the signi‹cance of television talk
shows. Not all leftist commentators believe that these programs constitute
a genuine expression of the people. Indeed, one observer suggests that
such shows “take lives bent out of shape by poverty and hold them as en-
tertaining exhibits. . . . This is class exploitation, pure and simple” (Ehren-
reich 1995, 92). Another writer is concerned that these shows “intention-
ally or not, have become storm troopers for the right” because “they focus
attention on the individual, aberrant behavior of a small number of citi-
zens and declare them representative of a group.” In exploiting and solidi-
fying stereotypes about young, mostly black and Latino poor people, such
shows destroy “any sense of understanding, connectedness, collective re-
sponsibility and the potential for redemption” (Nelson 1995, 801). As if to
prove this writer correct, National Review editorializes that TV talk shows
“offer a window on the future of diversity-dominated America. [They] are
the only national forum in which blacks, Hispanics, and trailer-park
WASPS freely join together with the ground rules drawn from Diversity
Theory. No thought or desire is ruled out as unacceptably perverse” (Edito-
rial 1995b, 18).
There is derision on the left about the Right’s tendency to see “danger-
ous elites” in many places. Thus, liberal observers note that historians have
been added to the list of such elites because of proposed national history
curriculum standards. Historians have thus joined the “internal enemies,”
along with media executives who promote rap and eggheads who watch
PBS and support government funding for the arts (Foner 1995, 302).
Some commentators on the left engage in criticism of elitist tendencies
within their camp. Critics complain, for example, about the “cultural nose-
thumbing” that is “common in the writings of feminists and leftists who
speak about things that concern everyone in language interesting and
available to few but themselves” (Pochoda 1992, 344). And some observers
are concerned that the “cultural left” has given a bad name to leftist poli-
tics because of “its arcane ‘elitist’ battles over curriculum . . . and its aver-
sion to the socially and sexually conservative values that most Americans
uphold” (Willis 1998, 18).
Elitism in the Feminist and Gay Rights Movements
In the area of contemporary feminism, the Left offers a hint of the kind of
status anxieties that conservatives discuss. One progressive feminist sug-
gests that “the current attack on ‘victim feminism’ is partly a class phe-
nomenon, a kind of status anxiety. It represents the wish of educated fe-
male professionals to distance themselves from stereotypes of women as
passive, dependent, helpless and irrational” (Pollitt 1994a, 224). The help-
lessness and irrationality of those such as Lorena Bobbitt (who cut off her
husband’s penis) must be punished, lest all women are tainted by her char-
acteristics. The Bobbitt affair revealed a gap between feminist intellectuals
and the average woman, since Bobbitt garnered “grass-roots female back-
ing” despite women’s studies professors’ reluctance to support such mili-
tancy (Ehrenreich 1994, 74). “Maybe the troops are more militant than the
generals” (Pollitt 1994a, 224).
The Left and the Right converge in a way on the issue of feminist elit-
ism, as commentators from the right and center also criticize American
feminism for its detachment from the concerns of “average” women. Thus,
a writer in Time notes feminism’s “upper-middle-class intellectual elite” ori-
gins and suggests that feminism “remains suspect to those who have never
ventured onto a college campus” (Bellafante 1998, 57). Those on the left are
concerned about poor and minority women whose concerns are often ig-
nored, suggesting that “what’s missing is a grassroots, militant, political
movement” (Pollitt 1998c, 10).
For many commentators on the right, feminist leaders have failed to
appreciate most women’s desire for marriage and families. These pundits
argue that much of what has happened in the name of women’s liberation
hurts “all but an elite minority of career-oriented childless women profes-
sionals” (Gallagher 1987, 39). And they do not view the supposed backlash
against feminism during the 1980s as an attempt to sow doubts in
women’s minds about feminist goals. Rather, they suggest that the media
might simply have been picking up on existing concerns and touching “a

nerve that had been rubbed raw by a generation of out-of-touch feminist
leaders” (Gibbs 1992, 51). Some liberals express irritation with those aca-
demic “consciousness-raisers” who are attempting to transform the cur-
riculum to eliminate “androcentric” materials. The women’s studies crowd
does not represent most American women, who subscribe to an older
feminism that seeks equity, fair treatment, and an end to discrimination
(Sommers 1992, 30).
The perception of a gap between leadership elites and members arises in
connection with the movement for gay rights as well. More conservative
gay commentators suggest that the gay leaders who align themselves with
progressive causes and seek a “culture war” are clearly out of step with most
gays, who want acceptance and assimilation into the larger population
(Bawer 1994; Sullivan 1989). “Much of the gay leadership clings to notions
of gay life as essentially outsider, anti-bourgeois, radical. Marriage, for
them, is co-optation into straight society,” says a gay conservative. “But for
many other gays—my guess, a majority . . . a need to rebel has quietly
ceded to a desire to belong” (Sullivan 1989, 22). Other gay commentators
note that ordinary gays and lesbians have pressed for the adoption of same-
sex marriage, while their leaders have retained “a powerful antipathy to
‘heterosexist norms’” (Rotello 1996, 15). Some progressive gays suggest that
the movement lacks a national activist group akin to those of the civil
rights and women’s rights movements (Kopkind 1993, 600) and that the
national leadership too often operates “on a top-down and elitist corporate
model” (Ireland 1999, 11).
Conclusions
Though populism and antielitism have long been part of American culture
and politics, the unleashing of the culture wars brought new attention to
otherwise arcane aspects of elite culture—the curricula offered at elite uni-
versities, the grants awarded by the NEA. A hyperconsciousness of how ideas
in the arts and the academy might in›uence the larger society appeared to
make culture war antagonists feel obliged to attend to aspects of the culture
that might heretofore have received little notice. Defenders of the tradi-
tional culture on the right now had to distinguish between the “true” or tra-
ditional culture and that which passes for it in contemporary arts and aca-
demia. On the left, struggles took place between the desire to applaud the
“democratization of culture” and the desire to maintain standards.
An increased self-consciousness about the cultural dimensions of status
might also have caused concern among economic and political elites who
have generally maintained a distance from cultural matters. Heightened in-
securities about one’s status in the social hierarchy might have led to at-
tacks against cultural products that were unfamiliar or were perceived to be
alien or challenging to their positions.
CHAPTER 7
Moderation, Plain and Simple
Unlike the other American cultural themes that occupy the culture war-
riors, moderation is seen as an uncomplicated good. The American admira-
tion for it contains no ambivalences or ambiguities. In his 1979 study of
American journalism, Herbert Gans suggested that “moderatism” or dis-
taste for “excess or extremism” was among the “enduring values in the
news” (51). Americans, he suggested, tend to question polar opposites and
uphold moderate solutions. Both atheists and religious fanatics are
frowned upon. Both conspicuous consumers and hippies who renounce
consumer goods are condemned; “political ideologists are suspect, but so
are completely unprincipled politicians.” Being immoderate is not good,
“whether it involves excess or abstention” (52).
Moderation is basic to American middle-class morality: “Americans in-
stinctively try to ‹nd the centrist position between extremes” (Wolfe 1998,
72). They support seeking the “middle ground” even on such highly con-
tentious issues as abortion (Pew Research Center 2006b). More than one-
‹fth of Americans have a highly unfavorable opinion of both anti-abortion
activists and strong advocates of abortion rights, seeing both as intolerant
and extremist (Dillon 1996, 120). In national surveys of religious attitudes,
the majority of Americans identify themselves as being in the middle; only
167
approximately a quarter of the population self-identi‹es as religious con-

servatives or liberals (Wuthnow 1996, 326). Seen in a cross-cultural per-
spective, “in America ‘middle’—as in Middletown, middle class, and Mid-
dle America—is not a matter of mediocrity but centrality. Far from a
question of being average (as in the verbal associations of middling, mid-
dle-brow, and middle-income to the British), it has everything to do with
being American” (Guinness 1993, 42). To be sure, the well-known American
fondness for moderation has occasioned some famous rhetorical ›ourishes.
Accepting the 1964 presidential nomination, Barry Goldwater announced,
“Extremism in the defense of liberty is no vice . . . and moderation in the
pursuit of justice is no virtue.” But Goldwater was resoundingly defeated in
the ensuing election.
In the context of culture wars, moderation is often translated as “a
plague on both your houses”—or indeed, on “all your houses.” Partisans in
the culture wars attack their opponents by derisively treating them as “ex-
tremists.” Nowhere is this more evident than in the case of the canon wars.
One writer, for example, “agrees with all sides” in the debate about the
academic canon. Conservatives are correct in seeing some books as more
profound and more essential to our culture than others, even though dead
white Western men wrote them. Liberals are correct in suggesting that the
canon can be amended to include those—such as women and members of
minority groups—who were previously excluded for the wrong reasons.
Radicals who assume that one cannot have one reading list for all students
are clearly wrong, however, since it is “foolish to argue that Chekhov has
nothing to say to a black woman.” This commentator rejects the extreme
views of both the radicals who would have all students read material
re›ecting their own subcultures and the “ultraradicals” who attack “the
‘privileging’ of ‘texts’ . . . and think one might as well spend one’s college
years deconstructing Leave It to Beaver.” However, she ultimately sees the
whole enterprise as foolish, a phenomenon that would not occur in a coun-
try of real readers. In such a country, the “top-ten list” would represent
only a fraction of what people would read in a lifetime and would therefore
be inconsequential. In our society, the debate over the canon rests on an
image of culture as “medicinal.” Consuming the right kind of culture will
produce healthy and desirable people. “The culture debaters turn out to
share a secret suspicion of culture itself, as well as the anti-pornographer’s
Moderation, Plain and Simple 169
belief that there is a simple, one-to-one correlation between books and be-
havior” (Pollitt 1991, 331).
Others who criticize the extremes on all sides likewise perceive culture
as continually changing and being renegotiated. If American culture is al-
ways and necessarily a work in progress, says another critic, attempts by
both the Right and the Left to ‹x it at any point do not make sense. There
cannot be “only one path to virtuous American-ness” (Hughes 1992a, 45).
In the current debates, there is no longer a Left and a Right, “just two puri-
tan sects—one saying obscure Third World authors will replace Milton”
and the other unable to “mount a satisfactory defense since it has burned
most of its bridges to the culture at large.” Those who rail against multicul-
turalism and those who “sanctify grievance” are equally to blame. Accusa-
tions of “a new McCarthyism of the left” are absurd, since “no conservative
academics have been ‹red by the lefty thought police” (46). Yet the “ex-
tremists” of political correctness are equally absurd in their view that only
blacks can write about slavery and only the oppressed deserve credibility
(48).
Multiculturalism itself is to be approved of in its moderate versions but
not as presented by its extremist advocates. Thus, “if multiculturalism is
about learning to see through borders, one can be all in favor of it,” but if
it means “cultural separatism,” one cannot (Hughes 1992a, 47). Multicul-
turalist prodding has made American history “more inclusive, representa-
tive, and accurate.” But this change has failed to satisfy those multicultur-
alists who prefer “to describe the Western tradition as just one of many
equally important contributors to the American identity” and thus “make
hash of history” (P. Gray 1991, 16).
The very intensity of the debates about the canon or multicultural edu-
cation also comes in for some criticism. One writer suggests that both sides
should “lighten up.” Conservatives must “realize that criticisms of the
great books approach to learning do not amount to totalitarianism. And
the advocates of multiculturalism need to regain the sense of humor that
enabled their predecessors . . . to coin the term P.C. years ago—not in arro-
gance but in self-mockery” (Ehrenreich 1991, 84).
Another moderating view takes the culture warriors to task for confu-
sion or simpli‹cation. Conservatives are accused of con›ating “the whole
intellectual heritage of the West with . . . capitalism and representative
democracy,” even though any great books curriculum would include the
“hierarchical totalitarianism of Plato” and the “leveling totalitarianism of
Marx” as well as novelists and poets who do not sing the praises of capital-
ism (Stanford 1989, 18). The allegation on the left that the traditional
curriculum reinforces the status quo is equally wrongheaded, since Marx,
Darwin, Nietzsche, and Freud hardly serve as “an inducement for voting
Republican” (20).
Because moderation is so often equated with the good, claiming a posi-
tion at the center is often seen as desirable. One conservative writer there-
fore rejects the right of liberals such as Robert Hughes or Arthur Schlesinger
Jr. to appropriate the center for themselves. Terry Teachout argues that the
center is getting crowded as liberals and “ageing leftists” now attack the
“new left-wing cultural orthodoxy” that previously came in for criticism
only from the right (1992, 53). This is progress of a sort, but the liberal cen-
trists still cling to the idea that “there are two equally ominous threats to
high culture, one from the Left and one from the Right.” In truth, few con-
servative politicians take any interest in culture. “There certainly are right-
wing zealots afoot, but they are mainly interested in such things as abor-
tion, free condoms, and prayer in the schools, not deconstruction,
phallocentrism, and clitoral hermeneutics” (54).
But while all are hostile or derisive toward those they consider extrem-
ists, the existence of a “center” is often questioned. Thus, Hughes, one of
the liberals Teachout cites as attempting to monopolize the center, argues
that there really is no such thing as a center. Conservatives such as Jesse
Helms, Hughes maintains, believe that the National Endowment for the
Arts must not stray “from what he fancies to be the center line of American
ethical belief. The truth is, of course, that no such line exists—not in a so-
ciety as vast, various and eclectic as the real America” (1989, 82). In similar
fashion, a progressive contends that government funding for the arts can-
not rely on “community standards” because this “rests on the idea of a ho-
mogenous community, with clearly demarcated standards, which does not
in fact exist” (Mattick 1990, 357). And while Teachout mocks liberals for
their eagerness to place themselves in the desirable center, he, too, suggests
that the center does not exist. There is only good and bad, right and wrong.
Liberals’ center-seeking pattern persists because the “idea of choosing sides
in the culture war makes them intensely uncomfortable” (1992, 54). Many
other culture warriors undoubtedly would agree with Teachout that there is
right and wrong and that they are in the right.
One of the major books in the canon wars dispute, Roger Kimball’s
Tenured Radicals (1990), closes by suggesting that the center has collapsed.
“What we have witnessed is nothing less than the occupation of the center
by a new academic establishment, the establishment of tenured radicals”
(189). In response, Russell Jacoby suggests that conservatives have written
the major books in the canon wars because the “leftist academics” are “se-
cure employees of mainstream institutions.” Because they are insiders, not
outsiders, they “attack hegemony and conservatism from within hege-
monic and conservative institutions” (1994, 162).
In fact, a 2006 national survey of political opinion among faculty mem-
bers suggests that academics have become more centrist, at the expense
largely of the conservatives, though there are also fewer liberals today than
there were in 1969. Indeed, more faculty now describe themselves as “mod-
erate” (47 percent) than as either liberal (44 percent) or conservative (9 per-
cent), and the youngest cohort (those between the ages of twenty-six and
thirty-‹ve) contains the highest proportion of moderates and the lowest
proportion of liberals (Gross and Simmons 2007; see also Zipp and Fenwick
2006).
Centrism or moderation is also an appealing position with respect to
the issue of support for the arts. In the campaign against the National En-
dowment for the Arts, two forms of extremism are seen: the “self-appointed
political guardians of American virtue” and those “who think any denial of
a grant to ‘experimental’ art is cultural fascism.” Most Americans lie be-
tween these extremes, supporting government funding for the arts with lit-
tle government control (Hughes 1992b, 43). Put slightly differently, it is not
a violation of the First Amendment to criticize the National Endowment
for the Arts (as some on the left would have it), nor should art be tame, old,
and heterosexual (as some on the right would have it) (Editorial 1990a, 7).
As to the art itself, “for every neoconservative highbrow who denies that
art can exist in the schlock-swollen ›ood of popular culture, there is a post-
modernist leveler who insists that every morsel of schlock is art” (Bayles
1994, 65).
One spokesman for the arts sees them as being attacked from the left,
the right, and the center. The politicization of the National Endowment for
the Arts, Brustein argues, has brought the “assumption that any resources
derived from the taxpayer’s pocketbook should be distributed according to
the taxpayer’s preferences” rather than using expert judgment. So art is
now attacked by “the politically correct left,” “the right-wing minions of
moral correctness,” and “the middlebrow arbiters of culture . . . who bark
at anything not immediately familiar to the middle-class public.” Each side
claims “endorsement from the majority.” For the Right, this majority usu-
ally means “the clean-cut Americans who celebrate Thanksgiving in
Norman Rockwell paintings.” For the Left, it means “all those previously
excluded from the cultural banquet”—in other words, multiculturalism
and cultural diversity. For the center, it means effectively the marketplace’s
“bottom line” (1997d, 31–32).
The issues of family values and feminism also elicit writing of the
“plague on all your houses” variety. A progressive feminist writer chooses
to mock all sides. It is so easy, she says, to support “family values” and to
‹nd the culprits who are undermining it. “The right blames a left-wing cul-
tural conspiracy: obscene rock lyrics, sex education, abortion, prayerless
schools, working mothers, promiscuity, homosexuality, decline of respect
for authority and hard work, welfare and, of course, feminism. . . . The left
blames the ideology of postindustrial capitalism: consumerism, individual-
ism, sel‹shness, alienation, lack of social supports for parents and children,
atrophied communities, welfare and feminism. The center agonizes over
teen sex, welfare moms, crime and divorce, unsure what the causes are be-
yond some sort of moral failure—probably related to feminism” (Pollitt
1992a, 88, 90). Though this is clearly a defense of the ever-beleaguered fem-
inists, it is also a mockery of the rhetoric of family values.
Another commentator, not wedded to feminism, mocks both the femi-
nists and the traditionalists who oppose them, assailing both “victim femi-
nism” and “victim antifeminism.” Conservatives who see women as miser-
able because of the changes wrought by feminism manifest a “pessimistic
view” that “probably bears about the same relation to reality as the feminist
view that discrimination and bias against women are running rampant in
America.” Both sides view the problems of contemporary women as social
problems, so that feminists see stay-at-home mothers as victims of patriar-
chal oppression, while conservatives see working mothers as victims of fem-
inist cultural coercion. The ideologies of both sides are “irrelevant to the
lives of the majority of men and women who are interested neither in gen-
der warfare nor in going back to a mythical idyllic past but are trying to ‹nd
their own balance between the modern and the traditional” (Cathy Young
1999, 20–21). Once again, only the sensible moderates see things clearly.
Moderation may take the form of simply heaping epithets on both
sides, as when Krauthammer proposes respect for civil religion while derid-
ing “Bible thumpers” and “zealous relic-hunting secularists” (1984, 16). The
idea of moderation may suggest that a particular population does not look
like the descriptions given to it by the extremists. Thus, a gay writer sug-
gests that neither the queers who spout liberation from convention nor the
conservatives who advocate adherence to convention represent the gay
population. Most gays combine “sex and taxes, passion and furniture,” and
“lesbian and gay differences are more various—and more public—than ei-
ther Helms can hope to contain or than any few lesbian, gay or queer com-
mentators can claim publicly to represent” (Abraham 1997, 6).
Another expression of moderation lies in ‹nding the common ground
between what appear to be extremes. Thus, one liberal writer suggests that
the current culture war is not really about the “‹nal battle between good
and evil.” Both sides share the goal of worldly success but reject the “purely
individual strategy of salvation” of the how-to-get-rich gurus. Both seek
“social rather than purely individual solutions to the achievement of the
good life.” But both operate within the con‹nes of modern capitalism and
can therefore steer things only a bit to the right or the left (Judis 1999, 56).
In a rather different vein, a critic of both creationism and the “multicul-
tural left” notes that both worldviews aim to indoctrinate children rather
than encouraging them to make up their own minds. The creationists who
say that evolution and creationism should receive equal time in schools are
succumbing to the “relativistic trope” of multiculturalism despite their hor-
ror at the multiculturalists’ insistence that “there is no single Truth.” But a
similar contradiction plagues the multiculturalists, who welcome the per-
spectives of gays, women, and racial minorities but not those of funda-
mentalist Christians (Zimmerman 1999, 13–14).
Even in such a seemingly irreconcilable argument as that between evo-
lution and creationism, the sounds of moderation can be heard as both the
creationists and those who use Darwinist explanations of all behavior are
taken to task for similar failings. “In their insistence that the meaning of
human life stands or falls on the truth or falsehood of evolution, the cre-
ationists resemble certain Darwinians who derive ethics from paleontology
and biology, and have scienti‹c explanations for the entirety of emotional
and cultural life, and con›ate the truths of evolution with a materialist
view of human existence. . . . The explanations of the determinist Dar-
winians are not scienti‹c, they are scientistic; and scientism, too, is only a
faith” (Editorial 1999, 12). Similarly, a writer suggests that the current argu-
ments are akin to a battle “between two 19th century fundamentalisms,
one religious, the other scienti‹c” (Glynn 1999, 44).
There is also a kind of centrism in such statements as, “In culture this
year, as in politics, the extremes are touching. The tribunes of the people
have joined forces with the conglomerated princes of capitalist darkness to
defend the right of Ice-T and Body Count to arouse their listeners with fan-
tasies of cop-killing” (Editorial 1992, 7). Being derisive about both sides—the
“extremes”—is another typical manifestation of moderation. On the abor-
tion issue, for example, numerous commentators see bad behavior or
hypocrisy on both sides. “For a decade and a half, the abortion issue has
made extremists and hypocrites of us all—pro-choicers enshrining trimesters
in the Constitution, pro-lifers using an ostensible concern for the mothers’
health to restrict the mother’s freedom of choice” (Kinsley 1989, 96).
Finally, a kind of moderation is expressed in the repeated suggestion
that culture warriors offer extremist proclamations for fund-raising pur-
poses. A liberal notes that while the actual dollar amounts of government
funding for the arts are trivial, conservatives use the issue in their direct-
mail fund-raising as a “hot-button” issue (Kinsley 1992a, 6). And a conser-
vative says that conservatives have failed to acknowledge all the ways in
which they have been winning the culture wars—with divorce, illegiti-
macy, teen sexual activity, abortion, crime, and suicide rates all falling—be-
cause to do so would not be good for fund-raising; the apocalyptic style
sells (Nadler 1998, 30).
If moderation has been something of a constant in American culture, is
anything new about its current manifestations? To the degree that elites are
now more polarized than was previously the case, moderation is unusual
because it represents antipolarization among the polarized. The political
pressures toward centrism present dif‹cult choices for those whose views
represent polar extremes in a culture war. In addition, the new awareness of
subcultural variations in the population makes it more dif‹cult to ‹nd the
“center.”
CHAPTER 8
Culture, Class, and American Exceptionalism
While this volume argues that there is no culture war, just newer iterations
of long-standing American cultural dilemmas, the rhetoric and the social
movements associated with the “culture wars” raise questions about the
nature of the divisions within contemporary American society. Why is a
culture war perceived to have broken out in the late 1980s and early 1990s?
Are cultural issues generally displacing economic ones as the basis of polit-
ical allegiances? Is the American pattern exceptional? What role does class
division play within current American politics? Has polarization increased
within the American polity? Do the presidential elections since 2000 ex-
emplify the culture wars, with Sarah Palin the latest incarnation thereof?
How do issues of economics versus culture play out in the internal discord
of the partisans?
Cultural Politics
Inglehart’s work on the movement from “materialism” to “postmaterial-

ism” in European societies (1977) drew attention to the idea that cultural
politics had become signi‹cant in advanced industrial societies. In the
175
American context, some scholars have argued that cultural or ethnoreli-

gious con›icts have long been primary, though economic problems lead to
their suppression at various times (Rae 1992). Other scholars contend that
economic concerns dominated American politics from 1896 to 1964, when
cultural politics came to the fore. In this new politics, Republicans increas-
ingly supported the traditional values of an inherited culture, while Demo-
crats embraced the rationalistic values of a progressive culture (Shafer
1985). Even economic and welfare issues came to be seen in cultural terms.
Republicans objected to Democratic welfare state policies not only because
of their high costs but because they “enshrined the values of dependency,”
and Democrats objected to the Republican reliance on the private sector
not only because it lacked compassion but also because it ignored the de-
mands of the new cultural claimants—especially feminists and homosexu-
als—who needed governmental action (227). Feminists, homosexuals, en-
vironmentalists, and peace movement activists helped fuel the Democrats’
cultural politics, while religious evangelicals came to be central to the new
Republican cultural politics.
The emergence of cultural politics exacerbated the internal divisions
within both parties. Republicans suffered from the split between social and
economic conservatives, who often represented different social class
groups. On the Democratic side, division arose between progressive con-
vention delegates and a heavily traditional rank and ‹le (Shafer 1985, 230).
But the image of a culture war in which Democrats have become the
party of religious modernists (from all faiths), while the Republicans are the
party of religious conservatives (again, of all kinds) has not come to pass
(Layman 2001, 301; Manza and Brooks 1997, 59). And the origins of any di-
vision between the parties along cultural/religious lines remain a matter of
some dispute. Did the Republicans, as the minority party, see advantage in
a campaign of “moral restoration”? (Fiorina, Abrams, and Pope 2005, 141;
Leege et al. 2002). Or did the Democrats begin the cleavage when ultralib-
eral delegates took over the party’s 1972 convention and focused on cul-
tural issues (Layman 2001)?
In the ‹rst scenario, the Republican Party sought to chip away at the
Democrats’ “old New Deal coalition” by using cultural issues as a wedge,
beginning with race in the 1960s, adding religion and gender in the 1970s,
and thereafter “by cumulating the symbols of the 1960s counterculture
Culture, Class, and American Exceptionalism 177
(drugs, sexual permissiveness, lack of respect for traditional ways, etc.).

[Later] as Republican campaigners gave increasing voice to their fears about
moral degradation in America, evangelical Protestants mobilized heavily
and entered the party’s core by the 1990s” (Leege et al. 2002, 89).
Through the alternative lens, George McGovern, the 1972 Democratic
presidential nominee, began the cultural divide by attempting to appeal to
young people’s “cultural liberalism” and antiwar sentiments. As these “sec-
ular activists” entered Democratic Party politics, they “shifted the party’s
mean position on cultural matters to the left.” Not until 1980 did the mi-
nority Republican Party take “clear steps toward religious and cultural con-
servatism” (Layman 2001, 99, 306).
The rubric of a culture war, enunciated by Patrick Buchanan in 1992,
has been seen as a social construction that helps conservatives by knitting
together disparate issues into “a compelling narrative frame.” It “invites re-
ligious conservatives to make their faith (rather than their gender, age,
race, occupation, or neighborhood) their primary identity and to de‹ne
this identity as germane to many political positions” (DiMaggio 2003,
92–93). To be sure, progressives made use of the same sort of logic, as seen,
for example, in an editorial in The Nation, before the “culture war” idea had
been widely propagated and discussed. The editorial responds to President
Ronald Reagan’s proposed constitutional amendment in favor of school
prayer by suggesting that the matter does not simply involve constitutional
arguments but rather is part of a campaign to impose right-wing cultural
hegemony: “There’s a cultural war on, and it will not be won by lawyers
and logic alone” (Editorial 1984, 308).
An alignment between political parties and particular cultural positions
is certainly not new in American life. Indeed, in the late nineteenth cen-
tury, as today, the Republican Party supported “the pietist position that the
state should regulate personal behavior to prevent sinners from engaging
in public affronts to decency and virtue.” As a result, the vast majority of
northern Protestants—workers, farmers, and businessmen alike—sup-
ported the Republicans, while arrayed against them was “a Democratic
coalition of the targets of pietistic wrath: slaveholders and later most white
Southerners, Catholics, nonpietistic Protestant immigrants, . . . drinkers,
and the wider urban subcultures of plebeian sensual pleasures.” Immi-
grants and Catholic workers and businessmen supported the Democrats
(Oestreicher 1988, 1262). Such voting alignments suggest the signi‹cance of

cultural rather than class politics. Issues such as “prohibition, enforced Sab-
bath observance, Bible reading in schools, immigration restriction, and
bilingualism . . . mattered deeply to most Americans,” and they voted ac-
cordingly (1275).
This phenomenon does not mean, however, that workers lacked class
sentiments but merely suggests that the parties had not mobilized voters
along class lines. The situation changed, of course, in the aftermath of the
Great Depression, when class sentiments were translated into political con-
sciousness (Oestreicher 1988, 1283). Yet even after class awareness trumped
cultural and religious factors so that workers were much more likely to be
Democrats than were professionals and business executives, Catholic work-
ers remained more likely to be Democratic than were nonsouthern white
Protestant workers (1264).
In this newer understanding of American history, cultural (or “ethno-
cultural” or “ethnoreligious”) con›icts have long been most important.
Such con›icts simply have recently reemerged after having been “tem-
porarily suppressed by the class-based party politics of the New Deal era”
(Rae 1992, 629). As the New Deal class alignments broke down during the
1960s, moral and cultural questions again came to the forefront. Even
though the progressives had brought economic issues to the forefront be-
tween 1900 and 1916, their emphasis on “corruption” and “reform” made
for “a powerful ethno-cultural resonance” (631). It is dif‹cult to determine
whether cultural con›icts have truly been primary in American politics or
whether the newfound scholarly interest in cultural issues has made this
seem to be the case. One must also be cautious to avoid assuming any kind
of zero-sum relationship between class and cultural politics. Furthermore,
recent American politics have strongly featured the cultural rather than
economic aspects of social class.
Those who see American history as steeped in cultural con›ict tend to
in›ate the realm of cultural issues. One could certainly quarrel with the
idea that foreign policy or national security issues, for example, “are also
rooted in cultural differences” (Rae 1992, 629) or with the idea that race is
a cultural issue. In the context of late-twentieth-century political analysis,
is race really a cultural issue rather than a question of the distribution of
economic and political power? If multiculturalism and political correctness
became political issues during the 1990s, how much of this language served
as a cover for economic and political issues? Yet some analysts of American
politics tend to treat race as a cultural factor—for example, when Leege and
his colleagues suggest that no other cultural factor had the staying power
of race between 1960 and 1996 (2002, 193).
Of interest, too, is the question raised by McCormick (1974, 371–72): if
the majority of nineteenth-century voters cared mostly about cultural mat-
ters, why were only a small proportion of public policies culturally ori-
ented? Why was so much government activity devoted to economic af-
fairs? And even if a policy matter is a clearly cultural one—as was the case
with temperance, for example—the meaning of voter reaction is not en-
tirely clear. Was the ‹ght over alcohol a matter of con›icting religious be-
liefs, differing lifestyles, or simple hatred for out-groups? Any or all might
have been involved (367), as were class differences communicated in sym-
bolic terms. Moreover, for all the talk of culture wars in American politics
during the early 1990s, the Contract with America issued by the newly
dominant congressional Republicans in 1994 “did not include a word
about cultural or moral issues” (Layman 2001, 247). It did address some of
these issues by indirection—for example, it argued against giving welfare
payments to mothers who are minors and in favor of tax incentives for
adoption and of stronger child pornography laws.
Few would deny, however, that precursors to modern-day culture wars
are apparent in nineteenth-century American politics. Disputes about laws
regarding the Sabbath or temperance or the abolition of slavery produced
splits between those religious groups that favored government interven-
tion to promote and protect morality and those that favored government
neutrality. But then as now, issues of class and culture were not mutually
exclusive; voters cared about both. When late-nineteenth- or early-twenti-
eth-century workers participated simultaneously in work-based opposi-
tional subcultures and neighborhood-based ethnic groups and churches
that dictated different views, the prevailing attitude depended on the con-
crete choices and circumstances at hand. Modern-day Kansans who re-
spond to Republican Party appeals seemingly against their class interests
(Thomas Frank 2005) may also be acting on the basis of an antigovernment
populism that links government actions to support for racial minorities
and the “underclass.”
Contemporary cultural politics may differ from earlier incarnations in

being more self-conscious. Once the disputes became framed as a culture
war, proponents on all sides sought to in›uence the culture by securing
greater prominence for their perspectives. Organizations formed to track
and publicize the coverage of various issues in the media, in school text-
books, and in college courses.
Beginning in the 1980s, for example, a voluminous literature appeared
on the question of whether religion is absent or marginalized in American
history textbooks. A study suggesting that such was the case received wide-
spread publicity and generated further studies and lobbying. Curiously,
however, a follow-on study that examined high school history textbooks
since the late nineteenth century discovered that texts in the 1980s actually
provided more coverage of ‹fteen major religious events than did those of
the late nineteenth century. And an examination of more recent events in
religious history in textbooks of the 1950s showed that they offered con-
siderably less coverage than did textbooks published thirty years later.
When still more recent events were examined and texts of the 1980s were
compared with those of the 1990s, the latter showed signi‹cantly more
coverage of both the recent events and the entire chronology. The author
concluded that “the criticisms of the secondary school textbooks of the
1980s have apparently had an impact” (Carleton W. Young 1995, 270).
Conversely, an American historian whose scholarly work focuses on reli-
gious history suggested that despite burgeoning scholarly interest, history
textbooks tend to minimize discussions of religion largely to avoid contro-
versy and potential parental reactions. “Ironically,” he noted, “religion
continues to receive insuf‹cient attention” at least in part because of the
politicization of the issue (Paul Boyer 1996, 205).
It is perhaps ironic, too, that for all the talk about how 1960s radicals
have in‹ltrated academe, college-level American history textbooks pub-
lished during the 1990s offer little in the way of sympathetic treatments of
either the New Left or the counterculture. Discussions of the countercul-
ture tend to be dismissive, and there is little examination of the connection
between the counterculture and the New Left or of the enduring political
consequences of these movements. However, the main culprit here may be
not a heightened sensitivity to conservative criticism but rather “the tri-
umph of multiculturalism on the political Left.” The counterculture and
the New Left are marginalized because “middle-class white radicals ‹t only
uneasily into this story line” (Schulman 1999, 1533).
American Exceptionalism?
While cultural issues have become more signi‹cant politically in many of

the af›uent industrialized societies, value con›icts in the United States ap-
pear to differ from those in European nations. Af›uent middle-class citi-
zens elsewhere have moved to the left in support of such “postmaterialist”
concerns as the environment and women’s rights, while working-class citi-
zens retain “materialist” values in support of economic growth and mili-
tary security. In the United States, by contrast, progressive postmaterialist
in›uences have brought forth a countermovement not from working-class
materialists but from theologically conservative Christians (Layman and
Carmines 1997, 753). As an example, only in the United States has a major
political party included opposition to evolution as part of its political plat-
form (Jon D. Miller, Scott, and Okamoto 2006, 766).
Unlike the situation in much of Europe, little connection exists in the
United States between one’s attitudes toward materialism or postmaterial-
ism and one’s opinions about abortion, women’s rights, and alternative
lifestyles. Opinions on these issues seem to be in›uenced more by “vari-
ables such as Jewish faith, church attendance, evangelicalism, and moral
traditionalism that are linked directly to religious and moral values. Per-
haps in the more secular environment of Western Europe these religious
factors play less of a role in shaping cultural issue attitudes” (Carmines and
Layman 1997, 304). Using American data, neither income nor age predicts
materialism or postmaterialism, and positions on these indexes do not pre-
dict attitudes on social and political issues (Darren W. Davis and Davenport
1999, 662; Darren W. Davis 2000, 471).
The United States is indeed a “deviant case.” Data from the World Val-
ues Survey illustrate that preindustrial societies tend to show “deference to
parental authority, and the importance of family life, and are relatively au-
thoritarian; most of them place strong emphasis on religion. Advanced in-
dustrial societies tend to have the opposite characteristics.” The United
States remains an exception to the cultural patterns of most other ad-
vanced industrial societies (Inglehart and Baker 2000, 23–24, 31). And
while nations that resemble the United States—Canada, Britain, and Aus-
tralia, for example—showed an increase in secular-rational values between
the administration of the 1981 survey and those in the 1990s, the United
States showed a very slight decrease in these values (40).
American society is exceptional, as Lipset and others have argued, be-
cause what makes one American is not birth or ancestry but subscribing to
the American Creed. The United States started from a revolution and “has
de‹ned its raison d’etre ideologically” (Lipset 1996, 18). Americans “feel
emotionally connected to one another” because of their shared “ideals, val-
ues, and aspirations. . . . This ideational foundation of America is a chief
feature of American exceptionalism” (Baker 2005, 174). If American society
rests on shared ideas, then the nature of these ideas would appear to be crit-
ical to understanding American exceptionalism. Yet Lipset and Baker em-
phasize very different core values. Lipset emphasizes individualism and
voluntarism, whereas Baker believes that the key to the American culture
lies in adherence to traditional moral authority. “America’s traditional val-
ues—strong beliefs in religion and God, family values, absolute moral au-
thority, national pride, and so on—are fundamental to what it means to be
American” (Baker 2005, 54).
The relative lack of class consciousness and of political organizing along
class lines and the absence of a socialist party of any strength have long
been seen as part of “American exceptionalism.” In this understanding, the
sheer strength of U.S. economic individualism, coupled with animosity to-
ward government power, rendered Americans unreceptive to any socialist
movement. Lacking a history of feudalism, Americans were “born equal”
and hence saw no need for European-style class politics. As a result, “even
when Franklin Roosevelt adopted many of the quasi-collectivist measures
of the European Liberal reformers, he did not use their language of class,”
and supporters of the New Deal did not drift into socialism any more than
their progressive predecessors had. Early-twentieth-century progressive re-
formers championed individual social mobility through hard work and
achievement (Hartz 1955, 205, 235).
In the late 1820s, workingmen’s parties received substantial support in
such major American cities as New York, Boston, and Philadelphia, garner-
ing 10–15 percent of the vote in local elections. But their version of equality
did not exclude private property or individual competition. Rather, they
sought greater equality of opportunity. Thus, they proposed state ‹nancing

of boarding schools so that all children could be raised in a common atmo-
sphere and class-based advantages would be eliminated (Lipset 1996, 114).
Wildavsky has suggested that this belief that “equality of opportunity,
meticulously followed, would lead to an approximation of equality of result
. . . made the United States truly exceptional” (1987, 19). Seen in a somewhat
different light, instead of the usual class-related struggles, the late-nine-
teenth-century United States saw a kind of working-class republicanism that
perceived a “contradiction between republican traditions of individual
rights and personal independence and the realities of increasingly regi-
mented lives and authoritarian work disciplines” (Oestreicher 1988, 1259).
In this version, the class struggle was tinged with cultural considerations.
American workers may have lacked the class consciousness of many of
their European counterparts but were by no means the bourgeois individu-
alists that the American exceptionalism thesis suggests. Indeed, the fre-
quency of strikes in the United States between 1902 and 1905 was higher
than that in nine out of ten European countries for which data are available
(Oestreicher 1988, 1257). Because U.S. workers did not have to struggle for
the franchise, they were more easily drawn into cross-class coalition poli-
tics. But American labor unions—even the American Federation of Labor—
were not apolitical (Kimeldorf and Stepan-Norris 1992, 496–97).
The thesis of American exceptionalism is something of an oversim-
pli‹cation insofar as it posits a single or unitary European pattern of work-
ing-class politics against which to measure American behavior. Neither in
the period before World War I nor in the post–World War II era did Britain,
France, and Germany have the same kind of labor movements and class
politics (Kimeldorf and Stepan-Norris 1992; M. Nolan 1997; Tyrrell 1991).
Weakness in socialist movements also characterized U.S. neighbors—nei-
ther Canada nor Mexico had strong socialist parties (Rodgers 2004, 40).
Some practitioners of the thesis of American exceptionalism overem-
phasize the signi‹cance of static values to the exclusion of both historical
contingencies and the actions of particular political and institutional enti-
ties. Perhaps the most serious criticism of the thesis, however, is its ten-
dency toward “chauvinistic nationalism” (Blau 2007, 1064). Expressions of
such sentiments concerned critics in light of the return of the rhetoric of
American exceptionalism in the aftermath of the 9/11 terrorist attacks (Blau
2007; Rodgers 2004).
Proponents of the idea of American exceptionalism are aware of this

criticism and clearly assert that they do not intend exceptionalism to mean
superiority. Lipset, for example, subtitled his book on the subject, “A Dou-
ble-Edged Sword.” He suggested that such “negative traits” as income in-
equality and high crime rates are “inherently linked” to American institu-
tions. The American Creed, he argues, “fosters a high sense of personal
responsibility, independent initiative, and voluntarism even as it also en-
courages self-serving behavior, atomism, and a disregard for communal
good.” It promotes excessive greed and self-promotion. Yet the emphasis
on individualism also “represents a tremendous asset, encouraging the self-
re›ection necessary for responsible judgment, for fostering the strength of
voluntary communal and civic bonds, for principled opposition to wars,
and for patriotism” (1996, 268). On balance, Lipset’s assessment of the costs
and bene‹ts of American individualism and voluntarism (major compo-
nents of its exceptionalism) hardly seems impartial.
An uglier example of the negative side of American exceptionalism ap-
pears in the idea that racism in the United States has been particularly vir-
ulent precisely because of the individualistic and egalitarian nature of the
American Creed. Thus, white prejudice against blacks “set them apart and
denied their humanity more thoroughly than would the means of enforc-
ing subordination in a less professedly democratic and more consistently
hierarchical society” (Fredrickson 1995, 594).
For all the voluminous argumentation and scholarship about American
exceptionalism, use of the term retains a Rorschach-like quality, in much
the same way that multiculturalism evokes con›icting or contradictory im-
ages. Thus, Lipset uses survey data to support the idea that Americans to
this day are more supportive of individualism than of egalitarian outcomes
and are more opposed to social welfare policies than their European coun-
terparts. Though there is support for social equality (at least for all white
men), economic individualism remains dominant among the American
populace. American exceptionalism reigns. But Wildavsky sees an end to
American exceptionalism in contemporary Americans’ willingness to be-
lieve that society is at least partly responsible for the ills that befall the
poor, minorities, and women. Once Americans believe, as they now do,
that “liberty and equality, competition and fair-shares are compatible with
each other,” American exceptionalism is dead (Wildavsky 1991, 137). For
Daniel Bell, writing in 1975, the key to American exceptionalism lies in a
“common political faith” that would allow American society to “escape the
ideological vicissitudes and divisive passions of the European polity.” This
faith rests on “being entirely a middle-class society, without aristocracy or
boheme. . . . As a liberal society providing individual opportunity, safe-
guarding liberties, and expanding the standard of living, it would escape
the disaffection of the intelligentsia, the resentment of the poor, the frus-
trations of the young. . . . Today, the belief in American exceptionalism has
vanished” (197).
Fourteen years later, however, Bell was once again willing to entertain
the idea that an American exceptionalism existed. It resided in the fact that
the United States “has been the complete civil society, perhaps the only
one in political history” (1989, 48). The state always had a limited role.
Even during periods of class warfare, which were at times of greater inten-
sity than in Europe, workers’ movements were not accompanied by at-
tempts to seize state power. As the power of the central government grew
beginning in the 1930s, the idea of civil society was threatened. But it is
now revivi‹ed, emphasizing voluntary association, church, and commu-
nity (56). Bell rejects the idea that the absence of socialist movements and
the presence of evangelical and fundamentalist religious movements make
for American exceptionalism. In both cases, he asserts, there are no general
rules or laws of development against which to view the American case as
exceptional. Rather, the strength of voluntary church and community or-
ganizations de‹nes American exceptionalism.
Bell’s de‹nition of American exceptionalism does not accord with that
of most commentators, who see it as including the absence of class con-
sciousness and socialist movements, the presence of strong religious move-
ments, and greater levels of individualism and voluntarism than are pres-
ent elsewhere. Though historians are generally more dismissive of the idea
of American exceptionalism than sociologists and political scientists have
been, one American historian takes a somewhat different perspective, not-
ing that “American exceptionalism is as old as the nation itself and, equally
important, has played an integral part in the society’s sense of its own iden-
tity” (Kammen 1993, 6). Another historian hostile to the idea of American
exceptionalism also concedes that “in popular culture, exceptionalism re-
mains strong” (Tyrrell 1991, 1032).
While the idea of American exceptionalism originated with eighteenth-
century European observers who saw the United States as being free of “Old
World social evils,” it was picked up by ordinary Americans in the nine-

teenth century and has remained a part of American consciousness.
Notwithstanding the realities that Puritan religious leaders “openly em-
braced orthodoxy—banishing dissidents, whipping Baptists, even execut-
ing Quakers” and that “colonial legislators had been much more likely to
jail their critics than to protect their speech,” freedom of religion and free-
dom of speech became the “stuff of culture” in the United States. So, too,
did the main tenets of American exceptionalism: autonomous individuals,
a clean slate (denying history), and a belief in a uniform human nature that
attributes universality to particular social traits. “Thinking that we create
our own identities highlights volition and autonomy and minimizes the
categorical force of race and gender in shaping our social existence. . . .
Multicultural historians contest these comfortable illusions” (Appleby
1992, 420, 422, 425, 426 427).
Several points are of particular interest in this brief overview of debates
about American exceptionalism. The ‹rst is that while historians and social
scientists may engage in comparative studies to determine if and how the
United States may be exceptional, American cultural lore has long accepted
the idea. The second is the realization that even our understanding of
American exceptionalism is fraught with uncertainty stemming from the
individualism/republicanism dilemma and adherence to traditional versus
self-expressive values. Are we exceptional because of our supreme individ-
ualism or because of our civic virtue? Is class con›ict in the United States
diminished by our unwillingness to enlarge the scope of government or by
our refusal to accept the importance of groups and group cultures? Does
our cultural unity rest on devotion to individualism or to traditional moral
authority?
What may make the American culture wars exceptional, however, is the
relative strength of the religious dimension. European politics is far less in-
volved with such issues as abortion, gay rights, and prayer in the schools,
though multiculturalism is becoming contentious in many countries and
recent changes in the leadership of the Catholic Church have generated
some renewed attention to abortion issues in Spain and Italy. Nevertheless,
only in the United States has a major political party supported creationism;
only the United States has instituted prohibition against alcohol and a ban
on prostitution. Abortion as an issue has evoked stronger responses in the
United States than in Europe’s Catholic countries, where church opposi-
tion to abortion does not produce the “extreme actions” of their American
coreligionists who “have assimilated to Protestant moralistic styles” (Lipset
1996, 67). And one might wonder how many European sociologists would
agree that politics is fundamentally a struggle for power that “is in large
part a struggle between competing truth claims which are, by their very na-
ture ‘religious’ in character if not in content” (Hunter 1991, 58).
There is little doubt that those who attend church frequently have
come to differ in both their voting patterns and their attitudes from those
who seldom or never attend church. Even analysts who view the culture
war idea as an exaggeration relevant only to partisan elites note the
signi‹cance of church attendance in presidential voting in the elections of
1992–2000. Controlling for party, ideology, presidential performance, and
candidate evaluation, church attendance was a highly signi‹cant predictor
of presidential voting (Fiorina, Abrams, and Pope 2005, 101). In the 2004
election, a large difference existed in the voting behaviors and attitudes of
white voters who regularly attended church and those who seldom or
never did so (Abramowitz and Saunders 2005). And this pattern continued
through the 2008 election, though Barack Obama won a slightly larger
share of the votes of those who attend church more frequently than once a
week than did John Kerry in 2004 and Al Gore in 2000 (Pew Forum 2008a).
The Continuing Signi‹cance of Class, Race, and Gender
While the United States may have had periods of greater class awareness
than its mythology allows for, it is nevertheless a society that often has
dif‹culty talking directly about social class, a society in which status in-
juries may remain “hidden” (Sennett and Cobb 1972). Not surprisingly,
therefore, cultural issues serve as a convenient surrogate for social class. On
the right, references to the “liberal elite,” the “establishment,” or the “new
class” all invoke images not of money and achievement—which are be-
yond reproach in the American mainstream—but of intellectual snobbery
and rare‹ed tastes. On the left, issues of race, ethnicity, and gender—re-
plete with their “cultural” components—may serve as surrogates for social
class. And the upsurge of religious sentiment associated with the culture
wars has had strongly populist overtones, suggesting “protest and resis-
tance against a secular elite” (P. L. Berger 1999, 11).
The increased signi‹cance of religious involvement does not mean that

class is irrelevant in American political af‹liations and voting. Indeed, from
the 1970s to 2000, voting was more affected by differences in family in-
come than by religious differences (Greeley and Hout 2006, 66). Who votes
and who does not is certainly class related. While race and gender have in-
creased in signi‹cance in presidential voting, class has remained stable (C.
Brooks and Manza 1997). For all of religion’s newfound signi‹cance in
American politics, religious traditionalists with low incomes and no college
education have not become much more Republican than religious mod-
ernists at the same status level (Layman 2001, 315).
The connection between class and voting becomes blurred, however, as
both Left and Right are bifurcated. Just as social and economic conserva-
tives often come from different social class groups, so too some analysts
now see “two Lefts,” one working class, the other middle class and “post-
materialist” (Hout, Brooks, and Manza 1995, 808). Who votes for which
party may also depend on the ways in which political parties shape their
appeals to voters (Manza, Hout, and Brooks 1995). The rightward turn of
the Democratic Party on ‹scal issues since the early 1990s, for example,
made Democrats less distinguishable from Republicans, a development
that may have complicated party identi‹cations along class lines (Kauf-
mann 2002, 290).
Further complicating the situation is the fact that social class encom-
passes both economic and status dimensions. One study using British data
‹nds that class factors clearly correlate with support for left or right parties,
but status factors are responsible for attitudes on a libertarianism-authori-
tarianism scale. Higher-status groups are more likely to espouse libertarian
rather than authoritarian views, disagreeing with such statements as “Cen-
sorship of ‹lms and magazines is necessary to uphold moral standards” and
“Schools should teach children to obey authority” (Chan and Goldthorpe
2007).
The simple division into Left and Right does not adequately measure
political attitudes precisely because it omits this dimension of libertarian
versus authoritarian attitudes (Duch and Strom 2004), or what Wildavsky
(1987) has called simply “hierarchy.” This dimension at times is encom-
passed within scales that seek to measure other variables. Critics have
pointed out that the materialism/postmaterialism scale is contaminated in
this way, since items related to authority and the maintenance of social or-
der are included within the “materialism” scales (Flanagan 1987). Perhaps
as a result, the data do not con‹rm the existence of consistent political and
social attitudes accompanying the values of materialism/postmaterialism
(C. Brooks and Manza 1994; Brown and Carmines 1995; Darren W. Davis
2000; Darren W. Davis and Davenport 1999). The postmaterialist middle
class may well have moved left while the working class has moved right
(Flanagan 1987, 1305–7). In many countries, the more educated libertarians
who had traditionally supported the Right for economic reasons have be-
gun to move to the left for social reasons, while the less educated who had
historically voted for the Left for economic reasons have moved to the
right because of social issues (Flanagan and Lee 2003). Curiously, well-edu-
cated libertarians are more likely than authoritarians to support unions,
perhaps because unions are seen as elite-challenging institutions. More
likely, however, the union movement now has more white-collar than
blue-collar members. The National Education Association in the United
States, for example, has become the champion of many items on the New
Left agenda (259).
As political parties in most economically developed nations appear to
have moved away from an emphasis on class politics (labor and welfare is-
sues) and toward “postindustrial” or “new” politics issues (ecology and the
environment, women’s rights, gay rights, animal rights, and so on) (Clark
2003), some analysts see a general decline in class politics (Pakulski and
Waters 1996, 671). Other observers note that an inverse relationship exists
between the strength of class politics and cultural politics. Thus, it has been
argued that “culture wars” have come to the fore in American political dis-
course as a re›ection of both the weakening of class politics and increasing
contention over the scope of the centralized state. In this understanding,
the very success of the limited U.S. class politics in the aftermath of the
New Deal—re›ected in an increase in welfare state provisions—has reduced
its salience. Cutbacks in the welfare state might well revive class politics in
the future. In the interim, however, groups have been mobilized when they
see their values and norms challenged by a central authority that appears
to intrude into the formerly more autonomous realms of family and
schooling (Hechter 2004).
Other analysts argue, however, that it is a mistake to make zero-sum as-
sumptions about “class” versus “new” or “postclass” politics, since they ob-
viously coexist (Manza and Brooks 1996, 721). Defenders of the continuing
signi‹cance of class maintain that one’s class location shapes one’s atti-
tudes but does so in conjunction with a range of other factors. Moreover,
attitudes are “often irreducibly idiographic.” After all, it would be “hard to
imagine a multivariate regression rooted in social structural variables that
would ‘predict’ that Engels, a wealthy capitalist, would be a supporter of
revolutionary socialism” (E. O. Wright 1996, 710). And if one’s employment
situation in the United States does not predict class loyalties as readily as it
might in some European nations, class may still remain relevant in such
labor-related issues as whether management should be able to hire replace-
ment workers to break strikes (Gerteis and Savage 1998).
Class also remains relevant insofar as class cultures affect the ways in
which people in different class positions organize and interact within so-
cial movements. The repeated accusations that movements of gays or fem-
inists, for example, are too “middle class” is generally more a matter of style
than of economic interests. Thus, working-class organizations and move-
ments may be more likely to see the world as a matter of competing inter-
ests or powers, whereas middle-class organizations more often see the
world in terms of opposing ideas (Rose 1997, 480). To be sure, movements
that appear to be universal in nature—for example, draft resistance,
af‹rmative action, and land use policies—often disproportionately bene‹t
the middle classes. But even those concerns that do not offer any
signi‹cant class bene‹ts—for example, preserving obscure species such as
the snail darter—may still entail class “interests.” Because middle-class
members of such organizations seek to de‹ne themselves through their
work and knowledge, they may pursue their personal identities through
engagement with activist social movements. In contrast to middle-class en-
vironmental organizations, the working-class antitoxics movement deals
with issues of immediate need and challenges the existing system of
bene‹ts (483).
In contemporary American society, class is often mentioned alongside
race and gender. But class, race, and gender—often jokingly referred to as
the “holy trinity”—interact with culture in complex and varying ways. Not
only are cultural differences presumed to exist among people of different
class, race, and gender, but the imagery and rhetoric associated with each
group may have political consequences. The signi‹cance of cultural images
becomes clear if Thomas Frank (2005) is even partially correct that conser-
vatives have succeeded in painting “liberals” as an “overclass” that domi-
nates the media and the courts, telling “us” how to live. This imagery al-
lows conservatives to distance themselves from elites such as “Hollywood
liberals” and to speak instead on behalf of the “common man.” Various less
powerful groups have also used the rhetoric of culture to attain their goals,
as people not previously seen in cultural terms have come to de‹ne them-
selves as worthy subcultures—the handicapped, the deaf, and the obese, for
example.
Yet the use of culture as a framing device to attain equal rights does not
work equally well for all groups. For example, racial and gender groups
have employed culture in different ways. In American society, as Gunnar
Myrdal asserted in 1944, the treatment of racial minorities has posed a seri-
ous “dilemma.” Ideas of white supremacy clearly collided with ideas of
egalitarianism. Indeed, as noted earlier, racism in the United States may
have been especially virulent because the justi‹cation of racial inequality
was often accomplished by positing the negative characteristics of non-
whites. A heightened sensitivity to issues of race in the post-civil-rights era,
however, may have fastened on cultural dimensions to the detriment of
economic and social progress for minority group members. Numerous
commentators have noted that talking of “multiculturalism” may be harm-
ful because it ignores the structural and class factors responsible for the fail-
ures of racial integration and the economic advancement of African Amer-
icans. The terms multiculturalism and diversity have become euphemisms
that “ignore issues of justice, power, and equity” (Andersen 2001, 197). Re-
spondents to in-depth interviews attempting to understand “the deep
structure and cultural commonsense implicit in diversity discourse” reveal
an “inability to talk about inequality in the context of a conversation about
diversity” (J. M. Bell and Hartmann 2007, 898, 910). People appear to want
to see “diversity without oppression”—they wish to acknowledge diversity
while avoiding “any discussion of race and diversity that points to contin-
uing inequity in group life chances” (Andersen 2001, 195).
An anthropologist with roots in South Africa has pointed out the be-
nign intent underlying the American view that race and culture are inde-
pendent of each other, that culture is responsible for who people are, and
that cultural differences are to be respected. Nevertheless, from a South
African perspective, these views would be seen as a justi‹cation for
apartheid. Racial segregation was seen as proper because “only segregation
would preserve cultural differences” (Kuper 1999, xiii). And for many pro-
gressive American social scientists, the “culture of poverty” thesis, which

appeared to attribute poverty to “values” or “lifestyles,” was enough to
make all cultural explanations suspect (Patterson 2000, 204).
Cultural explanations seemed to operate differently with respect to in-
equalities of gender. Here, the distinction between culture and biology was
used to support women’s emancipation from subordinate roles. “For
women, the idea of culture was inextricably part of their emancipation,
. . . since changing the conditions of their subordination required the no-
tion that sexual differences were culturally based (‘gender’)” (McCarthy
1996, 103). Though using culture in opposition to biology has been a suc-
cessful tactic for women, all females clearly do not share the same values
and attitudes. Quite the contrary: an enormous gap exists between the atti-
tudes and concerns of young business and professional women and those
of young homemakers. Indeed, one study of cultural politics between 1960
and 1996 ‹nds that the gap between these two groups at the end of the pe-
riod was “the largest gap of any kind found in our data on cultural politics,”
larger than racial differences or the “gender gap.” The authors of this study
suggest that the image of the two parties split along culture war lines is
mostly the “end product of the collision among feminists’ desire for a more
egalitarian society, pietistic churches’ sense of threat posed by changing
norms, and political elites’ needs to amalgamate winning coalitions”
(Leege et al. 2002, 229, 217).
Despite the complex relationships among religious, racial, gender, and
class identities, proponents of the culture war thesis tend to see the ortho-
dox and progressive worldviews as existing independently of the social
groups that espouse them. Empirical data certainly suggest links between a
group’s interests and its moral values, as in the well-known connection be-
tween women’s educational and occupational attainment and their atti-
tudes toward abortion (Luker 1984). Moreover, as John H. Evans has
pointed out, without group interaction, any worldview would lose plausi-
bility and cease to exist (1997, 397).
The idea that plausibility structures based on social interaction are crit-
ical to the maintenance of certain views is nicely illustrated in the case of
attitudes toward premarital sexual behavior. Since the early 1970s, a sub-
stantial decline has occurred in the number of Americans who adhere to
the orthodox Christian view that premarital sex is morally wrong. Only
those conservative Protestants who are frequent churchgoers continue to
see premarital sex as morally wrong. Conservative Protestants who attend

church infrequently do not differ at all from mainline Protestants and
Catholics in their attitudes toward premarital sex (L. R. Petersen and Don-
nenwerth 1997).
But cultural, religious, gender, and class positions are, of course, inter-
twined in complex ways. Evangelicals who are professional and managerial
workers, for example, remain less liberal than other members of their class
on attitudes toward sex while accommodating to the liberal ethos of their
class on gender roles, abortion, and civil liberties (Schmalzbauer 1993).
Once socioeconomic characteristics are controlled, the religiously ortho-
dox are in fact more liberal than the religiously progressive regarding gov-
ernment help in providing jobs, support for organized labor, Social Security
spending, and pro‹t-sharing for workers (N. J. Davis and Robinson 1996a).
Hostility to public schools that appears to be based on religious or moral or-
thodoxy is often more a matter of class-based cultural differences. The
higher classes see secular school as legitimate, while the bureaucratic and
rationalized sphere of public schools is alien to Pentecostals and Charis-
matics but not to Evangelicals or practicing Catholics (Sikkink 1999, 72, 76).
Intersections between gender and religious divisions are also complex.
Women tend to be more supportive than men of government welfare and
af‹rmative action programs and less supportive of war and defense spend-
ing. Women are thus more likely to vote Democratic. For religiously mod-
ernist (or “progressive”) women, a convergence takes place between their
cultural/religious and economic/political attitudes. The same is true for re-
ligiously traditional (or “orthodox”) men. As a result, party identi‹cations
are reinforced: modernist women have become more Democratic, and tra-
ditional men have become more Republican. But for traditionalist women
and modernist men, the con›ict between their cultural and economic/po-
litical positions makes them likely to be independent of any party af‹lia-
tion (Layman 2001, 319). Some analysts have suggested that issues of rela-
tive group position may be fueling what appear to be debates about cultural
issues. White men have become increasingly resistant to the Democratic
Party’s liberal cultural agenda, possibly because abortion rights, female
rights, and gay rights represent challenges from subordinate groups. The
social welfare conservatism among lower-income men who might bene‹t
from such programs might also represent a line of defense against such
challenges. Women—who are generally more religious and morally tradi-
tional than men—have become more liberal in their orientations, while

the defense of traditional lifestyles has come to play a more signi‹cant role
in the political beliefs of men than of women (Kaufman 2002).
Social context matters, too. Thus, residents of states that have more
Fundamentalists have more conservative gender attitudes, regardless of
personal characteristics. It is not known whether this phenomenon occurs
because conservative gender messages are conveyed in social interaction or
through the media or the schools or whether some kind of self-selection
operates so that people with more conservative gender attitudes are more
likely to migrate to such areas (Moore and Vanneman 2003).
Even the role of education in in›uencing values and politics is less than
clear. Over the course of the twentieth century, religious belief and practice
increased among college graduates, while the religiosity of those with less
than a high school education declined. This convergence appears to sug-
gest that “the more-educated became increasingly integrated into central
American institutions, and the less-educated less so” (Fischer and Hout
2006, 211). Yet strong religious beliefs may have more signi‹cance in af-
fecting other beliefs than education does. Thus, among those conservative
Protestants who reject a literal interpretation of the Bible, having a college
or graduate school education substantially increases the probability of a be-
lief in evolution. But among those who take the Bible literally, more edu-
cation means more dissent from science (Greeley and Hout 2006, 36–37).
One longitudinal study found that the negative in›uence of education on
religious involvement came mainly through fostering participation in
countercultural protests, an issue unique to the period being studied. Oth-
erwise, education increases religious participation (Sherkat 1998, 1108).
A Polarized Population?
When advocates of the culture wars thesis see a tie between social groups
and the two transcendent worldviews, the groups they refer to are political
and cultural elites. Although the public as a whole does not show increased
polarization of opinion, those who self-identify as Republicans or Demo-
crats have become more polarized (DiMaggio, Evans, and Bryson 1996; J. H.
Evans 2003; Layman and Carsey 2002). Whether this “raises troubling
questions about the role of political parties in a pluralistic society” (DiMag-
gio, Evans, and Bryson 1996, 738) or “allows less sophisticated Americans to
connect their values and interests with vote choice” (Hetherington 2001,
629), such partisan distinctiveness does not re›ect a change in the attitudes
of the citizenry as a whole, since partisans remain a small minority.
Some observers have argued that polarization is unlikely to remain
con‹ned to elites or to the signi‹cant minority of largely college-educated
citizens who are partisan activists. “To imagine that extremist politics has
been con‹ned to the chattering classes is to believe that Congress, the me-
dia, and American interest groups operate in an ideological vacuum. I ‹nd
that assumption implausible” (J. Q. Wilson 2006, 19). Others contend,
however, that it is not clear that the “party sorting” now in evidence will
eventually lead to attitudinal polarization on a more massive scale (J. H.
Evans 2006, 4). The political parties are now more distinctive, but the dis-
tribution of attitudes and ideological positions among the citizenry has not
changed much (Fiorina 2006, 3).
No simple one-to-one relationship appears to exist between elite and
mass polarization. Rather, research ‹ndings vary depending on the issue
being examined. Thus, one study found that increasing elite polarization
between 1970 and 1999 (as measured by congressional roll-call votes) on
the issues of gay rights and pornography was not matched by mass polar-
ization (as measured by responses to the General Social Survey). Mass po-
larization did follow elite polarization on environmental issues. On the is-
sue of gun control, the sequence was reversed: a kind of bottom-up
polarization occurred, with leaders following the masses. The difference
perhaps lies in the degree to which the issue was salient to the masses. A
relative lack of interest in gay civil rights and pornography conceivably
produced a lack of response to elite cues (Lindaman and Haider-Markel
2002).
The preferences and perspectives of party elites tend to be much more
consistent and stable than those of the mass public, and communications
between elites and masses are subject to misunderstanding and simpli‹ca-
tion (Jennings 1992). The mass public is not altogether ignorant regarding
the meaning of conservative and liberal ideologies, but one study ‹nds that
“well over a third of the mass sample did not offer any de‹nitions” of these
labels. And while conservative elites do not see the conservative philoso-
phy as a matter of preference for retaining the status quo, the mass sample
does. Indeed, those in the mass electorate who identify themselves as con-
servatives have an understanding of conservative ideology that appears

to be more akin to the views of liberal elites than of conservative ones
(Herrera 1996–97, 624, 633–34). Similarly, a study of those who identify
themselves as “conservative Democrats” ‹nds that their views on issues are
not really conservative, suggesting that perhaps their identi‹cation is sus-
tained by the high regard in which contemporary elite discourse holds the
conservative label (Schiffer 2000).
However differently masses and elites understand various issues, more
American voters now see important differences between the parties and do
care which party wins the presidential election. This number has grown
steadily between 1976 and 2000 (Brewer 2005, 221). However, while parti-
san differences on economic issues have consistently remained large, the
differences on cultural issues were very small from the 1960s through the
1980s. Only in the 1990s did partisan differences start to increase, ‹rst on
abortion and then with respect to the role of women and school prayer. Yet
the degree to which such cultural issues contribute to partisan
identi‹cation is low—perhaps surprisingly so (224, 226).
Adding to the complexity of elite versus mass attitudes on culture war
issues is the recognition that in some cases, little connection exists between
who frames the issue and who wins in the public opinion contests. General
Social Survey data from 1977–96 show that pro-life rather than pro-choice
advocates have framed the way the majority of Americans think about
abortion. Yet public opinion has become more “progressive” with respect
to these attitudes. The pro-life side’s connection between abortion and be-
liefs about the sanctity of human life has gained support, whereas pro-
choice forces’ attempts to link abortion to privacy rights, gender equality,
and the idea that the state should not be co-opted by religious views has
not. That success in framing the issue, however, has not led to increased
opposition to abortion (Strickler and Danigelis 2002, 200).
Whatever the degree of popular polarization, disagreement has arisen
about whether such a trend is bene‹cial or malevolent. Critics of the Amer-
ican party system have long attacked the absence of signi‹cant differences
between Republicans and Democrats, chastising them for offering little
more than Tweedledum and Tweedledee proposals. Yet the perception that
the two parties may now re›ect real cultural differences gives rise to fears
about a polarized nation, incapable of uniting. But perhaps, as Layman sug-
gests, the debates would be more bitter if the two major parties took simi-
lar positions on cultural issues, thus forcing “cultural extremists” into pur-
suing alternatives such as protests or third-party formations. Keeping such
disputes within the dominant party structure may ensure a greater degree
of compromise (2001, 330).
Concerns about polarization of attitudes or values are often based on
fears of social con›ict or disintegration. Yet the understanding of public
opinion shared by most experts suggests that attitudes are rarely polarized,
despite popular beliefs to the contrary. “Takeoff issues” that become the fo-
cus of attention (abortion or gays in the military, for example) often dis-
tract attention from the larger number of issues about which attitudes are
not at all polarized. Similarly, while people experience homogeneity of at-
titudes within their own social networks, these same networks generally re-
tain heterogeneity of attitudes overall. Attitude differences are underesti-
mated because people discuss important issues selectively and may
consequently experience more homogeneity than actually exists. What are
the consequences of these paradoxical realities for collective action? On
the one hand, polarized interaction structures and their accompanying
heightened radicalism can indeed arise on single issues. On the other hand,
polarization may remain con‹ned to single issues, so that radicalization on
such a limited scale will not have major disruptive consequences (Bal-
dassarri and Bearman 2007). Yet whatever the actual probabilities of a “cul-
ture war,” the concept appears to have taken hold of the collective imagi-
nation and become the lens through which many Americans view political
contests. The case of Sarah Palin is illustrative.
Sarah Palin and a Renascent Culture War?
From virtually the moment in 2008 that Sarah Palin was named as the Re-
publican vice presidential nominee, commentators began to talk of the cul-
ture war reentering the campaign. On September 5, David Kirkpatrick in
the New York Times spoke of “Firing Up the Faithful with Echoes of Culture
War Rhetoric.” One week later, the Christian Science Monitor ran an editorial
under the title “The Palin Factor in the ‘Culture Wars.’” On September 23,
Jay Tolson wrote in U.S. News and World Report that “Sarah Palin Sparks Re-
vival of the Culture War.” On October 4, The Economist discussed the “End-
less Culture War.” By her very presence on the ticket, this conservative
Christian whose infant son was born with Down syndrome appeared to
have inserted the culture war into a campaign from which it had been no-
ticeably absent.
Until Palin’s entry, the culture war theme had not featured in the 2008
election for a number of different reasons. The Democratic campaign had
sought compromises on abortion (keeping it legal but sponsoring programs
that would cut down on the number of abortions), and the candidates
agreed on same-sex unions. Barack Obama’s very appearance on the na-
tional scene, in his speech to the Democratic National Convention in July
2004, was devoted to the idea of bridging the cultural divisions in the
country. He spoke famously about religiosity in the Blue States and concern
for civil liberties in the Red States. John McCain had equally famously
railed against the intolerance of such culture warriors as Jerry Falwell and
Pat Robertson in 2000, and McCain remained a ‹gure not trusted by the
Christian Right.
Internal wrangling among Evangelicals also complicated culture war
politics. With an obvious intent to in›uence the course of the campaign, a
group of more than eighty evangelical leaders issued an “Evangelical Man-
ifesto” in May 2008. The manifesto explicitly called for “an expansion of
our concern beyond single-issue politics, such as abortion and marriage”
and repudiated “the two extremes that de‹ne the present culture wars in
the United States” (Evangelical Manifesto Steering Committee 2008, 13,
16). The document asserted that Evangelicals should never be “completely
equated with any party, partisan ideology, economic system, or national-
ity.” They must participate in the public square but never in such a way
that “Christian beliefs are used as weapons for political interests” (15).
Many evangelical notables signed the manifesto, but missing from the sig-
natories were such well-known culture warriors as Gary Bauer, Tony
Perkins, and James Dobson (W. Smith 2008). Some conservative Catholics
who had previously been allied to the politics of the Christian Right were
beginning to break away as well (Peter J. Boyer 2008).
Given the Christian Right’s lack of strong support for McCain, poll data
that showed popular repudiation of George W. Bush’s presidency, and the
fact that Democratic social policies (for example, on health care) were more
popular than Republican ones even among Evangelicals, it is not too sur-
prising that the McCain campaign might have sought to reinvigorate the
culture wars by selecting Palin. As The Economist noted, “If the election is
fought about anything except culture, then the Republicans are on dif‹cult
ground” (“Endless Culture War” 2008, 23). But the cultural issues that Palin
introduced into the campaign were not primarily those of the culture wars.
From the outset, her themes were of a different sort. Her acceptance
speech to the Republican National Convention emphasized her ties to a
small-town America of hardworking people. She described herself as “just
your average hockey mom” and her husband as a “commercial ‹sher-
man,” “a production operator in the oil ‹elds,” and “a proud member of
the United Steel Workers’ Union.” She pledged advocacy for “children
with special needs.” And she assumed a populist stance against the “Wash-
ington elite.” The rest of the speech was devoted to the need for energy in-
dependence (famously captured by McCain’s exhortation to “Drill, baby,
drill”), to praise for McCain’s military service and patriotism, and to at-
tacks on Obama’s willingness to increase taxes and “forfeit” victory in Iraq
(Palin 2008). Her stump speeches were essentially the same, except that
she devoted more time to the classic vice presidential duty of attacking the
opposition. She thus accused Obama of “palling around with terrorists”
(Cooper 2008) and of supporting a “spread the wealth” policy that
amounted to “socialism” (Bosman 2008). Criticisms of Obama aside, she
repeatedly expressed her solidarity with “unpretentious folks,” with
“good, hardworking, patriotic Americans.” She extolled the virtues of “Joe
the Plumber” and other “average Joes.” She said, “Man, I love small-town
U.S.A.” (Healy 2008).
These speeches completely lacked the culture war rhetoric that ap-
peared so prominently in the campaigns of both major candidates in 2000.
Bush, Gore, and Gore’s running mate, Joe Lieberman, asserted the impor-
tance of faith in their lives and talked of the need to support faith-based
programs. They advocated cleaning up popular culture to restore morality
and reinforce family values. Palin did not talk about her faith, did not pro-
claim the virtues of prayer, did not assert the need to remoralize American
society. She did not address same-sex marriage and seldom mentioned the
“sanctity of life,” though her decision not to abort a fetus with Down syn-
drome and her seventeen-year-old unwed daughter’s unwillingness to end
her pregnancy amply proclaimed the Palin family’s pro-life values.
Unlike earlier rhetoric, the very meaning of “family values” in 2008
seems unclear. In the 1990s, the phrase clearly signaled a distaste for moth-
ers in the workplace and a hostility to premarital sex. What might it mean
in 2008, when the conservative candidate is a mother of ‹ve, one of whom

is unmarried and pregnant? To die-hard believers in the culture war idea
such as James Davison Hunter, the seeming confusion over “family values”
simply indicates that “the lines of the culture war are changing,” that “the
gender views” once were “so much sharper, traditional versus modern. So
much has changed in the last 28 years” (quoted in Tolson 2008). But in
fact, the Christian Right has continued to proclaim hostility to premarital
sex and to advocate abstinence-only sex education, even while the behav-
ioral reality appears to contradict the belief system (Talbot 2008). How
would Palin’s supporters have reacted to the pregnancy of the unmarried
daughter of either Hillary Clinton or Barack Obama?
Unlike the Democratic populism of Obama and Biden and John Edwards,
who hailed the children of single mothers and steelworkers and coal miners
who succeeded despite their disadvantages, Palin’s populism proclaimed the
steelworker’s and the coal miner’s superiority to Ivy League–educated elites.
Herein lies her appeal.
Palin’s enthusiastic audiences saw in her not an advocate of “orthodox”
morality but someone “just like me.” It is not a culture war; it is identity
politics. Palin did not proclaim her faith; she proclaimed her solidarity
with the white working class, as major ‹gures on the right clearly saw.
Patrick Buchanan (2008) said, “Barack and Michelle are af‹rmative action,
Princeton, Columbia, Harvard Law. She is public schools and Idaho State.”
Ross Douthat observed that Palin “embodies a right-wing archetype of the
Real America in much the way that Barack Obama embodies a left-wing ar-
chetype of Multicultural Man. . . . Identity politics can be constraining, but
in the right circumstances it can be liberating as well—and the ‘she’s one of
us’ factor may end up giving Sarah Palin more room to maneuver than any
conservative leader since Reagan” (2008, 40).
Though Palin may have been chosen in part because she was a female,
as McCain hoped to win over some of Hillary Clinton’s disaffected sup-
porters, class and race rather than gender were dominant in her appeal. Nu-
merous commentators noted that her most enthusiastic supporters were
white men, and exit poll data suggest that she did not woo females away
from the Democratic column. In fact, Obama’s popularity among women
was greater than that of either Kerry in 2004 or Gore in 2000 (New York
Times 2008).
Her class and race appeals were evident in her repeated assertions that
she represented “the real America.” The white working-class audiences that
Palin excited could not, of course, announce their support for “white
power.” Yet they represented a kind of identity politics that differs little
from that initiated by the Black Power movements of the late 1960s. They
manifested “a racial pride that dares not speak its name, and that de‹nes it-
self through cultural cues instead—a suspicion of intellectual elites and city
dwellers, a preference for folksiness and plainness of speech (whether real
or feigned), and the association of a working-class white minority with ‘the
real America.’” (Hsu 2009, 54).
Is there any evidence to support the idea that Palin’s presence on the
ticket in›uenced voters who cared about the culture war divides? Among
those who identi‹ed themselves as Evangelicals or born-again Christians,
exit poll data indicate that Obama won more votes (26 percent) than Kerry
did in 2004 (21 percent). The same holds true for white Catholics. Obama
also made gains among those who attend church services more than
weekly; 43 percent of such voters voted for Obama, compared to 35 percent
for Kerry and 36 percent for Gore. At the other end of the religious spec-
trum, 67 percent of people who never attend church services voted for
Obama, an increase from the 62 percent of such voters who supported
Kerry and 61 percent who selected Gore (Pew Forum 2008a). Such results
hardly indicate a resurgence of the culture war.
One way of checking more speci‹cally for the possible in›uence of
Palin’s presence on the Republican ticket is by looking at two polls of white
voters who attend church weekly. Gallup conducted the ‹rst poll in August
2008 (before her nomination) and the second the following October. The
results were essentially unchanged: in August, McCain led Obama among
these voters by 39 percent; in October, that margin was 37 percent. But if
this minor decrease in support is set against the slippage in McCain’s lead
among white voters generally (from 7 percent to 2 percent), Palin’s pres-
ence can be seen as helping Republicans retain support among highly reli-
gious voters (Newport 2008). The overwhelming majority of Republicans
maintained a favorable view of Palin, while both Democratic and indepen-
dent voters came to view her more negatively over time (Pew Research Cen-
ter 2008).
Did Palin’s candidacy make a difference in de‹ning the issues that vot-
ers considered important? Here the evidence seems clear: it did not. The
economy was far and away the dominant issue, with 91 percent of voters in
mid-October saying it was most important. Another 80 percent said jobs

were most important, followed by energy (78 percent), health care (77 per-
cent), education (73 percent), taxes (71 percent), and Iraq (71 percent). At
the bottom of the list were abortion (41 percent) and gay marriage (28 per-
cent). Because the Pew survey asked the same questions in August and Oc-
tober, one can determine whether Palin’s candidacy might have increased
concerns about abortion and gay marriage. The percentage seeing gay mar-
riage as a very important issue did not change; those seeing abortion as
very important increased by 2 percent. However, those who saw abortion as
very important still represented a smaller proportion of the electorate than
in October 2004 (Pew Research Center 2008). Once again, then, there is no
evidence of a resurgent culture war.
A contaminating factor in attempting to understand Palin’s role in the
election is the perception that she was inadequately prepared for the presi-
dency. In a CNN exit poll, 60 percent of respondents believed that she was
not quali‹ed to be president should the need arise (CNN 2008). Because
this view was widespread, some commentators speculated about a negative
“Palin effect”: voters who had intended to vote for McCain were persuaded
not to do so because of her presence on the ticket. An attempt to study this
Palin effect asked voters whether they were more or less likely to vote for
McCain because Palin was his running mate. Asking the same question in
both September and October, the survey found an increase in the number
of independent voters who said that Palin had made them “less likely” to
vote for McCain. But increases also occurred in the proportion of the pop-
ulation that said that Palin made no difference. By October, 50 percent of
all the voters in the sample said that Palin made no difference (51 percent
among Democrats, 48 percent among Republicans, and 49 percent among
independents) (Cost 2008). Perhaps the growing signi‹cance of the eco-
nomic crisis had rendered any kind of Palin effect less signi‹cant.
Whatever effect Palin had on the 2008 election, her presence did not
introduce a culture war, despite the views of analysts wedded to the culture
war hypothesis. Thus, James Davison Hunter says that although the culture
war had never gone away, Palin’s nomination moved it from the back-
ground to the foreground (quoted in Tolson 2008). Based on both the vot-
ing patterns and the issues most salient to voters as revealed in exit polls,
the evidence does not appear to support that contention.
There is little evidence that the culture wars featured signi‹cantly in the
two previous presidential elections either. John Kenneth White, a sup-

porter of the culture war thesis, has interpreted Bush’s 2000 victory as a re-
pudiation of the Democratic Party because of its association with Bill Clin-
ton’s immorality. Bush appealed to voters “who were tired of Clinton and
wanted a respite from the value challenges they had to face during his two
terms” (2003, 168). Nearly two-thirds of the population—66 percent—be-
lieved that the Republican Party “stood for strong moral values,” whereas
only 44 percent viewed the Democrats that way. The election was therefore
a matter of a “values divide.” Yet White also presents data that undermine
his arguments: a September 2000 poll found Bush and Gore tied at 44 per-
cent when respondents were asked to select which of them would encour-
age high moral standards and values (162). More damning still is the reve-
lation that an October 2000 poll showed that “if Americans could have
chosen between Clinton and George W. Bush, they would have preferred
Clinton 48 percent to 44 percent” (30).
The aftermath of the 2004 election saw a ›urry of interest in the culture
wars when exit poll data found that 22 percent of the voters chose “moral
values” as the most important issue, compared to 20 percent who selected
economy/jobs, 19 percent terrorism, and 15 percent Iraq. Since 80 percent
of those who selected “moral values” voted for Bush, the immediate con-
clusion was that the culture wars were responsible for his reelection (Langer
and Cohen 2005, 745–46). Furthermore, referenda about same-sex mar-
riage in a number of states were seen as mobilizing the Christian Right to
come out and vote, thereby helping Bush as well. More careful analysis
shows that these premises were false.
The phrase moral values is, of course, something of a grab bag whose
meaning is uncertain. Most polling experts considered the question
“poorly devised.” Though the term appealed to opponents of abortion and
gay marriage, 12 percent of liberals and 15 percent of nonchurchgoers also
selected it. When preelection polls asked open-ended questions, voters se-
lected Iraq, the economy, and terrorism as their most important issues, and
answers that could be characterized as moral values were in the low single
digits (Langer 2004).
No surge occurred in the evangelical vote or in the number of voters
who were pro-life (D. Brooks 2004), and white Protestants who attend
church weekly made up a somewhat smaller share of the electorate than
they had in 2000 (Langer and Cohen 2005, 750). Nor did Bush gain votes
because same-sex marriage was on the ballot. In ‹ve of the eleven states in
which such measures appeared, his share of the vote was lower than it had
been four years earlier; in two others, his increased vote was lower than his
increase nationally (Ashbee 2005, 213). Of those who defected from their
party, many more did so because of their position on the Iraq war than be-
cause of their view of gay marriage (T. Jones 2005).
No one disputes the clear dominance of economic issues in the 2008
election. Whether this dominance had the effect of swamping the culture
war or whether the culture war is otherwise moribund remains a matter of
speculation. Some liberals in the ‹rst ›ush of victory proclaimed Palin the
“last of the culture warriors” (Beinart 2008a). In effect, the war is over and
we have won, they argued. Comparing the scene in Chicago’s Grant Park
on election night 2008 to the infamous 1968 riots there, Beinart argues that
the cultural freedoms celebrated in that earlier era no longer seem alien to
Americans. “Feminism is so mainstream that even Sarah Palin embraces the
term; Chicago mayor Richard Daley, son of the man who told police to
bash heads, marches in gay-rights parades. . . . Younger Americans—who
voted overwhelmingly for Obama—largely embrace the legacy of the ’60s”
(Beinart 2008b, 31).
On the other side, an interesting exchange occurred in the pages of Na-
tional Review in 2007, sparked by a libertarian who advised conservatives to
bid “farewell to culture wars.” Brink Lindsey argued that those who be-
lieved that “family life could not survive the exodus of women into the
workforce” were wrong. Those who “believed that only a revival of faith in
Christianity could stave off social breakdown” were also wrong, as cultural
liberalism in New England now coexists with the “lowest levels of social
dysfunction (crime, divorce, illegitimacy, etc.) in the country” (2007,
39–40). Ramesh Ponnuru countered that the culture wars remain relevant.
After all, both parties follow what the survey data tell them. So it is inter-
esting that Republicans emphasize “social conservatism rather than market
economics” and Democrats stress “statist economics rather than social lib-
eralism” (40).
Whatever the future may bring, it seems clear that the story of the Palin
candidacy and the lessons of the two previous presidential campaigns lend
support to the thesis of this book. The major themes of the 2000 election
were not the con›ict between “orthodox” and “progressive” morality.
Bush, Gore, and Lieberman were all on the same side. In some senses, the
winners in 2004 were Bush on the one hand and Obama on the other.
Obama’s 2004 “postpartisan” speech to the Democratic National Conven-
tion put him on the national radar screen and began his campaign for the
presidency. He talked then of a common culture rather than a divided one.
During the 2008 campaign, Obama refused to answer the Reverend
Rick Warren’s question about when life begins, while McCain said simply
“at conception.” The Democrat nevertheless inserted provisions into his
party’s platform to help women prevent pregnancy or carry pregnancy to
term, thereby reducing the number of abortions. He showed a similar sense
of moderation and compromise concerning the role of religion. “Not every
mention of God in public is a breach to the wall of separation—context
matters,” he said. “Having voluntary student prayer groups use school
property to meet should not be a threat, any more than its use by the High
School Republicans should threaten Democrats” (quoted in Peter J. Boyer
2008, 28).
The population, too, gives evidence of converging on issues of religion
and morality. More Americans of all stripes have come to believe that
churches should stay out of politics. Opposition to church involvement
has increased among both Republicans and independents so that they now
share the views of Democrats, and similar proportions of self-identi‹ed
conservatives, moderates, and liberals oppose church involvement in poli-
tics (Pew Forum 2008b). A January 2009 survey about priorities for the new
administration found that the proportions of Republicans and Democrats
who thought that “dealing with moral breakdown” was a “top priority”
were highly similar. Although this issue was well down on the list of prior-
ities for members of both parties, the difference between them (4 percent)
was among the smallest in the survey—second only to the gap in reducing
the budget de‹cit (1 percent) (Pew Research Center 2009).
One ‹nal element of the Palin story is the high degree of internal dis-
sension her candidacy generated among conservatives. Though she was al-
legedly promoted for the nomination by such stellar conservatives as
William Kristol, Fred Barnes, Michael Gerson, Rich Lowry, and others
(Mayer 2008), within short order she was rejected by such equally well-
known conservatives as David Brooks, Christopher Buckley, George Will,
and Peggy Noonan. In Noonan’s view, Palin was “failin’” because “You
must address America in its entirety, not as a sliver or a series of slivers but
as a full and whole entity, a great nation trying to hold together” (2008).
A Multitude of Internal Divisions
If Palin’s campaign was about the culture of class rather than the econom-
ics of class, issues of culture versus economics are implicated in many of the
internal divisions that challenge both the Right and the Left. If the story of
Palin’s candidacy brings into focus discord within the conservative elite as
well as within the evangelical elite, these dif‹culties do not differ from
those faced on the left or in the feminist and gay social movements.
Because both the Left and the Right face con›icts between economic
and cultural considerations as well as tensions between their libertarian
and communitarian strands, each side easily derides the other for its inter-
nal contradictions. A progressive notes that the Right attacks the National
Endowment for the Arts for eschewing market-based public tastes in favor
of “cultural elitism” while blaming movie and media companies for giving
the public what it wants (quoted in Sachs and Washburn 1995, 34). A con-
servative says, “American-style liberalism is schizophrenic. On the one
side, it is profoundly communitarian; on the other, radically individualis-
tic” (Neuhaus 1989b, 40).
Conservatives, a liberal argues, must reconcile the bene‹ts of the mar-
ket with its tendency to undermine “the moral character that the social
conservative desires” (quoted in Sachs and Washburn 1995, 34–35). They
cannot favor the use of public broadcasting to counter the market-based
hedonistic media because this position re›ects a liberal ideology. In fact,
opposition to public broadcasting has allowed for some degree of agree-
ment between economic and cultural conservatives. The latter decry pro-
gay and antifamily programming, while the former attack it as an instance
of “big government” interfering with the marketplace and traditional com-
munity life. Thus, in this instance, “cultural orthodoxy” and a “defense of
free-market economics” can readily coexist (Hoynes 1996, 74). But conser-
vatives cannot support the idea that public schools should instill moral
character, since many of them favor giving parents vouchers to be re-
deemed at the private schools of their choice (R. Wright 1996, 44).
Social conservatives vie with economic conservatives on issues of pop-
ular culture, just as libertarian liberals vie with social welfare liberals. Al-
though the Right favors regulation in the personal/moral sphere while pre-
ferring to leave the economic sphere unregulated, while the Left favors the
reverse, libertarians dislike regulation in either sphere, and communitari-
ans would like to see regulation in both spheres. Given this complexity, a
“one-dimensional culture war” is implausible (Olson 1997, 256).
If conservatives must somehow juggle marketplace dominance against
their more communitarian wing’s desire to protect and defend society’s val-
ues and morals, so too liberals disagree about whether to favor freedom of
speech regardless of its content or to promote laws against hate speech. A
conservative summarizes the liberal dilemma by referring to a campus
speech code at the University of Wisconsin: “If a similar code were drawn
up with right-wing imperatives in mind—one banning unpatriotic, irreli-
gious or sexually explicit expression on campus—the people framing the
Wisconsin-type rules would revert to their libertarian past” (Wills 1989, 71).
And a writer in The New Republic expresses concern that “frank talk about
race, sex, class, and sexuality” is impeded by our heightened awareness of
what is and is not “politically correct.” He fears that the “war against in-
sensitive humor might end up generating the very social and racial tension
it is trying to defuse” (David Segal 1992, 10).
In contests that pit economic and cultural priorities against each other,
the case of immigration policy bedevils the Right, as some conservatives fa-
vor liberal immigration policies for economic reasons and others oppose
such policies for cultural reasons. Those opposed to unlimited immigration
argue that it is not even economically advantageous. The closing off of im-
migration during the 1920s reduced the amount of cheap labor available
and thus stimulated capital-intensive investment that produced signi‹cant
economic expansion (Auster 1992, 44). At the present time, another anti-
immigration conservative argues, expansion of “the ‘diversity’ industry
will mean less social stability and more ethnic and class tension—none of
which bodes well for the market” (Custred 1997, 40). As detailed in chapter
5, conservatives argue among themselves about whether the United States
is an immigrant nation or a nation like all others with a common culture
and an emerging shared ethnicity.
Similar contention arises between the Cultural and Economic Lefts re-
garding the primacy of class versus race and gender. As one progressive
writer sees it, the Cultural Left operates on high levels of abstraction that
are “irrelevant and infuriating” to many Americans. Yet the class-based
analysis of the Economic Left “appeals to neither the racism/sexism/ho-
mophobia crowd nor to the self-images of most Americans.” The dilemma
is made more complicated by the need to speak the language of the aca-
demic (cultural) leftists because faculty and graduate students from the
postmodern literature and theory crowd volunteer in campaigns such as
those to support a living wage (Alterman 1998, 10).
For other progressives, class remains dominant, and there is a simple
need “to rediscover the language of class” (Tom Frank 1996, 19). Progres-
sives should be wary of “postmodern multiculturalists” who emphasize
racial identity. They often hinder the organizing efforts of progressives, as
“the black postmodernists, no different from the whites they criticize, are
often incapable of deracializing themselves and ‹nding common cause
with other progressives.” Postmodern multiculturalists have a middle-class
bias and so give only lip service to issues of class and thus hamper inter-
racial organizing (Daryl Michael Scott 1998, 27).
But other progressives see class, race, and gender as intertwined; class is
structured via race and gender. Unionization and increases in minimum
wage alone will not ‹x the problems of inequality based on racism and sex-
ism (Pollitt 1998b, 9). Class movements and movements for blacks, women,
and gays should be seen as “natural allies.” Critics who assume that the Left
“can do class or culture, but not both are simply wrong. People’s working
lives, their sexual and domestic lives, their moral values, are intertwined”
(Willis 1998, 19).
Another dimension of the economics versus culture debate on the left
appears in an essay written for Time by a liberal commentator who suggests
that America is now “tiptoeing” to the left on “lifestyle” issues. Michael
Kinsley argues that while liberals are said to have made a mistake by aban-
doning economic issues for “lifestyle” or “identity” politics, “the country
seems to be moving left” in precisely those lifestyle issues. His examples in-
clude support for medical marijuana, abortion, gay rights, and freedom on
the Internet. While acknowledging that lifestyle libertarianism “is not a
completely attractive phenomenon,” since it favors self-indulgence over
concern for the poor and the social welfare, he nevertheless sees it as a
bene‹cial “counterweight” to both the social conservatives and the com-
munitarians in both the liberal and conservative camps (1996, 38). In re-
sponse, Thomas Frank, writing in The Nation, calls this essay a “banal con-
tribution to the ongoing journalistic effort to solve the mystery of the
vanishing left.” If one forgets about the “efforts of the historical political
left to control the vagaries of the market economy,” then “this sort of
lifestyle liberation sells.” But in fact this approach is nothing more than the
“liberation marketing” that portrays ads as telling lies, work as boring and
exploitative, and bosses as bastards. Liberation comes from your Saab or
your Doublemint gum. “Planet Reebok has offered the world a way to do
without the troublesome historical left altogether” (1997, 10). Another
commentary in The New Republic contends that “lifestyle as a value system
grows steadily more powerful.” Abortion, the author argues, has become
part of the American lifestyle. “It’s not a matter of monolithic, time-hon-
ored religion versus itty-bitty, ›ighty lifestyle. It’s religion—marginal ves-
tige, subculture, private matter—versus lifestyle—the engine, the symbol,
the central organizing principle” of the nation (Caldwell 1999, 15).
Advocates commonly accuse their opponents of seeking to impose their
views on the population. Conservative critics, for example, have seen the
rigorous enforcement of feminism or “diversity” on campus as “liberal fas-
cism” (Hart 1987, 46) or “soft fascism” (O’Sullivan 2000, 22) or “state-sub-
sidized sensitivity fascism” (Teachout 1992, 54). What is perhaps surprising
is that similar accusations are hurled at opponents within the same camp.
In a relatively mild rebuke, for example, a conservative religious writer,
hostile to the “religio-cultural mainline,” contends that its view of “plural-
ism” is that “everybody should compromise its way” (Neuhaus 1986, 46). A
much angrier denunciation of those on his own side comes from a pro-
gressive who is angered by the writings of some liberal intellectuals.
Alexander Cockburn argues that the damages associated with the “right-
ward swerve of the Zeitgeist” have not been in›icted by Birchers or the
Moral Majority but rather by respectable intellectuals such as Nathan
Glazer, David Riesman, and Robert Coles. These liberals have supported
“character education” and education to support “patriotism” and have ar-
gued that saluting the ›ag and reciting a school prayer should not become
de‹ned as problems. Thus, Cockburn concludes, “there’s no Nazi like a lib-
eral in search of the nation’s soul” (1985, 70).
Such progressive anger at some liberals for favoring the communitarian
over the libertarian side is matched by the anger of those who seek to over-
turn the libertarian bent within liberalism. Thus, an editorial in The New
Republic emphatically rejects the overemphasis on individual rights. “Con-
temporary liberalism is so intellectually and psychologically invested in
the doctrine of ever-expanding rights—the rights of privacy, the rights of
children, the rights of criminals, the rights of pornographers, the rights of
everyone to everything—that any suggestion of the baleful consequences
of that doctrine appears to them as a threat to the liberal idea itself” (1988b,
7). As a result, “the issue of cultural degeneration has become taboo among
liberals who mock Tipper Gore and her campaign to clean up rock lyrics.
. . . But what is so wrong with . . . the protection of children from the
numbing norms in our culture of random drugs, random sex, and random
violence? . . . How strange it is that modern interventionist liberals would
leave the determination of all this to a rapacious market” (8).
Questions of the role of economic versus cultural factors make for dis-
cord within the Left on the issue of feminism as well. Some feminists com-
plain that the Left does not take their issues seriously enough because it rel-
egates them to the culture wars, which are of less value than economic
policy questions. One such writer argues that “no broad left will revive in
this country until the men in it grasp the importance of culture wars. . . .
The Christian conservatives’ language of transformation and righteous-
ness” cannot be countered simply with policy discourse. Women have been
responsible for most of the activism over the past thirty years (Tax 1995,
378). Another feminist contends that “by marginalizing abortion as an is-
sue of concern only to women and feminists, the left allows the right to
control moral discourse, or what is now known as ‘values,’ and particularly
‘family values’” (Gordon 1998, 5).
But there is also considerable disagreement on the left about how the
feminist movement should proceed. A progressive commentator assails the
“difference feminists,” who emphasize aspects of “women’s culture” that
are different from and superior to “men’s culture.” She argues that differ-
ence feminism, “like other forms of multiculturalism . . . looks everywhere
for its explanatory force—biology, psychology, sociology, cultural iden-
tity—except economics.” Yet differences between men and women reside
not in “universal features of male and female psychosexual development”
but in “the economic and social positions men and women hold” (Pollitt
1992b, 801).
Other progressive feminists see both difference feminism and the em-
phasis on cultural rather than economic issues as something of a trap for
the movement. They argue that cultural feminists only reinforce “oppres-
sive cultural stereotypes” of women as peaceful nurturers. (Willis 1981,
495). Moreover, “the ultimate paradox of difference feminism is that it has
come to the fore at a moment when the lives of the sexes are becoming less
distinct than they ever have been in the West” (Pollitt 1992b, 806). Differ-
ence feminism is appealing because it makes women’s “sacri‹ces . . . on be-

half of domesticity and children” seem “legitimate, moral, even noble.” Yet
“the peaceful mother and the ‘relational’ woman are a kinder, gentler, left-
ish version of ‘family values.’” It is as if “women don’t really believe they
are entitled to full citizenship unless they can make a special claim to
virtue” (804). Another progressive asks why an alleged woman’s culture has
not altered business, medicine, and the law as more women have entered
these occupations and posits women’s desire to assimilate as an answer
(Ehrenreich 1990, 15).
Disagreement also arises about which aspects of policy are of greatest
concern. While some progressives argue that the harm connected with
family breakdown is related to problems of money, not values (Pollitt
1992a; Stacey 1994), others contend that money is not the only problem.
Male domination and institutionalized homophobia remain problems, too
(Ehrenreich 1982). Yet the radical academic feminists who run many
women’s studies programs and emphasize the control that men exercise
over women’s “productive and reproductive labor” also come in for criti-
cism: “Their moral authority comes from a widespread belief that they rep-
resent ‘women.’ In fact, their version of feminism falls short of being rep-
resentative.” Most American women subscribe to an older feminism whose
goal is equity—that is, fair treatment (Sommers 1992, 32).
If divisions exist among feminists about whether they are basically sim-
ilar to or different from men, an analogous disagreement occurs among
gays and lesbians. Should they see themselves as essentially like heterosex-
uals and seek to be integrated among them, or should they celebrate their
difference and seek to remain as outsiders—“queers”—who endeavor to
change the society? Many observers agree that neither the model of gender
nor the model of ethnicity ‹ts the gay population, since every gay person
already has both a gender and an ethnicity (Crain 1993, 16). Nor are gays an
“oppressed minority” in the usual sense, since they are not denied the vote
or education and are not necessarily poor (Rauch 1993, 18, 20). The issue in
dispute is what gays should be ‹ghting for.
A writer who identi‹es herself as a black lesbian complains about a
“narrowness” of the gay movement in the 1990s that makes people of color
feel excluded. “It’s gay, white men’s racial, gender and class privileges, as
well as the vast numbers of them who identify with the system rather than
distrust it, that have made the politics of the current gay movement so dif-
ferent from those of other identity-based movements for social and politi-
cal change” (B. Smith 1993, 14). That the gay population has signi‹cant in-
ternal divisions—divisions of social class, race, gender, and lifestyle—is not
a matter of dispute (see Abraham 1997; Bawer 1994; Ireland 1997; B. Smith
1993). At issue, however, is whether con›icts exist between the movement’s
leadership and its grassroots.
Gay conservatives express irritation that some gay leaders have aligned
themselves with numerous progressive causes that do not really represent
the allegiances of most American gays (Bawer 1994, 26). The idea of “sexu-
ality as cultural subversion” is at odds with the view of most gays, “who not
only accept the natural origin of their sexual orientation, but wish to be in-
tegrated into society as it is.” Queer radicalism does not de‹ne gay identity
but rather “may actually have to de‹ne itself in opposition to it” (Sullivan
1993, 32, 33). A progressive agrees that lesbian and gay students seem intent
on “cultural assimilation. They want to be upright solid citizens. Openly gay
solid citizens.” But he cautions that such pragmatism is dangerous: “For
once we accept that salvation comes in the form of a contract with straight
society,” we lose sight of the larger goals (Gevisser 1988, 414). The gay move-
ment, though sanitized by those in power, has “radical roots” and “connec-
tions” to “the other great transformative struggles of these times, to the joy-
ously skewed visions . . . that lie outside the conventions of the straight
world, and occasionally stand it on its head” (Kopkind and d’Adesky 1993,
4). Another progressive expresses concern that “the publicly visible gay
movement has become the gay right,” despite the fact that queer theory has
become important in academe. The gay conservatives ‹nd a ready audience
because they say what many straight editors want to hear; queers must
speak up and lobby both the gay and the straight press (M. Warner 1997,
18–19). But another progressive cautions that gays and lesbians are a highly
diverse group of people whose differences are greater than those suggested
by the commentators on either side (Abraham 1997, 6).
Within the pages of The New Republic, more and less conservative gays
argue about whether the gay movement should maintain alliances with
other social movements. Are coalitions with liberal black and women’s
groups ultimately harmful, since “many straight blacks and women have
little enthusiasm for aligning their causes with that of gays”? The gay
movement must face up to its “contradictions. Is it primarily now a public
health organization, a civil rights movements, or another band to a defunct
rainbow coalition?” (Blow 1987, 16). Do such coalitions hurt the gay move-
ment by falsely implying that most gay people sympathize with progressive
movements (Bawer 1994, 26)? Or do gays need to articulate what “a post-
liberation society looks like”? Neither claiming to be just like everyone else
(when others believe that gays are different) nor arguing for civil rights
(when the Right has succeeded in shifting the meaning of this to “special
rights”) will succeed. Instead, gays need to seek equality not just for gay
people but for all people (Vaid 1993, 28). Writers in The Nation applaud such
coalitions, not only with blacks and women but also with labor, environ-
mental, and pro-choice groups (see Ireland 1999; Kopkind 1993; B. Smith
1993).
According to gay conservatives, gay leaders who see themselves as wag-
ing a “cultural war” are framing the issue in the wrong way. What is truly
at stake is the need to get America to accept homosexuality, and this is “a
matter of education” (Bawer 1994, 26). But another gay conservative argues
that any attempt to achieve gay freedom by changing heterosexuals’ be-
havior is clearly ›awed. The aim instead should be to ban all public dis-
crimination against gays and to extend to homosexuals all the rights and
responsibilities enjoyed by heterosexuals—including marriage and service
in the military (Sullivan 1993, 36). Both of these writers agree that no in-
herent con›ict exists between gays and the family—quite the contrary.
Yet ordinary gays and lesbians rather than the national leadership pro-
moted the idea of gay marriage by applying for marriage licenses and ‹ling
lawsuits when those applications were denied. If the legalization of same-
sex marriage occurs without the enthusiastic support of gay and progres-
sive groups, it will be “one of the most breathtaking lapses of organiza-
tional vision in the history of the modern left,” says one commentator
(Rotello 1996, 18).
Advocates of “queer subculture,” conversely, deride those gays who
seek a happy lesbian or gay identity in a “normal, private home: secure,
mature and demure.” Such endorsement of assimilation and of state regu-
lation of sex means the abandonment of queer ideals in favor of “moral re-
spectability and self-esteem.” These conservative gays “forget unconscious
desire, or the tension between pleasure and normalization” (M. Warner
1997, 15). The idea of a “Queer Nation” may seem like an oxymoron, since
how would unity be achieved among people “who de‹ne themselves by a
perverse insistence on the individuality of their desires”? Yet the American
experiment is all about just that: we are a nation composed of “millions of

individuals busy protecting their private lives and liberties and pursuing
their particular happinesses” (Crain 1993, 16). In this dispute, as in so many
others in the culture wars, there is a spokesperson for the side of modera-
tion, for rejecting the antithesis “between the newly ascendant gay conser-
vatives and queers claiming the gay progressive political tradition for sex-
ual liberation. Are these our options: to ‹ght for a place at the table at
which [Jesse] Helms exercises his authority; or to spend our lives acting out
Helms’s fantasy of our lives?” Both sides fail to re›ect the reality of gay
lives, in which there is diversity akin to that in the lives of straight people
(Abraham 1997, 6).
Gays do not agree among themselves about whether same-sex marriage
is ultimately a conservative or a radical idea. Some gays see it as a highly
conservative proposition—an extension of “family values.” Indeed, “it’s
one of the richest ironies of our society’s blind spot toward gays that essen-
tially conservative social goals should have the appearance of being so rad-
ical” (Sullivan 1989, 22). For others, same-sex marriage would have very
radical implications for “the profoundly gendered structure at the heart of
marriage.” As lesbian and gay couples recon‹gure marital roles, “who
would be the ‘husband’ in a marriage of two men, or the ‘wife’ in a mar-
riage of two women? . . . The absolute con›ation of gender with role is shat-
tered. What would be the impact on heterosexual marriage?” (Hunter 1991,
411). Same-sex marriage, says another, “is a breathtakingly subversive idea”
because it will be “a direct hit against the religious right’s goal of re-en-
shrining biology as destiny.” Marriage law will have to become gender-
blind and thus will act as a pressure toward more egalitarian marriages.
Marriage is clearly a matter of cultural de‹nition and choice; in each dif-
ferent era, “marriage institutionalizes the sexual bond in a way that makes
sense for that society, that economy, that class” (Graff 1996, 12). But yet an-
other progressive writer both supports same-sex marriage and sees it as fun-
damentally conservative, since gay and lesbian monogamous couples ex-
hibit “the very family-values logic that otherwise bolsters conservatism”
(Rotello 1996, 16). Similarly, some conservative gays see the entry of gays
into the military as bolstering the conservative values of traditionalism and
patriotism, while a progressive asserts that their entry would undercut “the
patriarchal power of the military” (Kopkind 1993, 602).
Debate also arises about whether a gay culture exists. One conservative
gay writer argues that gay culture is merely a response to persecution. “The
gay subculture, like the speakeasy, ‘›apper’ era of Prohibition, or the so-
called ‘counterculture’ of the Sixties and early Seventies, is a culture of re-
bellion against such persecution.” Gays are, in fact, no more promiscuous
or sex-obsessed than are heterosexuals. The real difference is that whereas
heterosexuals can be anywhere, “a homosexual can be safely gay only in a
gay environment” (Woolman 1986, 30). But a progressive writer argues that
younger gay people “have created a queer culture that is rapidly recon‹gur-
ing American values, redesigning sensibilities and remodeling politics.”
Elements of gay culture “have in‹ltrated everyday life: the homoerotic ad-
vertising spreads, the ironic style in journalism and literature, the fashions
on the street, the new political calculus” (Kopkind 1993, 595).
Whether among feminists, gays, or Evangelicals, issues of strategy and
tactics often complicate the cultural struggles. It is sometimes dif‹cult to
ascertain whether particular actions and policies are the result of ideo-
logical commitment or of strategic or tactical pursuits in political con›icts.
For example, was the attack against the National Endowment for the Arts
and the National Endowment for Humanities in the late 1980s and early
1990s a matter of resuscitating the classical republican idea that govern-
ment should promote virtue among the citizenry? Or was it rather about
struggles within the conservative camp, as the Christian Right and other
highly conservative groups attempted to subvert the more moderate Bush
administration? Did they use the endowments and their various “cultural
sins” as tools to energize their ranks (Jensen 1995)? Similarly, if prayer were
again to be allowed in public schools, would this be a hindrance to those
Evangelicals who favor school choice and do not want the public system to
improve (Brookhiser 1994, 84)?
Conclusions
While the peace, environmental, and human rights movements have

brought greater attention to cultural politics in many European societies,
the cultural focus in American politics leans more to matters of a religious
or moral nature. Among those who attend church regularly, religious views
in›uence political attitudes and voting choices, though class, race, and
gender also remain signi‹cant and interact with religion in complex ways.
Whether American-style cultural politics is a function of American excep-

tionalism remains an open question, however, since European societies
also have growing concerns about religion and multiculturalism.
The culture war rubric that became widespread in the early 1990s prob-
ably intensi‹ed cultural politics and swept more subjects into its fold—arts
funding and school and university curricula, for example. But the polariza-
tion implied in the military analogy has not developed. For all the public
attention to “culture wars,” mass and elite attitudes do not coincide in any
simple way, and signi‹cant internal divisions remain within each camp.
CHAPTER 9
Concluding Comments
Defenders of the culture war idea contend that despite the moderation em-
braced by the American population, the “deep culture” that frames our un-
derstanding of social reality is divided into orthodox and progressive
camps. This public culture, enunciated by elites, must be studied separately
from public opinion. Examination of this culture will reveal that it does
not allow for anything other than the binary choice: one either believes in
absolute morality, or one does not.
After analyzing two decades of public discussion of culture war issues, I
do not ‹nd such clarity. These complex debates reveal numerous conver-
gences across the culture war divide and multiple internal divisions. They
also manifest a distinctly American cast, since all participants subscribe to
the enduring cultural ideas that frame the speci‹c issues under dispute.
While the language of culture wars emerged only in the late twentieth
century, cultural politics are decidedly not new in the United States. Battles
about religion and morality and whether the individual or the community
is primary have been present virtually from the outset. Nor are such cul-
tural dilemmas likely to be resolved, since they are constantly revisited as
new situations arise.
Economic, technological, and demographic changes constantly bring
217
new challenges to cultural understandings. To take but one example, before

the increase in both secular and non-Christian populations, the “one cul-
ture” of American pluralism was essentially Christian (or “Judeo-Chris-
tian”) and European. Demographic and religious changes have thus
brought renewed political struggles about both the role of religion and the
nature of American pluralism.
But a lack of clarity prevails about the very nature of recent changes.
Despite the enduring strength of religious belief in the United States, many
believers now neither participate in religious practice nor have knowledge
about the beliefs to which they subscribe. Does this indicate a weakening
of religion or the continuation of remarkably strong adherence to nonsec-
ular beliefs? Likewise, are ethnic and racial subcultures stronger or weaker
than they have previously been? On the one hand, these subcultures so
central to American cultural pluralism have weakened over time. On the
other hand, they have gained new importance as many individuals now
seek attachment to such groups. Has individualism become stronger as
Americans withdraw their trust and participation from groups and institu-
tions, as alleged by those who see a decrease in social capital? Or has indi-
vidualism become more muted as Americans increasingly come to de‹ne
their very selves in terms of the groups and subcultures to which they
choose to belong? In light of our greater self-consciousness about matters
cultural, have cultural elites gained or lost power?
There is no evidence of change in either the moralism or the modera-
tion of the population. Yet moderation may have become at once more
dif‹cult and seemingly more necessary in the face of media that operate
twenty-four hours per day and tend toward hyperbole and the magni‹ca-
tion of small differences.
The culture wars are fueled by images—of “tenured radicals” in acad-
eme, of “secular humanists” and “Christian fundamentalists,” of the sway
of “modernity” or “postmodernity” and the vanquishing of the “tradi-
tional.” Awareness of the role of such symbols leads interest groups and
scholars alike to try to disentangle “reality” from imagery. Yet the reality of
even such concepts as American exceptionalism remains a matter of dis-
pute. Is the United States exceptional because of its treasured individualism
and voluntarism or because of its enduring adherence to traditional moral-
ity? Does its exceptionalism reside in its minimal class-consciousness or its
higher-than-usual devotion to religion?
Concluding Comments 219
If the culture wars are more muted now than when they were ‹rst
named in the early 1990s, it may be because of some convergence in atti-
tudes about sexual behavior and family life, feminism and gay rights, and
even perhaps abortion. The polarization that culture war theorists imagine
has not developed. Though unanimity on cultural issues is unlikely ever to
occur, compromises appear to be possible and are now being discussed.
Combining American morality and pragmatism is seen as a way of ending
the culture wars (Saletan 2009). Federal protection of same-sex marriage
could be combined with exemptions for religious groups, for example
(Blankenhorn and Rauch 2009).
But whatever the progress of the culture wars, neither the culture that
is its subject nor the very idea of culture is likely to remain constant. Con-
ceptions of culture are likely to continue to change even as new battles for
hegemony emerge.
Methodological Appendix
The Sample
The four magazines in the sample were chosen to represent the mainstream
American political spectrum, from National Review on the right to The Na-
tion on the left, with Time in the center and The New Republic in the more
ambiguous position of a once clearly liberal magazine that veered right-
ward during the 1980s. The Nation, founded in 1865, is a venerable maga-
zine of the Left. While newer liberal magazines such as the American
Prospect and the somewhat more muckraking Mother Jones have captured
progressive audiences as well, they lack the cultural heft of The Nation. Na-
tional Review, founded in 1955 by William F. Buckley Jr. as the organ for con-
servative intellectuals, likewise has some younger competition—most no-
tably, the Weekly Standard, founded in 1995 by neoconservatives William
Kristol and Fred Barnes. Yet National Review retains its preeminence and de-
votes more attention to culture war issues than the newer publication does.
And the Weekly Standard was, of course, unavailable during the ‹rst ‹fteen
years of the study. Time magazine, established in 1923, has Newsweek
(founded in 1933) as its principal competitor. Time was chosen because it
generally has had higher circulation and greater visibility than Newsweek.
Many Time covers, for example, have become cultural icons. The New Re-
public was founded in 1914 by well-known liberal thinkers Herbert Croly
and Walter Lippmann. Its more diverse and less predictably liberal editorial
stances during the 1980s and 1990s made it a source of some interest and
perhaps greater prominence.
Although widespread circulation of the idea that a culture war was tak-
ing place did not occur until the early 1990s, discussion of such issues be-
gan in the previous decade. Soon after Ronald Reagan’s 1980 election to the
presidency, commentators began to talk about a “New Right.” During the
221
222 methodological appendix
1980s, Anita Bryant waged a nationwide campaign against laws promoting

equal rights for homosexuals, and the foes of abortion clinics became more
militant. Reagan blended traditional economic conservatism with a new
social conservatism that advocated, for example, a constitutional amend-
ment to allow for school prayer. This 1984 proposal provoked The Nation to
declare the initiation of the cultural war (Editorial 1984, 308). For all these
reasons, it made sense to begin the study of political magazines in 1980
rather than 1990. Though the coverage of culture war issues increased after
1990, a nonnegligible number of articles on the subject appeared during
the 1980s.
detailed breakdown of articles
The 436 articles published between 1980 and 2000 appeared in the maga-
zines as follows:
National Review 148 (55 in 1980–90; 93 in 1991–2000)

Time 113 (33 in 1980–90; 80 in 1991–2000)
The New Republic 86 (22 in 1980–90; 64 in 1991–2000)
The Nation 89 (27 in 1980–90; 62 in 1991–2000)
The distribution of articles by topic is as follows:
Abortion 32
The Arts 40
Canon Wars 24
Culture Wars Generally 51
Family Values Issues 22
Feminism Issues 37
Homosexuality 62
Multiculturalism 38
Multicultural Education 27
Popular Culture 33
Religious Issues 55*
Sex Education 15
*24 pertain to church-state relations; 22 to internal disputes; 9 to creationism.

References
Abraham, Julie. 1997. “Sex and Taxes.” The Nation, October 20, 6.
Abramowitz, Alan, and Kyle Saunders. 2005. “Why Can’t We All Just Get Along? The
Reality of a Polarized America.” The Forum 3:1–22.
Abu-Lughod, Lila. 1999. “The Interpretation of Culture(s) after Television.” In The
Fate of ‘Culture’: Geertz and Beyond, ed. Sherry B. Ortner, 110–35. Berkeley: Uni-
versity of California Press.
Adams, James Truslow. 1926. “Our Dissolving Ethics.” Atlantic, 138:577–83.
Alba, Richard. 1999. “Immigration and the American Realities of Assimilation and
Multiculturalism.” Sociological Forum 14:3–25.
Alexander, Charles P. 1990. “A Parent’s View of Pop Sex and Violence.” Time, May 7,
100.
Alexander, Jeffrey C. 2001. “Theorizing the ‘Modes of Incorporation’: Assimilation,
Hyphenation, and Multiculturalism as Varieties of Civil Participation.” Sociologi-
cal Theory 19:237–49.
Alexander, Jeffrey C., and Philip Smith. 1993. “The Discourse of American Civil Soci-
ety: A New Proposal for Cultural Studies.” Theory and Society 22:151–207.
Alterman, Eric. 1998. “Making One and One Equal Two.” The Nation, May 25, 10.
Alterman, Eric. 1999. “Fashion Statements.” The Nation, November 8, 10.
“The America We Seek.” 1996. National Review, March 25, 36, 38–41.
Andersen, Margaret L. 2001. “Restructuring for Whom? Race, Class, Gender, and the
Ideology of Invisibility.” Sociological Forum 16:181–201.
Angrosino, Michael. 2002. “Civil Religion Redux.” Anthropological Quarterly 75:
239–67.
Appiah, Kwame Anthony. 1997. “The Multiculturalist Misunderstanding.” New York
Review of Books, October 9, 30–36.
Appleby, Joyce. 1985. “Republicanism and Ideology.” American Quarterly 37:461–73.
Appleby, Joyce. 1992. “Recovering America’s Historic Diversity: Beyond Exceptional-
ism.” Journal of American History 79:419–31.
Arkes, Hadley. 1989. “Moral Obtuseness in America.” National Review, June 16, 33–36.
Arkes, Hadley. 1993. “The Closet Straight.” National Review, July 5, 43–45.
Asante, Mole‹ Kete. 1992. “Multiculturalism: An Exchange.” In Debating P.C., ed.
Paul Berman, 299–311. New York: Dell.
Ashbee, Edward. 2005. “The 2004 Presidential Election, ‘Moral Values,’ and the
Democrats’ Dilemma.” Political Quarterly 76:209–17.
223
224 references
Auster, Lawrence. 1992. “The Forbidden Topic.” National Review, April 27, 42–44.
Auster, Lawrence. 1994. “Avoiding the Issue.” National Review, February 21, 48–54.
Bacevich, A. J. 1993. “Gays and Military Culture.” National Review, April 26, 26–31.
Bader, Veit. 1999. “Religious Pluralism, Secularism or Priority for Democracy?” Polit-
ical Theory 27:597–633.
Baer, Douglas, James Curtis, Edward Grabb, and William Johnston. 1995. “Respect
for Authority in Canada, the United States, Great Britain and Australia.” Socio-
logical Focus 28:177–95.
Baker, Wayne. 2005. America’s Crisis of Values. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Baldassarri, Delia, and Peter Bearman. 2007. “Dynamics of Political Polarization.”
American Sociological Review 72:784–811.
Barkalow, Jordon B. 2004. “Changing Patterns of Obligation and the Emergence of
Individualism in American Political Thought.” Political Research Quarterly 57:
491–500.
Barnett, Stephen R. 1991. “Get Back.” The New Republic, February 18, 24, 26.
Barry, Brian. 2001. Culture and Equality. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Bates, Stephen. 1993. “The Textbook Wars.” National Review, September 20, 65–66,
68–69.
Bawer, Bruce. 1994. “Notes on Stonewall.” The New Republic, June 13, 24–27, 30.
Bayles, Martha. 1994. “How to Talk about Art.” National Review, May 30, 64–65.
Beaman, Lori G. 2003. “The Myth of Pluralism, Diversity, and Vigor: The Constitu-
tional Privilege of Protestantism in the United States and Canada.” Journal for the
Scienti‹c Study of Religion 42:311–25.
Beinart, Peter. 2008a. “Last of the Culture Warriors.” Washington Post, November 3,
A21.
Beinart, Peter. 2008b. “The New Liberal Order.” Time, November 24, 30–32.
Bell, Daniel. 1975. “The End of American Exceptionalism.” Public Interest 41:193–224.
Bell, Daniel. 1989. “American Exceptionalism Revisited: The Role of Civil Society.”
Public Interest 95:38–56.
Bell, David A. 1986. “Ghosts of Leftists Past.” The New Republic, August 11 and 18, 17.
Bell, Joyce M., and Douglas Hartmann. 2007. “Diversity in Everyday Discourse: The
Cultural Ambiguities and Consequences of ‘Happy Talk.’” American Sociological
Review 72:895–914.
Bellafante, Ginia. 1998. “Feminism: It’s All about Me!” Time, June 29, 54–60.
Bellah, Robert N. 1970. “Civil Religion in America.” In Beyond Belief, by Robert N.
Bellah, 168–86. New York: Harper and Row.
Bellah, Robert N. 1974. “American Civil Religion in the 1970s.” In American Civil Re-
ligion, ed. Russell E. Richey and Donald G. Jones, 255–72. New York: Harper and
Row.
Bellah, Robert N. 1975. The Broken Covenant. New York: Seabury.
Bellah, Robert N. 1976. “Response to the Panel on Civil Religion.” Sociological Analy-
sis 37:153–59.
Bellah, Robert N. 1978. “Religion and Legitimation in the American Republic.” Soci-
ety 15:193–201.
references 225
Bellah, Robert N. 2002. “The Protestant Structure of American Culture: Multiculture

or Monoculture?” Hedgehog Review 4:7–28.
Bellah, Robert N., Richard Madsen, William M. Sullivan, Ann Swidler, and Steven M.
Tipton. 1985/1996. Habits of the Heart. Berkeley: University of California
Press.
Bellah, Robert N., Richard Madsen, William M. Sullivan, Ann Swidler, and Steven M.
Tipton. 1991. The Good Society. New York: Random House.
Bennett, William J. 1992. The De-Valuing of America. New York: Summit.
Berger, Bennett M. 1995. An Essay on Culture. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Berger, Peter L. 1999. “The Desecularization of the World: A Global Overview.” In The
Desecularization of the World, ed. Peter L. Berger, 1–18. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerd-
mans.
Berger, Peter L., and Thomas Luckmann. 1966. The Social Construction of Reality. Gar-
den City, NY: Doubleday.
Berns, Walter. 1990. “Saving the NEA.” National Review, November 19, 34–36.
Bernstein, Richard. 1995. Dictatorship of Virtue. New York: Vintage.
Berreby, David. 2008. “The Case for Fitting In.” New York Times Magazine, March 30,
25.
Bethell, Tom. 1997. “Smoking and Sex.” National Review, May 19, 36.
Bickford, Susan. 1999. “Recon‹guring Pluralism: Identity and Institutions in the In-
egalitarian Polity.” American Journal of Political Science 43:86–108.
Billings, Dwight B., and Shaunna L. Scott. 1994. “Religion and Political Legitima-
tion.” Annual Review of Sociology 20:173–201.
Bishop, George. 1999. “Poll Trends: Americans’ Belief in God.” Public Opinion Quar-
terly 63:421–34.
Blankenhorn, David, and Jonathan Rauch. 2009. “A Reconciliation on Gay Mar-
riage.” New York Times, February 22, 11.
Blau, Judith. 2007. “What Would Sartre Say? And, Arendt’s Reply?” Social Forces
85:1063–78.
Bloom, Allan. 1987. The Closing of the American Mind. New York: Simon and Schuster.
Blow, Richard. 1987. “Those Were the Gays.” The New Republic, November 2, 14–16.
Bobo, Laurence. 1991. “Social Responsibility, Individualism, and Redistributive Poli-
cies.” Sociological Forum 6:71–92.
Boggs, James P. 2002. “Anthropological Knowledge and Native American Cultural
Practice in the Liberal Polity.” American Anthropologist 104:599–610.
Bohman, James. 2003. “Deliberative Toleration.” Political Theory 31:757–79.
Bolce, Louis, and Gerald De Maio. 1999a. “Religious Outlook, Culture War Politics,
and Antipathy toward Christian Fundamentalists.” Public Opinion Quarterly
63:29–61.
Bolce, Louis, and Gerald De Maio. 1999b. “The Anti-Christian Fundamentalist Factor
in Contemporary Politics.” Public Opinion Quarterly 63:508–42.
Bork, Robert H. 1989. “Why Do the Liberals Rage?” National Review, December 8,
26–27.
Bosman, Julie. 2008. “Election Eve: Palin’s Final Pitch.” New York Times, November 3,
posted online at http://thecaucus.blogs.nytimes.com.
226 references
Bowen, Ezra. 1986. “A Courtroom Clash over Textbooks.” Time, October 27, 94.
Bowen, Ezra. 1988. “The Canons under Fire.” Time, April 11, 66–67.
Boyer, Paul. 1996. “In Search of the Fourth ‘R’: The Treatment of Religion in Ameri-
can History Textbooks and Survey Courses.” History Teacher 29:195–216.
Boyer, Peter J. 2008. “Party Faithful.” New Yorker, September 8, 24–31.
Breslauer, Jon. 1995. “Not-So-Clueless.” The New Republic, September 4, 22–25.
Brewer, Mark D. 2005. “The Rise of Partisanship and the Expansion of Partisan
Con›ict within the American Electorate.” Political Research Quarterly 58:219–29.
Broadway, Bill. 2001. “War Cry from the Pulpit; Some Fear Mix of Patriotism, Reli-
gion in Bush’s Vow to Rid World of Evil.” Washington Post, September 22, B09.
Bromwich, David. 1995. “Culturalism, the Euthanasia of Liberalism.” Dissent
42:89–102.
Brookhiser, Richard. 1990. “Taming the Tribes of America.” National Review, Novem-
ber 5, 63–65.
Brookhiser, Richard. 1991. “Of Church, Pews and Bedrooms.” Time, August 26, 70.
Brookhiser, Richard. 1992. “We Can All Share American Culture.” Time, August 31,
74.
Brookhiser, Richard. 1993a. “The Cultural Right Is Here to Stay.” Time, May 31, 74.
Brookhiser, Richard. 1993b. “III Cheers for the WASPs.” Time, December 2, 78–79.
Brookhiser, Richard. 1994. “Let Us Pray.” Time, December 19, 84.
Brooks, Clem. 2002. “Religious In›uence and the Politics of Family Decline Con-
cern: Trends, Sources, and U.S. Political Behavior.” American Sociological Review
67:191–211.
Brooks, Clem, and Jeff Manza. 1994. “Do Changing Values Explain the New Politics?
A Critical Assessment of the ‘Postmaterialist’ Thesis.” Sociological Quarterly
35:541–70.
Brooks, Clem, and Jeff Manza. 1997. “Social Cleavages and Political Alignments: U.S.
Presidential Elections, 1960 to 1992.” American Sociological Review 62:937–46.
Brooks, David. 2004. “The Values-Vote Myth.” New York Times, November 6, A19.
Brown, Robert D., and Edward G. Carmines. 1995. “Materialists, Postmaterialists, and
the Criteria for Political Choice in U.S. Presidential Elections.” Journal of Politics
57:483–94.
Brumann, Christoph. 1999. “Writing for Culture: Why a Successful Concept Should
Not Be Discarded.” Current Anthropology 40:S1–S13.
Brustein, Robert. 1991. “The Use and Abuse of Multiculturalism.” The New Republic,
September 16–23, 31–34.
Brustein, Robert. 1992. “The War on the Arts.” The New Republic, September 7–14,
35–38.
Brustein, Robert. 1995. “The Death of the Collective Ideal.” The New Republic, Sep-
tember 11, 27–28, 30.
Brustein, Robert. 1997a. “On Cultural Power.” The New Republic, March 3, 31–34.
Brustein, Robert. 1997b. “Funding Audiences.” The New Republic, June 9, 32–33.
Brustein, Robert. 1997c. “Mend It, Don’t End It.” The New Republic, October 6, 29–31.
Brustein, Robert. 1997d. “The Decline of High Culture.” The New Republic, November
3, 29–32.
references 227
Buchanan, Patrick. 2008. “The Palin Firestorm.” September 9. http://www.realclear

politics.com/articles/2008/09/one_of_them_and_one_of_us.html.
Buckley, William F., Jr. 1990a. “Are You ‘Responsible’?” National Review, May 14,
62–63.
Buckley, William F., Jr. 1990b. “Cincinnati Censorship.” National Review, May 14, 62.
Buckley, William F., Jr. 1992a. “Quayle versus Mapplethorpeism.” National Review,
July 20, 54–55.
Buckley, William F., Jr. 1992b. “A Fresh Deal for Gays.” National Review, October 5, 71.
Buckley, William F., Jr. 1993a. “Senator Goldwater and the Gays.” National Review,
July 19, 70.
Buckley, William F., Jr. 1993b. “Is Multiculturalism the Answer?” National Review, Au-
gust 9, 70–71.
Buckley, William F., Jr. 1994. “Let Us Pray?” National Review, October 10, 86–87.
Buckley, William F., Jr. 1995. “Excelsior the Counterculture.” National Review, January
23, 78–79.
Buckley, William F., Jr. 1996. “Is There a God behind Religion?” National Review, Feb-
ruary 12, 63.
Buckley, William F., Jr. 1997. “Re-Creating Creation.” National Review, December 31,
62–63.
Caldwell, Christopher. 1999. “Pro-Lifestyle.” The New Republic, April 5, 14–16.
Calhoon, Robert M. 1991. “Religion and Individualism in Early America.” In Ameri-
can Chameleon, ed. Richard O. Curry and Lawrence B. Goodheart, 44–65. Kent,
OH: Kent State University Press.
Campbell, David E. 2006. “Religious ‘Threat’ in Contemporary Presidential Elec-
tions.” Journal of Politics 68:104–15.
Carey, James W. 1988. “Editor’s Introduction: Taking Culture Seriously.” In Media,
Myths, and Narratives: Television and the Press, ed. James W. Carey, 8–18. Newbury
Park, CA: Sage.
Carlson, Margaret. 1997. “Partial-Truth Abortion.” Time, March 24, 40.
Carlson, Margaret. 1998. “The Passive Majority.” Time, November 9, 60.
Carmines, Edward G., and Geoffrey C. Layman. 1997. “Value Priorities, Partisanship,
and Electoral Choice.” Political Behavior 19:283–316.
Carroll, Jackson W., and Penny Long Marler. 1995. “Culture Wars? Insights from
Ethnographies of Two Protestant Seminaries.” Sociology of Religion 56:1–20.
Casanova, José. 1992. “Private and Public Religions.” Social Research 59:17–57.
Casanova, José. 1994. Public Religions in the Modern World. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press.
Chait, Jonathan. 1997. “Illiberal Arts.” The New Republic, September 29, 14, 16.
Chan, Tak Wing, and John H. Goldthorpe. 2007. “Class and Status: The Conceptual
Distinction and Its Empirical Relevance.” American Sociological Review 72:512–32.
Charen, Mona. 1984. “The Feminist Mistake.” National Review, March 23, 24–27.
Chaves, Mark. 1994. “Secularization as Declining Religious Authority.” Social Forces
72:749–74.
Chaves, Mark. 2002. “Abiding Faith.” Contexts 1:19–26.
228 references
Chavez, Linda. 1994. “Demystifying Multiculturalism.” National Review, February 21,

26, 28, 30, 32.
Chiusano, Michael. 1996. “Parents’ Rights.” National Review, September 30, 55–57.
Chock, Phyllis Pease. 1995. “Culturalism: Pluralism, Culture, and Race in the Harvard
Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups.” Identities 1:301–23.
Christenson, James A., and Ronald C. Wimberley. 1978. “Who Is Civil Religious?” So-
ciological Analysis 39:17–83.
Christian Science Monitor. 2008. “The Palin Factor in the ‘Culture Wars’.” September
12, 8.
Church, George J. 1995. “Pro-Life and Pro-Choice? Yes!” Time, March 6, 108.
Citrin, Jack, David O. Sears, Christopher Muste, and Cara Wong. 2001. “Multicultur-
alism in American Public Opinion.” British Journal of Political Science 31:247–75.
Clark, Terry Nicols. 2003. “The Breakdown of Class Politics.” American Sociologist
34:17–32.
Clarke, Breena, and Susan Tifft Durham. 1991. “A ‘Race Man’ Argues for a Broader
Curriculum.” Time, April 22, 16, 18.
Cloud, John. 2000. “Can a Scout Be Gay?” Time, May 1, 34–36.
Clydesdale, Timothy T. 1997. “Family Behaviors among Early U.S. Baby Boomers: Ex-
ploring the Effects of Religion and Income Change, 1965–1982.” Social Forces
76:605–35.
CNN. 2008. “Exit Polls: Obama Wins Big among Young, Minority Voters.” Novem-
ber 4. http://www.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/11/04/exit.polls/.
Cockburn, Alexander. 1985. “Jackboot Liberals.” The Nation, January 26, 70.
Cockburn, Alexander. 1991. “Bush and P.C.—A Conspiracy So Immense.” The Nation,
May 27, 685, 690–91, 704.
Connell, Noreen. 1986. “Feminists and Families.” The Nation, August 16–23, 106–8.
Cooper, Michael. 2008. “Palin on Offensive, Attacks Obama’s Ties to 60’s Radical.”
New York Times, October 5, A31.
Corliss, Richard. 1990. “X Rated.” Time, May 7, 92, 94–95, 97–99.
Corse, Sarah M. 1995. “Nations and Novels: Cultural Politics and Literary Use.” Social
Forces 73:1279–1308.
Cost, Jay. 2008. “On the ‘Palin Effect.’” October 15. http://www.realclearpolitics
.com/horseraceblog/2008/10/on_the_palin_effect .html.
Cox, Harvey. 1996. “The Transcendent Dimension.” The Nation, January 1, 20, 22–23.
Crain, Caleb. 1993. “Gay Glue.” The New Republic, May 10, 16.
Cunningham, Mark. 1992. “The Abortion War.” National Review, November 2, 42–48.
Curry, Richard O., and Karl E. Valois. 1991. “The Emergence of an Individualistic
Ethos in American Society.” In American Chameleon, ed. Richard O. Curry and
Lawrence B. Goodheart, 20–43. Kent, OH: Kent State University Press.
Custred, Glynn. 1997. “Country Time.” National Review, June 16, 39–40.
Danto, Arthur C. 1985. “Art.” The Nation, June 22, 775–76.
Danto, Arthur C. 1997. “‘Elitism’ and the N.E.A.” The Nation, November 17, 6–7.
Davis, Darren W. 2000. “Individual Level Examination of Postmaterialism in the
U.S.: Political Tolerance, Racial Attitudes, Environmentalism, and Participatory
Norms.” Political Research Quarterly 53:455–75.
references 229
Davis, Darren W., and Christian Davenport. 1999. “Assessing the Validity of the Post-
materialism Index.” American Political Science Review 93:649–64.
Davis, Derek H. 1997. “Law, Morals, and Civil Religion in America.” Journal of Church
and State 39:411–25.
Davis, Nancy J., and Robert V. Robinson. 1996a. “Are the Rumors of War Exagger-
ated? Religious Orthodoxy and Moral Progressivism in America.” American Jour-
nal of Sociology 102:756–87.
Davis, Nancy J., and Robert V. Robinson. 1996b. “Religious Orthodoxy in American
Society: The Myth of a Monolithic Camp.” Journal for the Scienti‹c Study of Reli-
gion 35:229–45.
Davis, Nancy J., and Robert V. Robinson. 1997. “A War for America’s Soul? The Amer-
ican Religious Landscape.” In Culture Wars in American Politics, ed. Rhys H.
Williams, 39–63. New York: Aldine De Gruyter.
Degler, Carl N. 1987. “In Pursuit of an American History.” American Historical Review
92:1–12.
Demerath, N. J., III. 2002. “A Sinner among the Saints: Confessions of a Sociologist
of Culture and Religion.” Sociological Forum 17:1–19.
Demerath, N. J., III, and Karen S. Straight. 1997. “Lambs among the Lions: America’s
Culture Wars in Cross-Cultural Perspective.” In Culture Wars in American Politics,
ed. Rhys H. Williams, 199–219. New York: Aldine De Gruyter.
Demerath, N. J., III, and Rhys H. Williams. 1985. “Civil Religion in an Uncivil Soci-
ety.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 480:154–66.
Demerath, N. J., III, and Yonghe Yang. 1997. “What American Culture War? A View
from the Trenches as Opposed to the Command Posts and the Press Corps.” In
Culture Wars in American Politics, ed. Rhys H. Williams, 17–38. New York: Aldine
de Gruyter.
Derbyshire, John. 2000. “First Amendment First.” National Review, October 9, 32, 34.
di Leonardo, Micaela. 1996. “Patterns of Culture Wars.” The Nation, April 8, 25–29.
Dillon, Michele. 1996. “The American Abortion Debate: Culture War or Normal Dis-
course?” In The American Culture Wars, ed. James L. Nolan Jr., 115–32. Char-
lottesville: University Press of Virginia.
DiMaggio, Paul. 1997. “Culture and Cognition.” Annual Review of Sociology 23:263–87.
DiMaggio, Paul. 2003. “The Myth of Culture War.” In The Fractious Nation? ed.
Jonathan Rieder and Stephen Steinlight, 79–97. Berkeley: University of Califor-
nia Press.
DiMaggio, Paul, John Evans, and Bethany Bryson. 1996. “Have Americans’ Social At-
titudes Become More Polarized?” American Journal of Sociology 102:690–755.
Dionne, E. J., Jr. 2006. “Why the Culture War Is the Wrong War.” The Atlantic
297:130–35.
Douthat, Ross. 2008. “Palin Fire.” National Review, September 29, 39–41.
D’Souza, Dinesh. 1991. Illiberal Education. New York: Free Press.
Duberman, Martin. 1993. “A Matter of Difference.” The Nation, July 5, 22–24.
Duch, Raymond M., and Kaare Strøm. 2004. “Liberty, Authority, and the New Poli-
tics.” Journal of Theoretical Politics 16:233–62.
Eagleton, Terry. 2000. The Idea of Culture. Oxford: Blackwell.
230 references
Easterbrook, Gregg. 2000. “Abortion and Brain Waves.” The New Republic, January
31, 21–25.
Edgell, Penny, Joseph Gerteis, and Douglas Hartmann. 2006. “Atheists as ‘Other’:
Moral Boundaries and Cultural Membership in American Society.” American So-
ciological Review 71:211–34.
Editorial. 1981a. “Creeping Sanity in Cambridge.” National Review, February 20,
140–41.
Editorial. 1981b. “The Glorious Fourth.” National Review, May 15, 532–33.
Editorial. 1984. “Prayer Power.” The Nation, March 17, 307–8.
Editorial. 1988a. “A Cultural Conservative Manifesto.” National Review, March 18,
21–22.
Editorial. 1988b. “The Culture of Apathy.” The New Republic, February 8, 7–8.
Editorial. 1989. “Exhibitionism.” The New Republic, July 17–24, 6.
Editorial. 1990a. “Art Appreciation.” The New Republic, October 8, 7–8.
Editorial. 1990b. “The New Apartheid.” National Review, July 23, 14.
Editorial. 1991a. “An American Culture.” National Review, May 27, 18.
Editorial. 1991b. “Ex Uno, Plus” National Review, July 29, 16.
Editorial. 1991c. “Operation Rescue.” National Review, October 7, 13.
Editorial. 1991d. “Mr. Sobol’s Planet.” The New Republic, July 15–22, 5–6.
Editorial. 1992. “Momma Dearest.” The New Republic, August 10, 7.
Editorial. 1993a. “Don’t Speak Its Name.” National Review, August 9, 13–14.
Editorial. 1993b. “Queer Nation.” National Review, August 9, 14, 16–17.
Editorial. 1993c. “Cross Purposes.” The Nation, August 9, 157.
Editorial. 1994a. “Demagoguery in America.” The New Republic, August 1, 7.
Editorial. 1994b. “Let Us Pray.” National Review, December 19, 16–18.
Editorial. 1995a. “For Art’s Sake.” The Nation, February 6, 151–52.
Editorial. 1995b. “Polymorphous Perversity.” National Review, November 27, 18.
Editorial. 1998a. “Dead Reckoning.” National Review, January 26, 11–12, 14.
Editorial. 1998b. “Feminists Will Be Feminists.” National Review, April 6, 17–18.
Editorial. 1998c. “Other Persuasions.” National Review, August 3, 14, 16.
Editorial. 1999. “The Origin of Speciousness.” The New Republic, September 6, 11–12.
Editorial. 2000a. “Separate but Equal?” The New Republic, January 10, 9.
Editorial. 2000b. “Crevices.” The New Republic, July 24, 9.
Editorial. 2000c. “Holy Joe! A Culture War!” The Nation, October 9, 3.
Ehrenreich, Barbara. 1982. “Family Feud on the Left.” The Nation, March 13, 234, 289,
303–6.
Ehrenreich, Barbara. 1990. “Sorry, Sisters, This Is Not the Revolution.” Time, Novem-
ber 8, 15.
Ehrenreich, Barbara. 1991. “Teach Diversity—With a Smile.” Time, April 8, 84.
Ehrenreich, Barbara. 1992a. “. . . Or Is It Creative Freedom?” Time, July 20, 89.
Ehrenreich, Barbara. 1992b. “Why the Religious Right Is Wrong.” Time, September
17, 72.
Ehrenreich, Barbara. 1993a. “The Gap between Gay and Straight.” Time, May 10, 76.
Ehrenreich, Barbara. 1993b. “Living Out the Wars of 1968.” Time, June 7, 74.
Ehrenreich, Barbara. 1994. “Feminism Confronts Bobbittry.” Time, January 24, 74.
references 231
Ehrenreich, Barbara. 1995. “In Defense of Talk Shows.” Time, December 4, 92.
Ehrenreich, Barbara, and Janet McIntosh. 1997. “The New Creationism.” The Nation,
June 9, 11–13, 15–16.
Eichman, E. 1990. “Saving the Arts in Union Square.” National Review, June 25,
23–24.
Eller, Jack David. 1997. “Anti-Anti-Multiculturalism.” American Anthropologist 99:
249–56.
Elshtain, Jean Bethke. 1996. “Cardinal Virtue.” The New Republic, December 9, 25.
Elshtain, Jean Bethke. 1998. “The Right Rights.” The New Republic, June 15, 11–12.
Elson, John. 1994. “History, the Sequel.” Time, November 7, 64.
“Endless Culture War.” 2008. The Economist, October 4, 22–23.
Erikson, Kai T. 1976. Everything in Its Path. New York: Simon and Schuster.
Etzioni, Amitai. 1993. “How to Make Marriage Matter.” Time, September 6, 76.
Evangelical Manifesto Steering Committee. 2008. An Evangelical Manifesto. May 7.
http://www.anevangelicalmanifesto.com.
Evans, John H. 1997. “Worldviews or Social Groups as the Source of Moral Value At-
titudes: Implications for the Culture Wars Thesis.” Sociological Forum 12:371–404.
Evans, John H. 2002. “Polarization in Abortion Attitudes in U.S. Religious Traditions,
1972–1998.” Sociological Forum 17:397–422.
Evans, John H. 2003. “Have Americans’ Attitudes Become More Polarized?—An Up-
date.” Social Science Quarterly 84:71–90.
Evans, John H. 2006. “Polarized America? Letter to the Editor.” Commentary 121:3–4.
Evans, M. Stanton. 1995. “What Wall?” National Review, January 23, 56–58, 60, 76.
Feldblum, Chai R. 2000. “Moral Law, Changing Morals.” The Nation, October 9, 22,
24–25.
Feldman, Noah. 2007. “Universal Faith.” New York Times Magazine, August 26, 13–15.
Ferber, Michael. 1985. “Religious Revival on the Left.” The Nation, July 6–13, 9–13.
Ferguson, Andrew. 1989. “Mad about Mapplethorpe.” National Review, August 4,
20–21.
Finifter, Ada W., ed. 1972. Alienation and the Social System. New York: Wiley.
Finn, Chester E., Jr. 1986. “Two Cheers for Education’s G-Men.” National Review, Au-
gust 15, 35–37.
Fiorina, Morris P. 2006. “Polarized America? Letter to the Editor.” Commentary 121:3.
Fiorina, Morris P., with Samuel J. Abrams and Jeremy C. Pope. 2005. Culture War? The
Myth of a Polarized America. New York: Pearson Longman.
Fischer, Claude S. 2000. “Just How Is It That Americans Are Individualistic?” Paper
presented at the American Sociological Association Meetings, Washington, D.C.
Fischer, Claude S. 2008. “Paradoxes of American Individualism.” Sociological Forum
23:363–72.
Fischer, Claude S., and Michael Hout. 2006. Century of Difference. New York: Russell
Sage Foundation.
FitzGerald, Frances. 1986. Cities on a Hill. New York: Simon and Schuster.
Flanagan, Scott. 1987. “Value Change in Industrial Societies.” American Political Sci-
ence Review 81:1303–19.
Flanagan, Scott C., and Aie-Rie Lee. 2003. “The New Politics, Culture Wars, and the
232 references
Authoritarian-Libertarian Value Change in Advanced Industrial Democracies.”

Comparative Political Studies 36:235–70.
Foner, Eric. 1995. “Bobbing History.” The Nation, September 25, 302.
Fonte, John. 1996. “We the Peoples.” National Review, March 25, 47–49.
Forsythe, Clarke D. 1999. “First Steps.” National Review, December 20, 42, 44–45.
Frank, Thomas. 1997. “Liberation Marketing.” The Nation, January 13–20, 10.
Frank, Thomas. 2001. One Market under God. New York: Anchor.
Frank, Thomas. 2005. What’s the Matter with Kansas? New York: Holt.
Frank, Tom. 1996. “Hip Is Dead.” The Nation, April 1, 16, 18–19.
Fredrickson, George M. 1995. “From Exceptionalism to Variability: Recent Develop-
ments in Cross-National Comparative History.” Journal of American History
82:587–604.
Friend, Tad. 1992. “The Case for Middlebrow.” The New Republic, March 2, 24–27.
Fukuyama, Francis. 1995. Trust. New York: Free Press.
Fukuyama, Francis. 1999. “How to Re-Moralize America.” Wilson Quarterly 23:32–44.
Fumento, Michael J. 1988. “The Political Uses of an Epidemic.” The New Republic, Au-
gust 8–15, 19–23.
Gahr, Evan. 1997. “Tuning Out Religion.” National Review, October 27, 44–46.
Gallagher, Maggie. 1987. “The New Pro-Life Rebels.” National Review, February 27,
37–39.
Gallagher, Maggie. 1999. “Marriage-Saving.” National Review, November 8, 38–40.
Gans, Herbert J. 1979. “Symbolic Ethnicity: The Future of Ethnic Groups and Cul-
tures in America.” In On the Making of Americans: Essays in Honor of David Ries-
man, ed. Herbert J. Gans, Nathan Glazer, Joseph R. Gus‹eld, and Christopher
Jencks, 193–220. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Gans, Herbert J. 1980. Deciding What’s News. New York: Vintage.
Gans, Herbert J. 1988. Middle American Individualism. New York: Free Press.
Gates, Henry Louis, Jr. 1992. Loose Canons. New York: Oxford University Press.
Geertz, Clifford. 1973. The Interpretation of Cultures. New York: Basic Books.
Gergen, Kenneth J. 1991. The Saturated Self. New York: Basic Books.
Gerstle, Gary. 1994. “The Protean Character of American Liberalism.” American His-
torical Review 99:1043–73.
Gerteis, Joseph, and Mike Savage. 1998. “The Salience of Class in Britain and Amer-
ica: A Comparative Analysis.” British Journal of Sociology 49:252–74.
Gevisser, Mark. 1988. “Lesbian and Gay Students Choose.” The Nation, March 26,
413–14.
Gibbs, Nancy. 1991. “America’s Holy War.” Time, December 9, 60–66, 68.
Gibbs, Nancy. 1992. “The War against Feminism.” Time, March 9, 50–55.
Gibbs, Nancy. 1999. “America, Love It or Leave It.” Time, April 5, 47.
Gibbs, Nancy. 2000. “Whose Bully Pulpit Now?” Time, September 11, 38.
Gibbs, Nancy, and Jeanne McDowell. 1992. “How to Revive a Revolution.” Time,
March 9, 56–57.
Gibson, James L. 1992. “The Political Consequences of Intolerance: Cultural Confor-
mity and Political Freedom.” American Political Science Review 86:338–56.
Giesea, Jeffrey R. 1997. “Western Sieve.” National Review, September 15, 63–64, 84.
references 233
Gilder, George. 1986. “The Sexual Revolution at Home.” National Review, October 10,
30–32, 34.
Gingrich, Newt. 1995. “Cutting Cultural Funding: A Reply.” Time, August 21, 70–71.
Gitlin, Todd. 1995. The Twilight of Common Dreams. New York: Metropolitan.
Glazer, Nathan. 1988. “Canon Fodder.” The New Republic August 22, 19–21.
Glazer, Nathan. 1991. “In Defense of Multiculturalism.” The New Republic, September
2, 18–20, 22.
Glazer, Nathan. 1997. We Are All Multiculturalists Now. Cambridge: Harvard Univer-
sity Press.
Glynn, Patrick. 1999. “Monkey on Our Backs.” National Review, September 13, 42, 44.
Goldberg, Jonah. 2000. “Violent Fantasy.” National Review, October 23, 62–65.
Goldberg, Steven. 1991. “Feminism against Science.” National Review, November 18,
30–33.
Goldberg, Steven. 1993. “Can Women Beat Men at Their Own Game?” National Re-
view, December 27, 30, 32, 34–36.
Goode, Judith. 2001. “Teaching against Culturalist Essentialism.” In Cultural Diver-
sity in the United States, ed. Ida Susser and Thomas C. Patterson, 434–56. Malden,
MA: Blackwell.
Goodheart, Lawrence B., and Richard O. Curry. 1991. “A Confusion of Voices: The
Crisis of Individualism in Twentieth-Century America.” In American Chameleon,
ed. Richard O. Curry and Laurence B. Goodhart, 188–212. Kent, OH: Kent State
University Press.
Gordon, Linda. 1998. “Back-Alley Abortion.” The Nation, November 16, 5.
Gorski, Philip S. 2000. “Historicizing the Secularization Debate: Church, State, and
Society in Late Medieval and Early Modern Europe, ca. 1300 to 1700.” American
Sociological Review 65:138–67.
Grabb, Edward, Douglas Baer, and James Curtis. 1999. “Origins of American Individ-
ualism: Reconsidering the Historical Evidence.” Canadian Journal of Sociology
24:511–33.
Grabb, Edward, Douglas Baer, and James Curtis. 2000. “Pluralism and Toleration in
Contemporary Political Philosophy.” Political Studies 48:323–33.
Graff, E. J. 1996. “Retying the Knot.” The Nation, June 24, 12.
Graff, Gerald, and William E. Cain. 1989. “Peace Plan for the Canon Wars.” The Na-
tion, March 6:310–13.
Grant, Daniel. 1999. “Bland Art in Every Pot.” The Nation, November 29, 44–47.
Gray, John. 1992. “The Virtues of Toleration.” National Review, October 5, 28, 30, 32,
34–36.
Gray, John. 2000. “Pluralism and Toleration in Contemporary Political Philosophy.”
Political Studies 48:323–33.
Gray, Paul. 1991. “Whose America?” Time, July 8, 12–17.
Greeley, Andrew. 1991. “American Exceptionalism: The Religious Phenomenon.” In
Is America Different? ed. Byron E. Shafer, 94–115. New York: Oxford University
Press, 94–115.
Greeley, Andrew M., and Michael Hout. 1999. “Americans Increasing Belief in Life
234 references
after Death: Religious Competition and Acculturation.” American Sociological Re-

view 64:813–35.
Greeley, Andrew M., and Michael Hout. 2006. The Truth about Conservative Chris-
tians. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Green, Philip. 1989. “Abortion: The Abusable Past.” The Nation, August 7–14, 177–79.
Gross, Neil, and Solon Simmons. 2007. “The Social and Political Views of American
Professors.” Working Paper, September 24.
Guinness, Os. 1993. The American Hour. New York: Free Press.
Hadaway, C. Kirk, Penny Long Marler, and Mark Chaves. 1993. “What the Polls Don’t
Show: A Closer Look at U.S. Church Attendance.” American Sociological Review
58:741–52.
Hadden, Jeffrey K. 1987. “Toward Desacralizing Secularization Theory.” Social Forces
65:587–611.
Hajda, Jan. 1961. “Alienation and Integration of Student Intellectuals.” American So-
ciological Review 26:758–77.
Halman, Loek. 1996. “Individualism in Individualized Society? Results from the Eu-
ropean Values Surveys.” International Journal of Comparative Sociology 37:195–214.
Halman, Loek, and Veerle Draulans. 2006. “How Secular Is Europe?” British Journal of
Sociology 57:263–88.
Hannerz, Ulf. 1992. Cultural Complexity. New York: Columbia University Press.
Harris, Michael P. 1988. “Second Thoughts about Abortion.” Time, July 4, 44.
Harris, Sam. 2007. “God-Drunk Society.” The Atlantic 300:44.
Hart, Jeffrey. 1987. “Ethnophobia, Heterophobia, and Liberal Fascism.” National Re-
view, February 13, 46.
Hart, Jeffrey. 1988. “Does the University Have a Future?” National Review, April 1, 32.
Hart, Jeffrey. 1989a. “Report from a Phallocrat.” National Review, February 24, 45.
Hart, Jeffrey. 1989b. “Profscam.” National Review, April 21, 39.
Hart, Jeffrey. 1996. “What Is an American?” National Review, April 22, 52, 54–56.
Hartmann, Douglas, and Joseph Gerteis. 2005. “Dealing with Diversity: Mapping
Multiculturalism in Sociological Terms.” Sociological Theory 23:208–40.
Hartz, Louis. 1955. The Liberal Tradition in America. New York: Harcourt, Brace and
World.
Healy, Patrick. 2008. “A Riveting Speaker, Waving the Flag.” New York Times, October
14, A19.
Hechter, Michael. 2004. “From Class to Culture.” American Journal of Sociology
110:400–445.
Henry, William A., III. 1990. “Beyond the Melting Pot.” Time, April 9, 28–31.
Henry, William A., III. 1991. “Upside Down in the Groves of Academe.” Time, April 1,
66–69.
Henry, William A., III. 1993. “The Politics of Separation.” Time, November 18, 73–75.
Hentoff, Nat. 1992. “Pro-Choice Bigots.” The New Republic, November 30, 21, 24–25.
Herberg, Will. 1956. Protestant-Catholic-Jew. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.
Herberg, Will. 1974. “America’s Civil Religion: What It Is and Whence It Comes.” In
American Civil Religion, ed. Russell E. Richey and Donald G. Jones, 76–88. New
York: Harper and Row.
references 235
Herrera, Richard. 1996–97. “Understanding the Language of Politics: A Study of Elites

and Masses.” Political Science Quarterly 111:619–37.
Hetherington, Marc J. 2001. “Resurgent Mass Partisanship: The Role of Elite Polar-
ization.” American Political Science Review 95:619–31.
Hicks, Alexander. 2006. “Free-Market and Religious Fundamentalists versus Poor Re-
lief.” American Sociological Review 71:503–10.
Himmelfarb, Gertrude. 1999. One Nation, Two Cultures. New York: Knopf.
Hitchens, Christopher. 1984. “Minority Report.” The Nation, September 22, 230.
Hitchens, Christopher. 1985. “Minority Report.” The Nation, June 8, 694.
Hitchens, Christopher. 1991. “Minority Report.” The Nation, October 21, 472.
Hollinger, David A. 1995. Postethnic America. New York: Basic Books.
Hollinger, David A. 2001. “The ‘Secularization’ Question and the United States in the
Twentieth Century.” Church History 70:132–43.
Hollinger, David A. 2002. “Why Is There So Much Christianity in the United States?”
Church History 71:858–64.
Hook, Sidney. 1989. “Civilization and Its Malcontents.” National Review, October 13,
30–33.
Hoover, Dennis R., Michael D. Martinez, Samuel H. Reimer, and Kenneth D. Wald.
2002. “Evangelicalism Meets the Continental Divide: Moral and Economic Con-
servatism in the United States and Canada.” Political Research Quarterly
55:351–74.
Horton, Michael S. 1994. Beyond Culture Wars. Chicago: Moody.
Houppert, Karen. 2000. “The Meaning of Life.” The Nation, March 13, 7.
Hout, Michael, Clem Brooks, and Jeff Manza. 1995. “The Democratic Class Struggle
in the United States, 1948–1992.” American Sociological Review 60:805–28.
Hout, Michael, and Claude S. Fischer. 2002. “Why More Americans Have No Reli-
gious Preference: Politics and Generations.” American Sociological Review
67:165–90.
Hout, Michael, and Andrew Greeley. 1998. “What Church Of‹cials’ Reports Don’t
Show: Another Look at Church Attendance Data.” American Sociological Review
63:113–19.
Howe, Irving. 1984. “Toward an Open Culture.” The New Republic, March 5, 25–29.
Howe, Irving. 1991. “The Value of the Canon.” The New Republic, February 18, 40–44,
46–47.
Hoynes, William. 1996. “Public Television and the Culture Wars.” In The American
Culture Wars, ed. James L. Nolan Jr., 61–87. Charlottesville: University Press of
Virginia.
Hsu, Hua. 2009. “The End of White America?” The Atlantic 303:46–55.
Hudson, Deal W. 1996. “Thinking about God.” National Review, September 30, 40,
42.
Hughes, Robert. 1989. “A Loony Parody of Cultural Democracy.” Time, August 14, 82.
Hughes, Robert. 1990. “Whose Art Is It, Anyway?” Time, June 4, 46–48.
Hughes, Robert. 1992a. “The Fraying of America.” Time, February 3, 44–49.
Hughes, Robert. 1992b. “The NEA: Trampled Again.” Time, June 22, 43.
Hughes, Robert. 1995. “Pulling the Fuse on Culture.” Time, August 7, 60–68.
236 references
Hunter, James Davison. 1991. Culture Wars. New York: Basic Books.
Hunter, James Davison. 1994. Before the Shooting Begins. New York: Free Press.
Hunter, James Davison. 1996. “Response to Davis and Robinson: Remembering
Durkheim.” Journal for the Scienti‹c Study of Religion 35:246–48.
Hunter, James Davison. 1998. “The American Culture War.” In The Limits of Social Co-
hesion, ed. Peter L. Berger, 1–37. Boulder, CO: Westview.
Hunter, James Davison. 2002. “Beyond Individualism? A Response to Robert Bellah.”
Hedgehog Review 4:42–48.
Hunter, James Davison. 2004. “Culture Wars Revisited.” Insight 10:5–6.
Hunter, James Davison, and Alan Wolfe. 2006. Is There a Culture War? Washington,
DC: Brookings Institution Press.
Hunter, Nan D. 1991. “Sexual Dissent and the Family.” The Nation, October 7, 406,
408, 410–11.
Hyde, Henry J. 1990a. “The Culture War.” National Review, April 30, 25–27.
Hyde, Henry J. 1990b. “Morals, Markets, and Freedom.” National Review, November
5, 52–54.
Inglehart, Ronald. 1977. The Silent Revolution Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Inglehart, Ronald, and Wayne E. Baker. 2000. “Modernization, Cultural Change, and
the Persistence of Traditional Values.” American Sociological Review 65:19–51.
Inkeles, Alex. 1990–91. “National Character Revisited.” Tocqueville Review 12:83–117.
Ireland, Doug. 1999. “Rebuilding the Gay Movement.” The Nation, July 12, 11–12,
15–16, 18.
Jacoby, Russell. 1994. Dogmatic Wisdom. New York: Doubleday.
Jacoby, Tamar. 1991. “Psyched Out.” The New Republic, February 18, 28–30.
Jelen, Ted G. 1990. “Religious Belief and Attitude Constraint.” Journal for the Scienti‹c
Study of Religion 29:118–25.
Jelen, Ted. G., and Clyde Wilcox. 1997. “Conscientious Objectors in the Culture War?
A Typology of Attitudes toward Church-State Relations.” Sociology of Religion
58:277–87.
Jennings, M. Kent. 1992. “Ideological Thinking among Mass Publics and Political
Elites.” Public Opinion Quarterly 56:419–41.
Jensen, Richard. 1995. “The Culture Wars, 1965–1995: A Historian’s Map.” Journal of
Social History 29:17–37.
Jones, Donald G., and Russell E. Richey. 1974. “The Civil Religion Debate.” In Amer-
ican Civil Religion, ed. Donald G. Jones and Russell E. Richey, 3–18. New York:
Harper and Row.
Jones, Terry. 2005. “Why They Voted.” St. Louis Journalism Review June, 8, 24.
Joppke, Christian. 1996. “Multiculturalism and Immigration: A Comparison of the
United States, Germany, and Great Britain.” Theory and Society 25:449–500.
Judis, John B. 1999. “Value-Free.” The New Republic, April 26–May 3, 53, 55–56.
Kallen, Horace M. 1956. Cultural Pluralism and the American Idea. Philadelphia: Uni-
versity of Pennsylvania Press.
Kallen, Horace M. 1957. “Alain Locke and Cultural Pluralism.” Journal of Philosophy
54:119–27.
Kaminer, Wendy. 1996. “The Last Taboo.” The New Republic, October 14, 24–28, 32.
references 237
Kammen, Michael. 1972. People of Paradox. New York: Knopf.

Kammen, Michael. 1993. “The Problem of American Exceptionalism: A Reconsidera-
tion.” American Quarterly 45:1–43.
Kaufman, Jason. 2002. For the Common Good? American Civic Life and the Golden Age
of Fraternity. New York: Oxford University Press.
Kaufmann, Karen M. 2002. “Culture Wars, Secular Realignment, and the Gender
Gap in Party Identi‹cation.” Political Behavior 24:283–307.
Kautz, Steven. 1993. “Liberalism and the Idea of Toleration.” American Journal of Po-
litical Science 37:610–32.
Kazal, Russell A. 1995. “Revisiting Assimilation: The Rise, Fall, and Reappraisal of a
Concept in American Ethnic History.” American Historical Review 100:437–71.
Kazin, Michael. 1998. “The Politics of Devotion.” The Nation, April 6, 16, 18–19.
Kidd, Dustin. 2006. “Rethinking the Culture Wars Concept.” Culture 20:1, 4–6.
Kimball, Roger. 1990. Tenured Radicals. New York: Harper and Row.
Kimball, Roger. 2000. The Long March: How the Cultural Revolution of the 1960’s
Changed America. San Francisco: Encounter.
Kimeldorf, Howard, and Judith Stepan-Norris. 1992. “Historical Studies of Labor
Movements in the United States.” Annual Review of Sociology 18:495–517.
King, Florence. 1992. “She Dies in the End.” National Review, July 6, 64.
Kinsley, Michael. 1989. “The New Politics of Abortion.” Time, July 17, 96.
Kinsley, Michael. 1991. “P.C.B.S.” The New Republic, May 20, 8, 50.
Kinsley, Michael. 1992a. “Arts and Crafts.” The New Republic, March 16, 6, 41.
Kinsley, Michael. 1992b. “Happy Families.” The New Republic, June 15, 6.
Kinsley, Michael. 1992c. “Ice-T: Is the Issue Social Responsibility . . .” Time, July 20,
88.
Kinsley, Michael. 1993. “Right-Wing P.C. Is Still P.C.” Time, August 9, 66.
Kinsley, Michael. 1996. “America Tiptoes to the Left.” Time, December 9, 38.
Kirk, Russell. 1983. “The Rediscovery of Creation.” National Review, May 27, 626,
640–41.
Kirkpatrick, David D. 2007. “The Evangelical Crackup.” New York Times Magazine,
October 28, 38–45, 60, 64, 66.
Kirkpatrick, David D. 2008. “Firing Up the Faithful with Echoes of Culture War
Rhetoric.” New York Times, September 5, A23.
Klinghoffer, David. 1989. “Scenes from the Gay Life.” National Review, August 4,
22–23.
Klinghoffer, David. 1996. “Kitsch Religion.” National Review, June 3, 49–53.
Klinghoffer, David. 1998. “Gay Okay?” National Review, September 1, 24, 26.
Kohut, Andrew, John C. Green, Scott Keeter, and Robert C. Toth. 2000. The Dimin-
ishing Divide. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.
Konig, Susan Brady. 1997. “They’ve Got to Be Carefully Taught.” National Review, Sep-
tember 15, 46.
Koning, Hans. 1980. “Direct Line.” The Nation, November 5, 501.
Kopkind, Andrew. 1993. “The Gay Moment.” The Nation, May 3, 577, 590, 592,
594–96, 598, 600–602.
238 references
Kopkind, Andrew, and Anne-Christine d’Adesky. 1993. “A Queer Nation.” The Na-
tion, July 5, 3–4.
Kramer, Hilton. 1993. “Hold the Arts Page.” National Review, June 21, 37–39.
Krauthammer, Charles. 1981. “The Humanist Phantom.” The New Republic, July 25,
20–25.
Krauthammer, Charles. 1984. “America’s Holy War.” The New Republic, April 9, 15–19.
Krauthammer, Charles. 1990. “Education: Doing Bad and Feeling Good.” Time, Feb-
ruary 5, 78.
Krauthammer, Charles. 1991. “Hail Columbus, Dead White Male.” Time, May 27, 74.
Krauthammer, Charles. 1995. “Quebec and the Death of Diversity.” Time, November
13, 124.
Krauthammer, Charles. 1996. “When John and Jim Say ‘I Do.’” Time, July 22, 102.
Krauthammer, Charles. 1998. “Will It Be Coffee, Tea or He?” Time, June 15, 92.
Krauthammer, Charles. 1999. “The Real Message of Creationism.” Time, November
22, 120.
Kriegel, Leonard. 1984–85. “Who Cares about the Humanities?” The Nation, Decem-
ber 29–January 5, 712, 714–15.
Kroeber, A. L., and Clyde Kluckhohn. 1952. Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and
De‹nitions. Cambridge, MA: Peabody Museum.
Krugman, Paul. 2002. “For Richer: How the Permissive Capitalism of the Boom De-
stroyed American Equality.” New York Times Magazine, October 20, 62–67, 76.
Kuper, Adam. 1999. Culture: The Anthropologists’ Account. Cambridge: Harvard Uni-
versity Press.
Labi, Nadya. 1998. “Girl Power.” Time, June 29, 60–62.
Lakoff, George. 2002. Moral Politics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
LaMarche, Gara, and William B. Rubenstein. 1990. “The Love That Dare Not Speak.”
The Nation, November 5, 524, 526.
Lamont, Michele, and Virag Molnar. 2002. “The Study of Boundaries in the Social
Sciences.” Annual Review of Sociology 28:167–95.
Langer, Gary. 2004. “A Question of Values.” New York Times, November 6, A19.
Langer, Gary, and Jon Cohen. 2005. “Voters and Values in the 2004 Election.” Pub-
lic Opinion Quarterly 69:744–59.
Lasch, Christopher. 1979. The Culture of Narcissism. New York: Norton.
Layman, Geoffrey C. 1997. “Religion and Political Behavior in the United States.”
Public Opinion Quarterly 61:288–316.
Layman, Geoffrey C. 2001. The Great Divide. New York: Columbia University Press.
Layman, Geoffrey C., and Edward G. Carmines. 1997. “Cultural Con›ict in American
Politics: Religious Traditionalism, Postmaterialism, and U.S. Political Behavior.”
Journal of Politics 59:751–77.
Layman, Geoffrey C., and Thomas M. Carsey. 2002. “Party Polarization and ‘Con›ict
Extension’ in the American Electorate.” American Journal of Political Science
46:786–802.
Layman, Geoffrey C., and John C. Green. 2006. “Wars and Rumours of Wars: The
Contexts of Cultural Con›ict in American Political Behaviour.” British Journal of
Political Science 36:61–89.
references 239
Leege, David C., Kenneth D. Wald, Brian S. Krueger, and Paul D. Mueller. 2002. The
Politics of Cultural Differences. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Leinberger, Paul, and Bruce Tucker. 1991. The New Individualists. New York: Harper-
Collins.
Leo, John. 1986. “Sex and Schools.” Time, November 24, 54–63.
Levine, Lawrence W. 1996. The Opening of the American Mind. Boston: Beacon.
Lind, Michael. 1993. “Aliens among Us.” The New Republic, August 23–30, 22–23.
Lindaman, Kara, and Donald P. Haider-Markel. 2002. “Issue Evolution, Political Par-
ties, and the Culture Wars.” Political Research Quarterly 55:91–110.
Lindsay, D. Michael. 2008. “Evangelicals in the Power Elite: Elite Cohesion Advanc-
ing a Movement.” American Sociological Review 73:60–82.
Lindsey, Brink. 2007. “A Farewell to Culture Wars.” National Review, June 25, 37–40.
Lipman, Samuel. 1991a. “The New American Arts Order.” National Review, February
11, 39–40.
Lipman, Samuel. 1991b. “Can We Save Culture?” National Review, August 26, 36–38,
53.
Lipset, Seymour Martin. 1975. “The Paradox of American Politics.” Public Interest
41:142–65.
Lipset, Seymour Martin. 1990. Continental Divide. New York: Routledge.
Lipset, Seymour Martin. 1996. American Exceptionalism: A Double-Edged Sword. New
York: Norton.
Loftus, Jeni. 2001. “America’s Liberalization in Attitudes toward Homosexuality, 1973
to 1998.” American Sociological Review 66:762–82.
Loury, Glenn C. 1997. “Pride and Prejudice.” The New Republic, May 19, 25.
Loury, Glenn C. 1998. “Legal Limits.” The New Republic, February 23, 16–17.
Lowenthal, Leo. 1950. “Historical Perspectives of Popular Culture.” American Journal
of Sociology 55:323–32.
Luker, Kristin. 1984. Abortion and the Politics of Motherhood. Berkeley: University of
California Press.
Machacek, David W. 2003. “The Problem of Pluralism.” Sociology of Religion
64:145–61.
Mans‹eld, Harvey. 2000. “Where We Stand.” National Review, July 3, 25–26.
Manza, Jeff, and Clem Brooks. 1996. “Does Class Analysis Still Have Anything to
Contribute to the Study of Politics?” Theory and Society 25:717–24.
Manza, Jeff, and Clem Brooks. 1997. “The Religious Factor in U.S. Presidential Elec-
tions, 1960–1992.” American Journal of Sociology 103:38–81.
Manza, Jeff, Michael Hout, and Clem Brooks. 1995. “Class Voting in Capitalist
Democracies since World War II: Dealignment, Realignment, or Trendless Fluc-
tuation?” Annual Review of Sociology 21:137–62.
Marshner, Connaught C. 1988. “What Social Conservatives Really Want.” National
Review, September 2, 38–40.
Martin, David. 1991. “What Makes People Good?” National Review, September 9,
25–29.
Marty, Martin E. 1985. “Transpositions: American Religion in the 1980s.” Annals of
the American Academy of Political and Social Science 480:11–23.
240 references
Mathewes-Green, Frederica. 1997. “Beyond ‘It’s a Baby.’” National Review, December

31, 40–42.
Mattick, Paul, Jr. 1990. “Arts and the State.” The Nation, October 1, 348–58.
Mayer, Jane. 2008. “The Insiders.” New Yorker, October 27, 38–42.
McCarter, Jeremy. 1999. “Arts and Craft.” The New Republic, February 8, 15–17.
McCarthy, E. Doyle. 1996. Knowledge as Culture. London: Routledge.
McClay, Wilfred M. 2004. “The Soul of a Nation.” Public Interest 155:4–19.
McConkey, Dale. 2001. “Whither Hunter’s Culture War? Shifts in Evangelical Moral-
ity, 1988–1998.” Sociology of Religion 62:149–74.
McConnell, Scott, and Eric Breindel. 1990. “Head to Come.” The New Republic, Janu-
ary 8–15, 18–21.
McCormick, Richard L. 1974. “Ethno-Cultural Interpretations of Nineteenth-Cen-
tury American Voting Behavior.” Political Science Quarterly 89:351–77.
Melzer, Arthur M. 1991. “Tolerance 101.” The New Republic, July 1, 10–12.
Merelman, Richard M. 1994. “Racial Con›ict and Cultural Politics in the United
States.” Journal of Politics 56:1–20.
Meyrowitz, Joshua, and John Maguire. 1993. “Media, Place, and Multiculturalism.”
Society 30:41–48.
Miceli, Melinda S. 2005. “Morality Politics vs. Identity Politics: Framing Processes
and Competition among Christian Right and Gay Social Movement Organiza-
tions.” Sociological Forum 20:589–612.
Miller, Alan S., and John P. Hoffmann. 1999. “The Growing Divisiveness: Culture
Wars or a War of Words?” Social Forces 78:721–45.
Miller, John J. 1993. “Afrocentrism in the Suburbs.” National Review, September 20,
58, 60.
Miller, Jon D., Eugenie C. Scott, and Shinji Okamoto. 2006. “Public Acceptance of
Evolution.” Science 313:765–66.
Mindus, Daniel. 2000. “What to Tell the Children.” National Review, September 11,
44, 46.
Minogue, Kenneth. 1991. “The Goddess That Failed.” National Review, November 18,
46–48.
Mondak, Jeffery J., and Mitchell S. Sanders. 2003. “Tolerance and Intolerance,
1976–1998.” American Journal of Political Science 47:492–502.
Moore, Laura M., and Reeve Vanneman. 2003. “Context Matters: Effects of the Pro-
portion of Fundamentalists on Gender Attitudes.” Social Forces 82:115–39.
Morley, Jefferson. 1986. “Shoving Time.” The New Republic, July 28, 11–13.
Morrow, Lance. 1981. “To Revive Responsibility.” Time, February 23, 72–74.
Morrow, Lance. 1992a. “But Seriously, Folks . . .” Time, June 1, 28–31.
Morrow, Lance. 1992b. “Family Values.” Time, August 31, 22–27.
Morrow, Lance. 1994a. “Men: Are They Really That Bad?” Time, February 14, 52–59.
Morrow, Lance. 1994b. “Yin and Yang, Sleaze and Moralizing.” Time, December 26,
158.
Morrow, Lance. 1995. “Fifteen Cheers for Abstinence.” Time, October 2, 90.
Mouw, Ted, and Michael E. Sobel. 2001. “Culture Wars and Opinion Polarization:
The Case of Abortion.” American Journal of Sociology 106:913–43.
references 241
Muller, Jerry Z. 1995. “The Conservative Case for Abortion.” The New Republic, Au-
gust 21, 27–29.
Myrdal, Gunnar. 1944. An American Dilemma. New York: Harper.
Nadler, Richard. 1997. “Abstaining from Sex Education.” National Review, September
15, 50–51.
Nadler, Richard. 1998. “Glum and Glummer.” National Review, September 28, 26, 28,
30.
Neier, Aryeh. 1980. “Statues Have Free Speech Too.” The Nation, October 18, 375–76.
Nelson, Jill. 1995. “Talk Is Cheap.” The Nation, June 5, 800–802.
Neuhaus, Richard John. 1986. “The Catholic Moment.” National Review, November 7,
46.
Neuhaus, Richard John. 1988a. “The Church of Your Political Choice.” National Re-
view, September 30, 46.
Neuhaus, Richard John. 1988b. “To See as God Sees.” National Review, October 28, 24.
Neuhaus, Richard John. 1989a. “So Little Change, So Much Difference.” National Re-
view, March 24, 20.
Neuhaus, Richard John. 1989b. “After Roe.” National Review, April 7, 38–42.
Neuhaus, Richard John. 1995. “Alien Notion.” National Review, February 6, 62, 64–66.
Neusner, Jacob. 1984. “Ethnic Studies, Campus Ghettos.” National Review, June 15,
42, 44, 61.
Newport, Frank. 2008. “McCain Retains Support of Highly Religious White Voters.”
October 27. http://www.gallup.com/poll/111463/McCain-Retains-Support-
Highly-Religious-White-Voters.aspx.
New York Times. 2008. “National Exit Polls Table.” November 5. http://elections
.nytimes.com/2008/results/president/national-exit-polls.html.
Nolan, James L., Jr. 1996. “Contrasting Styles of Political Discourse in America’s Past
and Present Culture Wars.” In The American Culture Wars, ed. James L. Nolan Jr.,
155–88. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia.
Nolan, Mary. 1997. “Against Exceptionalism.” American Historical Review 102:769–74.
Noonan, Peggy. 2008. “Palin’s Failin’.” Wall Street Journal, October 17. http://on
line.wsj.com/article/SB122419210832542317.html.
“Notes and Asides.” 1990. National Review, July 9, 16–18.
Novak, Michael. 1972. The Rise of the Unmeltable Ethnics. New York: Macmillan.
Novak, Michael. 1984. “The Revolt against Our Public Culture.” National Review, May
4, 48.
Novak, Michael. 1997. “Personally Opposed.” National Review, May 5, 47–48.
Nussbaum, Martha. 1992. “The Softness of Reason.” The New Republic, July 13–20,
26–27, 30, 32, 34–35.
Oestreicher, Richard. 1988. “Urban Working-Class Political Behavior and Theories of
American Electoral Politics, 1870–1940.” Journal of American History 74:1257–86.
Olson, Daniel V. A. 1997. “Dimensions of Cultural Tension among the American Pub-
lic.” In Culture Wars in American Politics, ed. Rhys H. Williams, 237–58. New York:
Aldine De Gruyter.
Olson, Daniel V. A., and Jackson W. Carroll. 1992. “Religiously Based Politics: Reli-
gious Elites and the Public.” Social Forces 70:765–86.
242 references
Ortner, Sherry B. 1999. Introduction to The Fate of “Culture”: Geertz and Beyond, ed.
Sherry B. Ortner, 1–13. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Ostling, Richard N. 1989. “The Mainline Blues.” Time, May 22, 94–96.
Ostling, Richard N. 1991. “What Does God Really Think about Sex?” Time, June 24,
48–50.
O’Sullivan, John. 1994a. “Nationhood: An American Activity.” National Review, Feb-
ruary 21, 36–45.
O’Sullivan, John. 1994b. “America’s Identity Crisis.” National Review, November 21,
36–41, 44–45, 76.
O’Sullivan, John. 2000. “Our Inglorious Revolution.” National Review, April 3, 22.
Pakulski, Jan, and Malcolm Waters. 1996. “The Reshaping and Dissolution of Social
Class in Advanced Society.” Theory and Society 25:667–91.
Palin, Sarah. 2008. “Character, Hope and Change.” Address to the Republican Na-
tional Convention, September 2. Vital Speeches of the Day 74:486–89.
Parrillo, Vincent N. 1994. “Diversity in America: A Sociohistorical Analysis.” Socio-
logical Forum 9:523–45.
Pasley, Jeffrey L. 1987. “Not-So-Good Books.” The New Republic, April 27, 20–22.
Patterson, Orlando. 2000. “Taking Culture Seriously: A Framework and an Afro-
American Illustration.” In Culture Matters, ed. Laurence E. Harrison and Samuel
P. Huntington, 202–18. New York: Basic Books.
Payne, James L. 1995. “Education versus the American Way.” National Review, Sep-
tember 25, 58, 60, 62.
Petchesky, Rosalind. 1990. “Giving Women a Real Choice.” The Nation, May 28,
732–35.
Petersen, Larry R., and Gregory V. Donnenwerth. 1997. “Secularization and the
In›uence of Religion on Beliefs about Premarital Sex.” Social Forces 75:1071–89.
Peterson, Richard A. 2002. “Roll over Beethoven, There’s a New Way to Be Cool.”
Contexts 1:34–39.
Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life. 2008a. “How the Faithful Voted.” November
10. http://pewforum.org/docs/?DocID=367.
Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life. 2008b. “More Americans Question Religion’s
Role in Politics.” August 21. http://pewforum.org/docs/?DocID=334.
Pew Research Center for the People and the Press. 2002. “Americans Struggle with
Religion’s Role at Home and Abroad.” March 20. http://people-press.org/re
port/150/americans-struggle-with-religions-role-at-home-and-abroad.
Pew Research Center for the People and the Press. 2003. “The 2004 Political Land-
scape.” November 5. http://people-press.org/report/196/.
Pew Research Center for the People and the Press. 2005. “Religion a Strength and
Weakness for Both Parties: Public Divided on Origins of Life.” August 30.
http://people-press.org/report/254/religion-a-strength-and-weakness-for-both-
parties.
Pew Research Center for the People and the Press. 2006a. “Many Americans Uneasy
with Mix of Religion and Politics.” August 24. http://people-press.org/
report/287/many-americans-uneasy-with-mix-of-religion-and-politics.
Pew Research Center for the People and the Press. 2006b. “Pragmatic Americans Lib-
references 243
eral and Conservative on Social Issues.” August 3. http://people-press.org/

report/283/pragmatic-americans-liberal-and-conservative-on-social-issues.
Pew Research Center for the People and the Press. 2008. “Growing Doubts about
McCain’s Judgment, Age and Campaign Conduct.” October 21. http://people-
press.org/report/462/obamas-lead-widens.
Pew Research Center for the People and the Press. 2009. “On Obama’s Desk: Econ-
omy, Jobs Trump All Other Policy Priorities in 2009.” January 22. http://pewre
search.org/pubs/1087/economy-jobs-top-public-priorities-2009.
Pochoda, Elizabeth. 1991. “Multicultural Watch.” The Nation, November 18, 615.
Pochoda, Elizabeth. 1992. “Browbeating.” The Nation, March 16, 344.
Pollitt, Katha. 1983. “Bookends.” The Nation, July 2, 23–24.
Pollitt, Katha. 1990. “Georgie Porgie Is a Bully.” Time, November 1, 24.
Pollitt, Katha. 1991. “Canon to the Right of Me . . .” The Nation, September 23,
328–31.
Pollitt, Katha. 1992a. “Why I Hate ‘Family Values’ (Let Me Count the Ways).” The Na-
tion, July 20, 88, 90–92, 94.
Pollitt, Katha. 1992b. “Are Women Morally Superior to Men?” The Nation, December
28, 799–807.
Pollitt, Katha. 1994a. “Subject to Debate.” The Nation, February 21, 224.
Pollitt, Katha. 1994b. “Subject to Debate.” The Nation, December 26, 788.
Pollitt, Katha. 1996. “No God, No Master.” The Nation, January 22, 9.
Pollitt, Katha. 1997. “Honk If You Like Art.” The Nation, August 11–18, 10.
Pollitt, Katha. 1998a. “I’m O.K., You’re P.C.” The Nation, January 26, 10.
Pollitt, Katha. 1998b. “Race and Gender and Class, Oh My!” The Nation, June 8, 9.
Pollitt, Katha. 1998c. “Dead Again.” The Nation, July 31, 10.
Pollitt, Katha. 2000. “Freedom from Religion, Si!” The Nation, September 18–25, 10.
Ponnuru, Ramesh. 1999. “Not Dead Yet.” National Review, May 17, 41–44.
Ponnuru, Ramesh. 2007. “A Reply [to Brink Lindsey].” National Review, June 25, 40.
Postman, Neil, and Marc Postman. 1986. “Teach Creationism.” The Nation, January
11, 5.
Presser, Stanley, and Linda Stinson. 1998. “Data Collection Mode and Social Desir-
ability Bias in Self-Reported Religious Attendance.” American Sociological Review
63:137–45.
Putnam, Robert D. 2000. Bowling Alone. New York: Simon and Schuster.
Rae, Nicol C. 1992. “Class and Culture: American Political Cleavages in the Twenti-
eth Century.” Western Political Quarterly 45:629–50.
Rauch, Jonathan. 1993. “Beyond Oppression.” The New Republic, May 10, 18, 20, 23.
Ravitch, Diane. 1990. “Multiculturalism: E Pluribus Plures.” In Debating P.C., ed. Paul
Berman, 271–98. New York: Dell.
Raz, Joseph. 1994. “Multiculturalism: A Liberal Perspective.” Dissent 41:67–79.
Regnerus, Mark D., David Sikkink, and Christian Smith. 1999. “Voting with the
Christian Right: Contextual and Individual Patterns of Electoral In›uence.” So-
cial Forces 77:1375–1401.
Regnerus, Mark D., and Christian Smith. 1998. “Selective Deprivatization among
244 references
American Religious Traditions: The Reversal of the Great Reversal.” Social Forces
76:1347–72.
Reilly, Robert R. 1996. “Culture of Vice.” National Review, November 25, 60–61.
Reimer, Samuel H. 1995. “A Look at Cultural Effects on Religiosity: A Comparison be-
tween the United States and Canada.” Journal for the Scienti‹c Study of Religion
34:445–57.
Robertson, Roland. 1992. Globalization: Social Theory and Global Culture. London:
Sage.
Robinson, Lillian S. 1989. “What Culture Should Mean.” The Nation, September 25,
319–21.
Roche, John P. 1989. “The New Left Vigilantes.” National Review, December 8, 34–35.
Rodgers, Daniel T. 1992. “Republicanism: The Career of a Concept.” Journal of Amer-
ican History 79:11–38.
Rodgers, Daniel T. 2004. “American Exceptionalism Revisited.” Raritan 24:21–47.
Rodriguez, Richard. 1988. “The Fear of Losing a Culture.” Time, July 11, 84.
Rose, Fred. 1997. “Toward a Class-Cultural Theory of Social Movements: Reinterpret-
ing New Social Movements.” Sociological Forum 12:461–94.
Rosin, Hanna. 2005. “Beyond Belief.” The Atlantic 295:117–20.
Rotello, Gabriel. 1996. “To Have and to Hold.” The Nation, June 24, 11, 13, 15–16, 18.
Rothman, Stanley. 1992. “Is Dan Quayle Right?” National Review, October 5, 34–35.
Russell, George. 1991. “Reading, Writing—And Iroquois Politics.” Time, November
11, 20, 24–25.
Sachs, Andrea, and Susanne Washburn. 1995. “Tough Talk on Entertainment.” Time,
June 12, 32–35.
Sahlins, Marshall. 1999. “Two or Three Things That I Know about Culture.” Journal of
the Royal Anthropological Institute 5:399–421.
Saletan, William. 2009. “This Is the Way the Culture Wars End.” New York Times, Feb-
ruary 22, 11.
Schiffer, Adam J. 2000. “I’m Not That Liberal: Explaining Conservative Democratic
Identi‹cation.” Political Behavior 22:293–310.
Schlesinger, Arthur, Jr. 1991. “The Cult of Ethnicity, Good and Bad.” Time, July 8, 21.
Schlosberg, David. 1998. “Resurrecting the Pluralist Universe.” Political Research
Quarterly 51:583–615.
Schmalzbauer, John. 1993. “Evangelicals in the New Class: Class versus Subcultural
Predictors of Ideology.” Journal for the Scienti‹c Study of Religion 32:330–42.
Schudson, Michael. 1989. “How Culture Works: Perspectives from Media Studies on
the Ef‹cacy of Symbols.” Theory and Society 18:153–80.
Schulman, Bruce J. 1999. “Out of the Streets and into the Classroom? The New Left
and the Counterculture in United States History Textbooks.” Journal of American
History 85:1527–34.
Scott, Daryl Michael. 1998. “Postmodern Daze.” The Nation, December 14, 26–29.
Scott, David. 1992. “Criticism and Culture.” Critique of Anthropology 12:371–94.
Scott, David. 2003. “Culture in Political Theory.” Political Theory 31:92–115.
Scully, Matthew. 1993. “Joining the Cultural War.” National Review, June 7, 26–27.
references 245
Segal, Daniel A., and Richard Handler. 1995. “U.S. Multiculturalism and the Concept
of Culture.” Identities 1:391–407.
Segal, David. 1992. “Excuuuse Me.” The New Republic, May 11, 9–10.
Seligman, Daniel. 1993. “PC Comes to the Newsroom.” National Review, June 21, 28,
30–32, 34.
Sennett, Richard, and Jonathan Cobb. 1972. The Hidden Injuries of Class. New York:
Random House.
Sewell, William H., Jr. 1999. “The Concept(s) of Culture.” In Beyond the Cultural Turn,
ed. Victoria E. Bonnell and Lynn Hunt, 35–61. Berkeley: University of California
Press.
Shafer, Byron E. 1985. “The New Cultural Politics.” PS 18:221–31.
Shalit, Ruth. 1993. “Family-Mongers.” The New Republic, August 16, 12–14.
Shalit, Wendy. 1998. “Whose Choice?” National Review, May 18, 28–30.
Sherkat, Darren E. 1998. “Counterculture or Continuity? Competing In›uences on
Baby Boomers’ Religious Orientations and Participation.” Social Forces
76:1087–1114.
Short, Thomas. 1990. “Gay Rights or Closet Virtues.” National Review, September 17,
43–44.
Sidanius, Jim, Seymour Feshbach, Shana Levin, and Felicia Pratto. 1997. “The Inter-
face between Ethnic and National Attachment.” Public Opinion Quarterly 61:
102–33.
Siegel, Fred. 1991. “The Cult of Multiculturalism.” The New Republic, February 18,
34–36, 38, 40.
Siegel, Judith S., and Edwin J. Delattre. 1981. “Blackboard Jumble.” The New Republic,
April 18, 17–18.
Sikkink, David. 1999. “The Social Sources of Alienation from Public Schools.” Social
Forces 78:51–86.
Simmel, Georg. 1908/1971. On Individuality and Social Forms. Repr. Ed. Donald N.
Levine. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Simon, William E. 1993. “The Missing Issue.” National Review, March 15, 20–21.
Sirius, R. U. 1998. “The New Counterculture.” Time, November 9, 88–89.
Slater, Philip. 1976. The Pursuit of Loneliness. Boston: Beacon.
Smith, Barbara. 1993. “Where’s the Revolution?” The Nation, July 5, 12–14, 16.
Smith, Christian. 2000. Christian America? What Evangelicals Really Want. Berkeley:
University of California Press.
Smith, Christian, with Michael Emerson, Sally Gallagher, Paul Kennedy, and David
Sikkink. 1997. “The Myth of Culture Wars: The Case of American Protestantism.”
In Culture Wars in American Politics, ed. Rhys H. Williams, 175–95. New York:
Aldine De Gruyter.
Smith, Philip. 1998. “The New American Cultural Sociology: An Introduction.” In
The New American Cultural Sociology, ed. Philip Smith, 1–14. Cambridge: Cam-
bridge University Press.
Smith, Warren. 2008. “Whose ‘Evangelical Manifesto’?” OneNewsNow.com, April
17. http://www.onenewsnow.com/Printer.aspx?id=76376.
246 references
Sobran, Joseph. 1986. “The Politics of AIDS.” National Review, May 23, 22, 24, 26, 51,
52.
Sommers, Christina Hoff. 1992. “Sister Soldiers.” The New Republic, October 5, 29–30,
32–33.
Spencer, Martin E. 1994. “Multiculturalism, ‘Political Correctness,’ and the Politics of
Identity.” Sociological Forum 9:547–67.
Spillane, Margaret. 1990. “The Culture of Narcissism.” The Nation, December 10,
737–40.
Stacey, Judith. 1994. “The New Family Values Crusaders.” The Nation, July 25–August
1, 119–22.
Stanford, Michael. 1989. “The Stanford Library.” The New Republic, October 2, 18–20.
Stark, Rodney. 1999. “Secularization, R.I.P.” Sociology of Religion 60:249–73.
Steel, Ronald. 1998. “Who Is Us?” The New Republic, September 14–21, 13–14.
Stein, Joel. 1997. “The God Squad.” Time, September 22, 97–100.
Stein, Maurice R. 1960. The Eclipse of Community. Princeton: Princeton University
Press.
Stengel, Richard. 1986. “Sex Busters.” Time, July 21, 12–18, 21.
Strickler, Jennifer, and Nicholas L. Danigelis. 2002. “Changing Frameworks in Atti-
tudes toward Abortion.” Sociological Forum 17:187–201.
Sullivan, Andrew. 1989. “Here Comes the Groom (A Conservative Case for Gay Mar-
riage).” The New Republic, August 28, 20, 22.
Sullivan, Andrew. 1990. “Racism 101.” The New Republic, November 26, 18, 20–21.
Sullivan, Andrew. 1993. “The Politics of Homosexuality.” The New Republic, May 10,
24–26, 32–37.
Sullivan, Andrew. 1996. “Three’s a Crowd.” The New Republic, June 17, 10, 12.
Sullivan, Andrew. 2000. “Dumb and Dumber.” The New Republic, June 26, 6.
Suny, Ronald Grigor. 2002. “Back and Beyond: Reversing the Cultural Turn?” Ameri-
can Historical Review 107:1476–99.
Swatos, William H., Jr., and Kevin J. Christiano. 1999. “Secularization Theory: The
Course of a Concept.” Sociology of Religion 60:209–28.
Swidler, Ann. 1986. “Culture in Action: Symbols and Strategies.” American Sociologi-
cal Review 51:273–86.
Swidler, Ann. 2001. Talk of Love: How Culture Matters. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press.
Swidler, Ann. 2002. “Cultural Power and Social Movements.” In Cultural Sociology,
ed. Lyn Spillman, 311–23. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Sykes, Charles J., and Brad Miner. 1991. “Sense and Sensitivity.” National Review,
March 18, 30–31.
Talbot, Margaret. 2008. “Red Sex, Blue Sex.” The New Yorker, November 3, 64–69.
Tax, Meredith. 1989. “March to a Crossroads on Abortion.” The Nation, May 8, 613,
631–33.
Tax, Meredith. 1995. “My Censorship—And Ours.” The Nation, March 20, 374,
376–78.
Taylor, Charles. 1992. Multiculturalism and “The Politics of Recognition.” Princeton:
Princeton University Press.
references 247
Taylor, Charles. 1995. “Response to David Bromwich.” Dissent 42:103–4.

Teachout, Terry. 1983. “Gay Rights and Straight Realities.” National Review, November
11, 1408–12, 1433.
Teachout, Terry. 1992. “Dead Center: The Myth of the Middle.” National Review, No-
vember 2, 53–55.
Thernstrom, Abigail M. 1981. “Bilingual Mis-Education.” The New Republic, April 18,
15–17.
Thomas, Michael C., and Charles C. Flippen. 1972. “American Civil Religion: An Em-
pirical Study.” Social Forces 51:218–25.
Thomson, Irene Taviss. 2000. In Con›ict No Longer: Self and Society in Contemporary
America. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Little‹eld.
Thomson, Irene Taviss. 2005. “The Theory That Won’t Die: From Mass Society to the
Decline of Social Capital.” Sociological Forum. 20:421–48.
Tifft, Susan. 1990. “Of, by and for—Whom?” Time, September 24, 95–96.
Tocqueville, Alexis de. 1848/1961. Democracy in America. Repr. New York: Vintage.
Todorov, Tzvetan. 1989. “Crimes against Humanities.” The New Republic, July 3,
26–30.
Tolson, Jay. 2008. “Sarah Palin Sparks Revival of the Culture War.” U.S. News and
World Report, September 23. http://www.usnews.com/articles/news/campaign-
2008/2008/09/23/sarah-palin-sparks-revival-of-the-culture-war.html.
Traube, Elizabeth G. 1996. “‘The Popular’ in American Culture.” Annual Review of An-
thropology 25:127–51.
Tucker, William. 1993. “Monogamy and Its Discontents.” National Review, October 4,
28, 30, 32, 34–38.
Tyrrell, Ian. 1991. “American Exceptionalism in an Age of International History.”
American Historical Review 96:1031–55.
Vaid, Urvashi. 1993. “After Identity.” The New Republic, May 10, 28.
Vaisey, Stephen. 2007. “On Justi‹cation (and Motivation): A Dual-Process Model of
Culture in Action.” Culture 21:1, 3–5.
van den Haag, Ernest. 1991. “Sodom and Begorrah.” National Review, April 29, 35–38.
van Elteren, Mel. 1998. “The Riddles of Individualism and Community in American
and Dutch Society.” Journal of American Culture 21:43–80.
Vidal, Gore. 1997. “The New Theocrats.” The Nation, July 21, 19–21.
Wacker, R. Fred. 1979. “Assimilation and Cultural Pluralism in American Social
Thought.” Phylon 40:325–33.
Wagner, David. 1986. “The New Right and the New Pluralism.” National Review, May
23, 28–29, 32, 52.
Walzer, Michael. 1994. “Multiculturalism and Individualism” Dissent 41:185–91.
Walzer, Michael. 1995. “Response to David Bromwich.” Dissent 42:105–6.
Walzer, Michael. 1996. “For Identity.” The New Republic, December 2, 39.
Walzer, Michael. 1999. “What Does It Mean to Be an ‘American’?” Social Research
57:591–614.
Warner, Michael. 1997. “Media Gays: A New Stone Wall.” The Nation, July 14, 15–16,
18–19.
Warner, R. Stephen. 1993. “Work in Progress toward a New Paradigm for the Socio-
248 references
logical Study of Religion in the United States.” American Journal of Sociology

98:1044–93.
Waters, Mary C. 1990. Ethnic Options. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Wedeen, Lisa. 2002. “Conceptualizing Culture: Possibilities for Political Science.”
American Political Science Review 96:713–28.
“What Do We Have in Common?” 1991. Time, July 8, 19–20.
White, John Kenneth. 2003. The Values Divide. Washington, DC: CQ Press.
Whitman, David. 1999. “More Moral.” The New Republic, February 22, 18–19.
Whyte, William H., Jr. 1956. The Organization Man. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.
Wieseltier, Leon. 1994. “Against Identity.” The New Republic, November 28, 24, 26,
28, 30, 32.
Wildavsky, Aaron. 1987. “Choosing Preferences by Constructing Institutions: Cul-
tural Theory of Preference Formation.” American Political Science Review 81:3–21.
Wildavsky, Aaron. 1991. “Resolved, That Individualism and Egalitarianism Be Made
Compatible in America: Political-Cultural Roots of Exceptionalism.” In Is Amer-
ica Different? ed. Byron E. Shafer, 116–37. New York: Oxford University Press.
Williams, Rhys H. 1997. “Culture Wars, Social Movements, and Institutional Poli-
tics.” In Culture Wars in American Politics, ed. Rhys H. Williams, 283–95. New
York: Aldine De Gruyter.
Williams, Rhys H., and Susan M. Alexander. 1994. “Religious Rhetoric in American
Populism: Civil Religion as Movement Ideology.” Journal for the Scienti‹c Study of
Religion 33:1–15.
Williams, Robin M., Jr. 1957. American Society. New York: Knopf.
Willis, Ellen. 1981. “Betty Friedan’s ‘Second Stage’: A Step Backward.” The Nation, No-
vember 14, 494–96.
Willis, Ellen. 1996. “Bring in the Noise.” The Nation, April 1, 19, 22–23.
Willis, Ellen. 1998. “We Need a Radical Left.” The Nation, June 29, 18–21.
Wills, Garry. 1989. “In Praise of Censure.” Time, July 31, 71–72.
Wilson, James Q. 2006. “How Divided Are We?” Commentary 121:15–21.
Wilson, Thomas C. 1994. “Trends in Tolerance toward Rightist and Leftist Groups,
1976–1988: Effects of Attitude Change and Cohort Succession.” Public Opinion
Quarterly 58:539–56.
Wimberley, Ronald C., Donald A. Clelland, Thomas C. Hood, and C. M. Lipsey. 1976.
“The Civil Religious Dimension: Is It There?” Social Forces 54:890–900.
Wolf, Naomi. 1992. “Father Figures.” The New Republic, October 5, 22, 24–25.
Wolf, Naomi. 1995. “Our Bodies, Our Souls.” The New Republic, October 16, 26, 28–29,
32–34.
Wolfe, Alan. 1998. One Nation, after All. New York: Viking Penguin.
Wolfe, Alan. 2001. Moral Freedom. New York: Norton.
Wood, Gordon S. 1987. “Ideology and the Origins of Liberal America.” William and
Mary Quarterly 44:628–40.
Woodberry, Robert D. 1998. “When Surveys Lie and People Tell the Truth: How Sur-
veys Oversample Church Attenders.” American Sociological Review 63:119–22.
Woodberry, Robert D., and Christian S. Smith. 1998. “Fundamentalism et al.: Con-
servative Protestants in America.” Annual Review of Sociology 24:25–56.
references 249
Woolman, John. 1986. “Letter from a Friend: A Conservative Speaks Out for Gay
Rights.” National Review, September 12, 28–31, 58–59.
Wright, Erik Olin. 1996. “The Continuing Relevance of Class Analysis—Comments.”
Theory and Society 25:693–716.
Wright, Robert. 1996. “The False Politics of Values.” Time, September 9, 42–45.
Wright, Susan. 1998. “The Politicization of ‘Culture.’” Anthropology Today 14:7–15.
Wrong, Dennis H. 1961. “The Oversocialized Conception of Man in Modern Sociol-
ogy.” American Sociological Review 26:183–93.
Wrong, Dennis H. 1990. “The In›uence of Sociological Ideas on American Culture.”
In Sociology in America, ed. Herbert J. Gans, 19–30. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Wrong, Dennis H. 1997. “Cultural Relativism as Ideology.” Critical Review 11:291–300.
Wuthnow, Robert. 1988. The Restructuring of American Religion: Society and Faith Since
World War II. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Wuthnow, Robert. 1996. “Restructuring of American Religion: Further Evidence.” So-
ciological Inquiry 66:303–29.
Wuthnow, Robert. 2005. “Democratic Renewal and Cultural Inertia: Why Our Best
Efforts Fall Short.” Sociological Forum 20:343–67.
Wuthnow, Robert. 2006. American Mythos: Why Our Best Efforts to Be a Better Nation
Fall Short. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Yeoman, Barry. 1998. “Art and States’ Rights.” The Nation, June 29, 31–33.
Young, Carleton W. 1995. “Religion in United States History Textbooks.” History
Teacher 28:265–71.
Young, Cathy. 1999. “Victimizers.” The New Republic, April 12, 18, 20–21.
Zimmerman, Jonathan. 1999. “Relatively Speaking.” The New Republic, September 6,
13–14.
Zipp, John F., and Rudy Fenwick. 2006. “Is the Academy a Liberal Hegemony? The
Political Orientations and Educational Values of Professors.” Public Opinion Quar-
terly 70:304–26.
Zukin, Cliff, Scott Keeter, Molly Andolina, Krista Jenkins, and Michael X. Delli
Carpini. 2006. A New Engagement? New York: Oxford University Press.
Index
abortion. See also pro-choice advocates; pro- agonistic respect, 142–43

life advocates Alexander, Jeffrey C., 11, 102
American lifestyle and, 209 alienation, 115–16
conservatives on elite support of, 158–59 American civil religion. See also church-state
inconsistency in beliefs on, 1, 67–68 relations; civil religion; religion
knowledge class vs. democratic culture on, Bellah on concept of, 33–35
153–54 continuing in›uences of, 38–39
magazine articles on, 222 contradictory ideas about, 56–57
moderation on issues regarding, 167 empirical studies of, 36–38
morality issues and, 65–69 search for common faith after September
Obama’s 2008 campaign on, 205 11 terrorist attacks and, 35–36
opponents on radical individualism and American Creed, 28–29, 182, 184
right to, 85 American culture. See also culture; culture
opposition to in United States vs. Europe, wars
186–87 American exceptionalism in, 186
Palin’s candidacy and public opinion on, as Anglo-American, 113, 133, 137
202 Bellah on multiculturalism and, 100–101
party af‹liation and views on, 8 canon wars as con›ict over, 131–32
religious identities and views on, 4, 5, 6 contemporary subcultures and, 112
Abrams, Samuel J., 4, 7, 8, 176, 187 critics of multiculturalism on, 95–96
academics. See also universities divisiveness of monoculturalism within,
as centrists or moderates, 171 119–20
as cultural elites, 145–46, 147 enduring dilemmas of, 28–29
Leftist, on democratization of culture, 162 Glazer on multiculturalism and, 144
prestige of liberals vs. conservatives, 159 in›uences on constituent ethnic group
advertising and persuasive literature, 10–11 cultures, 113
African Americans. See also black culture Latin American and Asian immigrants
construction of identities by, 114 and, 98
ethnocentric nationalism of, 103 multiculturalism and dilution of, 105
individual uniqueness vs. group identity newer understandings of culture and,
among, 97 26–27
multicultural education and America’s fail- shaping, as part of the political agenda,
ure to integrate, 143 29–30
multiculturalism and identity groups shaping, through educational change, 144
among, 98–99 struggles with religion and morality in,
multiculturalism as dif‹culty for, 98–99, 27–28
114 as unitary, 115–16
patriotism and nationalism of, 94–95 whiteness of, 119
secularization among, 52 as work in progress, 169
youth and popular culture, 148 American exceptionalism
Afrocentric curricula, 126, 127, 138 American-style cultural politics and, 216
251
252 index
American exceptionalism (continued) moralizing and the, 81

chauvinistic nationalism and, 183–84 post-multiculturalism and, 95
de‹nitions of, 182, 184–85 Republican politics against, 119
equality of opportunity in United States Asian Americans, cultural changes in United
and, 182–83 States due to, 98
as part of American consciousness, 185–86 assimilation
postmaterialism and, 181–82 Bellah on multiculturalism and, 100
reality vs. imagery of, 218 conservative gays on, 213–14
religious dimension of, 186–87 dominance in early twentieth century of,
American identity 110
critics of multicultural education on, 152 as incorporating individuals into society,
immigrants and, 49, 120 104–5
multiculturalism and, 94–95 liberals and conservatives on, 117–18
political basis of, 139 National Review on multicultural education
American Journal of Sociology, 149–50 and, 133
American literary canon, 91–92, 157. See also symbolic ethnicity and, 112–13
university canon to a WASP norm, 160
American nationalism, minority national- atheists, 3, 43, 51, 52, 58, 136, 138
ism, cosmopolitan liberalism and, 103 Australia, established authority vs. individu-
American pluralism, multiculturalism com- alism in, 90
pared to, 120–21. See also pluralism authoritarianism, 91, 188–89
American Prospect, 221 authority
Amish, 115–16, 118 conformity and, 107
Anglo-American culture, 113, 133, 137. See conservatives vs. liberals on exercise of,
also American culture 24, 61
Anglo-conformity, 113–14 culture as obedience to, 19–21
anthropology, rethinking of culture within, respect for, individualism and, 27, 90, 92,
16 181–82
antielitism. See also elites and elitism
anti-abortion advocates on, 153–54 Baker, Wayne E.
assaults on family and religious values on American exceptionalism, 182
and, 153 on America’s traditional values, 53
conservatism of American public and, on importance of God to Americans, 48,
154 53
democratization of culture and, 151–52 on moral relativists and moral absolutists,
growth since 1950s of, 149–50 8
literary or artistic merit and, 161 on self-expression in United States vs.
middlebrow culture and, 150–51 Sweden or Netherlands, 92
Right on establishment out of touch with on traditional values and self-expression
reality, 152–53 in United States, 7
university canon critics and, 152 Balkanization, 95, 96, 105, 125, 152–53
“anything goes” ethic, 60, 62, 76 Barnes, Fred, 205, 221
apartheid, links between race and culture Barry, Brian, 112, 113, 114, 131
and, 191–92 Bauer, Gary, 122, 198
Appiah, Kwame Anthony, 114 Before the Shooting Begins (Hunter), 12
art(s) Beinart, Peter, 204
community standards and funding for, Bell, Daniel A., 128, 184–85
170 Bellah, Robert N.
controversies about funding, 18–19, 25, on American civil religion, 33–35
123, 154–56 on Calvinist individualism in collective
counterculture remnants in, 77 context, 90
cultural elites in, 147 as critic of American individualism, 89–90,
culture war debates on, 21–22 92–93, 101
elitism and funding for, 154–57, 163 as liberal view of American civil religion,
magazine articles on, 222 36
index 253
on multiculturalism in American culture, on religious discourse in the public sphere,

100–101 32
on questions for American civil religion on science and creationism, 41
survey, 37–38 on Supreme Court’s church-state deci-
Bennett, William J., 11, 115, 122, 147 sions, 40
Berger, Bennett M., 28 Bush, George H. W., 118–19
Bernstein, Richard, 19, 20 Bush, George W.
best sellers, individualism in, 91–92 Bellah’s criticism of Washington Cathedral
Beyond Culture Wars (Horton), 55 address by, 34
Biden, Joseph, 200 culture wars and presidential campaigns
bilingual education programs, 134, 153 by, 203–4, 205
bilingual schools, of early twentieth century, “Jesus Day” in Texas under, 45
111 personal religion and political career of,
black culture, 102–3, 114, 120, 127 47, 199
black postmodernists, 208 repudiation of, 198
Black Power movements, 201
black Protestants, 5, 9 Canada
blacks. See African Americans established authority vs. individualism in,
Bloom, Allan, 11, 76, 158 90
Bobbitt, Lorena, 164 individualism in United States vs., 92
Bobo, Laurence, 89 lack of socialist movement in, 183
bonding social capital, individualism, multi- religious belief and practice in United
culturalism and, 94 States vs., 53–54
bourgeois morality, 60, 83 canon wars, 168, 169–70, 222. See also univer-
bridging social capital, individualism, multi- sity canon
culturalism and, 94 capitalism, conservatives on morality and,
British, on established authority vs. individ- 59–60
ualism among, 90. See also Great Britain Carnegie, Dale, 108
Bromwich, David, 106–7 Catholic Church, on legislating morality,
Brustein, Robert 83
on arts criticism, 162 Catholics
on competing strands of multiculturalism, abortion views among, 6
105 attitudes toward premarital sex among,
on con›ating race and culture, 118 193
on diversity, 96 conservative, fundamentalist Protestants
on elitism in the arts, 161 and, 5, 198
on funding the NEA, 154, 171–72 muting abortion views to appear socially
on high art in America, 151, 157–58 respectable, 159
on individual transcendence of groups secularization and, 52
and subcultures, 99 voting for Obama vs. Kerry, 201
on moral correctness and the arts, 80–81 censorship, 62–63, 138–39, 141, 148
on the politics of culture, 131 center and centrists, 10, 170–71, 174
on a university canon, 128, 134 chauvinistic nationalism, 183–84
Bryan, William Jennings, 38 Chaves, Mark, 50, 52, 53
Bryant, Anita, 222 children
Buchanan, Patrick, 4, 12, 122, 177, 200 American values on raising, 92
Buckley, William F., Jr. Right on sex education and, 60–61
on abortion, 67 subcultural traditions and education of,
on elites, 146 127
on funding the NEA, 154, 156 Christian Right
on gay rights, 72, 73, 74 abortion views among, 5
on moral decline in American society, 76, concerns about McCain, 198
77 on family values, 200
on multiculturalism, 106 Left on gays and, 73–74
National Review and, 221 liberals on intolerance by, 138
254 index
Christian Right (continued) racial differences compounding or inter-

The New Republic on con›ation of religion secting with, 120
with morality by, 31–32 religious orthodoxy and, 5, 159
people susceptible to having their votes social movements and, 190
in›uenced by, 48 voting and, 188
political involvement of, 9, 39, 43, 45, 48, WASP nature of hierarchy and, 160–61
198 class politics, 189–90
power of, as viewed by the population, 43 Clinton, Bill, 81, 203
on September 11 attacks, 35 Clinton, Hillary, 200
Weyrich on 2004 election and, 56 clitoridectomy, 78, 106
Christians. See also Evangelicals; Fundamen- The Closing of the American Mind (Bloom), 76
talists CNN exit polls, 202
activists, report cards on members of Con- Cockburn, Alexander, 137, 209
gress by, 55 common culture. See also American culture
American civil religion and, 36 in America, as white, 119
attitudes toward premarital sex among, in America, conservatives on, 116, 141
192–93 in America, conservatives on ethnicity
Horton on culture wars and recovery of and, 140
faith among, 55 divisiveness of monoculturalism, 119–20
Christian Science Monitor, 197 Gray on morality as part of, 71
church(es). See also church attendance; need for in America, 86
church-state relations particularistic vs. pluralist multicultural-
authority of, in United States vs. other ism and, 104
Western nations, 90, 92 tension between individualism and, 98–99
as culture-transmitting institutions, 146 tolerance and, 137
opposition to political involvement by, common ground between extremes, modera-
205 tion and, 173–74
church attendance communitarians, 87, 108, 206–7, 209–10
religious beliefs in Iceland and, 52 community
religious beliefs in the United States vs. celebrating individualism and, 85–87
Europe and, 51 individualism and, 84
voting patterns and, 187, 215 normative rights of, pluralism and, 135
among whites, voting for McCain and, 201 conformity, 84, 107. See also individualism
church-state relations, 41, 55–56, 72, 222. See conservatives. See also Christian Right; Evan-
also separation of church and state gelicals; Fundamentalists; New Right; or-
civil religion. See also American civil religion thodox morality or worldview; pro-life
application to American society, 32–33 advocates; Republican Party
origin and development of concept, 33–35 accusations that the other side is “politi-
civil rights and civil rights movement, 6, 56, cizing” culture, 25–26
74–75 on American civil religion, 35
class American civil religion after September 11
attacks on victim feminism and, 164 and, 34–35
conservative anxiety about, 158–59 antielitist accusations by, 152–53
cultural attitudes of Evangelicals and, 193 attacks on culture, the arts, and academe
cultural issues as surrogate for, 187 by, 161
cultural liberals vs. cultural conservatives on capitalism, 59–60
and, 159 Catholic, 198
interactions with culture, 190–91 counterrevolution against feminism by,
Left on primacy of race and gender vs., 149
207–8 cultural agenda of the Left vs., 24–25
moral character of abortion and, 67 as defenders of “bourgeois morality,” 60
Palin’s candidacy and culture of, 199, on elites, 145–46, 147
200–201, 206 elite vs. mass understanding of, 195–96
political consciousness and, 178 on ethnic culture and national solidarity,
political organizing and, 182 116–17
index 255
on family and individualism, 87 ‹nding common ground between evolu-

on feminists, 86, 164–65 tion and, 173–74
gay, 69–70, 82, 212–14 magazine articles and editorial attention
on gender traits and behavior, 64 to, 33, 41–42, 222
internal divisions among, 206–7 Time on teaching of, 39
on law and moral sentiment concerning Croly, Herbert, 221
abortion, 69 cultural brokers, multiculturalism and, 19–20
on Left attacks on individualism, 85 cultural codes, deep, 100–101
on liberal rede‹nition of pluralism, 121–22 cultural differences/diversity. See also multi-
on military and individualism, 87–88 cultural education; multiculturalism
moral, cultural paternalism toward, 159 class, race, and gender and, 190–91
on moral and cultural relativism, 59, 78 as euphemism for inequality, 191
on moral decline in American society, group rights vs. individual rights and, 96
75–78 increases in United States, 144
on moral foundations of capitalism, 59 indifference to, as false pluralism, 123
moralizing by, 80 in the newsroom, 138
Palin’s candidacy and discord among, 205, universal human rights and celebration of,
206 95
Protestants, 9, 52 whiteness of common American culture
on religion and political involvements, 45 and, 119
religious and cultural, criticism of artists in the workforce, color-blind hiring vs.,
by, 157 142
social-class anxiety of, 158–59 cultural elites. See also high culture
on social class of liberals, 190–91 ambivalence in conservative literature to-
support for American civil religion by, ward, 158–59
37–38 artists as, 156
on tolerance, the Left, and the unity of conservatives’ cultural role vs., 159–60
American culture, 135–36 media elites as, 147–49
on “upside-down moral world,” 60–61 opponents of NEA as, 154–55
on women’s morality as basis for all as seen by Right and Left, 146–47
morality, 63–64 cultural pluralism. See also pluralism
Contract with America, 179 broadened de‹nition of groups in, 144
“Cop Killer” (Ice-T), 62, 86–87. See also conservatives on political unity and,
gangsta rap 140–41
corporate censorship, 62–63. See also censor- ethnocentrism, multiculturalism and,
ship 124–25
cosmopolitanism, 104–5 without hierarchy, multiculturalism and,
cosmopolitan liberalism, 103 102
counterculture historical perspectives, 110–15
consciousness of culture and, 3 multiculturalism as choice between Euro-
conservatives on moral decline and, 76–77 centric hegemony and, 104
contemporary media elites and, 146 cultural politics
in contemporary textbooks, 180–81 contemporary manifestations of, 180–81
of late 1990s as apolitical tribalism, 150 in Europe vs. United States, 215–16
personal liberation during 1920s vs., 83 gender and religious beliefs and, 193–94
Right on downfall of the establishment Inglehart on signi‹cance of, 175–76
and, 154 precursors to modern day, 179
Cox, Harvey, 32, 38 religious history in textbooks and, 180
creationism religious or moral issues in the United
Afrocentric curricula compared to teach- States and, 215–16
ing, 127 Republicans and Democrats and, 176–78
American attitudes on teaching evolution scope of, 178–79
and, 42 women’s issues and, 192
American political party’s support for, 181, cultural relativism, 59, 78
186 cultural religion, 52–54
256 index
culture. See also American culture; democra- day care, as pro-family, debate on, 87
tization of culture; popular culture death penalty, abortion views and attitudes
con›ating race and ethnicity with, 118 about, 6
constructed in social interactions, 23 deep culture, 12, 18, 28, 100–101
economic issues vs., 206–7 deep pluralism, 112, 142–43
evolution of academic use of term, 12–18 Democratic Party. See also Left
exiting, 106 Catholics, Jews, black Protestants and, 5
as framing device to attain equal rights, cultural politics and, 176, 177
191 on gays in the military, 8
Geertz on symbolic meanings and, 13–14 political polarization and, 194–95
Kroeber and Kluckhohn on values and, democratization of culture
13 Academic Left on, 162
lack of consensus on, 17–18 cultural distinctions and, 151–52
late twentieth century understandings of, culture to the masses and, 161
14–16 defenders of traditional culture and,
medicinal image of, university canon and, 165–66
168–69 Hollywood liberals and, 162–63
multiculturalists on, 19–21 deterministic view of culture, 15
textbook de‹nitions of, 17 difference feminism, 63, 210–11
transmission to new generations, modern diversity. See cultural differences/diversity
life and, 124 divorce, debate on legal aid for, 87
Wrong on independence from, 13 Douthat, Ross, 200
Culture Trust, 146–47 D’Souza, Dinesh, 11, 132–33
Culture War (Hunter), 12 Durkheim, Emile, 16, 33, 36
culture warriors. See also speci‹c groups
internal disagreements among, 2 economic elites, 147, 166
orthodox vs. progressive, 1, 217 economic individualism, 88, 89, 101
portrayal of culture wars as struggle for Economic Left, 207–8
control by, 24–25 economics and economic issues
culture wars. See also Palin, Sarah American politics 1896–1964 and, 176
American cultural patterns and, 29–30 campaign of 2008 and, 201–2, 204
appearance/disappearance over time, excessive individualism or sel‹shness and,
18–19 86
arts as scapegoat for, 155–56 industriousness and, 89–90
Buchanan on, 4 issues of culture vs., 206–7
campaign of 2008 and, 201–2 morality and, 59–60
campaigns of 2000 and 2004 and, 203–4 The Economist, 197, 198–99
class politics, centralized state and, 189 Edwards, John, 200
debate on continued relevance of, 204 elites and elitism. See also antielitism; cul-
determining truth in assertion of, 10–11 tural elites; culture warriors
elite culture and, 165–66 in academe, 159
elite vs. mass attitudes on issues of, 196, of American literary canon vs. conserva-
197 tive literature, 158–59
homosexuality framed in moral terms arts funding and, 154–57
and, 75 class and, 160, 161
Horton on recovery of faith among Chris- conservatives on excessive individualism
tians and, 55 of, 85–86
Hunter on orthodox-progressive split of dangerous, 163
morality and, 3–4 de‹nitions of, 145–46
Hunter on public culture and, 9–10 democratization of culture and, 162–63
magazine articles about, 222 in feminist movement, 164–65
moderation and, 168 in gay rights movement, 165
origin of, 3 high art and, 160–61
true pluralism as counter to, 121 on individualism vs. popular views
understandings of culture and, 19–20 thereof, 91–92
index 257
Left on, 163–64 excessive individualism, 86, 101

leveling tendencies of American culture extremists. See also moderation
and, 157–58 culture warriors on, 10, 168–69
on orthodox vs. progressive morality, 217 on NEA funding, 171–72
political, increased polarization among, 8,
194–95 faith-based initiatives, acceptance of, 47
public culture as enunciated by, 1, 217 Falwell, Jerry, 12, 35, 198
religious, attitude inconsistencies among, family
5–6 authority of, in United States vs. other
republicanism vs. liberalism among early Western nations, 90
Americans, 89–90 conservatives on economic support for,
shared cultural patterns among, 2–3 87
status concerns among, 166 conservatives on sel‹sh individualism
television talk shows and, 163 against, 85–86
England. See British; Great Britain culture warriors on, 26
equality, Americans on personal freedom vs., family values
88 campaign of 2008 and meaning of,
Establishment, the, 145, 154, 187 199–200
establishment of religion, 46–47 conservatives on elite unwillingness to
ethnic groups. See also speci‹c groups defend, 153
conservatives on national solidarity and, liberals on moral decline and, 75–76
116 magazine articles on, 222
at U.S. founding, 111 mocking by all sides of, 172
voluntary identi‹cation with, 112–13 National Review vs. The Nation on, 41
ethnicity, as surrogate for social class, 187 school choice as an alternative to ‹ghting
ethnic politics, divisive effects of, 97 for, 122
ethnocultural or ethnoreligious con›icts, of Third World immigrants, neoconserva-
178. See also cultural politics tives on, 117
Euro-Americans, patriotism and nationalism fascism
of, 94–95 cultural, denial of arts funding as, 171
Europe liberal, feminism or diversity on campus
religion and morality in, 28 as, 209
religious pluralism and religiosity in, 49 feminism
value con›icts in United States vs., 181 abortion views and attitudes about, 6
European Values Study, 88, 91 conservatives on moral decline and, 76
“Evangelical Manifesto” (2008), 198 as elitist in the eyes of conservatives, 153
Evangelicals. See also Fundamentalists Left on economic vs. cultural factors
abortion views among, 5 regarding, 210–11
ambivalence toward political involve- magazine articles on, 222
ment, 39, 43–44 moral issues and, 63–65
campaign of 2008 and, 198 feminists
on Christian values and school prayer, 9 academic, employment niche for, 134
class-based cultural attitudes among, 193 conservative counterrevolution against,
elite circles and, 159–60 149
on family values, 18, 47 cultural, liberals on moralizing by, 79–80
on free market and religious fundamental- cultural politics of Democrats and, 176
ism, 59 culture war idea and rhetoric of, 12
ideological polarization among, 6 leftist criticism of elitist tendencies
on morality and freedom of religious among, 163
belief, 123 mocking of, 172–73
secularization and voting behavior among, on moral character of abortion, 65–66
54 on moral opposition to abortion, 69
voting for Obama vs. Kerry, 201 as pro-family, debate on, 87
Evans, John H., 4, 6, 192, 194, 195 Right on individualism of, 86
evolution, 173–74, 181. See also creationism women’s movement and, 61–62
258 index
Fiorina, Morris P. Gans, Herbert, 27, 91, 112, 167

on church attendance and voting, 187 Gates, Henry Louis, Jr., 11, 114, 127, 133
on close elections, 8 gay rights movement. See also homosexual-
on culture wars, 4, 7 ity; same-sex marriage
on differences between Republicans and conservatives and portrayal of, 149
Democrats, 176 conservatives on morality of, 70
on ideological positions among the citi- cultural politics of Democrats and, 176
zenry, 195 debate about gay culture within, 214–15
First Amendment, 40, 54, 62–63 elitism in, 165
Fischer, Claude S. internal divisions within, 211–14
on ambiguities in American self-expres- as natural ally to class movement, 208
sion, 92 as rebellion against persecution, 71
on changes in religious beliefs over time, gays in the military, 8, 87–88, 146, 214. See
194 also homosexuality
on culture wars, 4, 18 Geertz, Clifford, 13–14
on individualism, 27, 90 gender
on nonreligious people in the United cultural/religious and economic/political
States, 51 attitudes and, 193–94
on unchurched believers, 56 interactions with culture, 190–91, 192
on voluntarism, 91 and race vs. class, 207–8
Founding Fathers, 46–47, 89–90, 119 same-sex marriage and, 214
fragmented pluralism, 104–5 social views of religiously orthodox and, 5
fragmented school curricula, 125 as surrogate for social class, 187
France, working class in, 183 gender sliming, by feminists, 63
Frank, Thomas General Social Survey data, 196
on class and culture, 179, 190–91 gentleman, conservatives on idea of, 157
on the Culture Trust, 146 Germany
on culture wars, 11 individualism in United States vs., 91
on Hollywood liberals, 162–63 working class in, 183
on the Left and the language of class, 208 Gerteis, Joseph, 43, 49, 104–5, 143, 190
freedom. See individual freedom Gingrich, Newt, 77, 155
free enterprise. See economic individualism Glazer, Nathan, 117, 128, 134, 143–44, 209
Fukuyama, Francis, 11, 59–60, 90, 91, 117 globalization, 119–20, 144
fundamentalist Muhammadans, 106 God
Fundamentalists. See also Evangelicals American civil religion and, 34
American civil religion and, 33 belief in, social desirability pressures in
on Christian values and school prayer, 9 United States and data on, 50–51
con›ict over political visibility of, 54 intensity of belief in, American secular
gender attitudes and numerical domi- society and, 7, 48, 182
nance of, 194 meaning of, theological disputes on, 57
ideological polarization among, 6 Goldwater, Barry, 73, 168
multicultural education and, 127 Gore, Al, 47, 187, 199, 200, 203, 204
national surveys ‹nding hostility toward, government
42–43 authority of, U.S. vs. Canadian reaction to,
negative stereotypes of, 10 90
objections to public schools’ reading lists, debate over gay rights and, 71–73
tolerance for, 142 trusting authority of, 121–22
on political involvement by, 39 views on keeping religion out of, 43
sociopolitical attitudes of conservative Gray, John
Catholics vs., 5 on gay rights, 71, 82
white, secularization among, 52 on legislating morality, 82
fund-seeking partisans, 10–11, 174 on moral relativism, 59, 78
on multiculturalism and moral diversity,
Gallup Polls, 43, 201 144
gangsta rap, 4, 138. See also “Cop Killer” on New Puritanism, 81
index 259
on public and private morality, 71, 81 homosexuality. See also gay rights move-
on tolerance and toleration, 141 ment; gays in the military; same-sex
Great Books of Western Civilization, 119, 132 marriage
Great Britain. See also British legislating morality of, 82
individualism in United States vs., 92 magazine articles on, 222
religious beliefs and religious identity in, morality issues and, 69–75
49 politics of tolerance vs. approval and, 135,
working class in, 183 136
groups. See also ethnic groups religious identities and views on, 4, 8
cultural, broadened de‹nition of, 144 Horton, Michael S., 55, 160
as cultures, differences in power and, Howe, Irving
114–15 on democratization of culture and human-
Durkheim on religious dimensions to, 33 ities education, 152
individualism, multiculturalism and, on elitism in the arts, 161
94–97 on excessive individualism, 86
individualism and identi‹cation with, on individually achieved sense of culture,
107–8, 109, 218 97
multiculturalism and, 99 on multicultural education, 126
social, political worldviews and, 192 on the Right’s uneasiness with subcultures,
Walzer on balance of individual with, 101 26
groupthink, Whyte’s indictment of, 107 on the university canon wars, 128, 129,
Guinness, Os, 35, 36, 55, 168 131–32, 134
on use of culture as therapy, 41
Harcourt, William, 143 Hughes, Robert
Hartmann, Douglas on American culture, 95, 118, 169
on American disapproval of atheists, 43 on American demand for morality in the
on different conceptions of diversity, 97 arts, 81
on diversity as code word for race, 119 on culture as therapy, 22
on subgroup interaction generating a com- on funding the NEA, 154–55, 170, 171
mon culture, 143 on Republican politics against the arts,
on talking about inequality and diversity, 119, 161
191 on social construction of culture, 23
on thick culture vs. thin culture, 104–5 human rights vs. cultural differences, 95
health care, as pro-family, debate on, 87 humor, political correctness and, 124
Helms, Jesse, 170 Hunter, James Davison
Hentoff, Nat, 68 as cultural fundamentalist, 20
Herberg, Will, 36, 49, 53, 54 on culture as internally consistent with
high culture, 149, 150, 151, 157–58, 161. See deep normative structures, 18
also cultural elites on culture as thinglike reality, 17
Hill, Anita, 80 on culture wars and 2008 campaign, 202
Hispanics on culture wars and power to de‹ne real-
assimilation through intermarriage, 118 ity, 10
bilingual programs and, 134 on culture wars and public culture, 9–10
construction of identities by, 114 on family values, 2008 campaign and, 200
cultural changes in United States due to, on fundamental split between orthodox
98 and progressive views of morality, 3–4
ethnic identities of, 117 on multiculturalism and individualism,
historians, as dangerous elites, 163 100
history teaching, 40, 125, 126, 127–28. See Hyde, Henry J.
also university canon on democratic tolerance, 136
Hoffman, John P., 4, 8, 10 on excessive individualism, 86
Hollinger, David A., 21, 36, 47, 104, 143 on funding the NEA, 155
Hollywood liberals, 162–63, 191. See also on moral failure of individuals, 61
media elites on moral foundations of capitalism, 59
Hollywood writers, as cultural elites, 147, 148 on morality of Left vs. Right, 60
260 index
Hyde, Henry J. (continued) multiculturalism as outgrowth of, 99–100

on moral judgment, 78 Protestant religious, 101
on questioning values, 23 republicanism vs., 89
hyphenation models of multiculturalism, respect for authority and, 90–91
102 self-indulgence and, 92–93
sel‹shness as opposite of, 84
Iceland, religious beliefs and attendance at Wrong on culture and, 13
religious services in, 52 inequality, contemporary multiculturalists
Ice-T, 62. See also “Cop Killer” on, 111–12
identity politics, 74, 119–20, 157, 200–201, Inglehart, Ronald, 92, 175
208 interactive pluralism, 104–5
Illiberal Education (D’Souza), 132–33 intermarriage, 52, 118, 143
imagined communities, 112, 116
immigrants. See also assimilation; ethnic Jacksonian era, liberalism during, 90
groups Jacoby, Russell, 93, 113, 171
American culture changes and, 137 James, William, 111
bilingual education programs and, 153 Japan, individualism in United States vs.,
con›icting conservative views of, 116–18, 91
140, 207 Jews, 5, 118
cultural changes in United States due to, Johnson, Lyndon B., 35
97 Judeo-Christianity, 35, 36, 73, 218
globalization and national identity of, 120
objections to United States as nation of, Kallen, Horace, 110, 111, 112, 139
140 Kemp, Jack, 122
Progressive Era con›icted views on, 110–11 Kerry, John, 187, 200
restricting from Third World countries, 95 Kimball, Roger, 11, 77, 158, 171
to United States, religious identity and, 49 Kinsley, Michael
immorality on censorship, 62, 138
of abortion, 65 on con›icting views of abortion, 63, 174
contemporary economic life and, 60 on freedom of choice within the univer-
of homosexuality, 69–70 sity canon, 129
progressives on, 59 on funding counterculture, 77
of television talk show guests, Right vs. on lifestyle issues in America, 208
Left on, 63 on Murphy Brown debates, 147
individual freedom Kirkpatrick, David, 56, 197
conservatives on homosexuality and, 73 Klinghoffer, David
conservatives on sex education and, 60–61 on churches watering down moral require-
Left vs. Right on morality of, 79 ments, 46
moral character of abortion and, 66–67 on hostility toward gays, 69
social welfare and, 86–87, 88–89 on multiculturalism and political correct-
individualism. See also radical (rank) individ- ness, 20
ualism on public acceptability of homosexuality,
belief in, but not to excess, 2–3 70
bonding vs. bridging social capital and, 94 on social class anxiety among conserva-
celebrating community and, 85–87 tives, 158
commitments to family and friends and, Kluckhohn, Clyde, 13
91 knowledge, as social or political construc-
as detraction from collectivity, 93 tion, 131
economic, 88–89, 101 knowledge class, 115, 145, 153–54
elite vs. popular views of, 91–92 Krauthammer, Charles
excessive, 86, 101 on American civil religion, 33, 40
identi‹cation with groups and subcultures on cultural agenda of the Left, 24
and, 107–8, 109 moderation of, 173
Lipset on American exceptionalism and, on multicultural education, 125, 128
182, 184 on multiculturalism, 96
index 261
on religious discourse in the public sphere, Lincoln-Douglas debates, 55

32, 45, 159 Lindsey, Brink, 159, 204
on same-sex marriage, 72, 74 Lippmann, Walter, 221
on sex education and morality, 39 Lipset, Seymour Martin
on teaching creationism, 41 on abortion as an issue, 186–87
on tolerance, 42 on academic prestige of liberals vs. conser-
Kristol, William, 205, 221 vatives, 159
Kroeber, A. L., 13 on American exceptionalism, 184
Krugman, Paul, 60 on American voluntaristic sects, 29
on core American values, 27, 28, 182, 183
labor unions, United States politics and, 183 on imposed governmental authority, 90
Lakoff, George, 160 on moral views of Americans, 58
L’Amour, Louis, 161 on nativist tendencies in the United
Lasch, Christopher, 92–93 States, 139
Latin Americans. See Hispanics Lockean liberalism, 89
Layman, Geoffrey C. Loose Canons (Gates), 133
on alliances between religious groups and Loury, Glenn, 76, 81, 126, 127
political parties, 5, 9, 177 low culture, democratization of culture and,
on class, religion, and political af‹liation, 151
188
on conservative Christian in›uence on the manifest imperial destiny, American civil
Republican Party, 181 religion as, 36
on Contract with America, 179 Mans‹eld, Harvey, 59, 77, 127, 130
on cultural politics, 176 Mapplethorpe, Robert, 19, 154, 156
on gender, religion, and political af‹lia- marriage, Left vs. Right views of, 65. See also
tion, 193 intermarriage; same-sex marriage
on nonreligious people in the United Marty, Martin E., 35
States, 51 Marx, Karl, 158
on polarization, 194, 196–97 masculinity, American, 153
Leege, David C. mass media, 121, 146–47, 162. See also tele-
on alliances between religious groups and vision
political parties, 44 materialism/postmaterialism scale, 188–89
on cultural politics, 176, 177 McCain, John
on gender interactions with culture, 192 campaign of 2008 and, 82, 201, 202, 205
on race as a cultural factor, 179 Palin as vice presidential choice by, 198,
Left. See progressives 199, 200
Lewinsky, Monica, 81 McCormick, Richard L., 179
liberalism, classical republicanism vs., 89–90 McGovern, George, 177
liberals. See progressives media elites, 146–47, 148–49. See also Holly-
liberation marketing, 208–9 wood liberals
libertarians melting pot ideal, 105, 112, 117–18
on abortion, 6, 68 Merelman, Richard M., 97, 102–3
on arts funding, 156 Mexico, lack of socialist movement in, 183
con›icted positions of, 206–7 middle America, 68, 91, 168
on gay rights and antisodomy laws, 73 middlebrow culture, liberal defense of,
liberals and, 209 150–51
lifestyle politics and, 208 Miller, Alan S., 4, 8, 10
measuring political attitudes of, 188–89 minorities. See speci‹c groups
on pluralism, 121 minority academics, multicultural education
school choice and, 122 and, 134
Lieberman, Joe, 199, 204 minority nationalism, American national-
lifestyle ism, cosmopolitan liberalism and, 103
moralizing over choices regarding, 81 moderation
strategy, religion as, 40–41 as attacking both sides, 173, 174
United States moving to the left on, 208 canon wars and, 168–70
262 index
moderation (continued ) tolerance and, 135–36

claims for the center and, 170–71 moral values, as polling question, 203
elites on regard for, 2–3 Mother Jones, 221
extremist proclamations for fund-raising multicultural education
and, 174 arguments against, 125–26
family values and, 172 curricular changes for, 127–28
feminism and, 172–73 defenders’ arguments for, 126
as ‹nding common ground between ex- as denial of objectivity or truth, 130–31
tremes, 173–74 Glazer on demands for, 143
in gay rights movement, 214 magazine articles on, 222
Obama’s campaign of 2008 and, 205 Right’s accusations of elitism against, 153
support for the arts and, 171–72 university canon and, 125, 128–29
twenty-four hour media and, 218 multiculturalism. See also cultural differ-
as uncomplicated good, 167–68 ences/diversity
moral absolutists/absolutism, 1, 8, 47, 48 American individualist culture and critics
moral behavior, religion as basis for in of, 95–96
United States, 40 American pluralism compared to, 120–21
moral failure, rationalization for, 136 approval for moderate vs. extremist views
moral frameworks, 2–3, 139 of, 169
morality. See also moral relativists/relativism; of arts institutions, 156–57
values Bellah on, 100–101
abortion issues and, 65–69 as code word for race, 118–19
American Creed and, 29 con›ating race with, 119
con›ating religion with, 31–32 conservatives on moral decline and, 77–78
as cultural dilemma, 27–28 critiques of, 19–21
decline of, 75–78 cultures of concern in, 115
Evangelicals on freedom of belief and, 123 as euphemism for inequality, 191
exercise of authority and, 61 fears of fragmented pluralism and hostility
feminist movement and issues of, 63–65 toward, 105
free cultural choice and judgment about, Glazer on, 143–44
86–87 Hunter on, 19, 100
homosexuality issues and, 65, 69–75 immigrants vs. academics/elites on, 117
Hunter on orthodox-progressive split on, as incorporating people into larger society,
3–4 102
Hunter on public discourse analysis and, individual and group roles in social life
11 and, 97–98
Left vs. Right views of, 59–65 individualism and, 84
legislating of, 79, 82 larger national identity and, 94–95
as political issue in 2009, 205 magazine articles on, 222
popular culture and issues of, 62–63 Merelman on, 102–3
propensity of Americans to view the world National Review vs. The Nation on, 41
in terms of, 58–59 opponents of, on intolerance fostered by,
public vs. private, 70–71 138
religion as basis for in United States, 40 as outgrowth of individualism, 99–100
sex education and, 60–61 politics of, 108–9
transmission to new generations, modern postmodern, on racial identity, 208
life and, 124 substituted for criteria of aesthetic judg-
Moral Majority, 82 ment, 151
moral majority, use of term, 75 supporters as out of touch with reality,
moral relativists/relativism Right on, 152
among Americans, 8 survey data on, 7
conservatives on moral decline and, 77–78 tolerance for, 135
debates over, 59, 78–79 Walzer on, 101
pluralism confused with, 123–24 Murphy Brown debates, 80, 147
during Roaring Twenties, 83 Myrdal, Gunnar, 191
index 263
The Nation New Deal, 60, 178, 182

attacks on opponents’ views in, 41 New Left, 61, 80, 180–81, 189
on contributions religion can make to pro- The New Republic
gressive causes, 38–39 on “anything goes” ethic and popular
on creationism and evolution, 41 culture, 62
on curricular changes for multicultural ed- on censorship of “Cop Killer,” 86–87
ucation, 127 on con›ation of religion with morality,
defense of middlebrow culture in, 151 31–32
gays on alliances with other social move- on creationism, 41
ments in, 213 on damage politics may do to religion, 45
as magazine of the Left, 221 on diminished role for religion in text-
on multiculturalism, 95, 98–99 books, 40
on Reagan’s culture war over school gay conservatives on alliances with other
prayer, 177, 222 social movements in, 212–13
on religious discourse in the public sphere, liberal to Right views of, 221
32 on lifestyle as value system, 209
National Education Association, 189 on moral relativism, 79
National Election Survey, 9 on moral relativism confused with plural-
National Endowment for the Arts (NEA) ism, 123–24
elitism and funding for, 154–57 on multiculturalism, 95, 99
excellence in the arts and, 161 on NEA funding, 156
funding for the arts and, 123, 215 on objectivity in multicultural education,
Helms on centrist position for, 170 130
politicization of funding issues by, 171–72 on overemphasis of individual rights,
supporters’ reasonableness and toleration, 209–10
136 on political correctness and frank discus-
National Opinion Research Center data, 89 sions of issues, 207
National Review on religious discourse in the public sphere,
attacks on opponents’ views in, 41 32
on creationism, 41 New Right, 61, 221–22
on curricular changes for multicultural Newsweek, 221
education, 127 New York Times, 197
on end of culture wars, 204 New York Times Magazine, 107
as magazine of the Right, 221 non-Christian religions, American civil
on media elites and “Don’t ask, don’t tell” religion and, 36, 57
policy, 146 nonjudgmentalism, conservatives on, 81
mocking university canon as bene‹cial, Noonan, Peggy, 205
132 normative rights of community, 135
on moral character of abortion, 65 Nothing Sacred (television show), 147
on moral imperatives of self-restraint, 60
on moral relativism, 78, 79 Obama, Barack
on multicultural education and need for campaign of 2008 and, 198
parental choice, 125–26 Democratic populism of, 200
on religious discourse in the public sphere, moderation in campaigning by, 205
32 on need to take religion seriously, 39
on single-sex schools, 64 Palin campaigning against, 199
on television shows about religion, 147–48 voters on importance of moral values, 82
on television talk shows, 163 votes by church attenders for, 187
Native Americans, 34, 102, 114 objective truths, multicultural education
nativist movements, 139–40 and, 130–31
Netherlands, self-expression in United States Operation Rescue, 67, 69
vs., 92 The Organization Man (Whyte), 107
neutrality of government, morality issues of Orthodox Jews, 118
homosexuality and, 71–72 orthodox morality or worldview
new class, 145–46, 187 campaign of 2000 and, 204–5
264 index
orthodox morality or worldview (continued) on voters’ views of Palin, 201

on homosexuality, 74–75 Piss Christ (Serrano), 156
as independent of social groups, 192 pluralism. See also cultural pluralism
Palin and, 200 American, multiculturalism compared to,
progressive morality or worldview vs., 1, 120–21
3–4 American civil religion and, 36
religious doctrines and, 5–6 as antidote to culture wars, 121–23
of small percentage of Americans, 4 conservatives on liberal rede‹nition of,
social policies and, 8 121–22
O’Sullivan, John immigration, assimilation, and, 116, 117–18
on assimilation, 160 interactive or fragmented, 104–5
on Balkanization, 96 liberals and conservatives on, 120
on common American identity, 105 mid-twentieth century de‹nition of, 111,
on common culture, 86, 140–41, 152 115
on enforcement of feminism on campus, moral relativism confused with, 123–24
209 as multiple subjectivities, 111–12
on immigrants and multiculturalism, 116 religious, in Europe, religiosity of popula-
on individualism and multiculturalism, 99 tion and, 49
on moral relativism, 78 tolerance and, 135
on multiculturalism, 106 pluralistic multiculturalism, 104, 105
on multiculturalists, 20 Pochoda, Elizabeth, 127, 151, 163
on race and multiculturalism, 119 polarization
on tolerance and multiculturalism, 136, fears of social con›ict or disintegration
137 and, 197, 216, 219
out-groups, 94, 102, 104, 111 of mass public vs. elites, 8, 195–96
overclass, 115, 190–91 among political and cultural elites, 194–95
“Oversocialized Conception of Man in Mod- political correctness
ern Sociology, The” (Wrong), 13 of arts institutions, 157
conservatives on acquiescence to, 153
Palin, Sarah ethnic humor and, 124
competence as a candidate, 202 moralizing and, 80–81
cultural issues of, 199 opponents of, on intolerance fostered by,
dissension among conservatives on, 205 138
identity politics of, 200–201 as seen through lens of morality, 62
as last cultural warrior, liberals on, 204 substituted for criteria of aesthetic judg-
named vice presidential nominee, 197–98 ment, 151
polls on culture wars issues and, 201–2 university canon and, 169
parental rights, 72–73, 137 political elites, 8, 166, 194–95
particularistic multiculturalism, 104, 105 political parties. See also Democratic Party;
Peale, Norman Vincent, 40, 108 political elites; Republican Party
People, 163 cultural vs. other differences between,
Pew Research Center polls 196–97
on abortion as polarizing issue, 6, 202 polarization among political and cultural
on belief in God, 51 elites of, 8, 195–96
on culture warriors, 4 political science, rethinking of culture
on dealing with moral breakdown, 205 within, 16
on decline in religion, 47–48 Pollitt, Katha
on national vs. state policies on controver- on academic feminists, 134
sial issues, 122 on difference feminism, 63, 210
on religious in›uence in American society, on elitism in the feminist movement, 164
54 on family dissolution, 76, 211
on role of religion politically, 43 on family values and feminism, 172
on seeking the “middle ground” in contro- on funding the NEA, 25–26, 161
versial issues, 167 on inequality based on race and gender, 208
on teaching creationism and evolution, 42 on moralistic approaches, 79, 80
index 265
on Murphy Brown debates, 147 accusations that the other side is “politi-
on political correctness, 149 cizing” culture, 25–26
on religion and public schools, 45 on American civil religion, 35
on religious discourse in the public sphere, Bellah on American civil religion and, 35
32, 44 on causes to bene‹t all, 61–62
on social construction of culture, 23 on Christian Right and gays, 73–74
on a university canon, 22, 128, 129, 168–69 claims for the center by, 170–71
Ponnuru, Ramesh, 68, 204 on conservative designations of moral
Pope, Jeremy C., 4, 7, 8, 176, 187 decline, 75–76
popular culture. See also counterculture; rap conservatives on alienation from Ameri-
music; rock music can culture of, 115
American exceptionalism and, 185 on counterculture, 77
behavior and, 21–22 criticism of elitist tendencies among,
con›icted positions on, 206–7 163–64
conservatives and liberals on, 149 cultural agenda of the Right vs., 24–25
culture war debates on, 21–22 Cultural vs. Economic, 207–8
democratization of culture and, 162 on democratization of culture, 151, 162,
distinctions between high culture and, 150 166
Left on pro‹t motive of economic elites elite vs. mass understanding of, 195–96
and, 147 on feminists, 87, 164, 210–11
magazine articles on, 222 gay, on allegiances with conservative
morality and individual choice in, 86–87 causes, 212
as seen through lens of morality, 62–63 on gay culture recon‹guring American
Populists and populism, 29, 38, 157, 187–88. values, 215
See also democratization of culture on gender traits and behavior, 64
postindustrial politics, 189–90 Hollywood, Frank on shallowness of, 163
postmaterialism scale, 92, 188–89 internal divisions among, 206–7
postmodernists, on objective truths, 131 on moral and cultural relativism, 78
postmodern multiculturalists, 208 moral decline rhetoric and, 75
post-multiculturalism, among artists, 95 moralizing by, 79–80
pragmatism, morality and, 2, 65, 68, 82–83, on moral principles of progressive pro-
219 grams, 59
privacy, 67, 70, 141–42. See also individual on moral stance of antichoice militants, 67
freedom multiculturalism issue and, 106–7
private discrimination, 72–73 opposition to communitarian vs. libertar-
privatization of religion, 54, 56 ian views by, 209–10
pro-choice advocates. See also abortion political views of religion among, 43
elitism and, 158–59 on religion as moral critique, 46
framing of abortion issue and, 196 secular causes, need for religion in, 38–39
individualism and, 85 on social conditions and moral views, 69
internal disagreements among, 65–66 on television talk shows, 63, 80, 116, 151,
party af‹liations and, 8 163
Progressive Era, 110–11 on tolerance, 135–37
progressive morality or worldview voting and social class, 188
campaign of 2000 and, 204–5 Prohibition, 81–82, 179, 186
on homosexuality, 74–75 proletarian community, conservatives on
as independent of social groups, 192 Left’s preferences for, 85
on individualism, 84 pro-life advocates. See also abortion
orthodox morality or worldview vs., 1, 3–4 abortion views among conservative Protes-
religious doctrines and, 5–6 tants, 5
of small percentage of Americans, 4 framing of abortion issue and, 196
social policies and, 8 liberal/left worldview and, 68
progressives. See also Democratic Party; femi- militancy of, 222
nists; New Left; pro-choice advocates; on moral character of abortion, 66–67
progressive morality or worldview party af‹liations and, 8
266 index
prostitution, U.S. prohibition on, 186 radical feminism, 63, 64–65, 78. See also fem-
Protestant ethic, progressives on consumer inism
hedonism and, 60 Rand, Ayn, 61
Protestantism, mainline, 45–46, 99 rap music, 62–63, 148, 163
Protestants. See also American civil religion; Ravitch, Diane, 103–4, 105
Evangelicals; Fundamentalists Raz, Joseph, 106
abortion views among, 6 Reagan, Ronald, 177, 222
attitudes toward premarital sex among, religion. See also American civil religion;
192–93 church-state relations; civil religion; reli-
Bellah on multiculturalism and religious gious beliefs/values; respect for religion
individualism of, 101 American Creed and, 29
on political involvement by, 39 American exceptionalism and, 186–87
on religious freedom vs. moral truths, conservative and liberal political and so-
56–57 cial views and, 4–6
public opinion. See also speci‹c groups in contemporary textbooks, 40
on abortion, Palin’s candidacy and, 202 cultural, 52–54
on American devotion to individualism culture warriors on, 26
and community, 27 elites on role in public sphere of, 47
culture wars thesis and, 9–10 expression of, American democracy and,
on differences over multiculturalism, 7 54–55
images of culture wars and, 1, 4–6 history of, in contemporary textbooks, 40,
pro-life advocates and, 196 180
on same-sex marriage, 204 magazine articles on, 222
study of public culture vs., 217 as matter of public consensus, 27–28
takeoff issues and, 197 moderation on issues regarding, 167–68
public schools. See also multicultural educa- Obama’s 2008 campaign on, 205
tion political role of, 43–47, 56
American civil religion and, 33 secularization and decline in, 51–52
bilingual, of early twentieth century, 111 as therapy or social utility, 40–41
cultural power of, 121 Tocqueville on outward duties of, 31
solutions for Fundamentalist objections to religious beliefs/values. See also religion
reading material in, 142 of American public, and antielitism, 154
tolerance for differences in curricula of, attending religious services in the United
137 States vs. Europe and, 51
views on keeping religion out of, 43 conservatives on silence by elites to assault
Putnam, Robert D., 94 on, 153
cultural focus of American politics and,
Quayle, Dan, 147, 154–55 215–16
cultural religion in America and, 52–54
race educational level in›uences on politics
class differences and, 120 and, 194
con›ating culture with, 118 Evangelicals on morality and freedom of,
as cultural issue or power distribution is- 123
sue, 178–79 gender-related economic/political atti-
and gender vs. class, 207–8 tudes and, 193–94
interactions with culture, 190–92 intensity of, in America vs. other societies,
multiculturalism as code word for, 118–19 48
Palin’s candidacy and culture of, 200–201 or nonbeliefs, Tocqueville on display of,
social views of religiously orthodox and, 5 42
as surrogate for social class, 187 postmaterialist concerns in United States
racism and, 181
American Creed and, 184 secularization and, 47–51
diversity discourse, inequality and, 191 social and political views and, 4–6
radical (rank) individualism, 85, 100, 154. See views on political role of religion and,
also individualism 44
index 267
voting for Obama vs. Kerry or Gore and, increasing and decreasing cycles of, 56
201 religious beliefs and, 47–51
Religious Right. See Christian Right self-expression values, 7–8, 92–93, 186. See
republicanism, on public good vs. individual also individualism
interests, 89 self-interest, 60, 101
Republican Party. See also Right sel‹shness, as excessive individualism, 84
attack politics by, 118–19 separation of church and state, 33, 39, 40,
cultural politics and, 176–78 46–47, 56. See also church-state relations
on gays in the military, 8 Serra, Richard, 156
on NEA as cultural elitist, 155 Serrano, Andres, 156
Palin effect on 2008 campaign of, 201, 202 sex education, 60–61, 153, 222
political polarization and, 194–95 sexual behavior, 29, 60, 192–93, 213–14
secularization and evangelical Protestants Short, Thomas
voting for, 54 on freedom and self-control, 73
white Protestants and, 5 on gay conservatives, 70, 135
respect for religion, 2–3, 31–32, 45, 47, 50. on moral relativism, 78
See also religion on politicizing culture, 25
Right. See conservatives on privacy, 71
right-to-life advocates. See pro-life advocates Simmel, George, 97
Roaring Twenties, contemporary morals vs. Slater, Philip, 27
moral issues during, 82–83 Smith, Philip, 11
Robertson, Pat, 12, 35, 198 Sobol, Thomas, 127, 128
rock music, 76 social capital, individualism, multicultural-
Roe v. Wade, 69, 153–54 ism and, 94
Roosevelt, Franklin, 182 social class. See class
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 33 social construction of reality, 3, 16
Rubin, Jerry, 77 socialists, absence of in U.S. politics, 182
social movements, 56, 149, 190. See also
Sahlins, Marshall, 14, 17 speci‹c groups
same-sex marriage. See also gay rights move- social opprobrium, legislating morality vs.,
ment; homosexuality 81–82
campaigns of 2000 and 2004 and public social welfare vs. individual freedom, 86–87,
opinion on, 204 88–89
as conservative vs. radical idea, 214 sociology, rethinking of culture within, 16
as co-optation into straight society, 165 South America, lack of nativist movements
grassroots gays and lesbians and support in, 140
for, 213 Southern Baptist Convention, 6
Left vs. Right on morality of, 74 Spencer, Martin E., 103, 114, 139
as moral equality of homosexuality and standards
heterosexuality, 72 community, X-rated pop culture and,
Palin’s candidacy and public opinion on, 62–63
202 cultural, Right on mass culture and, 149
Sanders, Deion, 40–41 democratization of culture and, 166
Schlesinger, Arthur, Jr., 96, 117, 125, 132, of good and evil, American belief in, 91
137 moral, Clinton’s approval ratings and,
school choice, 122, 206, 215 83
school prayer, 4, 9, 40, 177, 215 national curriculum, 163
schools, single-sex, feminists vs. conserva- sexual, politicized church on, 46
tives on, 64. See also public schools traditional and conservative philistinism,
Schudson, Michael, 14, 15 159
Schuller, Robert, 40 Stanford University, on pluralism of Western
secularists, on morality in public life, 39 civilization, 134
secularization subcultures
cultural religion and, 52–54 artists and thinkers’ transcendence of,
debates on extent and meaning of, 51–52 96–97
268 index
subcultures (continued) Time

individualism and identi‹cation with, on American individualism and multicul-
107–8, 218 turalism, 95–96
Kallen’s cultural pluralism and, 112 on blaming the system for moral failures,
Left on the Right’s uneasiness with, 26 61
multiple and intersecting, 120 centrist position of, 221
Sullivan, Andrew on counterculture, 77
on American masculinity, 153 on creationism, 41
on common culture, 116 on diminished role for religion in text-
on gay identity, 212 books, 40
on gay marriage, 74, 214 on feminist elitism, 164
on gay rights elites, 165 on legislating morality, 82
on legislating morality, 82 on lifestyle issues in America, 208
on multiculturalism, 121 on moral images of family values, 76
on political correctness, 138 on moralizing, 80
on private discrimination against gays, on religion in public life, 39
73 on tolerance and social conservatism, 136
on public discrimination against gays, on X-rated pop culture and First Amend-
213 ment, 62–63
Supreme Court, 39–40 Tocqueville, Alexis de
Sweden, self-expression in United States vs., on American clergy and politics, 45
92 on American differential treatment of
Swidler, Ann, 13–14, 15–16, 17, 28 vices, 81
symbols, American public, 13–14, 34, 99, 139, on cultural religion and societal unity, 53
218 on display of religious belief or nonbelief,
42
takeoff issues, 197 on meritocratic art in a democratic society,
Taylor, Charles, 107 158
Teachout, Terry on outward duties of religion in America,
on centrists, 170–71 31
on conservative view of gay rights, 70 on self-interest principle and personal be-
on enforcement of feminism on campus, havior, 60
209 tolerance
on political correctness, 62 American culture and, 136–37
on a university canon, 129, 132, 135 by Americans, 137–38
television. See also Hollywood liberals censorship and, 138–39
English language instruction via, 111 homosexual behavior and, 70
religious-themed shows on, 147–48 judgmental form of toleration as, 141
subculture identi‹cation via, 113 liberal disagreement on de‹nition for, 135
symbolic meanings of culture and, 14 moral relativism and, 135–36
television talk shows nativist movements and, 139–40
concerns on exploitation of guests of, 151 political unity, cultural pluralism and,
division within the Left on, 163 140–41
guests as alien and unreal on, 116 as respect for varied positions, 142–43
liberals on moralizing by, 80 Touched by an Angel (television show), 147
as product of cultural democratization, 162 traditional values
Right vs. Left on immorality of guests on, American beliefs in God and religion as,
63 53
temperance, 179. See also Prohibition American exceptionalism and, 186
Tenured Radicals (Kimball), 171 American tolerance of neighbor’s right to
textbooks, 17, 40, 126, 146, 180 reject, 138
thick culture vs. thin culture, 104–5 among Americans, 7
Thomas, Clarence, con‹rmation hearings, Baker on American exceptionalism and,
80 182
Tilted Arc (Serra sculpture), 156 changes over time in, 79
index 269
counterculture as challenge to, 3 cultural dilemmas and, 29

and feminist values, 172–73 enduring, true cultural elites and, 146
Right on capitalist marketplace and, 61 indifference to, as false pluralism, 123
tribalism, 84, 105, 133, 150 self-expression, among Americans, 7–8
Swidler on American individualism seen
underclass, 60, 115, 117, 150, 179 as, 28
United States traditional, among Americans, 7
cultural pluralism in, 109 victim feminism, 164
as immigrant nation, 117, 140, 144 Vietnam War, 57, 88
moral tone of political discourse in, 29, 58 voluntarism, 15, 91, 182, 184, 185
progressive postmaterialist in›uences in, voting. See also major candidates
181 church attendance and, 187, 201, 215
religious belief and practice in Canada vs., class, race, and gender and, 188
53–54 by evangelical Republicans, secularization
religious socialization of immigrants to, 49 and, 54
social desirability pressures and religious
participation data for, 50 Wall Street Journal, 87
use of the term culture in, 17 Walzer, Michael
universities. See also academics; university on American cultural in›uences on immi-
canon grant groups, 113
counterculture remnants in, 77 on cultural determination of individuals,
as culture-transmitting institutions, 146 106–7
democratization of culture and humanities as culture wars writer, 11
education in, 151–52 on lovers of a single America, 119
objectivity in multicultural education in, on multiculturalism, 95, 99, 101, 122
130–31 on symbols of American citizenship,
prestige of liberals vs. conservatives in, 159 139
white control of cultural capital in, 103 Warhol, Andy, 156
university canon. See also American literary Warren, Rick, 205
canon; canon wars; history teaching WASP culture, 160
academics on problems with critics of, 152 Weekly Standard, 221
controversy over, 19, 128–29 welfare issues, as cultural issues, 176
cultural diversity issues and, 97 welfare state, class politics and, 189
culture war debates on, 21–22 Western civilization/heritage, 119, 128, 129,
educational change and, 144 158
established, teaching about non-Western Weyrich, Paul, 56, 75
cultures and, 133 White, John Kenneth, 12, 81, 203
as image of society’s vision of itself, 131–32 Whyte, William, 107
medicinal image of culture and, 168–69 Wildavsky, Aaron, 183, 184, 188
minority group employment and changes Williams, Robin, 27, 36, 58
to, 134 Willie Horton ads, 86–87, 118–19
multicultural education and, 125 Wilson, Woodrow, 96
as seen through lens of morality, 62 Wolfe, Alan
socially constructed criteria for choices in, on American attitudes toward religion, 42,
133–34 43–44
traditional, conservatives on elitism and, on centrists, 167
158 on culture wars, 4, 7, 10
University of Wisconsin speech code, 207 on nonjudgmentalism, 56, 81
upside-down moral world, 60–61. See also in- on self-expression and deference to au-
dividual freedom thority, 92
on self-indulgence, 92
Vaisey, Stephen, 15 women’s movement, 61–62, 164–65, 208. See
values. See also morality also feminism; feminists
American divide over, 12 Woodstock Generation elites, 146. See also
contradictory in United States, 7 counterculture
270 index
workingmen’s parties, on equality of oppor- on deep culture, 28

tunity, 182–83 on religious attitudes in the United States,
World Values Surveys, 7–8, 52, 181–82 167–68
Wrong, Dennis, 3, 13, 113 on religious beliefs and political views, 4,
Wuthnow, Robert 5
on American civil religion, 35, 56, 57
on assimilation and pluralism, 104 Zogby polls, 12
Everything   
 Share
BOOK/PRINTED MATERIAL
Culture wars and enduring American dilemmas
View
Enlarged
Image
Download: PDF (1.5 MB)  Go
About this Item

Title
Culture wars and enduring American dilemmas Part of
LC Online Resource (2,704)
Contributor Names
Thomson, Irene Taviss, 1941- Open Access Books (3,478)
General Collections (161,180)

Created / Published
Ann Arbor : University of Michigan Press, [2010] Library of Congress Online Catalog (1,235,258)
Subject Headings
- Culture conflict--United States Format
- United States--Moral conditions Book/Printed Material
- United States--Politics and government--21st century

Contributors
- United States--Social conditions--21st century
Thomson, Irene Taviss
Notes
- Includes bibliographical references and index. Dates
- Description based on print version record. 2010
Medium Locations
1 online resource United States
Call Number/Physical Location Languages

HN59.2 English
Digital Id
Subjects
https://hdl.loc.gov/loc.gdc/gdcebookspublic.2020707378
21st Century
Library of Congress Control Number Culture Conflict

2020707378 Moral Conditions
Politics and Government
Rights Advisory Social Conditions
Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 United States
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/legalcode 
Access Advisory
Unrestricted online access
Online Format
image
pdf
LCCN Permalink
https://lccn.loc.gov/2020707378
Additional Metadata Formats

MARCXML Record
MODS Record
Dublin Core Record
 Rights & Access
The books in this collection are licensed under open access licenses allowing for the reuse and distribution of each book following the terms described in each
license. Researchers should consult the Rights Advisory statement for each title and the accompanying license details for information about rights and
permissions associated with each of the licenses.
More about Copyright and other Restrictions.
 Cite This Item
 Citations are generated automatically from bibliographic data as a convenience, and may not be complete or accurate.
Chicago citation style:

Thomson, Irene Taviss. Culture wars and enduring American dilemmas. [Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2010] Pdf. https://www.loc.gov/item/2020707378/.
APA citation style:

Thomson, I. T. (2010) Culture wars and enduring American dilemmas. [Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press] [Pdf] Retrieved from the Library of Congress,
https://www.loc.gov/item/2020707378/.
MLA citation style:

Thomson, Irene Taviss. Culture wars and enduring American dilemmas. [Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2010] Pdf. Retrieved from the Library of Congress,
<www.loc.gov/item/2020707378/>.
More Books/Printed Material like this
BOOK/PRINTED MATERIAL
India : the Modi factor
BOOK/PRINTED MATERIAL BOOK/PRINTED MATERIAL
BOOK/PRINTED MATERIAL Substance and attribute : Calm of Khartoum in the BOOK/PRINTED MATERIAL
Cultural revolutions : Western and Islamic storm of Sudan Wither the Iran Protests
reason versus culture in traditions in dialogue 2017-18
philosophy, politics, and
jihad
You might also like
AUDIO RECORDING COLLECTION AUDIO RECORDING COLLECTION

The problem with Edwin J. Feulner papers, Them : why we hate each Elizabeth Allen Smart
everything : my journey other--and how to heal papers, 1924-1961
through the new culture Why we hate each other--
wars and how to heal
NEWSPAPER
Able.
Follow Us Take our survey 
Accessibility Legal Inspector General External Link Disclaimer USA.gov Careers Contact Media Donate Shop
 For the latest COVID-19 news and information, visit Penn State's Coronavirus Information website.
Catalog Bookmarks 0 Course Reserves My Account
Keyword Search...  Search Advanced search Start Over
Share Bookmark Report an Issue
Culture wars and enduring American dilemmas /

Irene Taviss Thomson
Author: Thomson, Irene Taviss, 1941-
Published: Ann Arbor : University of Michigan Press, [2010]
Copyright Date: ©2010
Physical Description: 1 online resource (270 pages).
Access Online
 www.oapen.org, Open Access
 oapen.org, Open Access
 oapen.org, Open Access
Series:
Contemporary political and social issues
Restrictions on Access:
Open Access Unrestricted online access
Contents:
Culture wars and warring about culture -- Respect for religion but uncertainty about its role -- Moral but not moralistic -- Individualism but
not to excess -- Pluralism within one culture -- Antielitist but respecting achievement -- Moderation, plain and simple -- Culture, class, and
American exceptionalism.
Summary:
"Irene Taviss Thomson gives us a nuanced portrait of American social politics that helps explain both why we are drawn to the idea of a
'culture war' and why that misrepresents what is actually going on."--Rhys H. Williams, Professor and Chair, Department of Sociology, Loyola
University Chicago "An important work showing--beneath surface conflict--a deep consensus on a number of ideals by social elites."--John H.
Evans, Department of Sociology, University of California, San Diego The idea of a culture war, or wars, has existed in America since the 1960s-
-an underlying ideological schism in our country that is responsible for the polarizing debates on everything from the separation of church
and state, to abortion, to gay marriage, to affirmative action. Irene Taviss Thomson explores this notion by analyzing hundreds of articles
addressing hot-button issues over two decades from four magazines: National Review, Time, The New Republic, and The Nation, as well as a
wide array of other writings and statements from a substantial number of public intellectuals. What Thomson finds might surprise you:
based on her research, there is no single cultural divide or cultural source that can account for the positions that have been adopted. While
issues such as religion, homosexuality, sexual conduct, and abortion have figured prominently in public discussion, in fact there is no single
thread that unifies responses to each of these cultural dilemmas for any of the writers. Irene Taviss Thomson is Professor Emeritus of
Sociology, having taught in the Department of Social Sciences and History at Fairleigh Dickinson University for more than 30 years.
Previously, she taught in the Department of Sociology at Harvard University.
Subject(s):
ASK 
A LIBRARIAN
Culture conflict—United States
SOCIAL SCIENCE—Violence in Society
SOCIAL SCIENCE—General
United States—Social conditions—21st century
United States—Politics and government—21st century
United States—Moral conditions
ISBN:
9780472022069 (electronic bk.)
0472050885
9780472050888
1282555928
9781282555921
Note:
Knowledge Unlatched
PENN STATE CONNECT WITH
Copyright @2019 The Pennsylvania State University. All rights
Copyright Note: UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES PENN STATE
reserved. Except where otherwise noted, this work is subject to UNIVERSITY
This work is licensed by Knowledge Unlatched under a Creative Commons
a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 license. Details and
license
Libraries Home https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-
(814) 865-6368 LIBRARIES
nd/4.0/legalcode exceptions. Libraries Intranet (Staff
 Facebook
Only)
 Twitter
Legal Statements | PSU Hotlines  Accessibility Help
 Instagram
Website Feedback
Policies and Guidelines View MARC record | catkey: 27682453
Staff Directory
CULTURE WAR
DAN HUNTER
Abstract
Over the last ten years, much of copyright and patent has come under attack from those who suggest that
capture by private interests has had a pernicious influence on public policy in this field. In the related areas of
telecommunication spectrum management and internet regulation there have emerged strong arguments for
not allocating private property interests, and instead considering these domains as commons property. I
suggest that, together, these developments form part of a culture war, a war over the means of production of
creative content in our society. I argue that the best way to understand this war is to view it as a Marxist
struggle. However, I suggest that copyright and patent reform—where commentators have actually been
accused of Marxism—is not where the Marxist revolution is taking place. Instead I locate that revolution
elsewhere, most notably in the rise of open source production and dissemination of cultural content.
Document Control
Public Beta Revision 1.2, Tuesday, August 10, 2004. This is a non-canonical draft. It goes without saying that you
may cite to it, but this document may not represent my final view.
This document is released under the Creative Commons Attribution License,

http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/1.0/ This means you may do anything you like with this
document—wallpaper your house with it, perform it as a musical, create an audiobook from it, rewrite it using
only 21 letters of the alphabet, translate it into Zulu, etc etc—as long as you appropriately attribute it to its author.
CULTURE WAR
DAN HUNTER∗
A spectre is haunting multinational capitalism—the spectre of free

information.
–Eben Moglen, dotCommunist Manifesto1
It wasn’t long ago that intellectual property law was seen as a wholly positive force in
society. In those simpler times, intellectual property was thought to guarantee social
progress, promote innovation, and (no doubt one day) cure baldness. But within the
blink of an eye the golden period faded, and intellectual property became a mares’
nest. In copyright, scholars and civil society groups lead a series of attacks on
copyright term extensions, and on the diminution of the public domain. Within patent
we witnessed increasing concerns about the extension of patent scope, and the grant
of wildly overbroad patents: recently a number of civil society groups announced
plans to challenge the grant of those patents which these see as the worst offenders.
Internationally, criticism was leveled at the role of Western intellectual property
policy on developing nations, in areas like plant and seed protection, drug pricing in
Africa, and the development of indigenous high-technology industries. And in related
areas like telecommunication spectrum allocation, and internet regulation there
emerged movements seeking to protect commons property from private
encroachment. At the same time, intellectual property owners decried rampant
piracy, and daily foretold the deaths of their industries. Where once intellectual
property was seen as good for all, we now survey a battlefield that pits private
interests against the public good.
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels’ Communist Manifesto foretold the end of private
property and the inevitable rise of a workers’ paradise. Though this failed as a
∗ Robert F. Irwin IV Term Assistant Professor of Legal Studies, Wharton School, University of
Pennsylvania. Email: [email protected] Thanks to Greg Lastowka, Larry Lessig,
Polk Wagner, and Kevin Werbach for their guidance on the different battles in the culture war.
1 Available at http://emoglen.law.columbia.edu/publications/dcm.html
CULTURE WAR
political movement, there are extraordinary parallels between Communist ideology

and the current war over the creation of cultural content. In fact I will argue that the
various battles of the culture war can best be understood as elements of a Marxist
class struggle. One hundred and fifty years ago Marx began writing his fundamental
works, and in doing so re-wrote history. His philosophy reacted against the
concentration of power in the hands of capital that came about as a consequence of the
industrial age. Now, as the information age progresses, we see the same concentration
of power through the dominant property form of our era, that is, intellectual property.
The laissez-faire capitalists of the gilded age have their direct descendants in
intellectual property-based industries like media, software, pharmaceuticals, and the
like. And so we shouldn’t be surprised if we see a Marxist response to these
developments. Equally we shouldn’t be surprised if Capital, that is the owners of
intellectual property, rightly see this as a profound challenge to their position. We can
expect to see, and in fact do see, significant resistance on their part.
The purpose of this Essay is to describe the nature of the culture war, and to explain
why viewing this war through a Marxist lens can shed light on it. In doing so, we can
begin to recognize how current battles might be fought, and how future battles will
emerge. Thus, in the part that follows I first look at how we came to find intellectual
property holders pitted against civil society groups and scholars. I go on to suggest
that copyright and patent reform—where commentators have actually been accused of
Marxism—is not where the Marxist revolution is taking place. Instead I locate that
revolution elsewhere, most notably in the rise of open source production and
dissemination of cultural content. In charting this revolution, I also show how
spectrum allocation and internet regulation follows this Marxist cultural revolution,
and forms part of it.
-I-
Intellectual property has a venerable provenance, tracing its roots back to the
beginning of the Eighteenth Century in copyright, and earlier in patent, but its
significance has changed profoundly as we moved from the industrial era into the
information age. For much of the Twentieth Century, the three fundamental grants of
intellectual property interests—patent, copyright, and trademark—were relatively
narrow and relatively unimportant. Patents were used by business to forestall
competition in useful inventions (like chemical processes), trademarks were useful to
denote one company’s product from another, copyright was relevant to stop
-3-
[PUBLIC BETA V.1.2 | NON-CANONICAL AUGUST 10, 2004]
commercial reproduction of, say, a book. But on the whole, businesses in the
industrial era didn’t care that much about intellectual property. They cared about the
factory, the production line, and the land on which these were sited. This was the
property that mattered.
As the modern era advanced the importance of industrial production waned. No

longer was heavy machinery and physical plant the predominant means of production,
no longer was physical inventory the most important asset to industry. At least in the
developed world, control over intangibles came to dominate the business agenda, and
thereby the political agenda.2 The importance of these sorts of intangible interests is
obvious in the rise of the Microsoft, and the other software and electronic commerce
players. These industries rely solely on intangible products, and, since these
intangibles like ideas, text, data and images can flow effortlessly around the globe
without the inherent constraints of physical property, intellectual property protections
are necessary to forestall others from using them. But in other fields important to
developed nations—for example, semiconductors, pharmaceuticals, genetic
engineering, media—control over processes, ideas, and information has become
central to the expansion of these high-value, high-tech industries, and thereby has
become central to the interests of western governments.3
In the latter part of the Twentieth Century the importance of these new property
interests was obvious to business and government, and so the intellectual property
system grew.4 Thus copyright’s scope, which had been limited in its infancy to maps,
charts and books,5 broadened over time to encompass musical and dramatic works,
2 See THOMAS P. H UGHERS , AMERICAN GENESIS: A CENTURY OF I NVENTION AND

TECHNOLOGICAL E NTHUSIASM, 1870-1970 (1989). For an account of the social and business
role of intellectual property (especially patents) since 1970 see Wesley M. Cohen and Stephen A.
Merrill, Introduction, in WESLEY M. COHEN AND STEPHEN A. MERRILL, EDS, PATENTS IN THE
KNOWLEDGE-BASED ECONOMY 1, 1–2 (National Academies 2003).
3 The intellectual property protocol to the foundational international free trade agreement, the
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, is the most compelling example of Western government
reliance on intellectual property, and their efforts to entrench the system within international
trade. See Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (Apr 15, 1994) (TRIPS),
reprinted in THE L EGAL T EXTS : RESULTS OF THE U RUGUAY R OUND OF M ULTILATERAL
TRADE NEGOTIATIONS ANNEX 1C at 321-53 (Cambridge 1994). See generally SUSAN K. SELL,
P RIVATE P O W E R , PUBLIC L A W : THE G LOBALIZATION OF I NTELLECTUAL PROPERTY
(Cambridge 2003)
4 See generally William W. Fisher, Geistiges Eigentum – ein ausufernder Rechtsbereich: Die Geschichte des
Ideenschutzes in den Vereinigten Staaten, in EIGENTUM IM INTERNATIONALEN VERGLEICH 265
(Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1999) [English version, The Growth of Intellectual Property: A History of
the Ownership of Ideas in the United S t a t e s, available at
http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/people/tfisher/iphistory.pdf]
5 Copyright Act of 1790, ch. 15, 1, 1 Stat. 124 (repealed 1831). The Act provided protection to
the "author and authors of any map, chart, book or books," if the writings were printed in the
United States and the authors were citizens or residents and had not transferred their copyright.
-4-
CULTURE WAR
photographs, movies, sound recordings, software, architectural drawings, and the

like.6 Copyright terms were extended from a modest period—initially a slim 14 years,
with the chance of one extension of 14 years7—to increasingly-extended periods each
time Congress considered the matter,8 eventually reaching a period of almost two
human lifespans.9 And the early conception that copyright covered only the literal
expression of a work was abandoned in favor of expansive interpretations of the
author’s interests, extending to the “essence and value of [the]…composition.”10 This
paved the way for the recognition of copyright in “non-literal expression,” such as the
structural features of a book or computer program,11 characters drawn from films and
comics,12 and the preparation of various types of derivative works.13
Patent law followed the same path. Its scope widened, over time annexing new
inventive territories like plants, surgical procedures, computer algorithms, and
6 Photographs: Burrow-Giles Lithographic Co. v. Sarony, 111 U.S. 53 (1884); Sound recordings:
Sound Recordings Act of 1971, Pub. L. No. 92-140, 85 Stat. 392. See generally Robert P.
Merges, One Hundred Years of Solicitude: Intellectual Property Law, 1900- 2000, 88 CAL. L. REV. 2187
(explaining the connection between the expansion of intellectual property protection and the
advent of new technologies).
7 Copyright Act of 1790, ch. 15, 1, 1 Stat. 124, 124 (repealed 1831).
8 Extensions to copyright terms were granted by Pub. L. No. 87-668, 76 Stat. 555 (1962); Pub. L.
No. 89-142, 79 Stat. 581 (1965); Pub. L. No. 90-141, 81 Stat. 464 (1967); Pub. L. No. 90-416, 82
Stat. 397 (1968); Pub. L. No. 91-147, 83 Stat. 360 (1969); Pub. L. No. 91-555, 84 Stat. 1441
(1970); Pub. L. No. 92-170, 85 Stat. 490 (1971); Pub. L. No. 92-566, 86 Stat. 1181 (1972); Pub.
L. No. 93-573, 88 Stat. 1873 (1974); Pub. L. No. 105-298, 112 Stat. 2827 (1998). See generally
L AWRENCE L ESSIG, FUTURE OF I DEAS : THE FATE OF THE C OMMONS IN A C ONNECTED
WORLD, 107-8 (2002) (suggesting that it’s not unreasonable to say that copyright was extended
each time that Mickey Mouse was due to fall into the public domain).
9 The latest extensions were introduced in the Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act of
1998, Pub. L. No. 105-298, 112 Stat. 2827 (1998). The copyright term has been increased from
life of the author plus 50 years to life plus 70 years (15 U.S.C.A §303(a)), and for pseudonymous
works and works made for hire from 75 to 95 years from publication or from 100 years to 120
years from creation. (Id. §302(c)).
10 Peter Jaszi, Toward a Theory of Copyright: The Metamorphoses of ‘Authorship,’ 1991 DUKE L.J. 455,
478 (quoting EATON S. DRONE, A TREATISE ON THE L AW OF PROPERTY IN INTELLECTUAL
PRODUCTIONS IN GREAT BRITAIN AND THE UNITED STATES, 451-52, (1879))
11 Whelan Associates, Inc. v. Jaslow Dental Laboratories, Inc., 797 F.2d 1222 (3d Cir. 1986) (structure,
sequence and organization of a computer program held to be copyright expression); Meredith
Corp. v. Harper & Row, Publishers, Inc., 378 F. Supp. 686, 690 (S.D.N.Y. 1974), aff'd per curiam,
500 F.2d 1221 (2d Cir. 1974) (copying of structure and sequence of literary work justified
finding of copyright infringement).
12 Detective Comics, Inc. v. Bruns Publ'ns, Inc. 111 F.2d 432 (2d Cir. 1940) (holding Superman
character a copyrightable element of comic book); Walt Disney Prods. v. Air Pirates, 581 F.2d 751
(9th Cir. 1978), cert. denied, 439 U.S. 1132 (1979) (finding Mickey Mouse and Minnie Mouse
characters protectable elements of copyrighted works even if placed in unrelated stories);
Anderson v. Stallone, 11 USPQ2d 1161 (C.D. Cal. 1989) (characters from the Rocky motion
picture separately protectable); Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer v. American Honda Motor Co., 900 F. Supp.
1287 (C.D. Cal. 1995) (holding literary character James Bond protected under copyright);
13 See Fisher, supra note ___ at 268.
-5-
business methods.14 In time even lifeforms became patentable, eventually including

gene sequences of the human genome.15 The strict early patent requirement that only
the specific claims could be infringed was loosened with the introduction of the
doctrine of equivalents, giving judges flexibility to determine that non-identical but
equivalent methods were infringing.16
Trademarks too were set loose from their historical moorings. The trademark term
was extended17 and the prototypical application of a physical brand to a physical
product no longer marked the limit of trademark’s dominion. Not only could the
hourglass shape of the Coke bottle be a trademark in itself,18 but sounds such as the
Harley-Davidson exhaust note for motorcycles,19 a fragrance, or a distinctive color of
dry cleaning pads20 were equally protected from copying. In time wholly
impressionistic elements comprising the “trade dress” of a restaurant—features such
as the color scheme, layout, and roof design—came to be owned.21
At first these manifold expansions were ignored, not only by socially progressive
commentators but also by the public. The growth of intellectual property didn’t seem
to involve a reduction of any interests in the common weal. Of course, the grant of a
patent over a new class of inventions, or a new form of trademark, or the extension of
14 Plants: Plant Patent Act of 1930, codified in 35 U.S.C. secs. 161-164; Plant Variety Protection
Act, 7 U.S.C. §§ 2321-2582. Surgical procedures: Ex parte Scherer, 103 U.S.P.Q. (BNA) 107
(Pat. Off. Bd. App. 1954) (approving patent for method of injecting drugs by pressure jet).
Computer algorithms: Diamond v. Diehr, 450 U.S.175 (1981) (approving patent for software that
monitored temperature inside a rubber mold). Business methods: State Street Bank & Trust Co. v.
Signature Fin. Group, Inc., 149 F.3d 1368 (1998) (approving patent for financial calculation
business method)
15 Diamond v. Chakrabarty, 447 U.S. 303 (1980) (establishing patent protection for commercially
valuable organism). The expressed sequence tags of the human genome was the subject of patent
applications by Celera Genomics and Incyte Genomics, two companies engaged in mapping it.
See Dennis Fernandez & Mary Chow, Intellectual Property Strategy in Bioinformatics and Biochips, 85
J. PAT. & TRADEMARK OFF. SOC'Y 465, 467 (2003)
16 Mark A. Lemley, The Economics of Improvement in Intellectual Property Law, 75 TEX . L. REV. 989,
1004 (1997).
17 Trademarks are capable of infinite term, since they may be repeatedly renewed. Trademark
terms were effectively extended by the introduction of the intent-to-use standard rather than
initial commercial use requirement. This allows the applicant to claim a (fictional) constructive
use date and store the mark without any use for more than four years. See Trademark (Lanham)
Act of 15 U.S.C.A. §1051(b) (2000).
18 See e.g. Coca-Cola v. Gemini Rising, 346 F. Supp. 1183 (E.D.N.Y. 1972) (a poster depicting the
Coke bottle infringed the trademark in the coke bottle)
19 Kawaski Motors Corp. USA v. H-D Michigan Inc., 43 USPQD2d 1521 (TTAB 1997) (Trademark
status granted for distinctive sound of Harley-Davidson exhaust note). The extension of
trademark protection into sounds was first granted in relation to NBC’s three chimes signal,
Reg.No. 523,616 (Apr.4, 1950).
20 Qualitex Co. v. Jacobsen Products Co., 115 S. Ct. 1300 (1995) (Trademark status granted for
distinctive green-gold color for dry cleaning pads).
21 Two-Pesos, Inc. v. Taco Cabana, 505 U.S.763 (1992)
-6-
CULTURE WAR
a copyright, might affect a direct competitor; but after all that’s just business. Society
at large just didn’t care much. And this aside, the intellectual property system is as
arcane as the tax code. Who, outside of specialist intellectual property lawyers, could
understand let alone follow issues like why the creation of a specialized patent court
has lead to an increase in patent validity rulings, and what this might mean to the
public good? 22
Thus the expansion of private interests didn’t awaken the public. However there has
long been the sense that the public does have some stake here. The concept of the
“public domain” was first advanced in 1896, in a Supreme Court case involving the
Singer sewing machine.23 The court noted that upon the expiration of a patent the
public gained the right to exploit the technology: in the court’s words, the invention
fell into the public domain.24 Over the following 80 or 90 years, as intellectual
property rose in importance, the concept of the public domain was either ignored, or
defined in negative terms: the public domain was what remained after all the private
interests had been allocated.25 It was the carcass that was left after the intellectual
property system had eaten its fill.
In the late nineteen-seventies David Lange, then a young Duke law professor,
attended an entertainment law symposium to present a paper on the right of publicity,
in light of two cases before the California courts asking whether the heirs of Bela
Lugosi and Rudolph Valentino could control the representation of these famous actors
after their death.26 Lange thought it a technical question that might be of narrow
interest to estate lawyers, and those lucky few who are strangely excited by the law of
succession. He was surprised at the distress of a group of screenwriters who attended
his presentation and who peppered him with fearful questions. Rather than rejoicing
in greater protection, they saw the recognition of celebrity publicity rights as taking
22 Allison and Lemley demonstrate that the patent validity rate after the introduction of the Federal
Circuit Court of Appeals during the period 1989-1996 was approximately 52%. See John R.
Allison & Mark A. Lemley, Empirical Evidence on the Validity of Litigated Patents, 26 AIPLA Q.J.
185, 241 (1998). Oddi claims that prior to the creation of the Federal Circuit in 1982, the
historical average for patent validity was approximately one-third, and that the validity rate is
now too high. See A. Samuel Oddi, The Tragicomedy of the Public Domain in Intellectual Property Law,
25 HASTINGS COMM. & ENT. L.J. 1, fn9 (2003).
23 Singer Mfg. Co. v. June Mfg. Co., 163 U.S. 169 (1896)
24 Id at 196.
25 This conception of the public domain in negative terms has been common for some time, see e.g.
Compco Corp v Day-Brite Lighting, Inc., 376 US 234, 237 (1964) (striking down state unfair
competition laws that altered copyright law, which would “interfere with the federal policy…of
allowing free access to copy whatever the federal patent and copyright laws leave in the public
domain.”)
26 David Lange, Re-Imagining the Public Domain, 66 LAW & CONTEMP. PROBS. 463, 464-5 (2003)
-7-
something away from them. If the courts expanded publicity rights they would
reduce the ability of writers to adapt, use, or re-imagine the histories of famous people.
As Lange describes it, years later, “the law of publicity was dispossessing individual
creators in order to benefit the interests of celebrities.”27 From this epiphany, Lange
recast the public domain. Rather than the negative leftovers, he said that the public
domain was a vital, affirmative entity, the publicly-accessible collection of knowledge,
ideas, history, and expression on which creators draw in order to make new works.28
It was, in short, the repository of public culture. The concern that motivated Lange,
the issue that made his paper more than a doctrinally-interesting law article, was the
recognition that, if private interests were to continue to expand, they would eventually
overrun the public domain altogether, and thereby choke off all creativity. This would,
of course, be a mordantly amusing result, since the grant of intellectual property rights
is generally justified as an economic incentive to authors and inventors to encourage
creativity, not to stifle it.29
From this beginning the movement in defense of the public domain grew slowly. It
was another ten years before law professors began systematically to analyze the
importance of the public domain to the intellectual property system and to society. In
a series of articles beginning in the mid-eighties, Pamela Samuelson voiced concern
about the expansion of intellectual property in various components of information
technology, including user interfaces, computer algorithms, and information, and
argued that this was dispossessing others of the opportunity to innovate.30 Outside
the specific arena of computer technology, Jessica Litman explained how the public
domain permitted the copyright system to work, by leaving the raw material of
authorship available for authors to use.31 She examined the gulf between what
authors really do in creating copyright work, and the way the law perceives them. As
27 Id at 465.
28 Id at 466.
29 See e.g. Goldstein v. California, 412 U.S. 546, 555 (1973) (“to encourage people to devote
themselves to intellectual and artistic creation, Congress may guarantee to authors and inventors
a reward”); William Landes & Richard Posner, An Economic Analysis of Copyright Law, 18 J. LEG.
STUD. 325 (1989).
30 Pamela Samuelson, CONTU Revisited: the Case Against Copyright Protection for Computer Programs in
Machine-Readable Form, 1984 D UKE L.J. 663 (1984); Pamela Samuelson, Creating a New Kind of
Intellectual Property: Applying the Lessons of the Chip Law to Computer Programs, 70 MINN. L. REV. 471
(1985); Pamela Samuelson, Allocating Ownership Rights in Computer-Generated Works, 47 U. PITT. L.
REV. 1185 (1986); Pamela Samuelson, Modifying Copyrighted Software: Adjusting Copyright Doctrine to
Accommodate a Technology, 28 JURIMETRICS J. 179 (1988); Pamela Samuelson, Information as
Property: Do Ruckelhaus and Carpenter Signal a Changing Direction in Intellectual Property Law? 38
C ATH . U. L. REV . 365 (1989); Pamela Samuelson, Benson Revisited: The Case Against Patent
Protection for Algorithms and Other Computer Program-Related Inventions, 39 EMORY L.J. 1025 (1990).
31 Jessica Litman, The Public Domain, 39 EMORY L.J. 965 (1990).
-8-
CULTURE WAR
she noted, originality is a legal fiction. Authors must reshape the prior works of others,
and so a conception of authorship as original-creation-from-nothing is both flawed
and misleading. A strong positive conception of the public domain is therefore
necessary to protect creators from incurring liability through otherwise unavoidable
copying.32 Wendy Gordon expanded on this by suggesting that free speech interests
are intimately connected to the public domain and the increasing-privatization of the
public domain weakened First Amendment rights.33 And Jamie Boyle gave a series of
extraordinary accounts of private control of public domain material, including,
memorably, the cells of a patient whose doctors patented a fabulously valuable cell-
line from his spleen.34
Thus, throughout the eighties and nineties, scholars had warned of the problems of an
expansionist copyright and patent system, but their concerns were ignored. Perhaps
the public indifference can best be explained by an absence of compelling examples
where creators were obviously disenfranchised as a result of the diminution of the
public domain. It wasn’t until the introduction in 1998 of two pieces of legislation that
these examples became clear, and activists and theorists were galvanized. The Sonny
Bono Copyright Term Extension Act35 and the Digital Millennium Copyright Act36
did a number of things: extended copyright terms, renewed copyrights on some works
that had already fallen into the public domain, and made illegal the circumvention of
digital locks on copyright works (the so-called “anti-circumvention provisions”). But
more important, perhaps, these statutes motivated a number of public-interest groups
in a way that had never occurred before. Up until the passing of this legislation,
corporate interests lobbied for intellectual property expansion without much, if any,
public comment.37 These two statutes changed that. Not only were they widely
recognized as driven entirely by corporate interests—the copyright term extensions
being not-unfairly seen as motivated by Disney’s fear that Mickey Mouse’s first film
32 Id at 968-9.
33 Wendy J. Gordon, A Property Right in Self-Expression: Equality and Individualism in the Natural Law
of Intellectual Property, 102 YALE L.J. 1533 (1993).
34 James Boyle, A Theory of Information: Copyright, Spleens, Blackmail, and Insider Trading, 80 CAL. L.
REV. 1413 (1992).
35 Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act of 1998, Pub. L. No. 105-298, 112 Stat. 2827,
codified at 17 USC § 302(a) (2000).
36 Digital Millenium Copyright Act of 1998, Pub. L. No. 105-304, 112 Stat. 2860, codified at 17
USC § 1201 (2000).
37 See JESSICA L ITMAN , DIGITAL C OPYRIGHT (2001) (detailing the legislative process of
copyright, and noting how it is dominated by commercial interests played off against one
another).
-9-
would soon fall into the greasy hands of the public—but their unanticipated uses, of
the DMCA in particular, drew widespread attention.
By now the horror stories are well-known: a Princeton computer science professor
was threatened with prosecution under the anti-circumvention provisions of the
DMCA if he disclosed research that he and his lab had performed in breaking the
preferred encryption system of the Recording Industry Association of America.38
Since he had performed this study at the behest of the RIAA, this restraint on
research and speech was striking. A Russian computer science student was arrested
while presenting a paper at a conference that demonstrated how his software made it
possible to read Adobe’s digitally-encrypted electronic books.39 He was arrested by
the FBI in Las Vegas, and promptly disappeared. He turned up some time later in a
jail in San Jose, presumably so that the executives from Adobe—whose corporate
headquarters are located there—shouldn’t have too far to travel when testifying
against him.40 Some computer scientists boycotted US computer security conferences
as a result, while others were warned to stay away for fear of being jailed for
discussing computer security.41 By the time that students at Swarthmore College
were threatened with an injunction against posting details of a potential election
scandal with electronic voting machines,42 the message was clear to many civil society
groups. The restrictions on speech, the threat to research and enquiry, the quashing
of dissent, the jailing of researchers: all of Lange’s worst fears and then some were
now realized. But unlike before, the public was starting to notice, and activists began
attacking the intellectual property system.
The challenge to intellectual property is most evident in copyright; indeed copyright

reform is the only part of the movement which is publicly recognizable outside the
specialist legal literature. Most of the credit for this can be attributed to Larry
Lessig’s popularizing works, The Future of Ideas and Free Culture. In these he argues
that we need to wind back intellectual property expansion, in order to protect the
38 See e.g. Yochai Benkler, Through the Looking Glass: Alice and the Constitutional Foundations of the
Public, 66 L. & CONTEMP. PROBS. 173, 174 (2003); Felten v. RIAA, No. CV-01-2660 (GEB)
(D.N.J. June 26, 2001) available at http://www.eff.org/IP/DMCA/Felten_v_RIAA/
39 Id at 173-4.
40 See http://www.eff.org/IP/DMCA/US_v_Elcomsoft/
41 Will Knight, “Computer Scientists boycott US over digital copyright law,” NEW SCIENTIST,
July 23, 2001, available at http://www.newscientist.com/news/news.jsp?id=ns00001063; Alan
Cox of Red Hat UK Ltd, declaration in Felten v. RIAA, Aug. 13, 2001, available at
http://www.eff.org/IP/DMCA/Felten_v_RIAA/20010813_cox_decl.html; Jennifer 8 Lee,
“Travel Advisory for Russian Programmers,” N.Y. Times at C4, Sept.10, 2001.
42 See http://www.eff.org/legal/ISP_liability/OPG_v_Diebold/
-10-
CULTURE WAR
public domain and the commons environments that allow for creative activity.
Though he is widely considered the leader of the copyright reform movement, many
others have joined the battle on the side of the reformers. Yochai Benkler,43 Siva
Vaidyanathan,44 and others make the case for a significantly more circumscribed
copyright system than we currently enjoy.
Outside of copyright, intellectual property reform is less well known, but no less
important for its obscurity. Patent in particular has been the subject of ever-
increasing scrutiny. Domestically, there has emerged a concern with overbroad
patent grants, as a result of new patent categories and a perception that patents were
not being appropriately scrutinized.45 This is most evident in the flurry of
commentary over the grant of business method patents that seemed self-evident. How
could it be that Amazon could obtain a patent for “inventing” one-click shopping?46
The vast increase in the number of filings of patent applications, and the sense that the
system has failed to weed out unmeritorious claims has lead to civil society responses.
The Public Patent Foundation was created to “represent the public’s interests in the
patent system,” specifically to challenge wrongly issued patents against public policy.47
More recently the Electronic Frontier Foundation announced a process to nominate
the most noxiously-overbroad patents,48 and is now challenging the ten patents which
it identifies as particularly offensive. These include a patent for the transmission and
receipt of digital content via the internet, a patent for telephone calls over the internet,
43 See e.g. Yochai Benkler, Constitutional Bounds of Database Protection, 15 BERKLEY TECH. L.J. 535
(2000); Yochai Benkler, Siren Songs and Amish Children: Autonomy, Information, and Law, 76 N.Y.U.
L. REV. 23, 109-113 (2001); Yochai Benkler, Intellectual Property and the Organization of Information
Production, 22 INT' L REV. L & EC . 81 (2002); Yochai Benkler, Coase's Penguin, or Linux and the
Nature of the Firm, 102 YALE L.J. 369 (2002).
44 SIVA V AIDYANATHAN, COPYRIGHTS AND C OPYWRONGS : THE R ISE OF I NTELLECTUAL
PROPERTY AND H OW IT THREATENS CREATIVITY (New York University Press, 2001); SIVA
VAIDYANATHAN, THE ANARCHIST IN THE LIBRARY (Basic Books, 2004).
45 See, e.g., Rebecca S. Eisenberg, Analyze This: A Law and Economics Agenda for the Patent System, 53
VAND. L. REV. 2081, 2083, 2096-98 (2000) (suggesting a better patent system would be created
by better understanding of economic effects); Mark D. Janis, Patent Abolitionism, 17 BERKELEY
TECH. L.J. 899, 900-904, 930-31, 948-52 (2002) (encouraging different form of patent reform);
Arti Rai, Addressing the Patent Gold Rush: The Role of Deference to PTO Patent Denials, 2 W ASH. U.
J.L. & POL'Y 199, 202, 216, 218 (2000) (arguing for the application of the nonobviousness
requirement and greater deference within the courts to USPTO denials of patents); Kurt M.
Saunders, Patent Nonuse and the Role of Public Interest as a Deterrent to Technology Suppression, 15
H ARV . J.L. & TECH. 389, 397, 451 (2002) (proposing changes in the patent system); John R.
Thomas, The Responsibility of the Rulemaker: Comparative Approaches to Patent Administration Reform,
17 BERKELEY TECH. L.J. 727, 730, 744 (2002) (suggesting better use of the resources to patent
agents to create a better domestic patent system).
46 U.S. Patent No. D431,695 (issued Oct. 3, 2000)
47 Public Patent Foundation website, http://www.pubpat.org/ Greg Ahronian’s “Internet Patent
News” group has been undertaking the same process for some time, though it has a private
orientation and typically acts for affected competitors, see http://www.bustpatents.com/
48 See http://www.eff.org/patent/contest/
-11-
and a patent for online testing of students.49
Internationally there has been mounting concern over the damage that the patent
system is doing in developing countries. During the 1990s, the United States
engineered a coup in international intellectual property policy-making. Out went the
specialized-but-impotent World Intellectual Property Organization, and in came the
World Trade Organization, the 800-pound gorilla that oversees free trade policy.50
With this brilliant administrative move the US Trade Representative gained the ability
to strong-arm countries whose intellectual property systems were not aligned with US
interests. If China wanted access to the insatiable US market for plastic toys and
consumer electronics, then it was going to have to enforce US intellectual property
interests in Shenzhen and Guangdong. But while this move lead to a huge uptake in
intellectual property legislation and enforcement around the world, it also
demonstrated the clear injustices in forcing the poor to dance to the rich’s intellectual
property tune. American pharmaceutical manufacturers were widely vilified—they
were even caricatured on “The West Wing”—because they refused to provide drug
therapies for HIV/AIDS in Africa for anything less than their patent-monopoly
controlled price. When Indian companies volunteered to break this monopoly and
manufacture generic knockoffs—thereby saving lives but thumbing their noses at US
patent laws and the US pharmaceutical industry—the USTR threatened India with
trade sanctions at the behest of Big Pharma. All the claims that this made economic
sense, and that drug manufacturers need the monopoly so that they might have
incentives to produce other important drugs—Viagra, for example—rang somewhat
hollow in the ears of the untold millions of people in the developing world who were
dying from AIDS. At the recent international HIV/AIDS conference, French
President Jacques Chirac launched a swingeing attack against US intellectual
property policy, and criticized the US for “blackmailing” developing countries into
giving up their right to produce anti-AIDS drugs.51 And US agricultural chemical
manufacturers are widely reviled for their patents over feed and plant-stock in the
49 Ian Austen, Claiming a Threat to Innovation, Group Seeks to Overturn 10 Patents, N.Y.TIMES, July 5,
2004.
50 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), (also known as "World Trade Organization
Agreement"), Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) agreement,
implemented on Dec. 8, 1994. Uruguay Round Trade Agreements, Pub. L. No. 103-465, 108
Stat. 4814 (approved and entered into force at 19 U.S.C. § 3511 [1994]).
51 Sarah Boseley, Chirac Attacks US drug ‘blackmail’, THE GUARDIAN, July 15, 2004.
-12-
CULTURE WAR
developing world.52
The rise of activism against intellectual property has taken many forms. Various
centers have been established, with names like the “Center for the Creative
Commons,”53 “Center for the Public Domain,”54 and the “Open Knowledge
Network.”55 Political action groups like the Electronic Frontier Foundation and the
ACLU, which previously had been concerned only with online privacy or censorship,
have begun to take an active interest in intellectual property policy.56 And recently
we’ve seen the emergence of student activist groups, like the “Swarthmore Coalition
for the Digital Commons.” Agents-provocateurs like Larry Lessig, Yochai Benkler,
and Eben Moglen pen books and articles equating freedom and autonomy of
individuals with a reform of the intellectual property system. And shot through all of
this is the sense that private property interests here are out of control, and the shared-
commons of our culture is under attack.
This is the nature of the culture war which is currently being waged. Unlike the
conflict between the left and right in US politics which is often called the “culture
war,”57 this isn’t a war between cultures, but a war over our culture. Who owns it, who
controls it, who can use it in future, and how much it will cost? For the first time
since intellectual property began its inexorable expansion there are signs of popular
discontent at just what the private interests had taken from the public.
Looking back at the movement now, this culture war is strongly reminiscent of an
older struggle. A struggle that pits individual and social interests against the
corporate owners of capital, where the issues cohere around who owns the means of
production, and where communal ownership is preferred over private ownership. A
struggle between the haves and the have-nots. This new version of the struggle even
has student activists with slogans on their shirts. The culture war of intellectual
property reform looks a lot like a Marxist class struggle, moved a hundred years
forward, and translating the word “property” into “intellectual property”.
52 See generally Keith Aoki, Neocolonialsim, Anticommons Property, and Bio-Piracy in the (Not-So-Brave)
New World Order of International Intellectual Property Protection, 6 IND. J. GLOBAL LEGAL STUD. 11
(1998).
53 http://creativecommons.org/
54 http://www.centerforthepublicdomain.org/
55 http://www.openknowledge.net/
56 See e.g. http://www.eff.org/issues/copyright/; http://www.eff.org/issues/drm/;
http://www.eff.org/issues/dmca/; http://www.aclu.org/Privacy/Privacy.cfm?ID=12325&c=252
57 See e.g. MORRIS P. FIORINA, CULTURE WAR? THE MYTH OF A POLARIZED AMERICA (2004).
-13-
-II-
In order to understand the relationship between Marx and intellectual property

reform it’s necessary to understand the ways in which the reformers are not Marxists.
Indeed, they are anxious to disclaim Marx and communism in their theories. Larry
Lessig, for example, emphasizes that he believes in private property as a means of
ordering the allocation of scarce resources like physical property, and is at pains to
reassure readers that his challenge to intellectual property is not a rejection of private
property and capitalism.58 Right-wing commentators are not convinced. Stephen
Manes, a columnist for Forbes magazine, has launched a series of vitriolic attacks on
Lessig,59 seemingly motivated by the taint of Marxism in Lessig’s ideas for reform.
Manes proposes renaming Lessig’s book, Freeloader Culture: A Manifesto for Stealing
Intellectual Property.60 The echo to Marx and Engels’ The Communist Manifesto61 is hard
to miss. Manes contrasts Lessig’s “radicalism” with “responsible creators” like Walt
Disney, and he makes it clear that the sort of reform that Lessig advocates is
ideologically suspect because it involves “stealing” property from those responsible
creators.62 Other commentators have been more direct and trenchant in their
criticism: the Ayn Rand Institute accused Lessig of Marxism a number of years ago,
suggesting that his efforts in the case of Eldred v. Ashcroft, in which Lessig argued for
overturning one of Congress’s many recent copyright extensions, were shameful and
would lead to “cannibalism” of property interests.63 Mouthpieces for high-profile
intellectual property owners like Paramount Pictures also smell “whiffs of Marxism”
in the reformers’ distaste for corporate control of culture.64
It’s hard to tell exactly how serious these commentators are when they pull out the
58 LESSIG, FUTURE OF IDEAS, supra note ___, at 6 (“To question assumptions about the scope of
“property” is not to question property. I am fanatically pro-market, in the market’s proper
sphere. I don’t doubt the important and valuable role played by property in most, maybe just
about all, contexts.”); LESSIG, FREE CULTURE, supra note ___, at xv-xvi.
59 Stephen Manes, The Trouble with Larry, F ORBES M AGAZINE , 03/29/04, available at
http://www.forbes.com/columnists/business/global/2004/0329/056.html; Stephen Manes, Let’s
Have Less of L e s s i g , F O R B E S M A G A Z I N E , 04/02/04, available at
http://www.forbes.com/columnists/columnists/2004/04/02/cz_sm_0402manes.html;
60 Stephen Manes, The Trouble with Larry, F ORBES M AGAZINE , 03/29/04, available at
http://www.forbes.com/columnists/business/global/2004/0329/056.html
61 K ARL M ARX & FRIEDRICH E NGELS, THE C OMMUNIST M ANIFESTO (Samuel H. Beer ed.,
Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc. 1955) (1848).
62 Manes, The Trouble with Larry, supra note ___.
63 Amy Peikoff, Would-Be Intellectual Vandals Get Their Day in the Supreme Court, Ayn Rand Institute,
Oct 8, 2002, available at http://www.aynrand.org/medialink/copyrightlaw.shtml
64 Scott M. Martin, The Mythology of the Public Domain: Exploring the Myths Behind Attacks on the
Duration of Copyright Protection, 36 LOY. L.A. L. REV. 253, 316 (2002).
-14-
CULTURE WAR
“Marxist” libel. They know very well that this sort of accusation is a simple rhetorical
cherry-bomb that makes plenty of noise and smoke, but illuminates little. The
commentators aim is, of course, to paint the intellectual property reformers as both
dangerous and willfully ignorant; the unstated implication is that the reformers desire
a Bolshevik revolution, and probably a Stalinist purge, and moreover they are so out
of touch with reality that they don’t even realize that communism lost the Cold War.
But this use of the “Marxist” tag doesn’t assist our understanding of the intellectual
property reform movement. When organizations like the Ayn Rand Institute indict
the intellectual property reformers as Marxists they implicate only two features of
Marxist-Leninism: the rejection of private property-ownership, and the civil uprising
that Bakunin and Lenin said was necessary to move from capitalism to communism.
But the kind of social reform of intellectual property discussed here—let me call it
“Marxist-Lessigism”—doesn’t involve either of these elements. Lessig, Benkler, and
the many other reformers aren’t modern-day Pierre-Joseph Proudhons: they don’t
claim that “Intellectual Property is Theft,”65 nor do they suggest that revolution is
necessary to undertake the suggested reforms.
In reality, Marxist-Lessigism is little more than a small set of limitations on the

expansion of intellectual property. It is the intellectual property analog of New Deal
social welfarism that ameliorated the worst excesses of capitalism, and rescued it from
social disaster. It’s the recognition that private property systems function better if
some limits are placed upon property ownership and the market; otherwise the market
will consume itself. Even many of the most ardent capitalists have learnt the Marxian
lesson, that unrestrained free market capitalism creates a permanent underclass that is
likely to revolt and overthrow the system that oppresses them. It’s therefore a better
idea for the wealthy to provide some kind of safety net for the lumpenproletariat, rather
than be the first up against the wall when the Revolution comes.
The intellectual property lobby has never understood this. For the better part of three
hundred years they expanded their empires, only to find that their encroachment on
the public domain generated the kind of proletarian backlash from the have-notes that
threatens to undermine all that they’ve worked for. Intellectual property industries,
especially those dependent on copyright, continue to push a property-maximizing
agenda. This is most obvious in the response of the movie and music industries to file-
65 Proudhon was a well-known anarchist and communist, and these days is most-known for his
epigram “Property is theft.” See HENRI D E LUBAC, THE UN-MARXIAN SOCIALIST: A STUDY
OF PROUDHON, 174-5 (trans. R. E. Scantlebury; Sheed & Ward, 1948)
-15-
sharing, where they have commenced litigation against their own users,66 introduced
profoundly troubling digital rights management systems,67 and lobbied for ever more
draconic laws against copyright infringers.68 But it is in the rhetoric of the lobbyists
that one can most easily see the modern day reflection of the robber-barons of the
gilded age. Jack Valenti, ur-lobbyist for copyright for innumerable years, personifies
the intellectual property industries’ equivalent to the “running dog of capitalism.” He
has consistently maintained that socially-responsive and constitutionally-mandated
limitations on intellectual property are wrong. “Creative property owners must be
accorded the same rights and protection resident in all other property owners in the
nation…”69 he once told Congress, ignoring not only the concept of fair use and the
role of public domain, but papering over the Constitutional requirement of limited
terms for intellectual property.70 Sonny Bono’s widow, Congresswoman Mary Bono
is well-known for endorsing Valenti’s proposal for an end-run around the
Constitution:
“Actually, Sonny wanted the term of copyright protection to last forever. I am

informed by staff that such a change would violate the Constitution. I invite
all of you to work with me to strengthen our copyright laws in all of the ways
available to us. As you know, there is also Jack Valenti's proposal for term to
last forever less one day. Perhaps the Committee may look at that next
Congress.71
66 See e.g. Peter K. Yu, Music Industry Hits Wrong Note Against Piracy, , Sept. 14, 2003, at 13A
(discussing the RIAA's litigation strategy)
67 See e.g. http://www.eff.org/IP/DRM/
68 Bills currently before the 108th Congress include: Enhancing Federal Obscenity Reporting and
Copyright Enforcement Act, 108 S. 1933 (2003) (proposing DOJ anti-hacking units to
investigate criminal copyright infringement); Piracy Deterrence and Education Act, 108 H.R.
4077 (2004) (proposing fifteen million dollars for information sharing between the FBI and the
Registrar of Copyrights for copyright infringement enforcement, the training and equipping of
DOJ and AG units for copyright enforcement, an education program directed at stamping out
file-sharing, and the provision of congressional condmenation of file-sharing); Protecting
Intellectual Rights Against Theft and Expropriation (PIRATE) Act, 108 S. 2237 (2004)
(providing that the Department of Justice and the US Attorneys Office be charged with the
investigation and prosecution of civil actions against copyright infringers); Inducing
Infringement of Copyright (INDUCE) Act, 108 S. 2560 (making it a crime to aid, abet, or
induce copyright infringement).
69 Home Recording of Copyrighted Works: Hearings on H.R. 4783, H.R. 4794, H.R.4808,
H.R.5250, H.R.5488,and H.R.5705 Before the Subcommittee on Courts ,Civil Liberties, and the
Administration of Justice of the Committee on the Judiciary of the House of Representatives,
97th Cong.,2nd sess.(1982):65 (testimony of Jack Valenti).
70 “The Congress shall have Power…To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by
securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective
Writings and Discoveries”, U.S. Constitution Art 1, §8.
71 Hearings on Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act, House of Representatives, October 07,
1998, Congressional Record, Vol. 144, page H9951. A reading of her other remarks gives no
indication that she is joking.
-16-
CULTURE WAR
The Marxist-Lessigist movement has provided the signal benefit of identifying the
problems that occur with the relentless expansion of intellectual property interests.
Without muscular social welfarist protection of the public domain intellectual
property industries will never voluntarily reduce their expansionary claims. As we’ve
witnessed time and time again, intellectual property rights-holders have always sought
wider property grants, longer terms, and stronger enforcement mechanisms. And
these additional private interests are almost always extracted from the public.72 We
simply cannot expect those who are granted property interests to reduce their
entitlements to accord with social policy. Yet without such limitations the expansion
of intellectual property must eventually lead to a kind of intellectual and cultural
paralysis. There was once a libertarian political theorist called Andrew Galambos,
whose philosophy revolved around property, especially intellectual property.73 He
represents the logical endpoint of intellectual property expansion. Galambos thought
it wrong to use anyone’s ideas without permission and compensation: he believed, for
example, that the inventor of the wheel was due a royalty on every automobile sold.74
He presented lectures advocating this (and other libertarian ideas) and demanded that
his listeners promise that they would never use “his” ideas without his permission. As
one commentator mused, this may be why you’ve never heard of him.75 Galambos
failed to accept that, in order to express his ideas, he must necessarily be
“impermissibly” appropriating the ideas of others. Presumably there is some
uncredited “creator” of the concepts of “property,” “equality” or “liberty;”76
presumably someone should be credited with the observation that sky is blue, or that
the weather is pleasant today; and so on. Galambos spent the latter part of his life
persecuting those whom he thought had appropriated his ideas without
72 See e.g. Mark A. Lemley, Ex Ante Versus Ex Post Justifications for Intellectual Property, 71 U. CHI. L.
REV. 129, 145 (2004) (noting that supra-competitive monopoly rents are not “found money”,
they come from consumer surplus).
73 ANDREW J. GALAMBOS, THE THEORY OF V OLITION, (Ed. Peter N. Sisco, 1999); See Harry
Browne, Andrew Galambos—The Unknown Libertarian, LI B E R T Y , Nov 1997, available at
http://www.harrybrowne.org/articles/Galambos.htm;
74 Harry Browne, Andrew Galambos—The Unknown Libertarian, L IBERTY , Nov 1997, available at
http://www.harrybrowne.org/articles/Galambos.htm.
75 David Friedman, In Defense of Private Orderings: Comments on Julie Cohen’s ‘Copyright and the
Jurisprudence of Self-Help’, 13 BERK. TECH. L. J. 1151, n52 (1998).
76 Galambos apparently believed that Thomas Paine invented the concept of liberty, and dropped a
nickel into a box every time he used the word. See N. Stephan Kinsella, Against Intellectual
Property, 15 J. LIBERTARIAN S TUD . 1, 9 (Spring 2001). History is silent as to whether he
remitted the moneys to Paine’s heirs and assigns.
-17-
compensation.77 This ridiculous position, where it is impossible to express any idea

without gaining permission and paying a fee to the “inventor,” is where intellectual
property maximalism eventually leads. Though even other libertarians consider
Galambos’ views extreme,78 his life stands as a lesson in the dangers of uncontrolled
expansion of intellectual property. Marxist-Lessigism, like Marxism in the era of
physical capital, is a brake on laissez-faire capitalism. It provides some social welfare
balance to the expansion of private interests. This reform movement is, therefore, not
about the destruction of private property, nor about revolutionary overthrow. At
most it leads to a kind of intellectual property Scandinavia: capitalism, but with a
social conscience.
However recognizing the reform movement as Marxist does expose some important
features of the intellectual property system, that otherwise go unrecognized. First, it
is clear that intellectual property reform is a conflict with significant class-struggle
components. The Marxist “class warfare” can be recast as Marxist-Lessigist “culture
warfare,” since it axiomatic that there are intellectual property-haves and intellectual
property-have-nots. In a world where the means of production is increasingly
controlled by intellectual property, the same dynamic that lead to the Winter
Revolution of 1917 could happen again. However the majority of the intellectual
property have-nots are in the developing world, which is why the globalization debate
so foten implicates intellectual property. Any Marxist-Lessigist revolution therefore is
likely to be mediated through the cordon sanitaire of international trade, and the World
Trade Organization. The prospect of intellectual property-induced violence, at least
in the US, is unlikely. But it has happened elsewhere. In 1993, five hundred-
thousand Indian farmers protested outside the offices of a private firm which had been
granted a patent over derivatives of the neem seed, a staple of Indian farming.79 The
protest took place on Gandhi’s birthday, and so, perhaps, it is unsurprising that the
protest was peaceful. But in an era when anti-globalization demonstrations are often
violent, it is unclear whether Marxist-Lessigist protests against intellectual property
expansion will always pass without bloodshed.
Beyond the class struggle elements, Marxist ideology does explain some features of
77 Harry Browne, Andrew Galambos—The Unknown Libertarian, L IBERTY , Nov 1997, available at
http://www.harrybrowne.org/articles/Galambos.htm;
78 See e.g. N. Stephan Kinsella, Against Intellectual Property, 15 J. LIBERTARIAN S TUD . 1, 9 fn31
(Spring 2001) (“It is difficult to find published discussions of Galambos’s idea, apparently
because his own theories bizarrely restrict the ability of his supporters to disseminate them”);
JEROME TUCCILLE, IT USUALLY BEGINS WITH AYN RAND, 69–71 (1971).
79 See Keith Aoki, Neocolonialsim, Anticommons Property, and Bio-Piracy in the (Not-So-Brave) New World
Order of International Intellectual Property Protection, 6 IND. J. GLOBAL LEGAL STUD. 11, 53 (1998).
-18-
CULTURE WAR
our unthinking acceptance of intellectual property interests. Perhaps even more than
physical property, copyrights and patents demonstrate all the characteristics of
Marxian “commodity fetishism.”80 Marx borrowed the concept of “fetishism” from
anthropology, where it refers to beliefs that spiritual powers inhere in inanimate
things. Marx suggested that a commodity remains simple provided it is tied to its
“use-value” that is, the value we place in its use. When wood is turned into a table
through labor, we can readily discern its use-value since its value in use is evident.
But once the table “emerges as a commodity, it changes into a thing which transcends
sensuousness.”81 Within a capitalist society we treat commodities as if value inhered
in the objects themselves, rather than in the amount of real labor expended to produce
the object. We thus imbue the commodity with the same sort of power as animistic
religions imbue totems; hence the term “commodity fetishism.” And since we live
within a system that is based on free-market exchange of the commodity, the value
that we place on the commodity is not its use-value but its “exchange-value.” Marx
objected to the privileging of the exchange-value of the object over its use-value for a
number of reasons, but most importantly here, because it deleted the social-
relationship that determined the creation of the object, and in doing so deleted the
worker’s contribution.
Commodity fetishism in copyrights and patents explains at least one feature of the
intellectual property system. There is the curious way that rights-holders claim moral
entitlement to the entire value of “their property.” This has been derided by scholars
as “if value, then right”: they object to the argument that the mere presence of some
excess surplus value in an intellectual property commodity is enough to provide
adequate justification for extending the grant of right.82 Of course, in the minds of
those who “own” the intellectual property commodity, the fact that it eventually falls
into the public domain, or the property grant might come with fair use limitations
appears completely unfair.83 It fails to accord with the expectations about property
that commodity fetishism induces. The property is mine and it’s mine forever.
80 K ARL M ARX , C APITAL : A CRITIQUE OF P OLITICAL E CONOMY . Vol. 1., 163, (Trans. Ben
Fowkes, 1990).
81 Id.
82 See e.g. Felix Cohen, Transcendental Nonsense and the Functional Approach, 35 COLUM. L. REV. 809,
815 (1935) (“The vicious circle inherent in this reasoning is plain. It purports to base legal
protection upon economic value, when, as a matter of actual fact, the economic value of a sales
device depends upon the extent to which it will be legally protected.”); Mark A. Lemley, Ex Ante
Versus Ex Post Justifications for Intellectual Property, 71 U. CHI . L. RE V. 129 (2004) (providing
economic arguments for rejecting such claims).
83 See Valenti, supra note ___.
-19-
The conclusion to all of this is simple: that while Marx provides some of the impetus
for the intellectual property reform movement, and certainly can be used to explain
features of intellectual property reform, the movement itself is not revolutionary, and
is not poised to introduce intellectual property communism anytime soon. Capitalism
is safe, at least as far as the basic intellectual property reform movement is concerned.
Beyond this, the expansion of intellectual property and the emergence of Marxist-
Lessigism is fascinating in two ways. Not only does it guarantee that the public will
have a voice in future intellectual property policy-making, but it has created a new
kind of student movement that is one of the more active political movements on
campuses these days. Of course this is not to say that they are particularly violent.
The resistance they plan involves little bloodshed. Online sit-ins against intellectual
property expansion; protests against prosecution of file-sharers. Maybe the most
militant will undertake denial of service attacks on the MPAA website. It’s not
exactly the riots of the soixante-huitards or the bombing campaign of the Weathermen.
But this movement promises a more socially-conscious intellectual property system,
and is one that can be achieved without revolution or bloodshed.
However focusing just on Marxist-Lessigism misses the most interesting battles of the
culture war. The greatest irony in this war is that the attention on the limited
criticisms of the intellectual property reformers and public domain theorists masks the
genuine Marxian revolution that is occurring. Marx couldn’t have foreseen the
internet, but, at least so far as creative endeavor is concerned, the net may yet deliver
something like the workers’ paradise that he envisioned.
-III-
The exploitation of the author is coded deep within the copyright system.84 Indeed it’s
accurate to suggest that the creator of imaginative cultural artifacts has been
dependent on the largesse of Capital for much of recorded history. Prior to the
development of the printing press and the industrialization of content, this exploitation
took pre-modern, typically feudal forms.85 So it was that from Roman times through
84 And the patent system. For the sake of simplicity, the account here will focus on copyright, but
patent law is no different. Individual inventors typically don’t have the capital to exploit their
invention or idea, and so sell or license their patent to the capitalist.
85 Note, Exploitative Publishers, Untrustworthy Systems, and the Dream of a Digital Revolution for Artists,
114 HARV. L. REV. 2438, 2439-2442 (2001).
-20-
CULTURE WAR
until early in the Eighteenth Century the artist or author relied on a wealthy patron of
the arts for material support. The concept of patronage was well-established in
Ancient Rome,86 migrated virtually intact into medieval and Renaissance Europe,87
and was familiar until the commercialization of content in the Victorian era.88 The
power balance in this relationship was, of course, strongly in favor of the patron. 89 As
book and movie representations are fond of reminding us, visual artists like
Michaelangelo,90 Orazio Gentileschi,91 and Johannes Vermeer92 all had fractious
relationships with their wealthy patrons, who were wealthy private individuals or
representatives of the church. And literary figures such as Samuel Johnson
documented the indignities and abuses inherent in the power imbalance.93
The introduction in 1710 of the Statute of Anne changed the relationship, but hardly
affected the relative power of the artist/author. Instead—as is true in the intellectual
property system today—control was passed from the patron to the publisher or
printer or bookseller. The fact that the Statute of Anne effectively granted economic
control to a publishing intermediary is remarkable, for the act predates (by nearly 100
years) the development of the modern Western state and the installation of capitalism
as the dominant political and economic philosophy. Yet in this first copyright act we
can see the basic capitalist form of the artist-publisher relationship established: rights
are nominally granted to the author but are automatically assumed by publishers
through the “neutral” operation of the market. Nearly 150 years before Marx and
Engels wrote The Communist Manifesto, the fundamental pattern was set. Authors,
artists and creators were granted control over the product of their endeavors; but the
86 T.P. Wiseman, Pete Nobiles Amicos: Poets and Patrons in Late Republican Rome, in LITERARY AND
ARTISTIC PATRONAGE IN ANCIENT ROME 28, 28-31 (Barbara K. Gold ed., 1982) (detailing the
patronage system in Ancient Rome)
87 Paul Edward Geller, Copyright's History and the Future: What's Culture Got To Do with It?, 47 J.
COPYRIGHT SOC'Y U.S.A. 209, 223 (2000)
88 DUSTIN GRIFFIN, LITERARY PATRONAGE IN ENGLAND 1650-1800 (1996)
89 The power balance also ensured that the cultural expectations of the aristocracy were
maintained, and thereby provided an effective censorship mechanism against sedition or other
transgressive publications. See Griffin, supra note ___ at 23.
90 See e.g. The Agony and the Ecstacy, (Dir: Carol Reed, 1965).
91 See e.g. Artemesia, (Dir: Agnès Merlet, 1997).
92 See e.g. TRACY CHEVALIER, GIRL WITH THE PEARL EARRING (2001); Girl with the Pearl Earring
(Dir: Peter Webber, 2003).
93 The Earl of Chesterfield sought the dedication of Johnson’s dictionary as it was about to be
published. Johnson replied that the function of a patron is not to watch unconcerned at the
drowning man, only to “encumber him with help” once he reached land. See Letter from Samuel
Johnson to the Earl of Chesterfield (Feb. 1755), in JAMES BOSWELL, L IFE OF J OHNSON 184,
185 (R.W. Chapman ed., rev. ed., 1970) (1791).
-21-
reality of the capitalist marketplace and the expense of producing and disseminating
these endeavors meant that effective control was almost always in the hands of the
capitalist.94 The structural contours of intellectual property conform neatly to the
Marxian archetype of worker alienation from his or her work product at the hands of
Capital.
This account is, of course, another way of stating the conclusion of the previous part:
for all that Marxist-Lessigism appears to be challenge intellectual property interests, it
does so in a remarkably circumscribed manner, that leaves the capitalist core of
copyright and patent unaffected. If authors, creators and inventors operate within the
copyright and patent systems—even one altered by Marxist-Lessigism—then they
must accept the capitalist basis of the relationship. However there is now a social
movement that bypasses the typical intellectual property system, and which rejects the
philosophical basis of copyright and patent. This is the open source movement.95
Unlike the Marxist-Lessigist copyright reform movement, the open source movement
genuinely involves the transfer of the means of cultural and creative production from
capital to the worker. “Open source” involves the free distribution of creative content,
where others are free to use, copy, and alter the content.96 It is commonly thought to
be limited to computer software: the Linux operating system that was created by
untold thousands of programmers, and which is freely distributed on the
understanding that others might amend, fix, improve and extend it.97 But while
software might be the paradigmatic example of open source, the revolution it promises
reaches far beyond software. The most important newspaper in South Korea is
Ohmynews, whose motto is “Every Citizen is a Reporter.”98 Ohmynews hires no
reporters and it relies wholly on individual contributions of news stories by its readers.
94 See e.g Note, Exploitative Publishers, Untrustworthy Systems, and the Dream of a Digital Revolution for
Artists, 114 H ARV. L. REV. 2438, 2442 (2001) (noting how under the Statute of Anne authors
routinely traded away their rights for a pittance). Over time this dynamic hasn’t changed. See
e.g. Zechariah Chafee Jr, Reflections on the Law of Copyright, 45 COLUM. L. REV . 505 (1945)
(“Often neither the author nor his family own the copyright. It belongs to the publisher… Then
is not the talk of helping authors just a pretense?”)
95 In referring to “open source” I will conflate a number of movements that claim to be distinct from
each other, most notably “open source,” “free software,” and “copyleft.” While each of these have
differences in minutiae, these are largely irrelevant, at least for the purposes of the discussion
here. For an account of the distinctions see Jonathan Zittrain, Normative Principles for Evaluating
Free and Proprietary Software, 71 U. CHI. L. REV. 265, 268-74 (2004).
96 See e.g. GNU project, Free Software Definition, http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/free-sw.html;
Debian Project, Debian Free Software Guidelines,
http://www.debian.org/social_contract.html#guidelines; Open Source Initiative, Open Source
Definition, http://www.opensource.org/docs/definition.php
97 See Linux Online, http://www.linux.org/
98 See http://www.ohmynews.com;
-22-
CULTURE WAR
Another example is the Wikipedia, an open source, online encyclopedia which is

entirely written, edited and re-written by anyone who cares to contribute to it.99 Even
though there is no control structure—there are no editors and no publishers—it rivals
commercial encyclopedias in scope and quality of coverage.100 Or consider the
Distributed Proofreader’s Project,101 a group of people who volunteer to proofread
and edit vast reams of scanned documents for inclusion in Project Gutenberg, which
happens to be another open source initiative that puts out-of-copyright books
online.102 And then there are millions of bloggers out there, who have created an
extraordinary inter-linked resource of news, commentary, op-eds, and gossip.103 All
the while ignoring the usual expectations of copyright.104
The expansion of open source as an alternative for creative endeavor is only

meaningful because of the convergence of three technologies. As Greg Lastowka and
I document elsewhere,105 copyright has played an important social rôle because it
provided incentives to intermediaries where the processes of moving content from
creator to user were capital-intensive. These processes include the creation of the
content, the selection of the content for commercial publication, its production and
dissemination, its marketing and its eventual use. The general purpose
computer—together with content-creation software for desktop publishing, music
creation, film editing, and so forth—has meant that the cost of creation and
production has fallen. The internet means that distribution is effectively costless for
most content. And most recently the development of social software, which leads
users to content they will like, has meant that the modern creator of content is no
99 Leander Kahney, Citizen Reporters Make the News, W I R E D , May 17, 2003,
http://www.wired.com/news/culture/0,1284,58856,00.html; Collision Detection blog entry,
http://www.collisiondetection.net/mt/archives/000365.html#000365; Daniel Cooney, Influential
South Korean Internet site uses ``citizen reporters'' to cover news, SFGATE .C O M, May 13, 2003,
http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-
bin/article.cgi?f=/news/archive/2003/05/13/international0144EDT0417.DTL
100 Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org
101 Wikipedia, “Distributed Proofreaders”, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_Proofreaders
102 http://www.gutenberg.net/
103 According to the Pew Research Center, 21% of Internet users have posted photographs to Web
sites, 17% have posted written material on Web sites, and 2% maintain weblogs. If one estimates
the total number of North American Internet users in 2004 at 200 million, this means
approximately 40 million North Americans have posted writing and images on the Internet, and
approximately 4 million are maintaining weblogs, see Pew Internet Project, CO N T E N T
C REATION O N L I N E , available at
http://www.pewinternet.org/reports/pdfs/PIP_Content_Creation_Report.pdf
104 Dan Hunter and F. Gregory Lastowka, Amateur-to-Amateur ___ W M & MARY L. REV . ___
(forthcoming 2005).
105 Dan Hunter and F. Gregory Lastowka, Amateur-to-Amateur ___ W M & MARY L. REV . ___
(forthcoming 2005).
-23-
longer dependent on the highly-capitalized publisher, record label, or movie studio for
selection and promotion of content. As a consequence we can predict a flowering of
“open source” content directly from the creators to the users of the content. The
highly-capitalized intermediaries are no longer necessary for the creation, production,
dissemination, and use of culturally-significant content.
This represents a paradigm shift in the nature of content, and the rôle copyright plays
in the production of content. Though Microsoft recognizes Linux as a threat to
Windows,106 it is easy to miss the truly revolutionary nature of this type of cultural
production. But as Eben Moglen has noted, it is revolutionary because it
demonstrates that if you give people the opportunity to create then they will do so,
even without economic incentives.107 The standard justification of intellectual
property, the reason that it’s supposed to exist at all, is that without intellectual
property interests no-one would have any reason to produce cultural, creative
content.108 Any creator would undertake a rational calculus, recognize they will get
nothing without property rights in their intellectual activities, and go off to become a
tax attorney. But the open source movement shows that this fundamental justification
simply doesn’t hold: many people will produce creative content even outside what we
can think of as the capitalist underpinnings of intellectual property. It’s a small step to
go from this to a Marxian revolution: the open source movement promises to put the
means of creative production back in the hands of the people, not in the hands of those
with capital. No longer will the creative worker be alienated from her work product
by the control that capital exerts.
Moglen sees this clearly: he recently wrote up an open source encomium called the
dotCommunist Manifesto, where he recast the fundamentals of the communist creed into
this new, peer-to-peer era.109 But in fact Marx needs little translation, since many of
his thoughts about problems with capitalism speak to us directly today. As regards
the open source movement, consider Marx’s Critique of Political Economy:
106 The so-called “Halloween Memo” within Microsoft is an internal strategy memorandum on
Microsoft's possible responses to the Linux/Open Source phenomenon, and discloses the degree
of concern Microsoft has with the open source movement. See
http://www.opensource.org/halloween/halloween1.php
107 Eben Moglen, Anarchism Triumphant: Free Software and the Death of Copyright, in Niva Elkin-Koren
and Neil Weinstock Netanel (eds), THE COMMODIFICATION OF INFORMATION (2002), 107,
112 (arguing that it’s an emergent property of connected people that they will create content
without economic incentives).
108 The incentive story is the fundamental justification of the copyright system. See e.g. Mazer v
Stein, 347 US 201, 219 (1954) (“The economic philosophy behind the clause empowering
Congress to grant patents and copyrights is the conviction that encouragement of individual
effort by personal gain is the best way to advance public welfare.”)
109 Available at http://emoglen.law.columbia.edu/publications/dcm.html
-24-
CULTURE WAR
“At a certain stage of their development, the material forces of production in

society come in conflict with the existing relations of production…From
forms of development of the forces of production these relations turn into
their fetters…”110
The development of the general purpose computer, the internet, and software-based
means of communicating individual preferences means that the content industries of
copyright in particular are facing a genuine Marxian revolution. Their assumptions
about the role of intellectual property have turned into their fetters.
It is not an accident that the open source movement and Marxist-Lessigist IP reform
have occurred at the same time; nor is it a coincidence that Lessig is one of the most
prominent advocates of open source mechanisms through the Center for the Creative
Commons.111 Open source software demonstrated—for the first time on a large
scale—that the incentive justification for intellectual property just wasn’t true once
you put the means of creative endeavor and the means of dissemination in the hands of
individuals. So, when the corporate-controlled intellectual expansions came about,
programmers weaned on open source code no longer bought the arguments of the
corporations that these new interests were necessary for innovation and progress to
continue.
This lesson has been extraordinarily profound. In fact it signaled, I think, a change in
the thinking about how various resources should be allocated.112 Within the capitalist
system, property has almost always been seen to be the best way to allocate resources.
Long before the efficiency justifications of economists like Coase113 and Demsetz,114
private property has been the default position for resource allocation. But at the same
time as the open source movement provided a Marxian challenge for copyright, a
number of cyberlaw domains were succumbing to arguments that private property
wasn’t necessarily the best way of structuring entitlements, or dealing with the
regulatory challenges that follow from these entitlements. The two most obvious
examples are in spectrum allocation and in regulating internet communications, both
110 KARL MARX, A CONTRIBUTION TO THE CRITIQUE OF POLITICAL ECONOMY 12-13 (N.I. Stone
trans., Charles H. Kerr & Co. 1904) (1859).
111 http://www.creativecommons.org. See e.g. Robert P. Merges, A New Dynamism in the Public
Domain, 71 U. CHI. L. REV. ___, 14-17 (2004) (detailing the mechanism by which the Creative
Commons licenses operate and the overall significance of the Creative Commons project).
112 I don’t mean to suggest that the open source movement necessarily lead to, or even pre-dated, the
movement to commons in telecommunication spectrum allocation or the end-to-end principle.
They all developed at roughly the same time and it would be a futile exercise to try to parse out
the various influences of each on the other.
113 R.H. Coase, The Nature of the Firm , 4 ECONOMICA 386 (1937).
114 Harold Demsetz, Toward a Theory of Property Rights, 57 Am. Econ. Rev. 347 (1967)
-25-
of which demonstrate a Marxian logic of their own.
Spectrum allocation is fundamental to communications policy because all wireless

communication travels through the electromagnetic spectrum, and until recently it
was assumed that use of a band of spectrum by one user precluded use by any other.
Thus, it was thought that, for example commercial radio, free-to-air television, and cell
phones each needed their separate bands of spectrum to operate, otherwise they
would create interference for each other and destroy the signals.115 The initial
response to spectrum management was to have a system of governmental licenses to
various users, to avoid the interference problem.116 Users were entitled to use those
parts of the spectrum allocated to them; but they did not own them, merely licensed
them from the federal government. While this system operated tolerably well for
years, it came to be seen as outdated and inefficient. The orthodox solution should
come as a surprise to no-one: deal with spectrum exactly as you deal with land.117
Privatize it. Sell off spectrum to private owners, who hold then their spectrum
allocation in perpetuity, and may alienate it as they see fit, using the genius of the
invisible hand to guarantee the most efficient allocation of the resource.
The orthodox solution was quickly challenged by a series of scholars,118 including

some like Larry Lessig and Yochai Benkler who are intimately involved in the open
115 See Kevin Werbach, Supercommons: Towards a Unified Theory of Wireless Communications, 82 TEX. L.
REV. 863, 867-8 (2004).
116 Id at 868-71.
117 See e.g Arthur S. De Vany, A Property System for Market Allocation of the Electromagnetic Spectrum: A
Legal-Economic-Engineering Study, 21 STAN. L. REV. 1499, 1512 (1969) (first advocating the
management of the spectrum by private property entitlements); HARVEY J. LEVIN , TH E
I NVISIBLE R ESOURCE U SE AND R EGULATION OF THE R ADIO S PECTRUM 26–39 (1971)
(examining the economic characteristics of spectrum); Jora R. Minasian, Property Rights in
Radiation: An Alternative Approach to Radio Frequency Allocation, 18 J.L. & ECON. 221, 232 (1975)
(detailing the necessary property rights in spectrum); Thomas W. Hazlett, The Wireless Craze, the
Unlimited Bandwidth Myth, the Spectrum Auction Faux Pas, and the Punchline to Ronald Coase’s “Big
Joke”: An Essay on Airwave Allocation Policy, 14 HARV. J.L. & TECH. 335, 405 (2001) (attacking
spectrum commons theories and advocating private property interests); Lawrence J. White,
“Propertyzing” the Electromagnetic Spectrum: Why It’s Important, and How to Begin, MEDIA L. &
POL’Y, Fall 2000, at 19, 20 (advocating that the current system of licenses to use the spectrum
be converted into a property rights system of ownership); Pablo T. Spiller & Carlo Cardilli,
Towards a Property Rights Approach to Communications Spectrum, 16 YALE J. ON REG. 53, 82
(1999) (asserting that the government should designate spectrum as property); Thomas Hazlett,
Spectrum Flash Dance: Eli Noam's Proposal for "Open Access" to Radio Waves, 41 J.L. & ECON. 805
(1998) (criticizing Eli Noam’s approach to spectrum commons); Gerald R. Faulhaber & David
Farber, Spectrum Management: Property Rights, Markets, and the Commons, in RETHINKING
RIGHTS AND REGULATIONS: INSTITUTIONAL RESPONSES TO NEW
COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES 193, 194 (2003) (arguing that “a legal regime rooted
in property rights…can simultaneously support both private markets and a commons”).
118 See Yochai Benkler, Overcoming Agoraphobia: Building the Commons of the Digitally Networked
Environment, 11 HARV. J. L. & TECH. 287 (1998); Eli Noam, Spectrum Auctions Yesterday's Heresy,
Today's Orthodoxy, Tomorrow's Anachronism: Taking the Next Step to Open Spectrum Access, 41 J.L. &
ECON. 765 (1998); LESSIG, FUTURE OF I DEAS, supra note ___; NOBUO IKEDA & LIXIN
YE, SPECTRUM BUYOUTS: A MECHANISM TO OPEN SPECTRUM (RIETI Discussion
-26-
CULTURE WAR
source movement. They suggested that spectrum needn’t be treated like physical
property. The introduction of technologies like “spread spectrum” transceivers and
smart radio means that individuals can use multiple parts of the spectrum without
interfering with others’ use of the same parts of the spectrum.119 This means that
there is no spectrum shortage that we would normally assume needed to be allocated
through private property entitlements. Indeed, say these scholars, we have the
opportunity to build a spectrum commons, freely available to all and unencumbered
by the transactions costs, hold-outs, and challenges to democracy that ownership of
the means of communication necessarily entails.
Like the Marxist-Lessigists of intellectual property reform, these theorists are quick to
distance themselves from charges that they are communists.120 They suggest, for
example, that property rights do exist here, it’s just that these property rights inhere in
the wireless devices that transmit and receive. But these suggestions are, with all due
respect, largely illusory, and seem to be advanced so as not to spook the horses of
capitalism. A commons of any sort is inherently Marxian, even if other types of
private property rights still operate within the commons. If I graze my sheep on a
public commons, my private property rights in the sheep are not implicated in the
public property rights in the commons. So while the spectrum commons scholars are
not advocating a Marxian position in respect of all property, they certainly are
adopting a Marxian position in respect of spectrum.
Moreover, it clear that those who criticize their positions do so in large part because of
the commodity fetishism that property creates. The arguments against spectrum
commons are largely based on the idea that tragedies of the spectrum commons will
inevitably occur, and the only way to avoid this is to use the orthodox approach of
private ownership. But the specter of the tragedy of the spectrum commons is amply
refuted by the spectrum commons theorists.121 And one of the reasons that the private
spectrum scholars seem unwilling to accept this is because the prospect of property in
spectrum induces commodity fetishism, and an incorrect privileging of the exchange-
value that spectrum owners would possess over the use-value of having free access to
the spectrum for all. Thus, the debate over spectrum allocation can, in some part at
least, be framed in Marxian terms.
Paper Series 02-E-002, 2003) available at http://www.rieti.go.jp/jp/publications/dp/02e002.pdf;

Kevin Werbach, Open Spectrum: The Paradise of the Commons, RELEASE 1.0, Nov. 2001, at
1; Werbach, Supercommons: supra note ___.
119 Werbach, Supercommons: supra note ___ at 865.
120 Id at 951-969.
121 Yochai Benkler, Some Economics of Wireless Communications, 16 HARV. J.L. & TECH. 25 (2002)
-27-
Finally, aside from the issues discussed above—intellectual property reform, open
source opportunities, and spectrum commons—the regulation of internet
communications also appears as a debate between Marx and markets. Though each of
the servers, cables, wires, and other individual components of the internet are
privately owned, the internet as a whole demonstrates strong commons
characteristics.122 Thus, challenges to the operation of the entire network by
individual owners of the components affect the communal activity of all net users.
Thus, the creation of a “cybertrespass” tort or the civil use of criminal hacking
legislation—which has the potential to rope off parts of the public network and turn
them private—spurs an argument about the implications of this to the commons.123
The core of this debate is whether we need to have a conception of online public
spaces, and what this might mean for our society as a whole. While this is by no means
a “movement,” since there are relatively few scholars involved in the argument,124 it
ties in with a broader challenge to the architecture of the internet, identified by Mark
Lemley and Larry Lessig (again).125 The net is based around a principle called “end-
to-end,” that is, the principle that all network traffic is handled the same, and no-one
regulates the nature of the applications which can be connected to the network. End-
to-end means that new programs and protocols can be invented for the network
without having to go through centralized validation processes. Moreover the packets
transmitted by these applications won’t be discriminated against as having less value
than, say, deep-pocketed television transmissions. Various interests have sought to
overturn the end-to-end principle, for various reasons. But as Lessig and Lemley
demonstrate, the commons that is created when one has the neutral network
mechanism of end-to-end leads to extraordinary innovations like email, the worldwide
web, and more.126
122 LESSIG, FUTURE OF IDEAS, supra note ___ at 26-73.

123 See Dan Hunter, Cyberspace as Place and the Tragedy of the Digital Anticommons, 91 CAL. L. REV. 439
(2003)
124 Dan L. Burk, The Trouble with Trespass, 4 J. SMALL & EMERGING BUS. L. 27, 48-49 (2000)
(describing the Internet as a "commons" and criticizing trespass within this context); see also
Niva Elkin-Koren, Let the Crawlers Crawl: On Virtual Gatekeepers and the Right to Exclude Indexing, 49
J. COPYRIGHT S OC'Y U.S.A. 165, 171 (2001) (noting problems with exclusions of webcrawlers)
Dan Hunter, Cyberspace as Place and the Tragedy of the Digital Anticommons, 91 CAL . L. REV . 439
(2003); Mark A. Lemley, Place and Cyberspace, 91 CAL. L. REV . 521 (2003). Cf David McGowan,
Website Access: The Case for Consent, 35 LOY. U. CHI. L.J. 341 (2003) (arguing against commons
approaches).
125 Mark A. Lemley & Lawrence Lessig, The End of the End-to-End: Preserving the Architecture of the
Internet in the Broadband Era, 48 UCLA L. REV. 925; LESSIG, FUTURE OF IDEAS, supra note ___
at __.
126 Id.
-28-
CULTURE WAR
The arguments in cybertrespass and the end-to-end principle are much like the
arguments presented by those working in the movements identified above: that it is
the absence of proprietary rights that produces the flourishing of creativity we have
seen on the net. And that, if we adopt a Marxian position, one day we might see the
same sort of flourishing of creativity more broadly in intellectual property, or in
wireless communication, or in society in general.
-IV-
Not every feature of intellectual property or cyberlaw becomes clear when viewed
through the Marxian lens. One might think, for example, that trademark and
associated rights would be the subject of Marxist critique, since it is so central to the
protection and perpetuation of corporate imagery. However little sustained attack has
been made on trademark, or upon rights of publicity. A few commentators take aim at
them from time, but one can’t say that there is any kind of movement in this area.127
So it’s not intellectual property as such that generates the Marxist backlash, but rather
the particular convergence of corporate interests against public interests. This is most
obvious in the battles fought over copyright and patent, in what I’ve characterized
above as the Marxist-Lessigist challenge to intellectual property expansion. And as
indicated, this is not really a Marxist argument, though it is one that motivates student
activists and energizes a large number of intellectual property reformers. But away
from the zeal of the student activists a real Marxian revolution is taking place, in areas
like open source content creation, spectrum allocation, and internet regulation.
Oddly, the revolutionaries generally don’t recognize themselves as such: they’re just
open source programmers, “citizen journalists,” bloggers, scholars. But these
revolutionaries promise to upend the intellectual property system because they are
creating things for the sake of curiosity, or for the approbation of their peers, or
because it’s fun. The open source challenge to intellectual property began with
software, but is moving outwards into all types of cultural material: newspapers,
magazines, commentary, music, even movies. Yochai Benkler calls this the peer
127 See e.g. Rosemary Coombe & Andrew Herman, Trademarks, Property, and Propriety: The Moral
Economy of Consumer Politics and Corporate Accountability on the World Wide Web, 50 DEPAUL L. REV.
597 (2000); Anaupam Chander, The New, New Property, 81 TEX. L.REV 715 (2002).
-29-
production of culture.128 This, along with commons ownership of spectrum and

internet access, promises—or threatens, depending on where you sit—a Marxist
revolution in creativity. Unlike Marxist revolutions before it, this won’t be fought on
the barricades. No students will throw pavestones at the police. This revolution will
just happen, as people take up the means of production for themselves.
What is unusual is how intellectual property owners and copyright-apologists like

Stephen Manes or the Ayn Rand Institute, in their rush to vilify Marxist-Lessigism,
miss the importance of open source as the true creative workers’ revolution that
threatens the core of their industries. While copyright and patent reform might be the
most visible aspect of the Marxist-Lessigist revolution, it is the least significant. Of
course, corporate interests in the software industry recognize the challenge of open
source to their business, and have taken one of two approaches. IBM has thrown in
its lot with open source, contributing (by their reckoning) over a billion dollars to the
development of Linux. They estimate their return in the multiple billions of dollars.
Microsoft, on the other hand, is supporting SCO, a company running litigation
against IBM, seeking to shut down Linux.129 It is unclear which strategy has the
greater likelihood of success.
We should all care about the outcome of the battle between SCO and IBM, just as we
should care about the outcome of all of the battles described above. The culture war
may be Marxist in some senses, but only because it is ultimately about the degree of
autonomy we accord to individuals to create.130 Though Lessig calls his latest book
Free Culture, the culture he seeks to defend is made up of individual creators. It is not
a monolithic state at the heart of the culture wars, but rather the individual creators
who built the web, made Linux, seek to re-use copyright content, and so on.
Marxism isn’t about society against the individual, but seeks to put the individual first,
allowing him or her access to the aspects of life that make them complete. The
Marxist critique of capitalism is that capital alienates the person from those things that
matter. So the Marxist interpretation of the culture war is this: to what extent are we
happy with corporate intellectual property owners gaining control over the
mechanisms of creative activities. To what extent do we want individuals to take
128 Yochai Benkler, Coase's Penguin, or Linux and the Nature of the Firm, 102 YALE L.J. 369, 375
(2002).
129 Jim Kerstetter, SCO's Suit: A Match Made in Redmond? BUSINESSWEEK ONLINE, March 11, 2004,
available at
http://www.businessweek.com/technology/content/mar2004/tc20040311_8915_tc119.htm
130 See Benkler, Through the Looking Glass, supra note ___ at 187-95.
-30-
CULTURE WAR
control of their creative lives?
In the end this is why the culture war is a Marxist war. And this is why it matters that
we understand the stakes in the struggle between IBM and SCO, the struggle over
the wireless and internet commons, the struggle between Mickey Mouse and the
Marxist-Lessigists. The culture war isn’t a battle between state-sponsored
communism and individuals. It’s about what level of autonomy do we allow
individuals to express themselves. With so much at stake, we shouldn’t be surprised if
each side sees this as a war to the death.
-31-
Culture war
A culture war is a cultural conflict between social groups and the
struggle for dominance of their values, beliefs, and practices.[1] It
commonly refers to topics on which there is general societal
disagreement and polarization in societal values.
The term is commonly used to describe aspects of contemporary

politics in the United States.[2] This includes wedge issues such as
abortion, homosexuality, transgender rights, pornography,
multiculturalism, racism and other cultural conflicts based on
values, morality, and lifestyle which are described as the major
Bismarck (left) and the Pope (right),
political cleavage.[2]
from the German satirical magazine
Kladderadatsch, 1875
Contents
History
Etymology
United States
1920s–1980s: Origins
1991–2001: Rise in prominence
2001–2014: Post-9/11 era
2014–present: Broadening of the culture war
Criticism and evaluation
Validity
Artificiality or asymmetry
Canada
Australia
Africa
China
United Kingdom
Europe
See also
Drugs
Education and parenting
Environment and energy
Gender and sexuality
Law and government
Life issues
Society and culture
References
Further reading
External links
History
Etymology
The term culture war is a loan translation (calque) of the German Kulturkampf ('culture struggle'). In
German, Kulturkampf, a term coined by Rudolf Virchow, refers to the clash between cultural and religious
groups in the campaign from 1871 to 1878 under Chancellor Otto von Bismarck of the German Empire
against the influence of the Roman Catholic Church.[3] The translation was printed in some American
newspapers at the time.[4]
United States
1920s–1980s: Origins
In American usage, "culture war" may imply a conflict between those values considered traditionalist or
conservative and those considered progressive or liberal. This usage originated in the 1920s when urban
and rural American values came into closer conflict.[5] This followed several decades of immigration to the
States by people who earlier European immigrants considered 'alien'. It was also a result of the cultural
shifts and modernizing trends of the Roaring '20s, culminating in the presidential campaign of Al Smith in
1928.[6] In subsequent decades during the 20th century, the term was published occasionally in American
newspapers.[7][8]
1991–2001: Rise in prominence
James Davison Hunter, a sociologist at the University of Virginia, introduced the expression again in his
1991 publication, Culture Wars: The Struggle to Define America. Hunter described what he saw as a
dramatic realignment and polarization that had transformed American politics and culture.
He argued that on an increasing number of "hot-button" defining issues—abortion, gun politics, separation
of church and state, privacy, recreational drug use, homosexuality, censorship—there existed two definable
polarities. Furthermore, not only were there a number of divisive issues, but society had divided along
essentially the same lines on these issues, so as to constitute two warring groups, defined primarily not by
nominal religion, ethnicity, social class, or even political affiliation, but rather by ideological world-views.
Hunter characterized this polarity as stemming from opposite impulses, toward what he referred to as
Progressivism and as Orthodoxy. Others have adopted the dichotomy with varying labels. For example,
Bill O'Reilly, a conservative political commentator and former host of the Fox News Channel talk show
The O'Reilly Factor, emphasizes differences between "Secular-Progressives" and "Traditionalists" in his
2006 book Culture Warrior.[9][10]
Historian Kristin Kobes Du Mez attributes the 1990s emergence of culture wars to the end of the Cold War
in 1991. She writes that Evangelical Christians viewed a particular Christian masculine gender role as the
only defense of America against the threat of communism. When this threat ended upon the close of the
Cold War, Evangelical leaders transferred the perceived source of threat from foreign communism to
domestic changes in gender roles and sexuality.[11]
During the 1992 presidential election, commentator Pat Buchanan

mounted a campaign for the Republican nomination for president against
incumbent George H. W. Bush. In a prime-time slot at the 1992
Republican National Convention, Buchanan gave his speech on the
culture war.[12] He argued: "There is a religious war going on in our
country for the soul of America. It is a cultural war, as critical to the kind
of nation we will one day be as was the Cold War itself."[13] In addition
to criticizing environmentalists and feminism, he portrayed public
morality as a defining issue:
The agenda [Bill] Clinton and [Hillary] Clinton would

impose on America—abortion on demand, a litmus test for
the Supreme Court, homosexual rights, discrimination
Pat Buchanan in 2008 against religious schools, women in combat units—that's
change, all right. But it is not the kind of change America
wants. It is not the kind of change America needs. And it is
not the kind of change we can tolerate in a nation that we still
call God's country.[13]
A month later, Buchanan characterized the conflict as about power over society's definition of right and
wrong. He named abortion, sexual orientation and popular culture as major fronts—and mentioned other
controversies, including clashes over the Confederate flag, Christmas, and taxpayer-funded art. He also said
that the negative attention his "culture war" speech received was itself evidence of America's
polarization.[14]
The culture war had significant impact on national politics in the 1990s.[15] The rhetoric of the Christian
Coalition of America may have weakened president George H. W. Bush's chances for re-election in 1992
and helped his successor, Bill Clinton, win reelection in 1996.[16] On the other hand, the rhetoric of
conservative cultural warriors helped Republicans gain control of Congress in 1994.[17]
The culture wars influenced the debate over state-school history curricula in the United States in the 1990s.
In particular, debates over the development of national educational standards in 1994 revolved around
whether the study of American history should be a "celebratory" or "critical" undertaking and involved
such prominent public figures as Lynne Cheney, the late Rush Limbaugh, and historian Gary Nash.[18][19]
2001–2014: Post-9/11 era
A political view called neoconservatism shifted the terms of the debate in the early 2000s.
Neoconservatives differed from their opponents in that they interpreted problems facing the nation as moral
issues rather than economic or political issues. For example, neoconservatives saw the decline of the
traditional family structure as a spiritual crisis that required a spiritual response. Critics accused
neoconservatives of confusing cause and effect.[20]
During the 2000s, voting for Republicans began to correlate heavily with traditionalist or orthodox religious
belief across diverse religious sects. Voting for Democrats became more correlated to liberal or modernist
religious belief, and to being nonreligious.[21] Belief in scientific conclusions, such as climate change, also
became tightly coupled to political party affiliation in this era,
causing climate scholar Andrew Hoffman to observe that climate
change had "become enmeshed in the so-called culture wars."[22]
Topics traditionally
associated with culture war
were not prominent in
media coverage of the 2008
election season, with the
exception of coverage of
vice-presidential candidate 43rd President George W. Bush,
Sarah Palin,[23] who drew Donald Rumsfeld, and Paul
attention to her Wolfowitz were prominent
Rally for Proposition 8, an item on conservative religion and neoconservatives of the 2000s.
the 2008 California ballot to ban created a performative
same-sex marriage climate change denialism
brand for herself.[24] Palin's defeat in the election and subsequent
resignation as governor of Alaska caused the Center for American
Progress to predict "the coming end of the culture wars," which they attributed to demographic change,
particularly high rates of acceptance of same-sex marriage among millennials.[25]
2014–present: Broadening of the culture war
While traditional culture war issues, notably abortion, continue to be a focal point,[26] the issues identified
with culture war broadened and intensified in the mid-late 2010s. Journalist Michael Grunwald says that
"President Donald Trump has pioneered a new politics of perpetual culture war" and lists the Black Lives
Matter movement, U.S. national anthem protests, climate change, education policy, healthcare policy
including Obamacare, and infrastructure policy as culture war issues in 2018.[27] The rights of transgender
people and the role of religion in lawmaking were identified as "new fronts in the culture war" by political
scientist Jeremiah Castle, as the polarization of public opinion on these two topics resemble that of previous
culture war issues.[28] In 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, North Dakota governor Doug Burgum
described opposition to wearing face masks as a "senseless" culture war issue that jeopardizes human
safety.[29]
This broader understanding of culture war issues in the mid-late 2010s and 2020s is associated with a
political strategy called "owning the libs." Conservative media figures employing this strategy, prominently
Ben Shapiro, emphasize and expand upon culture war issues with the goal of upsetting liberal people.
According to Nicole Hemmer of Columbia University, this strategy is a substitute for the cohesive
conservative ideology that existed during the Cold War. It holds a conservative voting bloc together in the
absence of shared policy preferences among the bloc's members.[30]
A number of conflicts about diversity in popular culture occurring in the 2010s, such as the Gamergate
controversy, Comicsgate and the Sad Puppies science fiction voting campaign, were identified in the media
as being examples of the culture war.[32] Journalist Caitlin Dewey described Gamergate as a "proxy war"
for a larger culture war between those who want greater inclusion of women and minorities in cultural
institutions versus anti-feminists and traditionalists who do not.[33] The perception that culture war conflict
had been demoted from electoral politics to popular culture led writer Jack Meserve to call popular movies,
games, and writing the "last front in the culture war" in 2015.[34]
These conflicts about representation in popular culture re-
emerged into electoral politics via the alt-right and alt-lite
movements.[35] According to media scholar Whitney
Phillips, Gamergate "prototyped" strategies of harassment
and controversy-stoking that proved useful in political
strategy. For example, Republican political strategist
Steve Bannon publicized pop-culture conflicts during the
2016 presidential campaign of Donald Trump,
encouraging a young audience to "come in through
Gamergate or whatever and then get turned onto politics
The Unite the Right rally in Charlottesville,
and Trump."[36]
Virginia in August 2017, an alt-right event
regarded as a battle of the culture wars.[31]
Criticism and evaluation
Since the time that James Davison Hunter first applied the concept of culture wars to American life, the
idea has been subject to questions about whether "culture wars" names a real phenomenon, and if so,
whether the phenomenon it describes is a cause of, or merely a result of, membership in groups like
political parties and religions. Culture wars have also been subject to the criticism of being artificial,
imposed, or asymmetric conflicts, rather than a result of authentic differences between cultures.
Validity
Researchers have differed about the scientific validity of the notion of culture war. Some claim it does not
describe real behavior, or that it describes only the behavior of a small political elite. Others claim culture
war is real and widespread, and even that it is fundamental to explaining Americans' political behavior and
beliefs.
Political scientist Alan Wolfe participated in a series of scholarly debates in the 1990s and 2000s against
Hunter, claiming that Hunter's concept of culture wars did not accurately describe the opinions or behavior
of Americans, which Wolfe claimed were more united than polarized.[37]
A meta-analysis of opinion data from 1992 to 2012 published in the American Political Science Review
concluded that, in contrast to a common belief that political party and religious membership shape opinion
on culture war topics, instead opinions on culture war topics lead people to revise their political party and
religious orientations. The researchers view culture war attitudes as "foundational elements in the political
and religious belief systems of ordinary citizens."[38]
Artificiality or asymmetry
Some writers and scholars have said that culture wars are created or perpetuated by political special interest
groups, by reactionary social movements, by dynamics within the Republican party, or by electoral politics
as a whole. These authors view culture war not as an unavoidable result of widespread cultural differences,
but as a technique used to create in-groups and out-groups for a political purpose.
Political commentator E. J. Dionne has written that culture war is an electoral technique to exploit
differences and grievances, remarking that the real cultural division is "between those who want to have a
culture war and those who don't."[21]
Sociologist Scott Melzer says that culture wars are created by conservative, reactive organizations and
movements. Members of these movements possess a "sense of victimization at the hands of a liberal culture
run amok. In their eyes, immigrants, gays, women, the poor, and other groups are (undeservedly) granted
special rights and privileges." Melzer writes about the example of the National Rifle Association, which he
says intentionally created a culture war in order to unite conservative groups, particularly groups of white
men, against a common perceived threat.[39]
Similarly, religion scholar Susan B. Ridgely has written that culture wars were made possible by Focus on
the Family. This organization produced conservative Christian "alternative news" that began to bifurcate
American media consumption, promoting a particular "traditional family" archetype to one part of the
population, particularly conservative religious women. Ridgely says that this tradition was depicted as
under liberal attack, seeming to necessitate a culture war to defend the tradition.[40]
Political scientists Matt Grossmann and David A. Hopkins have written about an asymmetry between the
US's two major political parties, saying the Republican party should be understood as an ideological
movement built to wage political conflict, and the Democratic party as a coalition of social groups with less
ability to impose ideological discipline on members.[41] This encourages Republicans to perpetuate and to
draw new issues into culture wars, because Republicans are well equipped to fight such wars.[42]
Canada
Some observers in Canada have used the term "culture war" to refer to differing values between Western
versus Eastern Canada, urban versus rural Canada, as well as conservatism versus liberalism and
progressivism.[43]
Nevertheless, Canadian society is generally not dramatically polarized over immigration, gun control, drug
legality, sexual morality, or government involvement in healthcare: the main issues at play in the United
States. In all of those cases, the majority of Canadians, including Conservatives would support the
"progressive" position in the United States. In Canada a different set of issues create a clash of values.
Chief among these are language policy in Canada, minority religious rights, pipeline politics, indigenous
land rights, climate policy, and federal-provincial disputes.
It is a relatively new phrase in Canadian political commentary. It can still be used to describe historical
events in Canada, such as the Rebellions of 1837, Western Alienation, the Quebec sovereignty movement,
and any Aboriginal conflicts in Canada; but is more relevant to current events such as the Grand River land
dispute and the increasing hostility between conservative and liberal Canadians. The phrase has also been
used to describe the Harper government's attitude towards the arts community. Andrew Coyne termed this
negative policy towards the arts community as "class warfare."[44]
Australia
During the tenure of the Liberal–National Coalition government of 1996 to 2007, interpretations of
Aboriginal history became a part of a wider political debate regarding Australian national pride and
symbolism occasionally called the "culture wars", more often the "history wars".[45] This debate extended
into a controversy over the presentation of history in the National Museum of Australia and in high-school
history curricula.[46][47] It also migrated into the general Australian media, with major broadsheets such as
The Australian, The Sydney Morning Herald and The Age regularly publishing opinion pieces on the topic.
Marcia Langton has referred to much of this wider debate as "war porn"[48] and as an "intellectual dead
end".[49]
Two Australian Prime Ministers, Paul Keating (in office 1991–1996) and John Howard (in office 1996–
2007), became major participants in the "wars". According to Mark McKenna's analysis for the Australian
Parliamentary Library,[50] John Howard believed that Paul Keating portrayed Australia pre-Whitlam (Prime
Minister from 1972 to 1975) in an unduly negative light; while Keating sought to distance the modern
Labor movement from its historical support for the monarchy and for the White Australia policy by arguing
that it was the conservative Australian parties which had been barriers to national progress. He accused
Britain of having abandoned Australia during the Second World War. Keating staunchly supported a
symbolic apology to Australian Aboriginals for their mistreatment at the hands of previous administrations,
and outlined his view of the origins and potential solutions to contemporary Aboriginal disadvantage in his
Redfern Park Speech of 10 December 1992 (drafted with the assistance of historian Don Watson). In 1999,
following the release of the 1998 Bringing Them Home Report, Howard passed a Parliamentary Motion of
Reconciliation describing treatment of Aborigines as the "most blemished chapter" in Australian history,
but he refused to issue an official apology.[51] Howard saw an apology as inappropriate as it would imply
"intergeneration guilt"; he said that "practical" measures were a better response to contemporary Aboriginal
disadvantage. Keating has argued for the eradication of remaining symbols linked to colonial origins:
including deference for ANZAC Day,[52] for the Australian flag and for the monarchy in Australia, while
Howard supported these institutions. Unlike fellow Labor leaders and contemporaries, Bob Hawke (Prime
Minister 1983–1991) and Kim Beazley (Labor Party leader 2005–2006), Keating never traveled to
Gallipoli for ANZAC Day ceremonies. In 2008 he described those who gathered there as "misguided".[53]
In 2006 John Howard said in a speech to mark the 50th anniversary of Quadrant that "Political
Correctness" was dead in Australia but: "we should not underestimate the degree to which the soft-left still
holds sway, even dominance, especially in Australia's universities". Also in 2006, Sydney Morning Herald
political editor Peter Hartcher reported that Opposition foreign-affairs spokesman Kevin Rudd was entering
the philosophical debate by arguing in response that "John Howard, is guilty of perpetrating 'a fraud' in his
so-called culture wars ... designed not to make real change but to mask the damage inflicted by the
Government's economic policies".[54]
The defeat of the Howard government in the Australian Federal election of 2007 and its replacement by the
Rudd Labor government altered the dynamic of the debate. Rudd made an official apology to the
Aboriginal Stolen Generation[55] with bi-partisan support.[56] Like Keating, Rudd supported an Australian
republic, but in contrast to Keating, Rudd declared support for the Australian flag and supported the
commemoration of ANZAC Day; he also expressed admiration for Liberal Party founder Robert
Menzies.[57][58]
Subsequent to the 2007 change of government, and prior to the passage, with support from all parties, of
the Parliamentary apology to indigenous Australians, Professor of Australian Studies Richard Nile argued:
"the culture and history wars are over and with them should also go the adversarial nature of intellectual
debate",[59] a view contested by others, including conservative commentator Janet Albrechtsen.[60]
Africa
According to political scientist Constance G. Anthony, American culture war perspectives on human
sexuality were exported to Africa as a form of neocolonialism. In his view, this began during the AIDS
epidemic in Africa, with the United States government first tying HIV/AIDS assistance money to
evangelical leadership and the Christian right during the Bush administration, then to LGBTQ tolerance
during the administration of Barack Obama. This stoked a culture war that resulted in (among others) the
Uganda Anti-Homosexuality Act of 2014.[61]
Zambian scholar Kapya Kaoma notes that because "the demographic center of Christianity is shifting from
the global North to the global South" Africa's influence on Christianity worldwide is increasing. American
conservatives export their culture wars to Africa, Kaoma says, particularly when they realize they may be
losing the battle back home. US Christians have framed their anti-LGBT initiatives in Africa as standing in
opposition to a "Western gay agenda", a framing which Kaoma finds ironic.[62]
North American and European conspiracy theories have become widespread in West Africa via social
media, according to 2021 survey by First Draft News. COVID-19 misinformation, New World Order
conspiracy thinking, Qanon and other conspiracy theories associated with culture war topics are spread by
American, Pro-Russian, French-language, and local disinformation websites and social media accounts,
including prominent politicians in Nigeria. This has contributed to vaccine hesitancy in West Africa, with
60 percent of survey respondents saying they were unlikely to try to get vaccinated, and an erosion of trust
in institutions in the region.[63]
China
The aim of the Cultural Revolution was to attack the Four Olds-- Old Ideas, Old Culture, Old Habits, and
Old Customs. The movement led to the removal of capitalist and traditional Chinese symbolism following
the Chinese Communist Revolution.[64][65]
United Kingdom
A 2021 report by the policy institute of King’s College London argued that many people’s views on
cultural issues in Britain have become tied up with the side of the Brexit debate with which they identify,
while the public party-political identities, although not as strong, show similar alignments and that around
half the country held relatively strong views on “culture war” issues such as debates on Britain’s colonial
history or Black Lives Matter. However, the report concluded Britain's cultural and political divide was not
as stark as the Republican-Democratic divide in the US and that a sizeable section of the public can be
categorised as having either moderate views or as being disengaged from social debates. The Conservative
Party have been described as attempting to ignite culture wars in regard to "conservative values" under the
tenure of Prime Minister Boris Johnson.[66][67][68][69] Other observers, such as Johns Hopkins University
professor and political scientist Yascha Mounk and journalist Louise Perry have argued that a collapse in
support for the Labour Party during the 2019 United Kingdom general election came as a result of both a
public perception and a deliberate strategy of Labour of pursuing messages and policy ideas based on
cultural issues that resonated with grassroots activists on the left of the party but alienated Labour's
traditional working class voters.[70][71]
Europe
Several media outlets have described the Law and Justice party in
Poland,[73] Viktor Orbán in Hungary, Aleksandar Vučić in Serbia,
and Janez Janša in Slovenia as igniting culture wars in their
respective countries by encouraging fights over LGBT rights, legal
abortion, and other topics.[74] According to The National Interest,
there is a cultural war in Ukraine.[75]
After 2017, Poland's Law and Justice (PiS) government destroyed

most of the Soviet War Memorials in Poland.[76][77]
In early 2018, both chambers of the Polish parliament (the Sejm

LGBT free zones in Poland (red) as
and Senate) adopted an Amendment to the Act on the Institute of
of January 2020.[72]
National Remembrance, criminalizing the ascription to Poles
collectively of complicity in World War II Jewish-Holocaust-related
or other war crimes committed by the Axis powers, and condemning use of the expression, "Polish death
camp".[78][79][80] The law sparked a crisis in Israel–Poland relations .[81] The Amendment's passage
worsened Poland–Ukraine relations, already contentious on the questions of the prewar Organization of
Ukrainian Nationalists and the wartime and postwar Ukrainian Insurgent Army, whose leaders Stepan
Bandera and Roman Shukhevych have been considered Ukrainian national heroes in Ukraine, and war
criminals in Poland.[82][83] Historical issues regarding the Ukrainian Insurgent Army and their massacres of
Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia remain a contested topic. Ukrainian memory laws (the Ukrainian
decommunization laws) passed in 2015, honoring UPA, related organizations and its members, were
criticized in Poland.[84]
In June 2020, the Polish President Andrzej Duda said that he would not allow gay couples to marry or
adopt children, while describing the LGBT movement as "a foreign ideology" and comparing it to the
communist indoctrination in Polish schools during the PRL period.[85][86]
See also
Drugs Gender and sexuality Society and culture

Drug decriminalization Anti-gender movement Animal rights
Harm reduction Age of consent Call-out culture
Legal drinking age Circumcision controversies Christmas controversy
War on Drugs Feminism Counterculture
LGBT rights and Same-sex Cultural conflict
marriage Geographical renaming
Education and Polyamory History wars
parenting Sex work Media bias in the U.S.
Corporal punishment and Sexual revolution Moral absolutism vs. Moral
child discipline, most relativism
notably spanking Multiculturalism
Law and government
Creation–evolution Permissive society
controversy Crypto wars Race, affirmative action
Family values Gun rights Secularism and
Homeschooling and Immigration reform secularization
Educational choice Theory wars
Law and order
Sexual education and Red state vs. blue state
abstinence only education
divide
Environment and Life issues

energy
Anti-war movement
Global warming and Capital punishment
climate change Reproductive rights
mitigation[22] including birth control (and
its coverage by insurance)
Right to die movement and
euthanasia
Stem-cell research
Universal healthcare
References
1. "Culture war" (https://www.dictionary.com/browse/culture-war). Dictionary.com. Retrieved
October 21, 2019.
2. "Culture Wars" (https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/legal-and-political-magazines/culture
-wars). Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved October 21, 2019.
3. Spahn, Martin (1910). "Kulturkampf" (http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08703b.htm). The
Catholic Encyclopedia. 8. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved March 27, 2015.
4. "Prosecution of priests (Culture War reference) (1874)" (http://www.newspapers.com/clip/294
56963/prosecution_of_priests_culture_war/). Newspapers.com. Retrieved March 13, 2019.
5. "Seminar on the Culture Wars of the 1920s" (http://www1.assumption.edu/ahc/1920s/). Fall
2001. Retrieved October 24, 2021.
6. Dionne, E. J. "Culture Wars: How 2004" (http://www.realclearpolitics.com/articles/2008/03/re
claiming_faith_and_politics.html).
7. "What Bismarck could not do (Culture War reference) (1906)" (http://www.newspapers.com/c
lip/29457081/what_bismarck_could_not_do_culture_war/). Newspapers.com. Retrieved
March 13, 2019.
8. " 'Culture War' to be theme of talk (1942)" (http://www.newspapers.com/clip/29456609/cultur
e_war_to_be_theme_of_talk_1942/). Newspapers.com. Retrieved March 13, 2019.
9. Brian Dakss, "Bill O'Reilly's 'Culture Warrior'" (https://www.cbsnews.com/news/bill-oreillys-c
ulture-warrior/), CBS News, December 5, 2006. Retrieved March 27, 2020.
10. O'Reilly, Bill (September 2006). Culture Warrior. New York: Broadway Books. ISBN 0-7679-
2092-9.
11. Illing, Sean (July 9, 2020). "Is evangelical support for Trump a contradiction?" (https://www.v
ox.com/policy-and-politics/2020/7/9/21291493/donald-trump-evangelical-christians-kristin-k
obes-du-mez). Vox. Retrieved July 9, 2020.
12. "Dogs of War" (https://web.archive.org/web/20050308043424/http://www.newdonkey.com/20
04/09/dogs-of-war.html). New Donkey. September 2, 2004. Archived from the original (http://
www.newdonkey.com/2004/09/dogs-of-war.html) on March 8, 2005. Retrieved August 29,
2006. "Not since Pat Buchanan's famous 'culture war' speech in 1992 has a major speaker
at a national political convention spoken so hatefully, at such length, about the opposition."
13. Buchanan, Patrick (August 17, 1992). 1992 Republican National Convention Speech (http://
buchanan.org/blog/1992-republican-national-convention-speech-148) (Speech). Retrieved
November 3, 2014.
14. Buchanan, Patrick. "The Cultural War for the Soul of America" (http://buchanan.org/blog/the-
cultural-war-for-the-soul-of-america-149).
15. Andrew Hartman, A War for the Soul of America: A History of the Culture Wars (University of
Chicago Press, 2015)
16. Chapman, Roger (2010). Culture Wars: An Encyclopedia of Issues, Viewpoints, and Voices
(https://books.google.com/books?id=vRY27FkGJAUC&pg=PA88). Armonk, NY: M. E.
Sharpe. p. 88. ISBN 978-0-7656-1761-3.
17. Chapman, Roger (2010). Culture Wars: An Encyclopedia of Issues, Viewpoints, and Voices
(https://books.google.com/books?id=vRY27FkGJAUC&pg=PA136). Armonk, NY.: M. E.
Sharpe. p. 136. ISBN 978-0-7656-1761-3.
18. Who Owns History: Rethinking the Past in a Changing World (https://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=H3I-Z8KW5REC) at Google Books
19. History on Trial: Culture Wars and the Teaching of the Past (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=iE1DzmHrh9EC) at Google Books
20. Zafirovski, Milan. "Modern Free Society and Its Nemesis: Liberty Versus Conservatism in the
New Millennium " (https://books.google.com/books?id=UEl91MbLiO0C&pg=PA60) Google
Books. 6 September 2018.
21. Dionne, E.J., Jr. "Why the Culture War Is the Wrong War." (https://www.theatlantic.com/maga
zine/archive/2006/01/why-the-culture-war-is-the-wrong-war/304502/) The Atlantic.
January/February 2006. 29 April 2019.
22. Climate Science as Culture War: The public debate around climate change is no longer
about science—it's about values, culture, and ideology (http://www.ssireview.org/articles/entr
y/climate_science_as_culture_war) Fall 2012 Stanford Social Innovation Review
23. "How the News Media Covered Religion in the 2008 General Election: Sarah Palin and the
"Culture Wars" " (https://www.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/8/legacy/Religion_
gen_election_FINAL-11-20_0.pdf) (PDF). Journalism & Media: 8, 11–12. November 20,
2008. Retrieved May 23, 2020.
24. Hatzisavvidou, Sophia (September 17, 2019). " 'The climate has always been changing':
Sarah Palin, climate change denialism, and American conservatism". Celebrity Studies. 12
(3): 371–388. doi:10.1080/19392397.2019.1667251 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F19392397.2
019.1667251). S2CID 204377874 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:204377874).
25. Teixeira, Ruy (July 15, 2009). "The Coming End of the Culture Wars" (https://www.americanp
rogress.org/issues/democracy/reports/2009/07/15/6454/the-coming-end-of-the-culture-
wars/). Center for American Progress. Retrieved May 23, 2020.
26. Smith, Karl. "The Abortion Debate Is Not Part of the Culture Wars." (https://www.bloomberg.c
om/opinion/articles/2019-05-21/abortion-debate-it-s-different-from-other-culture-wars)
Bloomberg.
27. Grunwald, Michael (November 2018). "How Everything Became the Culture War" (https://ww
w.politico.com/magazine/story/2018/11/02/culture-war-liberals-conservatives-trump-2018-22
2095). Politico. Retrieved May 24, 2020.
28. Castle, Jeremiah (December 14, 2018). "New Fronts in the Culture Wars? Religion,
Partisanship, and Polarization on Religious Liberty and Transgender Rights in the United
States". American Politics Research. 47 (3): 650–679. doi:10.1177/1532673X18818169 (htt
ps://doi.org/10.1177%2F1532673X18818169). S2CID 220207260 (https://api.semanticschol
ar.org/CorpusID:220207260).
29. Blake, Aaron (May 23, 2020). "GOP governor offers emotional plea to the anti-mask crowd:
Stop this senseless culture war" (https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2020/05/23/doug-
burgum-masks/). The Washington Post. Retrieved May 24, 2020.
30. Peters, Jeremy W. (August 3, 2020). "These Conservatives Have a Laser Focus: 'Owning
the Libs' " (https://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/03/us/politics/the-federalist-trump-liberals.html).
New York Times.
31. Buffington, Melanie L. (January 1, 2017). "Contemporary Culture Wars: Challenging the
Legacy of the Confederacy" (https://jcrae.art.arizona.edu/index.php/jcrae/article/view/74).
Journal of Cultural Research in Art Education. 34: 45–59. ISSN 2152-7172 (https://www.worl
dcat.org/issn/2152-7172). Retrieved May 24, 2020.
32. Hurley, Kameron (April 9, 2015). "Hijacking the Hugo Awards Won't Stifle Diversity in
Science Fiction" (https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2015/04/the-culture-war
s-come-to-sci-fi/390012/). The Atlantic. Retrieved May 23, 2020.
33. Dewey, Caitlin (October 14, 2014). "The only guide to Gamergate you will ever need to read"
(https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-intersect/wp/2014/10/14/the-only-guide-to-game
rgate-you-will-ever-need-to-read/). The Washington Post. Retrieved May 23, 2020.
34. Meserve, Jack (Spring 2015). "Last Front in the Culture War" (https://democracyjournal.org/m
agazine/36/last-front-in-the-culture-war/). Democracy: A Journal of Ideas (36). Retrieved
May 23, 2020.
35. Nagle, Angela (June 30, 2017). Kill All Normies: Online Culture Wars From 4Chan And
Tumblr To Trump And The Alt-Right. Zero Books. ISBN 9781785355431.
36. Warzel, Charlie (August 15, 2019). "How an Online Mob Created a Playbook for a Culture
War" (https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/15/opinion/what-is-gamergate.html). The
New York Times. Retrieved May 24, 2020.
37. Hunter, James Davison; Wolfe, Alan (2006). Is There a Culture War? : A Dialogue on Values
and American Public Life. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press. OCLC 76966750
(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/76966750).
38. Goren, Paul; Chapp, Christopher (February 24, 2017). "Moral Power: How Public Opinion
on Culture War Issues Shapes Partisan Predispositions and Religious Orientations".
American Political Science Review. 111 (1): 110–128. doi:10.1017/S0003055416000435 (ht
tps://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0003055416000435). S2CID 151573922 (https://api.semanticsch
olar.org/CorpusID:151573922).
39. Melzer, Scott (October 1, 2009). Gun Crusaders: The NRA's Culture War (https://nyupress.or
g/9780814795507/gun-crusaders/). New York University Press. p. 59. ISBN 978-
0814764503.
40. Ridgely, Susan B. (March 2020). "Conservative Christianity and the Creation of Alternative
News: An Analysis of Focus on the Family's Multimedia Empire" (https://doi.org/10.1017%2
Frac.2020.1). Religion and American Culture. 30 (1): 1–25. doi:10.1017/rac.2020.1 (https://d
oi.org/10.1017%2Frac.2020.1).
41. Grossmann, Matt; Hopkins, David A. (March 2015). "Ideological Republicans and Group
Interest Democrats: The Asymmetry of American Party Politics". Perspectives on Politics. 13
(1): 119–139. doi:10.1017/S1537592714003168 (https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS15375927140
03168). S2CID 144639776 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144639776).
42. Hopkins, David A. (April 15, 2020). "Solving the COVID Crisis Requires Bipartisanship, But
the Modern GOP Isn't Built for It" (http://www.honestgraft.com/2020/04/solving-covid-crisis-re
quires.html). Honest Graft. Retrieved May 24, 2020.
43. Caplan, Gerald (October 20, 2012). "Culture clash splits Canadians over basic values" (http
s://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/second-reading/culture-clash-splits-canadians-
over-basic-values/article4626123/). The Globe and Mail. Toronto.
44. Andrew Coyne (October 2, 2008). "Coyne: This isn't a culture war, it's a good old class war"
(http://www.macleans.ca/general/this-isnt-a-culture-war-its-a-good-old-class-war/).
Macleans.
45. Manne, Robert (November 2008). "What is Rudd's Agenda?" (https://www.themonthly.com.a
u/issue/2008/november/1277253191/robert-manne/what-rudd-s-agenda). The Monthly.
46. Rundle, Guy (June 28, 2007). "1915 and all that: History in a holding pattern" (http://www.crik
ey.com.au/2007/06/28/1915-and-all-that-history-in-a-holding-pattern/). Crikey. Retrieved
April 27, 2010.
47. Ferrari, Justine (October 14, 2008). "History curriculum author defies his critics to find bias"
(https://web.archive.org/web/20091006084757/http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/story/
0,25197,24492542-13881,00.html). The Australian. Archived from the original (http://www.th
eaustralian.news.com.au/story/0,25197,24492542-13881,00.html) on October 6, 2009.
Retrieved April 27, 2010.
48. Baudrillard J. War porn. Journal of Visual Culture, Vol. 5, No. 1, 86–88 (2006) doi:
10.1177/147041290600500107 (https://doi.org/10.1177%2F147041290600500107)
49. Langton M. Essay: "Trapped in the aboriginal reality show" (https://www.griffithreview.com/ar
ticles/trapped-in-the-aboriginal-reality-show/). Griffith Review 2007, 19:Re-imagining
Australia.
50. Mark McKenna (November 10, 1997). "Different Perspectives on Black Armband History" (ht
tp://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/p
ubs/rp/RP9798/98RP05). Parliamentary Library: Research Paper 5 1997-98. The
Parliament of Australia. Retrieved March 5, 2015.
51. "The History of Apologies Down Under | Thinking Faith" (https://web.archive.org/web/20141
202000730/http://www.thinkingfaith.org/articles/20080221_1.htm). thinkingfaith.org.
February 21, 2008. Archived from the original (http://www.thinkingfaith.org/articles/20080221
_1.htm) on December 2, 2014. Retrieved March 5, 2015.
52. Wright, Tony (October 30, 2008). "A nation reborn at Anzac Cove? Utter nonsense: Keating"
(https://www.smh.com.au/national/a-nation-reborn-at-anzac-cove-utter-nonsense-keating-20
081030-5enw.html). The Sydney Morning Herald.
53. Wright, Tony (October 31, 2008). "A nation reborn at Anzac Cove? Utter nonsense: Keating"
(http://www.theage.com.au/national/a-nation-reborn-at-anzac-cove-utter-nonsense-keating-2
0081030-5enw.html). The Age. Melbourne. Retrieved March 5, 2010.
54. "PM's culture wars a fraud: Rudd - National" (http://www.smh.com.au/news/national/pms-cult
ure-wars-a-fraud-rudd/2006/10/27/1161749320974.html). The Sydney Morning Herald.
October 28, 2006. Retrieved April 27, 2010.
55. "Full text of Australia's apology to Aborigines" (http://www.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/0
2/12/australia.text/index.html). CNN. February 12, 2008. Retrieved April 27, 2010.
56. "Brendan Nelson's sorry speech" (http://www.smh.com.au/news/national/brendan-nelsons-s
orry-speech/2008/02/13/1202760366050.html?page=fullpage#contentSwap1). The Sydney
Morning Herald. February 13, 2008. Retrieved April 27, 2010.
57. "Paul Keating 'utterly wrong' to reject Gallipoli identity, says Kevin Rudd" (http://www.theaust
ralian.com.au/news/keating-utterly-wrong-on-gallipoli-pm/story-0-1111117908459). October
31, 2008.
58. "Is Rudd having a Bob each way? - Opinion" (http://www.smh.com.au/news/opinion/is-rudd-
having-a-bob-each-way/2007/04/12/1175971263000.html). The Sydney Morning Herald.
October 28, 2004. Retrieved April 27, 2010.
59. "End of the culture wars | Richard Nile Blog, The Australian" (https://web.archive.org/web/20
100309215605/http://blogs.theaustralian.news.com.au/richardnile/index.php/theaustralian/c
omments/end_of_the_culture_wars/). blogs.theaustralian.news.com.au. November 28, 2007.
Archived from the original (http://blogs.theaustralian.news.com.au/richardnile/index.php/thea
ustralian/comments/end_of_the_culture_wars) on March 9, 2010. Retrieved April 27, 2010.
60. "Orwellian Left quick to unveil totalitarian heart" (http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/orwe
llian-left-quick-to-unveil-totalitarian-heart/story-e6frg6n6-1111115088194). The Australian.
December 12, 2007.
61. Anthony, Constance G. (November 2018). "Schizophrenic Neocolonialism: Exporting the
American Culture War on Sexuality to Africa". International Studies Perspectives. 19 (4):
289–304. doi:10.1093/isp/eky004 (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fisp%2Feky004).
62. van Klinken, Adriaan (2017). "Culture Wars, Race, and Sexuality: A Nascent Pan-African
LGBT-Affirming Christian Movement and the Future of Christianity" (https://eprints.whiterose.
ac.uk/105826/). Journal of Africana Religions. 5 (2): 217–238. doi:10.5325/jafrireli.5.2.0217
(https://doi.org/10.5325%2Fjafrireli.5.2.0217). JSTOR 10.5325/jafrireli.5.2.0217 (https://www.
jstor.org/stable/10.5325/jafrireli.5.2.0217). Archived from the original (https://www.jstor.org/st
able/10.5325/jafrireli.5.2.0217) on October 11, 2016. Retrieved May 4, 2021.
63. Dotto, Carlotta; Cubbon, Seb (June 23, 2021). Disinformation exports: How foreign anti-
vaccine narratives reached West African communities online (https://firstdraftnews.org/long-f
orm-article/foreign-anti-vaccine-disinformation-reaches-west-africa/) (Report). First Draft
News. Retrieved June 23, 2021.
64. "Temples, opera, and braids: Photos reveal what China looked like before the Cultural
Revolution" (https://www.businessinsider.com/photos-china-before-communism-cultural-rev
olution). Business Insider. March 4, 2020.
65. "Why US and China are both stalked by concerns about the Cultural Revolution" (https://ww
w.scmp.com/week-asia/opinion/article/3092557/why-us-and-china-are-both-stalked-concern
s-about-cultural). South China Morning Post. July 11, 2020.
66. Balls, Katy (September 29, 2020). "The Tories are spoiling for a culture war to stand up for
'British values' " (https://inews.co.uk/opinion/tories-culture-war-win-back-popular-support-67
0637). inews.co.uk. Retrieved February 8, 2021.
67. Malik, Kenan (December 20, 2020). "The Tory 'class agenda' is a culture war stunt that will
leave inequality untouched" (https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2020/dec/20/tory-
class-agenda-is-culture-war-stunt-that-will-leave-inequality-untouched). The Guardian.
Retrieved February 8, 2021.
68. Mason, Paul (February 10, 2021). "Boris Johnson's probe into left-wing "extremism" is a
dangerous distraction from the fascist threat" (https://www.newstatesman.com/politics/uk/202
1/02/boris-johnson-s-probe-left-wing-extremism-dangerous-distraction-fascist-threat). New
Statesman. Retrieved February 18, 2021. "This is, at one level, part of the pre-scripted
culture war being orchestrated by those around [Boris] Johnson."
69. "UK culture war: museum trustees are paying the price for disagreeing with government's
policies" (http://www.theartnewspaper.com/news/trustees-pay-price-for-speaking-out).
www.theartnewspaper.com. June 7, 2021.
70. "How Labour Lost the Culture War" (https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2019/12/how-
culture-killed-labour-party/603583/). The Atlantic. December 13, 2019.
71. "The UK is immersed in a class-culture war – and Labour is incapable of winning it" (https://
www.newstatesman.com/comment/2021/06/uk-immersed-class-culture-war-and-labour-inca
pable-winning-it). June 22, 2021.
72. "Polish president revives attacks on LGBT community in re-election campaign" (https://www.
irishtimes.com/news/world/europe/polish-president-revives-attacks-on-lgbt-community-in-re-
election-campaign-1.4277863). The Irish Times. June 12, 2020.
73. Rohac, Dalibor; Kokonos, Lance (November 2, 2020). "Poland's Culture Wars" (https://foreig
npolicy.com/2020/11/02/poland-hungary-culture-wars-abortion-russia/). Foreign Policy.
Retrieved November 4, 2020.
74. Kakissis, Joanna (November 4, 2020). "Slovenian Prime Minister Cheers Trump 'Triumph'
Despite Untallied Votes" (https://apps.npr.org/liveblogs/20201103-election/#slovenian-prime
-minister-cheers-trump-328). NPR. Athens, Greece. Retrieved November 4, 2020.
75. "Ukraine's Culture War" (https://nationalinterest.org/commentary/ukraines-culture-war-9838).
The National Interest. February 7, 2014.
76. "Poland plans to tear down hundreds of Soviet memorials" (https://www.dw.com/en/poland-p
lans-to-tear-down-hundreds-of-soviet-memorials/a-19185159). Deutsche Welle. April 13,
2016.
77. "Then And Now: Soviet Monuments Disappear Across Poland" (https://www.rferl.org/a/then-
and-now-photos-show-soviet-monuments-disappearing-in-poland-after-decommunization-la
w/30905305.html). Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. October 23, 2020.
78. Eglash, Ruth; Selk, Avi (January 28, 2018). "Israel and Poland try to tamp down tensions
after Poland's 'death camp' law sparks Israeli outrage" (https://www.washingtonpost.com/ne
ws/worldviews/wp/2018/01/27/it-could-soon-be-a-crime-to-blame-poland-for-nazi-atrocities-
and-israel-is-appalled/). The Washington Post.
79. Heller, Jeffrey; Goettig, Marcin (January 28, 2018). "Israel and Poland clash over proposed
Holocaust law" (https://www.reuters.com/article/us-israel-poland/israel-and-poland-clash-ov
er-proposed-holocaust-law-idUSKBN1FH0S3). Reuters.
80. Katz, Brigit (January 29, 2018). "The Controversy Around Poland's Proposed Ban on the
Term "Polish Death Camps" " (https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/poland-grants-i
nitial-approval-controversial-death-camp-bill-180967975/). The Smithsonian Magazine.
81. "The Latest: Party head: Israel confirms Polish view on Nazis" (https://abcnews.go.com/Inter
national/wireStory/latest-poland-reverses-disputed-holocaust-law-56194754). ABC News.
Retrieved July 7, 2018.
82. Baran, Violetta, ed. (February 6, 2018). "Były minister obrony Ukrainy ostrzega: ponad
milion Ukraińców może chwycić za kopie" (https://wiadomosci.wp.pl/byly-minister-obrony-uk
rainy-ostrzega-ponad-milion-ukraincow-moze-chwycic-za-kopie-6217366961669761a)
[Former Ukrainian Minister of Defense Warns: over a million Ukrainians may take up the
cudgels]. WP Wiadomości (in Polish). Wirtualna Polska. Retrieved May 16, 2019.
83. Kozińska, Anna, ed. (February 1, 2018). "Spór na linii Polska-Izrael. Do grona komentatorów
dołączyła Ukraina" (https://wiadomosci.wp.pl/spor-na-linii-polska-izrael-do-grona-komentato
row-dolaczyla-ukraina-6215619519198849a). WP Wiadomości (in Polish). Wirtualna
Polska.
84. " "Mówię: UPA odpowiada za ludobójstwo Polaków. Ukraińcy, ścigajcie mnie!" " (http://www.t
vp.info/19594670/mowie-upa-odpowiada-za-ludobojstwo-polakow-ukraincy-scigajcie-mnie)
(in Polish). Retrieved March 6, 2018.
85. "Polish President Calls 'LGBT Ideology' More Harmful Than Communism" (https://time.com/
5853277/andrzej-duda-lgbt-ideology-communism/). Time. Retrieved June 14, 2020.
86. "Polish election: Andrzej Duda says LGBT 'ideology' worse than communism" (https://www.
bbc.com/news/world-europe-53039864). BBC News. June 14, 2020.
Further reading
Chapman, Roger, and James Ciment. Culture Wars: An Encyclopedia of Issues, Viewpoints
and Voices (https://books.google.com/books?id=XO9nBwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=o
nepage&q&f=false) (2nd ed. Routledge, 2015)
D'Antonio, William V., Steven A. Tuch and Josiah R. Baker, Religion, Politics, and
Polarization: How Religiopolitical Conflict Is Changing Congress and American Democracy
(Rowman & Littlefield, 2013) ISBN 1442223979 ISBN 978-1442223974
Fiorina, Morris P., with Samuel J. Abrams and Jeremy C. Pope, Culture War?: The Myth of a
Polarized America (Longman, 2004) ISBN 0-321-27640-X
Graff, Gerald. Beyond the Culture Wars: How Teaching the Conflicts Can Revitalize
American Education (https://books.google.com/books?id=GzYG0HytHoAC&printsec=frontco
ver#v=onepage&q&f=false) (1992)
Hartman, Andrew. A war for the soul of America: a history of the culture wars (https://books.g
oogle.com/books?id=fW__BgAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false)
(University of Chicago Press, 2015)
Hunter, James Davison, Culture Wars: The Struggle to Define America (New York: Basic
Books, 1992) ISBN 0-465-01534-4
Jay, Gregory S., American Literature and the Culture Wars, (Cornell University Press, 1997)
ISBN 0-8014-3393-2 ISBN 978-0801433931
Jensen, Richard. "The Culture Wars, 1965-1995: A Historian's Map" Journal of Social
History 29 (Oct 1995) 17–37. in JSTOR (https://www.jstor.org/stable/3789064)
Jones, E. Michael, Degenerate Moderns: Modernity As Rationalized Sexual Misbehavior, Ft.
Collins, CO: Ignatius Press, 1993 ISBN 0-89870-447-2
Prothero, Stephen (2017). Why Liberals Win the Culture Wars (Even When They Lose
Elections): A History of the Religious Battles That Define America from Jefferson's Heresies
to Gay Marriage Today. HarperOne. ISBN 978-0061571312.
Strauss, William & Howe, Neil, The Fourth Turning, An American Prophecy: What the
Cycles of History Tell Us About America's Next Rendezvous With Destiny, 1998, Broadway
Books, New York
Thomson, Irene Tavis., Culture Wars and Enduring American Dilemmas (http://www.press.u
mich.edu/1571954), (University of Michigan Press, 2010) ISBN 978-0-472-07088-6
Walsh, Andrew D., Religion, Economics, and Public Policy: Ironies, Tragedies, and
Absurdities of the Contemporary Culture Wars, (Praeger, 2000) ISBN 0-275-96611-9
Webb, Adam K., Beyond the Global Culture War, (Routledge, 2006) ISBN 0-415-95313-8
Zimmerman, Jonathan, Whose America? Culture Wars in the Public Schools (Harvard
University Press, 2002) ISBN 0-674-01860-5
External links
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Culture_war&oldid=1061756254"
This page was last edited on 23 December 2021, at 19:26 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using
this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia
Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.

Culture War

Uploaded by

Document Informationclick to expand document informationThis file contains one Creative Commons book and one Creative Commons article.

Document Informationclick to expand document information

Copyright:

Available Formats

Culture War

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Culture War

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

0/-*/&4637&:

*ODPMMBCPSBUJPOXJUI6OHMVFJU XFIBWFTFUVQBTVSWFZ POMZUFORVFTUJPOT

In 2008, John McCain, always known as something of a centrist or moderate Re-

Putting Faith in Partnerships: Welfare-to-Work in Four Cities

The New Imperial Presidency: Renewing Presidential Power after Watergate

Self-Financed Candidates in Congressional Elections

America at Risk: Threats to Liberal Self-Government in an Age of Uncertainty

Barack Obama’s America: How New Conceptions of Race, Family,

Culture Wars and Enduring American Dilemmas

IRENE TAVISS THOMSON

THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN PRESS

2013 2012 2011 2010 4 3 2 1

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Thomson, Irene Taviss, 1941–

1. culture wars and warring about culture 1

2. respect for religion but uncertainty

3. moral but not moralistic 58

4. individualism but not to excess 84

6. antielitist but respecting achievement 145

7. moderation, plain and simple 167

8. culture, class, and american exceptionalism 175

9. concluding comments 217

Methodological Appendix 221

Culture Wars and Warring about Culture

the high regard for moderation is something of an answer. Thus, religion is

The Culture Wars

most half support making contraception available to teenagers (N. J. Davis

signi‹cance to cultural issues. When asked to name the most important

Warring over Culture

thropological sense to describe how people think and behave, is generally

are inclined to attribute accuracy and plausibility” (DiMaggio 1997, 267).

Nevertheless, older ideas of culture often remain “embedded in our

alism become normal features of society. Indeed, when “culture no longer

2006, 6). Without speci‹c provocations such as those surrounding Robert

loyalties, emerge now as transcultural virtuosos, able to shift performative

maintain a ‹rm culture. “The onslaught of economic, organizational, and

The Culture Warriors

framing the debates, in constructing the cultural realities. On the right,

gam of high culture reactionaries, antigovernment ideologues and faux

violence to empirical reality? To some extent, nations exist as “symbolic

ings. American culture is embodied in enduring dilemmas rather than en-

Respect for Religion but

The Public Sphere and Civil Religion

In keeping with the general American tendency to view religion as a posi-

creationism disputes, half maintain a favorable view of religion, while only

hundred newspapers during the Honor America Day celebrations of July 4,

Dilemmas of Church-State Relations

[Sanders]’s lifestyle” (Judis 1999, 56). Another commentator suggests that

as the religious feared the teaching of evolution in 1925. But creationism

hostility toward Christian Fundamentalists, rating them no more highly

lic sphere. While “every manner of political argument is ruled legitimate in

senters—those who would reduce religious in›uences—argue instead that

Religious Belief and Secularization

on the absence of an established church, on the voluntary nature of Amer-

slowly but steadily increased from 5 percent in 1964 to 10 percent at the

public as well as personal signi‹cance because it may be activated during

Criticism of contemporary Fundamentalists comes from within as well.

*ODPMMBCPSBUJPOXJUI6OHMVFJU XFIBWFTFUVQBTVSWFZ POMZUFORVFTUJPOT