Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie (PhD)

Chapter 5: Integrals and their applications

5.1 Indefinite Integrals

A. Antiderivatives and Indefinite Integral

Definition 1: A function 𝐹(𝑥) is said to be an antiderivative of a function f(x) if 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐹 ′ (𝑥)for all
𝑥 in the domain of 𝑓. That is,

𝐹 is an antiderivative of 𝑓 ⟺ 𝑓 is the derivative of 𝐹

The process of finding an antiderivative of a function is called antidifferentiation.

Example 1:

𝑑
a) The function F(x) = x2 is an antiderivative of the function f(x) = 2x, because 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 2 ) = 2𝑥.

b) For any constant c, the function F(x) = x2 + c is an antiderivative of the function f(x) = 2x,
𝑑
because 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 2 + 𝑐) = 2𝑥.

If 𝐹 is an antiderivative of 𝑓, so is 𝐹 + 𝑐 for any constant 𝑐. The following remark is a consequence of

the Mean Value Theorem.

Remark 1: If 𝐹 and 𝐺 are any two antiderivatives of 𝑓, then there exist a constant c so that G = F + c.
Thus any two antiderivatives of a function differ only by a constant.

Example 2: Find an antiderivative 𝐹 of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = x√𝑥 where 𝐹 (1) = 2.

3 𝑑
Solution: Note that f(x) = 𝑥 2 . From the power rule for derivatives 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 𝑟 ) = 𝑟𝑥 𝑟−1 . Hence, the function
1 3
F(x) =𝑟 𝑥 𝑟 is an antiderivative of the function f(x) = 𝑥 𝑟−1 . Putting 𝑟 − 1 = 2 we get that the function
2 5 3 2 5
G(x) = 5 𝑥 2 is an antiderivative of f(x) = 𝑥 2 . If 𝐹 is any an anti-derivative of 𝑓, then F(x) = 5 x 2 + c for
8 2 5 8
some constant c. If in addition, 𝐹(1) = 2, then c = 5. Therefore, F(x) = 5 𝑥 2 + 5.

Definition 2: The family of all antiderivatives of 𝑓(𝑥) is called the indefinite integral of 𝑓(𝑥) and it is
denoted by ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥.

The process of finding the indefinite integral of a function is called indefinite integration.

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If F is an antiderivative of f, then the family of all antiderivatives of 𝑓 is given by

F(x) + C,

where C is an arbitrary constant.

Thus

∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = F(x) + C (1)

In formula (1) above, the

- symbol ∫ is called integral sign.

- function 𝑓 is called integrand.
- the arbitrary constant C is called constant of integration
- variable 𝑥 is called variable of integration
- function 𝐹 is an antiderivative of 𝑓 and
- expression “dx” indicates what the variable of integration is.

The formula above is called an integration formula. By reversing known differentiation formulas, we can
obtain many integration formulas. Here are some examples:

Example 3:

𝑑
∫ 2𝑥𝑑𝑥 = x + c because 𝑑𝑥(𝑥 2 + 𝑐) = 2𝑥.
2
a)
𝑑
b) ∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝑐 because 𝑑𝑥 (−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝑐) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥.
𝑒 2𝑥 𝑑
c) ∫ 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2
+ c because 𝑑𝑥(x2 + c) = e2x.
1
d) .∫ 𝑥 2 +1 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐

B. Elementary Integration Rules

Theorem 1(Power Rule):

𝑥 𝑟+1
a. ∫ 𝑥 𝑟 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑟+1
+ c for r ≠-1 (2)

b. ∫ 𝑥 −1 𝑑𝑥 = ln |𝑥| + 𝑐 (3)

Proof:

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𝑑 1
a) [ xr+1] = xr
𝑑𝑥 𝑟+1

𝑑 𝑑
b) [ln x] = 1/x = 𝑑𝑥[ln (-x)]
𝑑𝑥

Example 4:

𝑥 5+1 𝑥6
a) ∫ 𝑥 5 𝑑𝑥 = 5+1
+𝑐 = 6
+𝑐
1
1 − +1
1 𝑥 2
b) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 =∫ 𝑥 −2 dx = 1 = 2√𝑥 + c
√𝑥 − +1
2

1 𝑥 −2+1 −1
c) ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = −2+1
+𝑐 =
𝑥
+ 𝑐

Theorem 2 (Basic Arithmetic Rules):

a. ∫ 𝑘𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = k ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 (4)

b. ∫[𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 (5)

c. ∫[𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 (6)

Proof:

𝑑 𝑑
a) [k∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥] = k 𝑑𝑥 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = kf(x)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
b) [∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥] = f(x) + g(x)
𝑑𝑥

𝑥6 𝑥4
Example 5: ∫[𝑥 5 − 2𝑥 3 ]𝑑𝑥 = − +c
6 2

The following integration technique is usually used to evaluate integrals whose integrands involve
composition of functions. Its proof is based on chain rule.

C. Substitution Rule

Theorem 3(Integration by Substitution):

Let 𝑓 and 𝑔 be functions such that 𝑔𝑜𝑓 and 𝑓 ′ are continuous. If 𝐺 is an antiderivative of 𝑔, then

∫ 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥))𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐺(𝑓(𝑥)) + 𝑐 (7)

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𝑑
Proof: [𝐺(𝑓(𝑥)) + 𝑐] = 𝐺 ′ (𝑓(𝑥))𝑓 ′ (𝑥) + 0 = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥))𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
𝑑𝑥

If we put u = f(x), then (7) reduces to

∫ 𝑔(𝑢)𝑑𝑢 = 𝐺(𝑢) + 𝑐

Example 6: Evaluate

√1+√𝑥
a) ∫ 3𝑥 2 (𝑥 3 + 5)9 𝑑𝑥 b) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥

𝑑𝑢
Solution (a): Let u = 𝑥 3 + 5. This implies 𝑑𝑥 = 3x2. Then du = 3x2dx

𝑢10 (𝑥 3 +5)10
Therefore ∫ 3𝑥 2 (𝑥 3 + 5)9 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(𝑥 3 + 5)9 3𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑢9 𝑑𝑢 = +c= +c
10 10

Solution (b): Let u = 1 +√𝑥. This implies that dx = 2√𝑥𝑑𝑢

√1+√𝑥 3
√𝑢 4
Thus ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 2√𝑥 𝑑𝑢 = 2∫ √𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = 3 (1 + √𝑥)2 + 𝑐
√𝑥 √𝑥

𝑓′ (𝒙)
Corollary: ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛|𝑓(𝑥)| + 𝑐.

Proof: Put 𝑢 = 𝑓(𝑥) and apply the substitution rule.

Example 7:

2𝑥
∫ 𝑥 2 −5 𝑑𝑥 = ln |x - 5| + c
2
a)
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
b) ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥𝑑𝑥= ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥=− ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
𝑑𝑥 = −𝑙𝑛|𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥| + 𝑐
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
c) ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥𝑑𝑥= ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥= 𝑙𝑛|𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥| + 𝑐

The following integral table presents the indefinite integrals of the six basic trigonometric functions.

S. No Integral Formula S. No Integral Formula

∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑑𝑥= −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 +𝑐 ∫ 𝑐𝑠𝑐𝑥𝑑𝑥= = −𝑙𝑛|𝑐𝑠𝑐𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥| + 𝑐
1 4
∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥𝑑𝑥= 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐 ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥𝑑𝑥= 𝑙𝑛|𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥| + 𝑐
2 5
∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥𝑑𝑥 = −𝑙𝑛|𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥| + 𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥𝑑𝑥= ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥= 𝑙𝑛|𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥| + 𝑐
3 6

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D. Integration by Parts

The following integration technique is used to evaluate certain integrals whose integrands
involve products of two functions. Its proof is based on the product rule for derivatives. Note that
a single function can also be considered as a product of functions, namely 1 and itself.

Theorem 4 (Integration by Parts):

If f and g have continuous derivatives, then

∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) − ∫ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 (8)

Proof: From the product rule of derivatives,

𝑑𝑦
[𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) + 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔′ (𝑥)
𝑑𝑥

Integrating both sides of the last equation gives (8).

If we put u = f(x) and v = g(x), then (8) reduces to

∫ 𝑢𝑑𝑣= 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑢

Example 8: Evaluate

a) ∫ 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥𝑑𝑥 b) ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥𝑑𝑥 c) ∫ 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥𝑑𝑥 d)∫ 𝑙𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution (a): Let u = x and dv= cosx dx. Then du = dx and v = sin x. (NB. v = sin x + c , in general.
But let us put c=0). Thus

∫ 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥𝑑𝑥 = xsinx− ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝑐

Solution (b): Let u = x2 and dv= cosx dx. Then du =2x dx and v = sin x. Thus

∫ 𝑥 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥𝑑𝑥 = x sinx−2 ∫ 𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑑𝑥

2
(*)

On the other hand if 𝑢 = 𝑥 and 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑑𝑥, we get that

∫ 𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑑𝑥 = −𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐 (**)

From * and ** we obtain

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∫ 𝑥 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥𝑑𝑥 = x sinx−2𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥+ c

2

Solution (c): Application of integration by parts with u = e-x and dv = cosx dx yields

∫ 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 − ∫ 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑑𝑥 (*)

Again, another application of integration bay parts gives

∫ 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑑𝑥 = −𝑒 −𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 − ∫ 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥𝑥𝑑𝑥 (**)

From the two partial results above we obtain

1 1
∫ 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 2 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 − 2 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝑐

Solution (d): Put u = ln 𝑥 and dv = dx and apply the technique of integration by parts. Then

∫ 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = x ln x − 𝑥 + 𝑐

E. Integration by Partial Fractions

𝑃(𝑥)
This technique is used to integrate rational functions. Let R(x) = be a rational function. Then
𝑄(𝑥)

∫ 𝑅(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 can be found as follows.

Step 1: If R(x) is an improper rational function, express it as

𝑟(𝑥)
R(x) = q(x) + 𝑄(𝑥)

𝑟(𝑥)
Where q(x) is a polynomial and 𝑄(𝑥) is a proper rational function. This can be achieved by using the long

division method. More precisely, if q(x) is the quotient and r(x) is the remainder of dividing P(x) by Q(x),
𝑟(𝑥)
then R(x) = q(x) + 𝑄(𝑥).

Thus

𝑟(𝑥)
∫ 𝑅(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑞(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑄(𝑥)

Step 2: Find the complete factorization of Q(x). The factors can be:

a) distinct linear factors : Q(x ) = (a1 x+b1)(a2x+b2)…(anx+bn)

b) distinct irreducible quadratic factors: Q(x)= (a1 x2+b1 x+ c1)(a2x2+b2x+c2)…(anx2+bnx+cn)

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c) repeated linear factors: Q(x ) = (ax+b)n

d) repeated irreducible quadratic factors: Q(x) = (ax2+bx+ c)n
e) a blend of two or more of the above.

𝑟(𝑥)
Step 3: Express the proper fraction 𝑄(𝑥) as a sum of partial fractions. A partial fraction is a rational
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟
function of the type , (𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐)𝑛 or . This can be achieved as
(𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟)𝑛 (𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐)𝑛

follows.

a) If Q(x ) = (a1 x+b1)(a2x+b2)…(anx+bn), there exist constants A1,…,An such that

𝑟(𝑥) 𝐴1 𝐴𝑛
= + ⋯+
𝑄(𝑥) 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛

b) If Q(x)= (a1 x2+b1 x+ c1)(a2x2+b2x+c2)…(anx2+bnx+cn), there exist constants A1,…,An and

B1,…,Bn such that

𝑟(𝑥) 𝐴1 𝑥 + 𝐵1 𝐴𝑛 𝑥 + 𝐵𝑛
= 2
+⋯+
𝑄(𝑥) (𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 x + c1 ) (𝑎𝑛 𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑛 x + cn )

c) If Q(x ) = (ax+b)n, there are constants A1,…,An such that

𝑟(𝑥) 𝐴1 𝐴𝑛
= + ⋯+
𝑄(𝑥) 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛

d) If Q(x) = (ax2+bx+ c)n, there exist constants A1,…,An and B1,…,Bn such that

𝑟(𝑥) 𝐴1 𝑥 + 𝐵1 𝐴𝑛 𝑥 + 𝐵𝑛
= + ⋯ +
𝑄(𝑥) (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏x + c) (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏x + c)𝑛

e) If the factors of Q are a blend of two or more of the above forms use a blend of the above
methods accordingly, as shown by examples below.

Step 4: Use steps 1 and 3 to finish finding∫ 𝑅(𝑥)𝑑𝑥.

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Example 9: Evaluate

𝑥3 𝑥 2 −1 𝑥 2 −2
a) ∫ 𝑥 2 +2𝑥+1 𝑑𝑥. b) ∫ 𝑥 3 +3𝑥+4 𝑑𝑥. c) ∫ 𝑥 3 +3𝑥+4 𝑑𝑥.

𝑥3 3𝑥+2
Solution (a): 𝑥 2 +2𝑥+1
= x−2 + 𝑥 2 +2𝑥+1

𝑥3 3𝑥 + 2
⇒∫ 2
𝑑𝑥 = ∫(𝑥 − 2)𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 1 𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 1

𝑥2 3𝑥+2
= − 2𝑥 +𝑐2 + ∫ 𝑥 2 +2𝑥+1 𝑑𝑥 (*)
2

3𝑥+2
Next, let us integrate ∫ 𝑥 2 +2𝑥+1 𝑑𝑥 .

𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 = (x + 1)2. Thus the factors are repeated linear.

3𝑥+2 𝐴1 2 𝐴 3𝑥+2 𝐴1 𝑥 +(𝐴1 + 𝐴2 )

Let
𝑥 2 +2𝑥+1
= 𝑥+1 + (𝑥+1) 2 . ⇒ = ⇒ 𝐴1 𝑥 + (𝐴1 + 𝐴2 ) = 3𝑥 + 2
𝑥 2 +2𝑥+1 (𝑥+1)2

𝐴1 = 3
⇒{
𝐴1 + 𝐴2 = 2

This implies 𝐴1 = 3 and 𝐴2 = −1.

3𝑥+2 3 −1 1
Therefore ∫ 𝑥 2 +2𝑥+1 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥+1 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (𝑥+1)2 𝑑𝑥 = 3𝑙𝑛|𝑥 + 1| + 𝑥+1 + 𝑐1 (**)

𝑥3 𝑥2 1
From (*) and (**), ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = − 2𝑥 + 3𝑙𝑛|𝑥 + 1| + 𝑥+1 + 𝑐
𝑥 2 +2𝑥+1 2

𝑥 2 −1 1 1 2𝑥−1
Answer (b): ∫ 𝑥 3 +3𝑥+4 𝑑𝑥 = 2 𝑙𝑛|4𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 16| − arctan ( ) + 𝑐.
√15 √15

Certain non-rational functions can also be integrated by the method of partial fraction.

𝑥+1
Example 10: Integrate ∫ √𝑥−1 𝑑𝑥.

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F. Trigonometric Integrals

Trigonometric integrals are integrals whose integrands are combinations (products) of trigonometric
functions. Methods for evaluating such integrals are described case by case as follows.

Type I: Integrals of the form ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑑𝑥, ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛 𝑥𝑑𝑥, 𝑒𝑡𝑐

The following reduction formulas may be used to evaluate these integrals of powers of trigonometric
functions.

−1 𝑛−1
1. ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛−2 𝑥𝑑𝑥
𝑛 𝑛
1 𝑛−1
2. ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛−2 𝑥𝑑𝑥
𝑛
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑛−1 𝑥
3. ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑛−1
− ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑛−2 𝑥𝑑𝑥
−𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑛−2 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥 𝑛−2
4. ∫ 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑛 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = + ∫ 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑛−2 𝑥𝑑𝑥
𝑛−1 𝑛−1
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑛−2 𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 𝑛−2
5. ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑛 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑛−1
− 𝑛−1 ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑛−2 𝑥𝑑𝑥
−𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑛−1 𝑥
6. ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑛 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = − ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑛−2 𝑥𝑑𝑥
𝑛−1

Derivation:

As an illustration we derive the reduction formula for sin as follows:

Thus,

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Example 11: Find

a) ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝑥𝑑𝑥
b) ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝑥𝑑𝑥
c) ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 4 𝑥𝑑𝑥

Solution:

−1 3−1
a) ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 3
𝑠𝑖𝑛3−1 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 3
∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛3−2 𝑥𝑑𝑥

−1 2
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + ∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
3 3

−1 2
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 - 3 cos 𝑥 + c
3

1 3−1
b) ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3−1 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 3
∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3−2 𝑥𝑑𝑥

1 2
= 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 3 ∫ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

1 2
= 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + c

𝑠𝑒𝑐 4−2 𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 4−2

c) ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 4 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 4−1
− 4−1 ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 4−2 𝑥𝑑𝑥
𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 2
=
3
- 3 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥+ c
1
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛3 𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐
3

Type II: Integrals of the form ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑚 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛 𝑥𝑑𝑥

case method Useful identities

n odd Substitute u = sin x 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 = 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥
m odd Substitute u = cos x 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 = 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥
1
m and n Reduce to the power of sine/cosine by making use of - 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = 2 sin 2𝑥
even appropriate trigonometric identities. 1
(1−cos 2𝑥)
- 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 = 2

1
- 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 = 2(1+cos 2𝑥)

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Type III: Integrals of the form ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑚 𝑥𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑛 𝑥𝑑𝑥

Case Method Useful Identities

n even Substitute u = tan x 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥
m odd Substitute u = sec x 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 −1
m and n even Reduce to the powers of sec 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 −1

Type IV: Integrals of the form ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑛 𝑥𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑚 𝑥𝑑𝑥

case method Useful identities

n even Substitute u = cot x 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝑥
m odd Substitute u = csc x 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝑥 = 1 − 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥
m even and n odd Reduce to the powers of csc 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝑥 = 1 − 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥

Example 12: Find

a) ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑥𝑑𝑥 c) ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥𝑑𝑥

b) ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝑥𝑑𝑥 d) ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑡 3 𝑥𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥𝑑𝑥

Solution:

𝑑𝑢
a) Let 𝑢 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 ⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 ⇒ 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥𝑑𝑥
𝑢4 𝑢6
∴ ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑢3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥𝑑𝑢 = ∫ 𝑢3 (1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 2 𝑥)𝑑𝑢 = ∫[𝑢3 − 𝑢5 ]𝑑𝑢 = − +𝑐
4 6

From the last result and the substitution 𝑢 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 we get that
𝑠𝑖𝑛4 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛6 𝑥
∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = = 4
−
6
+𝑐

Caution: In view of trigonometric identities, it is useful to notice that the final answer can take
𝑠𝑖𝑛4 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛5 𝑥
different forms. For example ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = = - + +𝑐.
4 𝑐

b) ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥[1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥]2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥𝑑𝑥 - 2 ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛4 𝑥𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛6 𝑥𝑑𝑥
1 1 1
= 16 (1 − 4 𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝑥) + 48 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 2𝑥 + 𝑐
c) Since the exponent of tan is odd and that of sec is even, so we apply the third guideline of table III.
∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ∫(𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 − 1)𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 3 𝑥𝑑𝑥 - ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥𝑑𝑥

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= ½ sec x tan x – ½ ln |sec x + tan x| + c

−1
d) ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑡 3 𝑥𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 4 𝑥 +𝑐
4

Type V: Integrals of the form ∫ sin 𝑎𝑥 sin 𝑏𝑥𝑑𝑥, ∫ cos 𝑎𝑥 cos 𝑏𝑥𝑑𝑥 and∫ sin 𝑎𝑥 cos 𝑏𝑥𝑑𝑥

Use the following identities.

 Sin A sin B = ½ cos(A-B)- ½ cos(A + B)

 Cos A Cos B = ½ cos (A+B)+ ½ cos(A - B)
 Sin A cos B = ½ sin(A-B)+ ½ sin(A + B)

The identities can easily be derived from the addition and subtraction laws of sine and cosine. For
example:

cos(A + B) = cos A cos B – sin A sin B

{
cos(A − B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B

⇒cos(A+B) + cos(A-B) = 2cos A cos B

⇒Cos A Cos B = ½ cos (A+B)+ ½ cos(A - B)

Example13: Integrate.

a) ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 5𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (−3𝑥)𝑑𝑥

b) ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3𝑥𝑑𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥−5𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
c) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥

Solution:
1 1
a) ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 5𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (−3𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥𝑑𝑥 + 2 ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠8𝑥𝑑𝑥
1 1
=4 ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑢𝑑𝑢 + 16 ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑧𝑑𝑧
1 1
= 4 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 + 16 𝑠𝑖𝑛8𝑥 + 𝑐
1 1
b) ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫ sin(−𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + 2 ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛5𝑥𝑑𝑥
1
=− ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑑𝑢 + 10 ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧𝑑𝑧
1
= cos 𝑥 - 10 𝑐𝑜𝑠5𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥−5𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
c) ∫
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
𝑑𝑥

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Type VI: Other Trigonometric Integrals

Trigonometric integrals that are not of the forms discussed above can often be simplified by expressing
the integrands in terms of sines and cosines and then using the methods already discussed.

Example 14: Evaluate∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛5 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

1 1
Answer: ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛5 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2 cos−2 x + 2ln|cosx| − cos2 x + c
2

G. Integration by Trigonometric Substitutions

There are two kinds of substitution in integration theory.

a) substitution of a function by a variable : substitute 𝑓(𝑥) by 𝑢

b) Substitution of a variable by a function: substitute 𝑥 by 𝑔(𝑢).

From (b), we see that ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑔(𝑢))𝑔′ (𝑢)𝑑𝑢

The function g used in (b) is usually a trigonometric function and sometimes a hyperbolic function.

Trigonometric substitution is used specially for integrals containing expressions of the type: √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 ,
√𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 , √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 and √𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑. The method used for each case is summarized in the
following table.

Case Method
√𝑥 2 − 𝑎 2
Substitute 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑢;
√𝑎 2 − 𝑥2
Substitute 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑢
√𝑥 2 + 𝑎2
Substitute 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑢

√𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑. Reduce to any one of the above forms by using completing the
square method

Example 15: Evaluate

9 √𝑥 2 −9+𝑥 𝑥√𝑥 2 −9
a) ∫ √𝑥 2 − 9 𝑑𝑥 Answer: − 𝑙𝑛 |
2 3
|+ 2 + 𝑐

9 𝑥 𝑥√9−𝑥 2
b) ∫ √9 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 Answer: 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (3) + +𝑐
2

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1 1
c) ∫ √4+16𝑥2 𝑑𝑥 Answer: 𝑙𝑛|√4𝑥 2 + 1 + 2𝑥| + 𝑐
4

√9−𝑥 2 −√9−𝑥 2 𝑥
d) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 Answer: − 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 3 + c
𝑥2 𝑥

1
e) ∫ √𝑥 2 +2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 Answer: 𝑙𝑛|𝑥 + 1 + √𝑥 2 + 2𝑥| + c

Note: Some integrals having none of the above forms can be solved by similar methods after an
appropriate substitution of variables is made.

𝑥
Example 16: ∫ 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥+4

Solution: Put x = u2.

3
2(𝑥+4)2
Answer: − 8√𝑥 + 4 +c
3

H. Concluding Remark

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Exercise 5.1:

1. Integrate.
a) ∫ 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 c) ∫ 𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑡 𝑑𝑡
b) ∫ 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥 d) ∫(𝑙𝑛𝑥)4 𝑑𝑥
2. Integrate.
1
a) ∫ 𝑥 4 +1 𝑑𝑥.
2𝑟
b) ∫ 𝑟3 +1 𝑑𝑟
𝑒𝑥
c) ∫ 1−𝑒 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥

d)
3. Justify the integration formula for 𝑠𝑒𝑐 and 𝑐𝑠𝑐 functions.
4. Derive the reduction formulas for∫ cos 𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ,∫ tan𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥, ∫ csc 𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥, ∫ sec 𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 and
∫ cot 𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 .
5.

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5.2 Definite Integrals

A. Motivation (Area Problem)

Let 𝑅 be a region in xy-plane bounded by the graph of a continuous nonnegative function 𝑓 from
above, the x- axis from below, the line 𝑥 = 𝑎 from left and the line 𝑥 = 𝑏 from right. Such a
region is called the region below the graph of f over [a, b]. Our aim is to find the area of 𝑅, 𝑎(𝑅).

Figure 1: The Area Problem

Since R can have irregular shape, so the traditional geometrical methods cannot be used to find
𝑎(𝑅). We can estimate 𝑎(𝑅) as follows.

1. Divide [𝑎, 𝑏] into n subintervals [𝑥0 , 𝑥1 ], [𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ], … , [𝑥𝑛−1 , 𝑥𝑛 ] where 𝑎 = 𝑥0 < … <
𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏. We denote 𝐼𝑘 : = [𝑥𝑘−1 , 𝑥𝑘 ] 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆𝑥𝑘 : = 𝑥𝑘 – 𝑥𝑘−1
2. Let t1 ∈ [𝑥0 , 𝑥1 ], t2 ∈ [𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ],…, tk ∈ [𝑥𝑛−1 , 𝑥𝑛 ].
3. Then 𝑎(𝑅) ≈∑𝑛𝑘=1 𝑓(𝑡𝑘 )∆𝑥𝑘 . In particular if for each k, f(tk)is the maximum value of f on Ik
,then we get an over estimation of a(R). Similarly if for each k, f(tk)is the minimum value of f
on Ik we get an under estimation of a(R).

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Rectangle with width

∆𝑥𝑘 ≔ 𝑥𝑘 − 𝑥𝑘−1 and
height𝑓(𝑡𝑘 )

𝑥𝑘−1 𝑥𝑘
𝑡𝑘 Figure 2: Riemann Sum

B. The Definition of Definite Integral

Definition 1:

a) Any set P: = {x0, x1, x2,…,xn-1, xn} is called a partition of [𝑎, 𝑏] if a = x0 < …<xn=b. In other
words, any finite subset of [a, b] that contains 𝑎 and 𝑏 is called a partition of [𝑎, 𝑏].

b) The partition P is called a regular partition if ∆x1=∆x2=….=∆xn.

c) For two partitions P and Q of [a, b], if P ⊆Q then Q is called a refinement of P.

d) For a partition P: = { x0, x1, x2,…,xn-1, xn} of [a, b], the number ‖𝑃‖:= max {∆x1,….,∆xn}is
called the norm of P.

e) Let P: = { x0, x1, x2,…,xn-1, xn} be a partition of [a, b]. Let t1 ∈ [𝑥0 , 𝑥1 ], t2 ∈ [𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ],…,
tk ∈ [𝑥𝑛−1 , 𝑥𝑛 ]. The set T: = {t1,…,tn} is called a selection of P.

Note that if ‖𝑃‖ approaches to 0 , then 𝑛 approaches infinity. But the converse is not true.

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Definition 2: Let 𝑓 be any function (not necessarily continuous or nonnegative) defined on [𝑎, 𝑏].
Let 𝑃: = { x0, x1, x2,…,xn-1, xn} be a partition of [a, b] and T: = {t1,…,tn} be a selection of P. Let
𝑚𝑘 and Mk be the maximum value and the minimum value of f on {xk-1, xk} respectively, i.e, 𝑀𝑘 ≔
max𝑥𝑘−1 ≤𝑥≤𝑥𝑘 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑚𝑘 ≔ min𝑥𝑘−1 ≤𝑥≤𝑥𝑘 𝑓(𝑥).

The sum

a. 𝑅𝑓 (𝑃; 𝑇): = ∑𝑛𝑘=1 𝑓(𝑡𝑘 )∆𝑥𝑘 is called the Riemann sum of f associated with P and T.

b. 𝐿𝑓 (𝑃): = ∑𝑛𝑘=1 𝑚𝑘 ∆𝑥𝑘 is called the lower sum of f associated with P.

c. 𝑈𝑓 (𝑃): = ∑𝑛𝑘=1 𝑀𝑘 ∆𝑥𝑘 is called the upper sum of f associated with P.

Note: If f is not continuous on [a, b], then Mk and mk may not exist. If 𝑓 is bounded on [a, b] we
modify the definitions Mk and mk as 𝑀𝑘 = Sup𝑥𝑘−1 ≤𝑥≤𝑥𝑘 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑚𝑘 ≔ inf𝑥𝑘−1 ≤𝑥≤𝑥𝑘 𝑓(𝑥).

Properties

a) L (P) ≤ U (P) for any partition of P.

b) L (P)≤ U (Q) for any partitions P and Q of [a, b].
c) L (P) ≤ L (Q) for partitions P and Q where Q is a refinement of P.
d) U (P) ≥ U(Q) for partitions P and Q where Q is a refinement of P.

1 3 5 7
Example 1: Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 ∈ [0,4], 𝑃1 = {,1,2,3,4}, 𝑃2 = {0, 2 , 1, 2 , 2, 2 , 3, 2 , 4},
1 3 5 7
T={2 , 2 , 2 , 2}.

Find

a) 𝐿𝑓 (𝑃1 ), 𝑈𝑓 (𝑃1 ) and 𝑅𝑓 (𝑃1 ; 𝑇).

b) 𝐿𝑓 (𝑃2 ) and 𝑈(𝑃2 )

Solution:

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a) Note that for 𝑃1 , ∆x1=∆x2.=∆x3= ∆x4 = 1 ; m1 = f(0) = 0, m2 = f(1)=1, m3 = f(2) = 4 and

m4 = f(3)=9 and M1 = f(1) = 1, M2 = f(2)=2, M3 = f(3) = 9 and M4 = f(4)=16.Thus
𝐿𝑓 (𝑃1 ) = ∑4𝑘=1 𝑚𝑘 ∆𝑥𝑘 = 0(1) + 1(1) + 4(1) + 9(1) = 14
𝑈(𝑃1 ) = ∑4𝑘=1 𝑀𝑘 ∆𝑥𝑘 = 1(1) + 4(1) + 9(1) + 16(1) = 30
1 3 5 7 1 9
𝑅𝑓 (𝑃1 ; 𝑇) = ∑4𝑘=1 𝑓(𝑡𝑘 )∆𝑥𝑘 = 𝑓 ( ) (1) + 𝑓 ( ) (1) + 𝑓 ( ) (1) + 𝑓 ( ) (1) = + +
2 2 2 2 4 4
25 49
+ = 21.
4 4

b) For 𝑃2 , we have the following:

∆x1=∆x2.=∆x3= ∆x4 = ½ ;
1 3 9 5 25
m1 = f(0) = 0, m2 = f(2) = ¼ , m3 = f(1)=1, m4 = 𝑓(2) = 4 , m5 = f(2) = 4 , m6 = f(2)= 4
,
7 49
m7 = f(3) = 9 and m8 = f(2)= 4
and
1 3 9 5 25
M1 = f(2) = ¼ , M2 = f(1)=1, M3= 𝑓(2) = 4 , M4 = f(2) = 4 , M5= f(2)= 4
, M6 = f(3) = 9 ,
7 49
M7 = f(2)= 4
and M8= f(4)= 16.

Hence,
1 1 9 25 49
𝐿𝑓 (𝑃2 ) = ∑8𝑘=1 𝑚𝑘 ∆𝑥𝑘 = (2)[0 + 4 + 1 + 4 + 4 + 4
+9+ 4
] = 17.5
1 1 9 25 49
𝑈𝑓 (𝑃2 ) = ∑8𝑘=1 𝑀𝑘 ∆𝑥𝑘 = (2)[4 + 1 + 4 + 4 + 4
+9+ 4
+ 16] = 25.5

Note: In the case of the plane region R described earlier, it can be proved that

As ||P|| approaches 0, R f (P; T) approaches area(R).

In the language of limits, the statement in the box above can be written as

lim||𝑃||→0 𝑅(𝑃; 𝑇)= a(R)

The limit above is used to represent not only areas of plane regions but also a number of other
quantities. For example, it can be used to solve speed-distance problem. Because of its frequent
application it is given a special name. It is called the definite integral of f from a to b (or over [a, b])
𝑏
and it is denoted by ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥.

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Definition 3: Let 𝑓 be a function defined on [𝑎, 𝑏]. The definite integral of f from a to b, written
𝑏
∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥, is defined to be

𝑏
∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥: = lim||𝑃||→0 𝑅(𝑃; 𝑇);

where 𝑃 is a partition of [𝑎, 𝑏] and 𝑇 is a selection of 𝑃.

Remarks:

1. The precise meaning of the limit that defines the definite integral is as follows:
𝑏
" ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐼" means that , given any ∈> 0 there exists a 𝛿 > 0 such that for every
partition P of [a, b] and every selection T of P if ‖𝑃‖ < 𝛿, then |R f (P; T) – 𝐼 | < ∈ ,no
matter how P and T are chosen.
𝑏
2. The component parts of the expression" ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 " have the following names/ roles/:
 a is called lower limit of integration;
 b is called upper limit of integration;
 [a, b] is called interval of integration;
 f is called integrand;
 𝑑𝑥 shows that x is the variable of integration and
 the sign ∫ is elongated “S” and it is called integral sign
3. Definite integral need not be area. But if f is a continuous nonnegative function defined on
[a, b], then we can interpret the definite integral of f over [a, b] as the area of the region below
the graph of f over [a, b].
4. The variable of integration is called a dummy variable, since it does not matter what letter to
use. Thus,
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑢)𝑑𝑢 = ⋯

5. There are many equivalent (alternative) definitions (formulations) for the definite integral.
One of these is given below.

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Theorem 1 [definite integral as limit of a sequence]: Let {𝑃𝑛 }∞

𝑛=1 be a sequence of partitions of

[𝑎, 𝑏] such that ‖𝑃𝑛 ‖ → 0 as 𝑛 → ∞, f be a function defined on [𝑎, 𝑏] and {𝑅𝑛 }∞

𝑛=1 be a sequence
𝑏
of the Riemann sums of f associated with {𝑃𝑛 }∞
𝑛=1 . Then ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = lim𝑛→∞ 𝑅𝑛

Example 2: compute the following definite integrals by using the (alternative) definition.

𝑏 𝑏
a) ∫𝑎 𝑐𝑑𝑥 c) ∫𝑎 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑏 𝑏
b) ∫𝑎 𝑥𝑑𝑥 d) ∫𝑎 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Definition 4: Let a and b be real numbers with a < b. We define

𝑎
a) ∫𝑎 𝑓𝑑𝑥 = 0

𝑎 𝑏
b) ∫𝑏 𝑓𝑑𝑥 = − ∫𝑎 𝑓𝑑𝑥

C. Existence

The limit that defines the definite integral of f may not exist. If it exists, we say 𝑓 is Riemann integrable
on [𝑎, 𝑏].

Theorem 2 [Existence of Definite Integral /Integrability of a function/]:

If 𝑓 is continuous on [𝑎, 𝑏], then f is integrable on [𝑎, 𝑏].
Remark: The converse of the above theorem is not true, in general.

D. Properties

Theorem 3 [Rules of Definite Integrals]

Assume that the indicated integrals of f and g exist. Then

𝑏 𝑏
a. .∫𝑎 𝑘𝑓𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘 ∫𝑎 𝑓𝑑𝑥 (Constant Multiple Rule)

𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
b. ∫𝑎 [𝑓 + 𝑔]𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓𝑑𝑥 +∫𝑎 𝑔𝑑𝑥 (Sum Rule)

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𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
c. ∫𝑎 [𝑓 − 𝑔]𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓𝑑𝑥 - ∫𝑎 𝑔𝑑𝑥 (Difference Rule)

d. For any numbers a, b and c if 𝑎 ≤ 𝑏 ≤ 𝑐, then

𝑐 𝑏 𝑐
∫𝑎 𝑓𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓𝑑𝑥 +∫𝑏 𝑓𝑑𝑥 (Interval Union Property)

e. If 𝑚 & 𝑀are constants and 𝑚 ≤ 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 𝑀 for all 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏], then

𝑏
𝑚(𝑏 − 𝑎) ≤ ∫𝑎 𝑓𝑑𝑥 ≤ 𝑀(𝑏 − 𝑎) (Comparison property)

𝑏 𝑏
f. If 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 𝑔(𝑥) on [𝑎, 𝑏], then ∫𝑎 𝑓𝑑𝑥 ≥ ∫𝑎 𝑔𝑑𝑥 . (Domination Property)

g. If 𝑓 is continuous on [𝑎, 𝑏], then ∃𝑐 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏] such that

𝑏
𝑓(𝑐)(𝑏 − 𝑎) = ∫𝑎 𝑓𝑑𝑥 (Mean Value Theorem for Integral)

The number 𝑓(𝑐) in the above result is called the average value of f on [𝑎, 𝑏].

Proof: The rigorous proofs of these rules are omitted. But the following intuitive reasoning can
enhance understanding the comparison and interval addition rules.

Intuitive proof of Comparison property:

Figure 3: Comparison property of Definite Integrals

Let Am, Af and AM denote the areas of the regions under the curves y=m, y=f(x) and y=M over [a,
b]. Then Am ≤ A f ≤ A M. This implies that

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𝑏
𝑚(𝑏 − 𝑎) ≤ ∫𝑎 𝑓 ≤ 𝑀(𝑏 − 𝑎).

Intuitive proof of Interval union property:

Figure 4: Interval union property of Definite Integrals

𝑏
The definite integral ∫𝑎 𝑓𝑑𝑥 gives us the area under the curve from a to b,
𝑐 𝑐
∫𝑎 𝑓𝑑𝑥 gives us the area under the curve from a to c and ∫𝑏 𝑓𝑑𝑥 gives us the
area under the curve from b to c, as shown. The area under the curve from a
to c is the sum of area under the curve from a to b plus area under the curve
from b to c. Hence,
𝑐 𝑏 𝑐
∫𝑎 𝑓𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓𝑑𝑥 +∫𝑏 𝑓𝑑𝑥

Example 3:

𝜋
a) Explain why ∫−𝜋 √1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝑥𝑑𝑥 exist.
𝜋
b) Show by using the comparison property that 0 ≤ ∫−𝜋 √1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝑥𝑑𝑥 ≤ 2√2
2
c) Evaluate ∫−1 2|𝑥|𝑑𝑥
d) Find the average value of f(x) = x2 on [0, 2].

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E. Evaluation of Definite Integrals: The Fundamental Theorems of Calculus

Up to now, we have evaluated definite integrals by means of limits. The second fundamental
theorem of calculus is an alternative and the most powerful method for evaluating definite integrals.
Its proof is based on another theorem, called the first fundamental theorem of calculus.

Theorem 4 [The First Fundamental Theorem of Calculus]: If f is continuous on [a, b], then
𝑥
the function G(x):=∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 , x ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏], is an antiderivative of f. Thus every continuous function
on a closed bounded interval has an antiderivative.

Example 4: Differentiate the following functions.

𝑥
a) G(x) =∫𝑎 𝑡 sin( 𝑡 3 )𝑑𝑡 ans. 𝐺 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑥 sin( 𝑥 3 )
𝑥2
b) 𝐹(𝑥) = ∫0 𝑡 sin( 𝑡 3 )𝑑𝑡 ans. 𝐹 ′ (𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 sin( 𝑥 6 )
2𝑦
c) F(y) =∫𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 ans. 𝐹 ′ (𝑦) = 2 cos(2𝑦) − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦)

𝑑 𝑥
Example 5: Find the value of ∫ √𝑡 2 + 5 𝑑𝑡 at x = 2.
𝑑𝑥 3
Ans. 3

Theorem 5[The Second Fundamental theorem of Calculus]:

If 𝑓 is continuous on [𝑎, 𝑏] and 𝐹 is an antiderivative of 𝑓, then

𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎)
𝑎

𝑥
Proof: By the first fundamental theorem of calculus, the function G(x):=∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 is an
antiderivative of f. By hypothesis, F is also an antiderivative of f. By a consequence of the mean
value theorem, there is a constant c such that F(x) = G(x) + c, 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏].

Now,

𝑏 𝑎 𝑏
𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎) = 𝐺(𝑏) + 𝑐 − 𝐺(𝑎) − 𝑐 = G (b) – G (a) = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡-∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡.
∎

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𝑏
Notation: 𝐹(𝑥) | = 𝐹 (𝑏) – 𝐹 (𝑎)
𝑎

Note: The fundamental theorems of calculus relate (unify) the two core topics of calculus
(derivatives and integrals). The second fundamental theorem reduces the problem of finding definite
integrals to that of finding indefinite integrals. Since indefinite integrals (antiderivatives) arose from
slope problem and definite integrals arose from area problem and these two geometric problems are
seemingly unrelated, so the fundamental theorems of calculus are amazing results.

Historical Note: The geometric problems that motivated the development of the integral calculus
(determination of lengths, areas, and volumes) arose in the ancient civilizations of northern Africa
and they took only practical (concrete) approach at the beginning. But a more abstract approach was
taken later by Greek philosophers. In fact, Eudoxus (around 400 B.C.) and Archimedes (250 B.C.)
formulated ideas of integration as we know it today. Originally, integral calculus developed
independently and without an obvious connection to differential calculus. The calculus became a
“whole” in the last part of the seventeenth century when Isaac Barrow, Isaac Newton, and Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz (with help from others) discovered that the integral of a function could be found
by asking what was differentiated to obtain that function.
Example 6: Evaluate the following definite integrals.

5 2
a) ∫2 𝑥 − 3 𝑑𝑥
3 3
ans. 3[ √5 − √2]
4 𝑒 2√𝑥
b) ∫1 𝑑𝑥 ans. 𝑒 4 − 𝑒 2
√𝑥
4
c) ∫−2|𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3| 𝑑𝑥

Example 7: Explain why each of the following integrals cannot be evaluated by means of the
second fundamental theorem of calculus.

1 2
a) ∫−1 𝑥 −3 𝑑𝑥
4 2
b) ∫1 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Answer. The integrand in (a) is not continuous on [-1, 1], so the second fundamental theorem
2
does not apply to it. The indefinite integral ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 can not be evaluated by the integration
techniques covered so far.

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Exercises 5.2:

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5.3 Improper Integrals

𝑏
So far we have defined ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 only if the interval of integration [a, b] is a closed bounded
interval and we can apply the second fundamental theorem of calculus to evaluate this integral only
if the integrand 𝑓 is a continuous function on [𝑎, 𝑏]. Such functions are bounded and such intervals
are also bounded. Definite integrals of bounded functions over bounded intervals are called proper
integrals. But certain applications lead to the formulation of definite integrals in which either the
interval of integration is unbounded or the integrand is unbounded (has infinite discontinuity at
some points of the interval of integration). Such integrals are called improper integrals. A function 𝑓
is said to be bounded on an interval 𝐼 if there is a constant M such that |𝑓(𝑥)| ≤ 𝑀 for all x in 𝐼. If a
function is not bounded on 𝐼 , then there exists some c in 𝐼 at which 𝑓 has an infinite discontinuity.
A function 𝑓 is said to have an infinite discontinuity at a point 𝑐 in its domain if lim𝑥→𝑐+ 𝑓(𝑥) = ±∞
or lim𝑥→𝑐− 𝑓(𝑥) = ±∞. In this case, we also say f is unbounded at 𝑐.

𝑏
Definition 1: The integral ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 is called an improper integral if
1. [𝑎, 𝑏] is an unbounded interval (i.e., 𝑎 or 𝑏 is infinity ) or
2. f (x) is unbounded on [𝑎, 𝑏] (i.e., 𝑓 has an infinite discontinuity at one or more points of
[𝑎, 𝑏])
We call integrals of the form (1) and (2) improper integrals of the first and second kinds, respectively.
Integrals with both conditions (1) and (2) are called improper integrals of the third kind

A. Improper Integrals with Unbounded Intervals (Infinite Limits) of Integration

Definition 2:
a. If f is continuous on [a, ∞) , we define
∞ 𝑡
∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥: = lim𝑡→∞ ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ,
provided that the limit exists.
b. If f is continuous on (−∞, 𝑏] , we define
𝑏 𝑏
∫−∞ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥: = lim𝑡→−∞ ∫𝑡 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ,
provided that the limit exists
c. If f is continuous on (-∞, ∞) and a is any real number, we define

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∞ 𝑎 𝑡
∫−∞ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥: = lim𝑡→−∞ ∫𝑡 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + lim𝑡→∞ ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ,
provided that the limits exist.
The improper integrals above are said to be convergent if the limits defining them exist and divergent
otherwise.
Example 1: Evaluate
∞1
a) ∫1 𝑑𝑥 ans. divergent
𝑥
∞ 1
b) ∫1 𝑑𝑥 ans. 1
𝑥2
∞ 1
c) ∫−∞ 𝑑𝑥 ans. 𝜋
1+ 𝑥 2
𝑥2
∞ 1
d) ∫−∞ 𝑒 −( 2 ) 𝑑𝑥 ans. 1
√2𝜋

B. Improper Integrals with Unbounded Integrands(Infinite Discontinuities)

Definition 3:
a. If 𝑓 is continuous on [a, 𝑏) and unbounded at 𝑏, we define
𝑏 𝑡
∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥: = lim𝑡→𝑏− ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ,
provided that the limit exists
b. If 𝑓 is continuous on (𝑎, 𝑏] and unbounded at 𝑎, we define
𝑏 𝑏
∫−∞ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥: = lim𝑡→𝑎+ ∫𝑡 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ,
provided that the limit exists
c. If 𝑓 is continuous on [a, 𝑐) ∪ (𝑐, 𝑏] and unbounded at 𝑐 , we define
𝑏 𝑡 𝑏
∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥: = lim𝑡→𝑐− ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + lim𝑡→𝑐+ ∫𝑡 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ,
provided that the limits exist.
The improper integrals above are said to be convergent if the corresponding limits exist and divergent
otherwise.

Note: The above definition also applies to integrals involving integrands with finite discontinuities at
𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐. But such integrals are not considered as improper integrals.

Example 2: Evaluate

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11
a) ∫0 𝑑𝑥 ans. divergent
𝑥
1 1
b) ∫0 𝑑𝑥 ans. 2
√𝑥
2 1
c) ∫0 𝑑𝑥 ans. divergent
(𝑥−1)2

Caution: If you evaluate an improper integral with infinite discontinuity by direct use of the second
fundamental theorem of calculus (i.e., without noticing that it is an improper integral), your result
may be correct by chance but the method is incorrect.

C. Other Improper Integrals

An integral can have both an infinite interval of integration and a discontinuous integrand. Such
improper integrals can be evaluated by applying the definitions in subsections (A) and (B) above
simultaneously.
∞ 1 𝜋
Example 3: Evaluate ∫1 𝑑𝑥 ans. 2
𝑥√𝑥 2 −1

Remark: Sometimes it is impossible to find the exact value of an improper integral and yet it is
important to know whether it is convergent or divergent. The following convergence theorem is
useful in addressing such cases.

Theorem 1 (Direct comparison test for improper integrals of first kind): Let 𝑓 and 𝑔 be
continuous on [𝑎, ∞) with 𝑓 ≥ 𝑔.

∞ ∞
a. If ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) is convergent, then ∫𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) is convergent.

∞ ∞
b. If ∫𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) is divergent, then ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) is divergent.

∞ 2
Example 4: Determine if the improper integral ∫1 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥 converges or diverges.

2
Solution: Note that 𝑒 −𝑥 ≤ 𝑒 −𝑥 on [1,∞) and both functions are continuous. Note also that
∞ 𝑡 ∞
∫1 𝑒 −𝑥 = lim𝑡→∞ ∫1 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 1. ⟹ ∫1 𝑒 −𝑥 is convergent and hence by the comparison test
∞ 2
∫1 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥 converges.

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Exercise 5.3:

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5.4 Applications of Integrals

Major mathematical and physical applications of integrals are summarized in the following table.

Mathematical Applications Physical Applications

Computation of Computation of:
- areas of plane regions, - The work done by a force
- volumes of solid figures, - Moments, mass and center of mass of a
- surface areas of solid figures and lamina
- lengths of curves. - distance-velocity-acceleration problems
- etc.

For each application, the derivation of an integral formula for a quantity 𝐼 proceeds as follows. First,
depending on the properties of the quantity, we find a function 𝑓 continuous on an interval [𝑎, 𝑏] such that
𝐼 ≈ ∑𝑛𝑘=1 𝑓(𝑡𝑘 )∆𝑡𝑘 . Second, we turn the approximation (the sum) into an integral.

5.4.1 Area

Integration can be used to find the area of a region between two or more curves.

Definition (Area): Let 𝑓 and 𝑔 be continuous functions on [𝑎, 𝑏]. Let 𝑅 be the region bounded by the
graphs of 𝑓 and 𝑔 and by the lines 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏 (assume that 𝑎 < 𝑏). Then 𝑅 is called the region between
the graphs of f and g on [𝑎, 𝑏] and the area 𝐴 of 𝑅 is defined by:

𝑏
𝐴: = ∫𝑎 |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)|𝑑𝑥

Derivation:

Remarks:

a) If 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 0 ∀𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏] and 𝑔(𝑥) = 0∀𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏], then

𝑏

𝐴: = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎

In this case 𝑅 is called the region under the graph of f on [𝑎, 𝑏].

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b) If 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 0 ∀𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏] and 𝑔(𝑥) = 0∀𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏], then

𝑏

𝐴: = ∫ −𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎

c) If 𝑔(𝑥) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥) ∀𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏] , then

𝑏

𝐴: = ∫[𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥
𝑎

d) If the graphs of 𝑓 and 𝑔 intersect exactly twice (say at 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏), then the region between the
graphs of f and g on [𝑎, 𝑏] is simply called the region between the graphs of f and g. (i.e., the phrase “on [𝑎, 𝑏]”
can be dropped).
e) We can also reverse the roles of 𝑥 and 𝑦 and integrate with respect to 𝑦 .

1
Example 1: Find the area of the region between the graphs of 𝑦 = 𝑥 and 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 on[1,2]. Answer: 1

Example 2: Determine the area of the region enclosed by 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 and 𝑦 = √𝑥. Answer: 1/3

Example 3: Determine the area A of the region between the graphs of𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑥) = cos 𝑥 on
[0, 2𝜋]. Answer: 4√2

𝑥2 𝑦2
Example 4: Prove that area A of the region enclosed by the ellipse 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 = 1. Answer: 𝜋𝑎𝑏

64
Example 5: Determine the area of the region bounded by 𝑥 = −𝑦 2 + 10 and 𝑥 = (𝑦 − 2)2 . Answer:
3

5.4.2 Volume

Method I: The Cross sectional area method

This is also called the slicing method.

Definition (volume): The Cross sectional area method:

Suppose a solid region 𝐷 has a continuous cross sectional area 𝐴(𝑥) for 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏. Then the volume 𝑉 of 𝐷
is defined by:

𝑏
𝑉: = ∫𝑎 𝐴(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

Derivation:

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Remarks:

a) We can also reverse the roles of 𝑥 and 𝑦 and integrate with respect to 𝑦 by:

𝑉: = ∫ 𝐴(𝑦)𝑑𝑦
𝑐

b) When the graph of a continuous, nonnegative function 𝑓 on [𝑎, 𝑏] is revolved about the x axis, it
generates a solid region D having circular cross sections (circular disks). The volume V of D is given
by
𝑏

𝑉: = ∫ 𝜋[𝑓(𝑥)]2 𝑑𝑥
𝑎

This method of finding voulmes is called the 𝒊𝒔𝒄 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒅 , because the cross sections are disks.

c) Let 𝑓&𝑔 be functions such that 𝑔(𝑥) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥) ∀𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏]. The volume 𝑉 of the solid generated by
revolving the region between the graphs of 𝑓 and𝑔 on [𝑎, 𝑏] is given by
𝑏

𝑉: = ∫ 𝜋[𝑓 2 (𝑥) − 𝑔2 (𝑥)]𝑑𝑥

𝑎

When g is different from 0, this method of finding volumes is called the 𝒘𝒂𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒓 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒅 ,
because the cross sections resemble washers.

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d) The disk and washer methods can be used whether the axis of revolution is x axis or not. (See
examples 3 and 4).

1
Example 1: Prove that the volume of a right circular cone with radius r and height h is 𝑉 = 3 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ.

Solution: Let the vertex of the cone be at the origin and the center of the base be at (h,0), as shown. Let the
radius of the cross section at x be 𝑟′.

𝑟′ 𝑥 2 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑥 2
From triangle similarity, 𝑟
= ℎ. This implies 𝐴(𝑥) = 𝜋𝑟 ′ = ℎ2
.

𝑏 ℎ 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑥 2 1
Thus 𝑉 = ∫𝑎 𝐴(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 ℎ2
𝑑𝑥 = 3 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ //

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Example 2: Find the volume of the solid with the following information: The base of the solid is a circle
16
with radius 1, and the cross sections perpendicular to a fixed diameter of the base are squares. Ans.
3

Example 3[finding volume using disk method and horizontal axis of rotation]: Find the volume of the
1
solid formed by revolving the curve, = 𝑥 , from 𝑥 = 1 to 𝑥 = 2, around the x-axis.

π
Answer: 2

Example 3[finding volume using disk method and vertical axis of rotation]: Find the volume of the
1
solid formed by revolving the curve, = 𝑥 , from 𝑥 = 1 to 𝑥 = 2, around the y-axis.

Answer: π

Example 5[finding volume using washer method and horizontal axis of rotation]: Find the volume of
the solid formed by rotating the region bounded by 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 2and 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 1 about the x-axis.

104
Answer: π
15

Example 6[finding volume using washer method and vertical axis of rotation]: Use the washer method
to find the volume of the solid formed by rotating the triangular region with vertices
10
at (1,1),(1,1), (2,1)(2,1) and (2,3)(2,3) about the y-axis. Answer: 3
π

Method II: The cylindrical shell method

This method is also called the shell method, for brevity.

The shell method (version 1): Let 𝑓 be a continuous nonnegative function on [𝑎, 𝑏], with a≥ 0 .Then the
volume 𝑉 of the solid 𝐷 obtained by revolving about y axis the region R between the graph of 𝑓 and the x
axis on [a, b] is given by:

𝑏
𝑉: = ∫𝑎 2𝜋𝑥𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

The shell method (version 2): Let 𝑓 and 𝑔 be continuous on [𝑎, 𝑏], with a≥ 0 and suppose that 𝑔(𝑥) ≤
𝑓(𝑥) for ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏 . let 𝑅 be the region between the graphs of 𝑓 and 𝑔 on [𝑎, 𝑏]. Then the volume 𝑉 of the
solid 𝐷 obtained by revolving 𝑅 about the 𝑦 axis is given by:

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𝑏
𝑉: = ∫𝑎 2𝜋𝑥[𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥

Remarks:

a) In general, the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region between the graph of 𝑓 and the
x axis about any vertical line is given by

𝑉: = ∫ 2𝜋(𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠)(𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡)𝑑𝑥

𝑎

b) The shell method can also be used when the axis of revolution is horizontal. (See examples 7 and 8).
c) While the cross sectional area method can be applied to other solids, the shell method applies only to
solids of revolution.
d) The volumes of certain solids of revolution can be evaluated by both washer and shell method. But
one method could be more difficult than another.

Example 7 [finding volume using shell method and rotation about y axis]: Find the volume of the solid
formed by revolving the region bounded by 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥) and the x-axis from 𝑥 = 0 to 𝑥 = 𝜋 about the y-
axis. Answer: 2𝜋 2

Example 8 [finding volume using shell method and rotation about x axis]: Find the volume of the
solid formed by rotating the triangular region determined by the points (0,1), (1,1) and (1,3) about the x axis .

Example 9[Finding volume using shell method and vertical axis of rotation]: Find the volume of the
solid formed by rotating the triangular region determined by the points (0,1), (1,1) and (1,3) about) the
line 𝑥 = 3.

Example 10 [shell method with two functions of x]: Let R be the region between the graphs of the
equations 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 and 𝑦 = 2𝑥 on [0, 2]. Find the volume V of the solid generated by revolving R about the
X axis by

a) the washer method

b) the shell method

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Answer: 𝜋
15

5.4.3 Length

Definition(Length Formula):

The length ℒ of the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) on [a, b ]is defined by :

𝑏
ℒ: = ∫𝑎 √1 + [𝑓 ′ (𝑥)]2 𝑑𝑥

Example 11: Use the length formula to derive the circumference formula of circle.

Example 12: Find the arc length of the graph of f(x) = ln (sin x) on the interval [π/4, π/2].

Answer: 𝑙𝑛|√2 + 1|

5.4.4 Surface Area

We can compute the surface areas of some solids generated by revolution.

Definition (Surface Area Formula):

The surface area 𝒮 of the solid obtained by rotating the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) on [a, b ] about the x axis is
defined by :

𝑏
𝒮: = ∫𝑎 2𝜋𝑓(𝑥)√1 + [𝑓 ′ (𝑥)]2 𝑑𝑥

Remarks:

1. The above definition can be extended to solids of revolution formed by revolution about y axis. (See
Eg. 12).
2. We can consider surface areas of unbounded regions, too, by using improper integrals. (Read:
Gabriel’s horn).

Example 11: Find the area of the surface obtained by revolving the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 , 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2 about the
x-axis.

𝜋
Answer: 27
[145√145 − 1]

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Example 12: Find the area of the surface obtained by revolving the curve 𝑦 = 1 − 𝑥 2 , 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1 about
the y-axis.

𝜋
Answer: [5√5 − 1]
6

5.4.5 Work

Definition (work): Suppose an object moves from a to b under the influence of a force F, where F is a
continuous function on [a, b]. Then the work W done by the force on the object is defined by:

𝑏
𝑊 = ∫ 𝐹(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎

Example 13: Find the work done on a spring when you compress it from its natural length of 1 m to a length
of 0.75 m if the spring constant is k = 16 N/m. Answer: 0.5 NM

5.4.6 Mass, Moment of Mass and Center of Mass

Many people think that the terms centre of mass, centre of gravity and centroid are synonymous. But this is not the
case. Intuitively, the center of gravity (CG) of a body is the point in which the body will be balanced horizontally
if suspended from that point (or if supported by fulcrum against gravity at that point) where as the center of
mass (CM) of a body is the point where an applied force causes the body to move without rotation. More
formally:
Definition:

a) The center of mass of an object or a system is the unique point with the property that the weighted
position vectors relative to this point sum to zero.

b) The center of gravity of an object or a system is defined as the point about which the sum of torques
due to gravitational forces is 0. A body's center of gravity is the point around which the resultant
torque due to gravity forces vanishes.

If a body is in a uniform gravitational field, then the center of gravity and the center of mass coincide.
Throughout the rest of this discussion we assume that CM and CG are the same.

The centroid of a figure is the arithmetic mean position of all the points in the figure. It is the geometric centre
of the figure. If the density of a body is uniform throughout the body, then the centroid and centre of mass
of the body coincide.

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Figure 1: centre of mass of one dimensional discrete mass distribution

Figure 2: center of mass of one dimensional continuous mass distribution

Figure 3: center of mass of two dimensional discrete systems

Figure 4: Center of mass of two dimensional continuous mass

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Locating the center of mass

The center of mass can be found for any one, two-, or three-dimensional object experimentally. Next we
consider how to locate the centre of mass of a one dimensional object with variable density and a two
dimensional object with uniform density.

The position 𝑋 of center of mass of a system of 𝑛 point masses 𝑚1 , … , 𝑚𝑛 that lie on x- axis at 𝑥1 , … , 𝑥𝑛
respectively is given by:

The moment of a point mass m about y axis is defined by 𝑚𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥. We may think 𝑚𝑥 as the measure of the
tendency of the mass to rotate about the y axis. The heavier the mass the larger it rotates if x is kept constant.
Similarly the farther the mass from y axis the larger it rotates. The sum 𝑀𝑦 ≔ ∑𝑛𝑘=1 𝑚𝑘 𝑥𝑘 is called the
moment (about y axis) of the mass system 𝑚1 , … 𝑚𝑛 .

The position vector 𝑟⃗ = (̅𝑥̅ , 𝑦̅)of the center of mass of a system of 𝑛 point masses 𝑚1 , … , 𝑚𝑛 that lie on xy-
plane at 𝑟⃗1 = (𝑥1, 𝑦1 ), … , 𝑟⃗𝑛 = (𝑥𝑛 , 𝑦𝑛 ) respectively is given by:

∑𝑛
𝑘=1 𝑚𝑘 𝑟⃗𝑘
(𝑥̅ , 𝑦̅) = ∑𝑛
.
𝑘=1 𝑚𝑘

This implies

∑𝑛
𝑘=1 𝑚𝑘 𝑥𝑘 ∑𝑛
𝑘=1 𝑚𝑘 𝑥𝑦𝑘
𝑥̅ = ∑𝑛
, 𝑦̅ = ∑𝑛
𝑘=1 𝑚𝑘 𝑘=1 𝑚𝑘

The sum 𝑀𝑦 ≔ ∑𝑛𝑘=1 𝑚𝑘 𝑥𝑘 is called the moment of the point masses about the y axis and the sum 𝑀𝑥 ≔
∑𝑛𝑘=1 𝑚𝑘 𝑦𝑘 the moment of the masses about the x axis.

Applications of CM

Many calculations in mechanics are greatly simplified by making use of a system’s center of mass. Locating
the cm of a body or a system is important in engineering designs.

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Example 14[CM of a one dimensional continuous mass]: Suppose a beam lies on the x-axis between 20
and 30, and has density function 𝜎(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 19. Find the center of mass.

475
Answer. .
18

Example 15[CM of a two dimensional discrete mass system]: Find the position of the center of
mass of three particles with masses 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 and 𝑚3 lying in the xy plane
(1,1,0), (1, −1,0)and(0,0,0) respectively where 𝑚1 = 𝑚2 and 𝑚3 = 10𝑚1.
Answer: (1/6, 0)

Throughout the rest of this discussion we assume that CM and CG are the same.

Definition: Let f and g be continues on [𝑎, 𝑏] with 𝑔(𝑥 ≤ 𝑓(𝑥) for 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏 and R be the region between
the graphs of 𝑓 and 𝑔 on [𝑎, 𝑏]. Then

a) the moment𝑀𝑥 of R about the x axis is given by

𝑏
1
𝑀𝑥 = ∫ {[𝑓(𝑥]2 − [𝑔(𝑥)]2 ]
𝑎 2

b) the moment 𝑀𝑦 of R about the y axis is given by

𝑏
1
𝑀𝑥 = ∫ {[𝑓(𝑥]2 − [𝑔(𝑥)]2 ]
𝑎 2

c) the center of gravity (or center of mass, or centroid) of R is the point 𝑥̅ , 𝑦̅ defined by:

𝑀 𝑀
𝑥̅ = 𝐴𝑦 and 𝑥̅ = 𝐴𝑥 ,

where 𝐴 is the area of R.

Example 16[CM of a two dimensional continuous mass with uniform density]: Suppose a flat plate of
uniform density has the shape contained by y=x2y=x2, y=1y=1, and x=0x=0, in the first quadrant. Find the
center of mass.

3 3
Answer: (8 , 5)

5.6.7 Distance-velocity-acceleration problems

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Let s(t) denote the position at time t of an object moving on a straight line (its distance from a reference
point, such as the origin on the x-axis). Then the net change in position between 𝑡0 and t is s(t)−s(𝑡0 ).
Since s(t) is an anti-derivative of the velocity function v(t), we can write
𝑡
𝑠(𝑡) = 𝑠(𝑡0 ) + ∫ 𝑣(𝑢)𝑑𝑢 .
𝑡0

Similarly, since the velocity is an anti-derivative of the acceleration function a(t)a(t), we have
𝑡
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑣(𝑡0 ) + ∫ 𝒂(𝑢)𝑑𝑢 .
𝑡0

Example 17: An object moves along a straight line with acceleration given by 𝑎(𝑡) = 1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜋𝑡). Assume
that when 𝑡 = 0, 𝑠(𝑡) = 𝑣(𝑡) = 0. Find 𝑠(𝑡) and 𝑣(𝑡).

Exercises 5:4:

1. Determine the area of the region bounded by

a. the lines y  x, y  4x and y   x  2 .

b. y  2 x 2  10, y  4 x  16, x  2 and x  5 .

c. x  12 y 2  3 and y  x  1 .

2. Prove that the volume 𝑉of a right circular cylinder with radius 𝑟 and height h is 𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ of a
sphere with radius r.
4
3. Use the cross sectional area method to verify the volume formula 𝑉 = 3 𝜋𝑟 3 of a sphere with radius
r.
4. Use the cross-section method to prove that the volume V of the torus formed by rotating the circle
with centre (𝑅, 0) and radius 𝑟 about the Y-axis is = 2𝑅𝑟 2 𝜋 2 .
5. Find the volume of the solid whose base is the region inside the circle x 2 + y 2 = 9 if cross sections
taken perpendicular to the y‐axis are squares.
6. The base of a solid region is the region between the graphs of 𝑥 = 𝑦 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 3 − 2𝑦 2 . Find the
volume of the solid given that the cross sections perpendicular to the x axis are squares.
7. Find the volume of the solid whose base is bounded by y = x + 1 and y = x2 -1, the cross sections
perpendicular to the x-axis are rectangles of height 5.

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8. Find the arc length of the graph of on the interval [0,5].

9. Find the arc length of the graph of f(x) = ln (sin x) on the interval [π/4, π/2].
1
10. Consider the surface obtained by rotating the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = , 𝑥 ≥ 1, around the x-axis. This
𝑥
surface is called Gabriel's horn or Toricelli's trumpet.. Show that Gabriel's horn has infinite
surface area.
11. Consider the circle (𝑥 − 2)2 + 𝑦 2 = 1. Sketch the surface obtained by rotating this circle about
the y-axis. This surface is called a torus. What is the surface area?
𝑥2
12. Consider the ellipse with equation + 𝑦 2 = 1. If the ellipse is rotated around the x-axis it forms
4
an ellipsoid. Compute the surface area.
13. A leaky bucket weighing 5N is lifted 20 m into the air at a constant speed. The rope weighs 0.08 Nm-
1. The bucket starts with 2 N of water and leaks at a constant rate. It finishes draining just as it
reaches the top. How much work was done.
14. A beam 10 meters long has density σ(x)=x2σ(x)=x2 at distance xx from the left end of the beam.
Find the center of mass x¯
15. Find the centroid of the area bounded by y = x3, x = 2 and the x-axis.
16. Find the center of mass of a thin, uniform plate whose shape is the region between y=cosx and
the x-axis between x=−π/2 and x=π/2.
17. An object is shot upwards from ground level with an initial velocity of 3 meters per second; it is
subject only to the force of gravity (no air resistance). Find its maximum altitude and the time at
which it hits the ground.
18. An object moves along a straight line with acceleration given by a(t)=sin(πt)a(t)=sin⁡(πt). Assume
that when t=0t=0, s(t)=v(t)=0s(t)=v(t)=0. Find s(t)s(t), v(t)v(t), and the maximum speed of the
object.

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References

1. Ellis
2. Leithold
3. Edwards
4. Sewart
5. Anton
6. Zill
7. Kreyszig
8. Schaum
9. Calculus for dummies
10. Calculus Demystified
11. Spark
12. Apostol
13. Thomas
14. Johnson and Kiokemesteir
15. Lick*
16. Inder K Rana *
17. Snedon*
18. Latest book
19. Latest book
20. Latest book

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