CAIE Biology A-level

Topic 1: Cell Structure

Notes

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All living organisms are made of cells, there are several different types of cells, some of
them sharing some common features. Human are made up of ​eukaryotic cells​. All
eukaryotic cells contain a nucleus and membrane bound organelles. A more detailed
structure of cells called the ​ultrastructure​ can be obtained by using a microscope.

Ultrastructure of eukaryotic cells:

Animals and plant cells both contain:

● Nucleus​ surrounded by a ​double membrane called the envelope​ containing​ ​pores
which enable molecules to enter and leave the nucleus, the nucleus also contains
chromatin​ and a ​nucleolus​ which is the site of ribosome production.
● Rough endoplasmic reticulum​ ​which is a ​series of flattened sacs​ ​enclosed by a
membrane with ribosomes on the surface. RER ​folds and processes proteins​ m ​ ade
on the ribosomes.
● Smooth endoplasmic reticulum​ ​is a system of ​membrane bound sacs​. SER p ​ roduces
and processes lipids​.
● Golgi apparatus​ ​is a series of ​fluid filled, flattened & curved sacs​ ​with vesicles
surrounding the edges. The Golgi apparatus ​processes and packages proteins and
lipids​. It also ​produces​ ​lysosomes​.
● Mitochondria​ ​are usually ​oval shaped, bound by a double membrane called the
envelope​. The inner membrane is folded to form projections called ​cristae ​with
matrix​ ​on the inside containing all the enzymes needed for ​respiration​.

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 ● Centrioles are hollow cylinders​ ​containing a ring of ​microtubules​ arranged at right
angles to each other. Centrioles are involved in ​cell division​.
● Ribosomes​ are ​composed of two subunits​ and are ​the site of protein production
● Lysosome​ is a vesicle containing ​digestive enzymes​ bound by a ​single membrane.
● The cell surface membrane​ ​surrounds the cell and ​controls what enters and exits​.
● Some animal cells may contain ​cilia ​on their surface membrane. These are ​small
hair-like structures​ composed of ​microtubules ​in a ​‘9+2’ formation​. This allows
movement of cilia therefore allowing ​movement of substances along the surface of
the cell.
● Microvilli ​are​ finger-like projections of the cell membrane ​which increases the cell's
surface area.​ ​They line organs like the small intestine to maximise nutrient
absorption.

The following are only in plant cells:

● The ​vacuole ​is a fluid-filled sac present in plant cells, surrounded by a membrane
called the​ tonoplast​. It contains mineral salts, sugars, amino acids, waste substances
and pigments. Its role is to colour the cell to ​attract pollinating insects​, act as a
temporary food store​ and ​provide support through turgidity​.
● The ​cell wall ​(plant cells) is made of ​cellulose microfibrils​. Its role is to ​strengthen
the cell and ​prevent bursting​ due to osmosis.
● The ​chloroplasts ​are ​small flat organelles.​ They are surrounded by a ​double
membrane​. It also contains​ thylakoid membranes​ which are ​stacked up to form
grana​ and are linked together by ​lamellae​. Chloroplasts are the ​site of
photosynthesis.
● Plasmodesmata​ ​are small channels that pass through the cell wall of adjoining plant
cells to ​allow communication​ between cells.

Prokaryotic cells such as bacteria contain:

● Cell wall​ ​– Rigid outer covering
made of ​peptidoglycan
● Capsule​ – Protective slimy
layer which helps the cell to
retain moisture​ ​and ​adhere​ to
surfaces
● Plasmid ​–Circular piece of DNA
● Flagellum​- a tail like structure
which ​rotates to move the cell
● Pili​- ​Hair-like structures which
attach to other bacterial cells
● Ribosomes​- Site of ​protein production
● Mesosomes​- Infoldings of the inner membrane which ​contain enzymes required for
respiration

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Prokaryotic cells are ​unicellular​ and are typically ​1–5μm in diameter​, which is much smaller
than eukaryotic cells. They ​do not contain membrane bound organelles​ or a nucleus, and
their ​ribosomes are smaller (70S)​ than ribosomes in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells (80S).

Viruses:
Viruses ​are ​non-living​ ​structures which consist of ​nucleic acid​ ​(either DNA or RNA) enclosed
in a protective protein coat called the ​capsid​, sometimes covered with a phospholipid layer
called ​the envelope​.

Prokaryotic cells Eukaryotic cells

Circular ​DNA Linear ​DNA

No nucleus​ so DNA is ​freely floating in the Contains a ​nucleus ​so ​DNA is inside it
cytoplasm

Polysaccharide ​cell wall No​ cell wall (​animals​)

Cellulose ​cell wall (​plants​)
Chitin ​cell wall (​fungi​)

Doesn’t​ contain ​membrane-bound Many membrane-bound organelles

organelles

Smaller ​ribosomes ​(70S) Larger ​ribosomes ​(80S)

Microscopy
Microscopy​ is the most important technique used in biology as it enables us to see and
examine organisms and structures which cannot be seen with the naked eye. ​Magnification
is an indicator of how much bigger the microscope image is than the actual object whereas
resolution​ is the smallest interval measurable by a microscope. ​Magnification can be
calculated by dividing the size of the image by the size of the real object.

Sample preparation
Fixation ​- ​use chemicals to preserve the live specimen keeping it in its natural state.
Dehydration ​- use ethanol to remove water from the specimen

Staining ​- use stains to colour the specimen. different types of tissue will pick up different
stains which helps create a contrast and allows you to differentiate between different
organelles.

Mounting ​- mount onto a microscope slide making sure there is a coverslip placed on top.

There are two types of microscopes:

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 ● Light microscopes​- these are good for observing samples in a lab as they are ​cheap
and ​portable​. They have a​ lower magnification and resolution​ than electron
microscopes, however.
● Electron microscopes​- these are ​good for examining organelles in high detail​. They
have a ​high magnification and resolution​, but samples must be placed in a ​vacuum
and prepared first. This technique can be very ​expensive​.

Rules for scientific drawings

● Ensure you are using a ​sharp pencil
● Draw ​continuous lines
● Use ​plain white paper
● Make sure the drawing takes up ​as much of the paper as possible
● No shading
● Label lines ​shouldn’t cross over​ each other
● Label lines should be ​straight ​and drawn with a ​ruler
● Label lines should ​not have arrow heads
● Include a ​title ​for the drawing
● State the ​magnification

ATP

Adenosine triphosphate​ ​is a nucleotide derivative and consists of​ ​ribose, adenine and three
phosphate groups​. ​It is synthesised in the ​mitochondria​ and ​chloroplasts​ of cells.

● Energy is released when ATP is hydrolysed​ ​to form ​ADP and a phosphate molecule​.
This process is catalysed by ​ATP hydrolase​.

● The ​inorganic phosphate can be used to phosphorylate other compounds​, as a

result making them more reactive.

● Condensation of ADP and inorganic phosphate catalysed by ATP synthase produces

ATP​ ​during photosynthesis and respiration.

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