CE 3141

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

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 CE 3141

“For what one has to learn to do,

we learn by doing.”
– Aristotle

The Water Cycle by Joeallen Gibson

An abstract painting that expresses the constant

movement of water from evaporation of the river,
oceans and lakes. Transpiration, water being
exchanged with the atmosphere from all living
beings all leading to precipitation. Water is
constantly moving through these different phases
conserving and replenishing our water supply.

HYDROLOGY

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................................................ 3

COURSE GUIDE .......................................................................................................................................... 4
COURSE OVERVIEW .................................................................................................................................. 4
COURSE STUDY GUIDE ............................................................................................................................. 5
STUDY SCHEDULE....................................................................................................................................... 9
EVALUATION ............................................................................................................................................ 12
TECHNOLOGICAL TOOLS ...................................................................................................................... 13
Module 1: Hydrologic Principles ........................................................................................................ 13
UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO HYDROLOGY ............................................................................. 14
UNIT 2: PRECIPITATION.............................................................................................................. 22
UNIT 3: INFILTRATION ................................................................................................................. 34
UNIT 4: EVAPORATION .............................................................................................................. 47
MODULE 2 – Hydrological Analysis ................................................................................................... 53
UNIT 1: BASIC SUBSURFACE FLOW ......................................................................................... 53
UNIT 2: RAINFALL-RUNOFF RELATION .................................................................................... 59
ASSIGNMENT GUIDE............................................................................................................................... 81
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................................. 85
CONTACT INFORMATION OF THE FACILITATOR .............................................................................. 85

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 COURSE GUIDE

COURSE OVERVIEW
Hydrology deals with one of the most valuable resource on earth: water, and
how it moves and interacts with the environment. The focus of this course is on the
component processes of the hydrologic cycle and how parameters that characterize
these processes are measured, estimated and modeled to understand the response of
the watershed.

As a result of your educational experience and having successfully completed

the modules in the course CE 3141, you should be able to:

1. Exhibit an in-depth understanding on the concepts of the hydrological process.

2. Understand the concept of precipitation and the methods by which it is
measured or computed.
3. Understand the process of infiltration and apply the mathematical models of
infiltration.
4. Understand the fundamental concepts of evaporation and the methods of its
measurement.
5. Understand the fundamental concept of subsurface flow in steady-state
condition.
6. Appreciate the impact of a rainfall input to a flow output on a watershed using
the hydrograph.

To ensure that you will demonstrate the above cited course learning outcomes
at the end of the short term, this course is divided into two (2) modules:

MODULE 1: Hydrologic Principles – This aims to give you an overview of the

basic definitions and principles governing hydrologic phenomena. There are four (4)
units under this module that will introduce you to the definition of hydrology, the
hydrologic cycle, and guide you in doing computations for the precipitation, infiltration
and evaporation processes.

MODULE 2: Hydrologic Analysis – The remaining two (2) units emphasize on

computational methods in hydrology on basic sub-surface flow and rainfall-runoff
relation.

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 COURSE STUDY GUIDE

Finishing this course successfully relies heavily on your self-discipline and time
management skills. The course modules were prepared for you to learn diligently,
intelligently, and independently. Keeping yourself motivated to follow the schedules
specified in the learning plan, maintaining excellence in the expected student outputs,
and mastering the different technologies and procedures required in the delivery and
feedback for this course, will instil in you important qualities you will need in the future as
an engineer practicing your profession. The following course guides and house rules
are designed for you to practice decorum consistent with standards expected within a
formal academic environment. These guides shall lay the groundwork for consistency,
coherence, cooperation, and clear communication among learners and instructors
throughout the conduct of this course:

1. MANAGE YOUR MINUTES. Create a study routine and stick to it. Keep
requirement deadlines and study schedules always in mind by providing
visual cues posted in your place of study or listed in your reminders
(electronically, online, or on paper). Remember that there are other daily
activities that take up your time, not to mention other courses you may be
concurrently taking. Choose a time of day when you are most likely to
maximize learning. Communicate your schedule to other members of your
household so they could help you keep it. It would also help to prepare a
dedicated space in your residence conducive for learning.

2. MIND YOUR MANNERS. Treat the distance learning environment as an

academic space not too different from a physical classroom. Do not do in
the distance learning environment, acts you would not normally do in a
face-to-face classroom set up. Avoid asking questions that have already
been answered in the lessons or in the instructions previously discussed or
provided. Acts like these will reflect your poor focus and uninspired
preparation for this course. Practice Electronic Conversation Etiquette in
group chats, open forums, and similar electronic venues.

a. Use appropriate language and tone, correct grammar and

spelling, and complete sentences acceptable in an academic
forum. Avoid text-speak, slang, all caps, and other informal
expressions in your posts.
b. Express your opinions politely and do not dominate the
conversation.
c. Avoid lengthy as well as offensive posts by sticking to the topic of
the discussion.
d. Take time to understand the salient points of the discussion, and
provide a meaningful and well-thought response to the posts of
other participants.
e. For a live meeting or video/voice conferencing set-up, mute
your microphone when you are not speaking to keep the focus
on the main speaker.

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 3. MASTER THE MEDIUM. The distance learning courses will be delivered
making use of the institutional Google Suite account of Saint Louis
University. It would be worthwhile on your part to devote some time and
effort to learn the applications you will need to access your course
materials, interact with me and your classmates, and submit course
requirements. Applications of note are Google Classroom, Google Drive,
and Google Meet. There are also available alternatives to Microsoft Office
tools you might want to explore. Certain requirements will require you to
take a video on your smart phone, save it, and submit it electronically.
Work on this skill as well. If you are offline, identify the most convenient
means for express mail correspondence and inform me as early as possible
so we can make the necessary arrangements ahead of time.

4. MAKE MASTERPIECES. Go beyond minimum requirements. The course

learning outcomes will serve as a guide to the minimum expected
competencies you are to acquire at the end of this course. It does not limit
you from performing beyond it. Keep in mind that the quality of your work
reflects the amount of thought and care you put in to the process of
completing it. It provides a very tangible measure of how much of the
competencies you have developed and fully obtained throughout this
course.

5. CONNECT CONSTANTLY. There are more than sufficient online and offline
modes to ensure that you are well informed and provided on time with the
needed learning materials, instructions, requirements, and feedback either
from me or from your classmates. Exhaust all means possible to keep in
touch and updated. My contact details can be found at the latter part of
this document and will be made available and widely disseminated to
enrolees of this course.

6. OBSERVE ORIGINALITY. Your course outputs will largely be submitted in

electronic form. It is going to have a highly traceable and comparable
digital footprint that can be easily checked for originality. Cite your
sources properly for referenced statements you decide to use in your own
work. Attribute statements by persons other than you by using terms like
according to, he said/she said, and the like.

7. INSTIGATE INDEPENDENCE. You are the focus of this course. Nobody else.
All assessment and evaluation tools in this course are designed to measure
your competence and not anybody else’s. You may use all resources at
your disposal, and ask other people for advice. In the end however, it is
going to be your independent work that will be judged against the
standards set for this course. The only way for you to maximize this course
to your advantage is to learn as much from it as an individual. Make it
count.

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 8. RESPECT THE ROUTINE. There are traditionally respected routines we
follow in the conduct of our everyday lives. Please be mindful of universally
accepted norms of courtesy attached to regular schedules of personal
and family time. Unless of utmost importance, please refrain from any form
of communication between 8:30 PM and 7:30 AM every day and the
whole day on Sundays and official holidays. You shall expect me to
adhere to this guideline myself. This will allow us all to dedicate personal
time and space to other aspects of our life and maintain a healthy work-
life/study-life balance.

9. FINISH THE FIVE. To be able to help you build your own understanding
from experience and new ideas, the modules in this course are designed
based on the 5E Instructional Model (Engage, Explore, Explain, Elaborate,
and Evaluate). The following icons will help you find some of the most
critical areas in the units of the learning modules:

Part of module unit that is designed to pique

your interest in the topics to be discussed by
accessing your prior knowledge and build up
your curiosity to learn more.

Part of the module unit that presents the main

lesson through materials that will give you a
general picture of the topics to be discussed,
introducing you to new concepts and ideas.
Part of the module unit that contains detailed
discussions of topics and provide you the
definition of the smaller pieces of the general
picture you encountered in the previous
stage.
Part of the module unit that expounds on the
ideas of the previous stage and allows you to
extrapolate into a broader field or delve
deeper into the finer details of the topics.
Part of the module unit that gives us the
opportunity to gauge your attainment of the
learning outcomes using formative and
evaluative assessment tools.

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 Additional Guidelines for Offline Students:
 If you are a student opting for the correspondence-based learning (CBL)
mode, you will be tasked to send back the accomplished requirements
at given stages of the course through express mail correspondence to
me, on or before the scheduled date. I will provide you with the
feedback on your submissions at the soonest possible time through any of
the available means of communication.

 While waiting for my feedback of your accomplished requirements,

continue doing the tasks in the succeeding units of the module.

 If needed, do not hesitate to keep in touch with me through any

available means.

These are the text references for this course:

a. Bedient, P. B., Huber W. C. and Vieux, B. E. Hydrology and Floodplain Analysis,

Pearson 4th Edition, Philippine Edition copyright 2010
b. Ven Te Chow, David Maidment and Larry Mays. Applied Hydrology. McGraw-Hill
International Editions 1988.
c. Linsley, R. et. Al. (1992). Water resources engineering4th Edition. Tokyo, Japan:
McGraw-Hill Kogakusha, Inc.
d. Brooks, Kenneth N. Hydrology and the management of watersheds. Fourth
edition.
e. Chin, David A. Water-resources engineering. Third edition.
f. Mays, L. et.Al. (2004). Groundwater engineering. USA
g. Singh, Vijay P.(2013). Entropy theory and its application in environmental and
water engineering. Chichester, West Sussex, United Kingdom: Wiley-Blackwell

You are encouraged to dedicate at least two (2) hours per week to this course
throughout the first semester.

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 STUDY SCHEDULE

WEEK TOPIC LEARNING

UNIT COURSEWORK
OUTCOME
MODULE 1: Hydrologic Processes
1 Setting-up of Google Classroom and Preparation of Modules
2 Understand the Engage: Pre-assessment Quiz Journal Paper
to hydrologic cycle Unit Recall the different processes Review
6 concept and 1 that make-up the hydrologic Review a journal
the principles of cycle article published
conservation of Explore: Online Coursework within year 2006 to
mass in a closed Browse PAG-ASA website present
system. Explain:
The journal paper
 Definition of Hydrology
should be on case
 The Hydrologic Cycle
studies of
 Water Balance
Elaborate: Practice Problem engineering
Set on water budget equation projects that failed
Evaluate: Unit Quiz due to improper
assessment of
Understand the Engage: Pre-assessment Quiz hydrologic aspects
various forms of Unit on clouds such as failure of
precipitation 2 Explore: Online Reading hydraulic
and the Assignment structures: dams,
processes that Suggested links on formation levees, dikes;
give rise to them; and factors affecting flooding, water
understand its precipitation shortage, saline
temporal and Explain: PRECIPITATION intrusion, etc.
spatial variability; Formation 
apply ways of 
Different Types
measuring and 
Rainfall Characteristics
analyzing rainfall (Depth, Duration, Intensity,
data Hyetograph)
 Point Rainfall Measurements
 Different Types of rain
gauges
 Estimation of Missing Data
 Conversion of Point Rainfall
to Areal Rainfall
Elaborate: Practice Problem
Set by pairs
Evaluate: Unit Quiz
Summative Assessment: PRELIMINARY TERM EXAMINATION
Week 7 September 27 - 30, 2021

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 TOPIC LEARNING WEEK
WEEK UNIT COURSEWORK
OUTCOME
8 Define the Unit Engage: Infiltration experiment
to process and the 3 Explore: Short answer question
12 factors that on Engage activity
affect infiltration. Explain: INFILTRATION
Compute  Definition
infiltration  Factors affecting infiltration,
capacity rates and infiltration
based on measurements
mathematical  Horton Model and Phillips’s
models of equation
Elaborate: Problem Set by pairs
infiltration.
Evaluate: Short answer question

Define the Unit Engage: T/F Pre-assessment

process of 4 quiz: Evaporation vs
evaporation and Transpiration
transpiration. Explore: Online Reading
Assignment
Suggested link about
evaporation
Explain: EVAPORATION
 Physics of evaporation
 Factors affecting
evaporation
 Measurement of different
factors for evaporation
 Available methods/
procedures for estimating
evaporation from open
water
Elaborate: Module 1 Review
Evaluate:
Middle Term Quiz

Summative Assessment: MIDDLE TERM EXAMINATION

Week 13 November 8 - 11, 2021

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 WEEK TOPIC LEARNING
UNIT COURSEWORK
OUTCOME
MODULE 2: Hydrologic Analysis
14 Understand Unit Engage: Pre-assessment online Journal Paper
to fundamental 1 quiz groundwater Presentation
17 concepts of Explore: Review of quiz results in The journal paper
groundwater Engage will be presented
flow: saturated Explain: BASIC SUBSURFACE in a 3 to 5 minute
vs. unsaturated FLOW (Steady State condition) power point
zones, aquifers  Law of Darcy, confined and presentation.
vs. aquicludes/ unconfined aquifers
aquifuges/  Groundwater flow in
aquitards, confined and unconfined
confined vs. aquifers
unconfined  Radial ground water flow in
confined and unconfined
aquifers,
aquifers
hydraulic
Elaborate: Problem Set
conductivity,
Evaluate: Short answer question
transmissivity
on forum

Understand 2Engage: Reading Assignment

stream flow on stream flow measurement
measurement Explore: Short answer question
and how it is on forum
characterized by Explain: RAINFALL-RUNOFF
hydrographs; RELATION
apply the Unit  Definition of Hydrograph
Hydrograph  Hydrograph Separation
Theory. Estimate  Unit hydrograph
discharge from a  Estimation of discharge
using unit hydrograph
watershed using
 Rational formula
the Rational
 SCS Curve Method
formula and the Elaborate: Problem Set and
SCS Curve review
Method. Evaluate:
Finals Quiz
Summative Assessment: FINAL EXAM
Week 18 December 15-18, 2021

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 Saint Louis University Calendar for the First Semester AY 2021-2022
Registration August 9 – 13, 2021
Start of Classes August 16, 2021
Ninoy Aquino Day August 21, 2021 (No Classes)
Baguio Foundation Day September 1, 2021 (No Classes)
Preliminary Examinations September 27 – 30, 2021
All Saints’ Day November 1, 2021 (No Classes)
All Souls’ Day November 2, 2021 (No Classes)
Middle Term Examinations November 8 – 11, 2021
University Foundation Week November 25 – December 1, 2021
CICM Day November 29, 2021
Bonifacio Day November 30, 2021(No Classes)
Handog ng SLU sa Baguio December 1, 2021
Immaculate Conception December 8. 2021 (No Classes)
Final Exams December 15 – 18, 2021

EVALUATION

TO PASS THE COURSE, YOU MUST:

1. Read all course readings, do pre-assessment activities, self-assessment activities

and problem sets
2. Submit one graded quiz per module for midterms and finals
3. Submit the coursework
4. Take the midterm and final examination

ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES
Formative Assessment
Formative assessments such as pre-assessment forms, self-assessment activities
and problem sets aim to enhance and deepen your understanding of the
course. The requirements will be posted as classwork on the Google classroom
and you are expected to turn in your output on scheduled due dates.
Submission may only be done once and you are not allowed to edit and re-
submit your work. You are required to complete these tasks to complete the
course.

All submissions are automatically time stamped and recorded. The honor pledge
shall always be a part of all requirements submitted.

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 Summative Assessment

Quizzes and Examination

Graded quizzes will be posted two days before its scheduled date. These are 20-
item multiple choice type of Google quiz. You are required to accomplish the
quiz online and upload the solution in prescribed classwork in the Google
classroom within a given timeframe. You will not be allowed to edit your answers
once submitted.

Midterm and Final Individual assessments will be conducted as scheduled.

Students will be assigned a problem/question to be answered within the given
timeframe and are not allowed to edit your answers once submitted.

All submissions are automatically time stamped and recorded. The honor pledge
shall always be a part of all requirements submitted online.

TECHNOLOGICAL TOOLS

To be able to accomplish all the tasks in this course, you will be need the
following software applications: Word Processing, Presentation, Publication, and
Spreadsheet. All materials and activities will be facilitated through Google Suite
applications particularly, Google Forms, Google Hangouts, Google Meet, and Google
Docs. These are all available in the Google Suite package subscribed by Saint Louis
University for you.

Students are required to have a cellphone/laptop/personal computer capable

to download the Google classroom application, save pdf/word/ppt files; scan/take
photos of written documents; and view YouTube videos.

CONTACT INFORMATION OF THE FACILITATOR

Engr. Janice Kaye L. Aquino, MSCE

E-mails: [email protected]
Cellphone No.: 09065395087

Engr. Jazel E. Sano

Email: [email protected]
Contact Number: 09399255137

Engr. Romsan Lopez

Email: [email protected]
Contact Number: 09976737231es

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 UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO HYDROLOGY

Accomplish the pre-assessment quiz. Identify the processes that make-up the water
cycle as shown.

1. _______________

2. _______________

3. _______________

4. _______________

5. _______________

6. _______________

7. _______________

8. _______________

9. _______________

Explore hydrological parameters that are regularly measured and monitored in the
Philippines by browsing the link below:

http://bagong.pagasa.dost.gov.ph/about-us/national-meteorological-and-hydrological-services

This leads you to the website of PAG-ASA (Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and
Astronomical Services Administration), the National Meteorological and Hydrological
Services (NMHS) agency of the Philippines. You will also find links to similar agencies in
other countries of the world such as Japan, China, and India.

Try to browse over a few and look at the similarities of monitored data between these
agencies. Reflect on the significance of hydrological data in applications in civil
engineering, specifically in water resources projects.

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 Hydrology is a branch of Earth Science. It is defined as a multidisciplinary subject that
deals with the endless occurrence, circulation, storage, and distribution of surface and
ground water on the earth.

1965-1974 was declared the International Hydrological Decade. Intensive efforts in

hydrologic education research, development of analytical techniques and collection
of hydrological information were promoted on a global basis in universities, research
institutions, and government organizations.

When knowledge of hydrology is used to assess, develop, utilize and manage water
resources, it may be referred to as Applied Hydrology. This includes applications in civil
engineering such as, the design and operation of hydraulic structures, water supply,
wastewater treatment and disposal, irrigation, drainage, hydropower generation, flood
control, navigation, erosion and sediment control. But as it specifically deals with
surface water movement and distribution in space and time, it is likewise referred to as
Surface Water Hydrology; in contrast to Groundwater Hydrology that deals
with water below the surface of the Earth.

The Hydrologic Cycle

The hydrologic cycle is the central focus of hydrology. The cycle has no beginning or
end, and its many processes occur continuously.

(Watch the videos on the hydrologic cycle posted on your Google Classroom or saved in
your USB-OTG learning packet. Take down notes on the pertinent processes mentioned
and visualize their occurrence)

As shown in these videos, water is evaporated from water (lakes, rivers, oceans) and
land (vegetation, soil) surfaces; these moist air masses moves inland until it condenses
to produce precipitation. The precipitation falls from clouds and is dispersed over the
land surface that may be intercepted by vegetation, become overland flow over the
ground surface, infiltrate into the ground and flow through the soil as subsurface flow,
percolate deeper into the soil and flow as ground water, or move in a downward-
gradient direction to accumulate in local streams or rivers discharge into streams as
surface runoff. All these flows eventually emerge in springs or re-enter streams that finally
flow out to the sea where the hydrologic cycle continues.

The sequence of processes may seem simple but it is quite a complex cycle. It is not
one large cycle but a large number of interrelated paths of varying time scales within
continental, regional and local extent. And although the global water content remains
constant, water distribution within these smaller units gradually change due to factors
such as change in land use, climate change and intervention of human activities.

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 The figure below provides some insight on the dynamics of the hydrologic cycle of the
annual global water balance relative to an annual land precipitation of 100 units. It can
be seen that 61 percent of this precipitation is lost to evaporation and the remaining 39
percent to surface runoff; and about 90 percent of atmospheric moisture comes from
the oceans.

For most practical problems, a simplified way of analyzing hydrologic phenomena is by

the systems concept. When we perceive the hydrological cycle as a system or a set of
connected parts that form a whole, we may consider at a time, a small portion of the
earth’s surface and the few processes that occur within it. The basic hydrological unit
within which all measurements, calculations, and predictions are made in hydrology is
the watershed.

A watershed, drainage area, or river basin is

the area of land draining in a stream or a
water course at a given location. It is
delineated from its neighboring areas by
tracing the ridge or divide, on a
topographic map. The boundary set on the
ground surface is assumed to coincide with
the subsurface divide.

(Train yourself to recognize catchment areas by looking through satellite imagery on

Google. A good starting point would be a river. Pick any river and then zoom in/out to
identify and trace back the mountain ridges where rainwater would drain from. Follow the
ridge until the boundary of the catchment area closes)

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 Here’s one that you may want to try out! Do you see the mountain ridges? These are the highest
elevations on the topography. Can you trace out the catchment area that drains to the river?
Do you see other catchments?

Typical watershed area shapes are either

elongated or concentrated. The difference
in shape affects timing and peak flow of
runoff to the outlet. In general, the larger the
watershed area, the greater the surface
runoff rate, the greater the overland flow
rate, and the greater the stream flow rate.

Formulas developed to relate peak flow to watershed area will be discussed in later
sections of this Module.

The Water Balance

When a watershed is represented as a hydrologic
system, a water budget may be developed to
account for the flow pathways and storage
components. This is called the water budget
equation,
𝒅𝑺
𝑰−𝑸 =
𝒅𝒕

Where: 𝐼= inflow, 𝑄= outflow and = change in storage, are in CFS or m3/s

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 Another expression for the water budget in a watershed for a time interval may be
written as:
𝑷 − 𝑹 − 𝑮 − 𝑬 − 𝑻 = ∆𝑺

where: 𝑃= precipitation, 𝑅= runoff, 𝐺= net groundwater flow, 𝐸= evaporation,

𝑇= transpiration and ∆𝑆= change in storage

Note that infiltration 𝐹 cancels out in the equation since it is lost from the surface but
gained back in the groundwater. A runoff coefficient may be defined by the ratio of
runoff and precipitation over any watershed.

Typical units for the water budget equation are as follows:

Flow rate CFS or m3/s

Time seconds, day, month, year
Depth inches or mm
Area acres, mi2, km2

Illustrative example 1. For a given month, a 300-acre lake has 15 cfs of inflow, 13 cfs of
outflow, and a total storage increase of 16 ac-ft. A USGS gage next to the lake
recorded a total of 1.3 in. precipitation for the lake for the month. Assuming that
infiltration loss is insignificant for the lake, determine the evaporation loss, in inches, over
the lake for the month.

For a time interval of a month, we first write down

the water balance equation using the lake
surface, treated as if it were a watershed on its
own, as the reference for inflow and outflow.
Hence precipitation is inflow while evaporation is
outflow so that from,

𝑑𝑆
𝐼−𝑄 = → 𝑷 + 𝑰 − 𝑸 − 𝑬 = ∆𝑺
𝑑𝑡

Since we are looking for evaporation loss in inches, we may as well adopt this as the
unit to be used across the equation. Thus, precipitation remains 𝑃 = 1.3" the other
parameters still need to be converted.
For inflow and outflow which are given in cfs, we divide these by the lake’s surface area
to convert it to depth per month.

𝑓𝑡 12𝑖𝑛 60𝑠 60𝑚𝑖𝑛 24ℎ𝑟 30𝑑

15 × × × × ×
𝑠 𝑓𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑟 𝑑 𝑚𝑜
𝐼= = 35.7025 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠
43560𝑓𝑡 12𝑖𝑛
300𝑎𝑐 × ×
𝑎𝑐 𝑓𝑡

*Note that a month is taken as having 30 days and since this is the set time interval, all
answers are relative to this month.

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 𝑓𝑡 12𝑖𝑛 60𝑠 60𝑚𝑖𝑛 24ℎ𝑟 30𝑑
13 × × × × ×
𝑠 𝑓𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑟 𝑑 𝑚𝑜
𝑄= = 30.9421 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠
43560𝑓𝑡 12𝑖𝑛
300𝑎𝑐 × ×
𝑎𝑐 𝑓𝑡

For total storage increase, the unit is given as acre-ft. Since acre represents area and ft
represents depth, their product gives acre-ft, a common way of indicating volume in
hydrology. To convert this to depth per month, we simply divide the volume by the area
of the lake surface,
16 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑡 12𝑖𝑛
∆𝑆 = × = 0.64 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠
300𝑎𝑐 𝑓𝑡

Substituting our values in the equation,

𝑃 + 𝐼 − 𝑄 − 𝐸 = ∆𝑆

1.3 + 35.7025 − 30.9421 − 𝐸 = 0.64 𝑬 = 𝟓. 𝟒𝟐𝟎𝟑 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒉𝒆𝒔 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒎𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒉

Illustrative example 2. A lake had a water surface

elevation of 103.2 m above datum at the beginning of a
certain month. In that month, the lake received an
average inflow of 6 m3/s from surface runoff sources. In the
same period, the outflow from the lake had an average
value of 6.5 m3/s. Further in that month, the lake received a
rainfall of 145 mm and evaporation from the lake surface
was estimated as 6.10 cm. Write the water budget
equation for the lake and calculate the water surface
elevation of the lake at the end of the month. The average
lake area is 5000 ha. Assume that there is no contribution
to or from groundwater storage.

Similar to the previous problem, we first establish the water

budget equation,
𝑃 + 𝐼 − 𝑄 − 𝐸 = ∆𝑆

To determine the change in the water surface elevation of the lake, we need to
determine the change in volume storage in the lake that transpired over the given
month. In this case, we will use volume as our unit of measurement.

To convert inflow and outflow given as discharge rates, we simply multiply the time
interval which is one month.

𝑚 30𝑑 24ℎ𝑟 60𝑚𝑖𝑛 60𝑠

𝐼= 6 × 1𝑚𝑜 × × × × = 15552000 𝑚
𝑠 𝑚𝑜 𝑑 ℎ𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛

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 𝑚 30𝑑 24ℎ𝑟 60𝑚𝑖𝑛 60𝑠
𝑄 = 6.5 × 1𝑚𝑜 × × × × = 16848000 𝑚
𝑠 𝑚𝑜 𝑑 ℎ𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛

To convert rainfall and evaporation to their equivalent volumes for that month, we
multiply the depth by the lake area and the time interval,

145𝑚𝑚 𝑚 10000𝑚
𝑃= × 5000ℎ𝑎 × = 7250000 𝑚
𝑚𝑜 1000𝑚𝑚 1ℎ𝑎

6.10𝑐𝑚 𝑚 10000𝑚
𝐸= × 5000ℎ𝑎 × = 3050000 𝑚
𝑚𝑜 100𝑐𝑚 1ℎ𝑎

Substituting in 𝑃 + 𝐼 − 𝑄 − 𝐸 = ∆𝑆,
7250000 + 1552000 − 16848000 − 3050000 = ∆𝑆 ∆𝑺 = 𝟐𝟗𝟎𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝟑

The answer indicates that there was an increase in the volume of water stored in the
lake over the month, thus, an increase in the water surface elevation. To determine this
change in elevation, we divide the volume by the surface area of the lake,

∆𝑆 = ∆𝑉 = ∆𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣 × 𝐴 2904000 𝑚 = ∆𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣 × 5000ℎ𝑎 × ∆𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣 = 0.0581 𝑚

To determine the lake’s water surface elevation at the end of the month,

103.2 + 0.0581 = 𝟏𝟎𝟑. 𝟐𝟓𝟖𝟏 𝒎 𝒂𝒃𝒐𝒗𝒆 𝒅𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒎

Give these problems a go! Illustrate your solution.

1. A swimming pool (20 ft X 20 ft X 5 ft) has a small leak at the bottom. You are
given measurements of rainfall, evaporation, and water level on a daily basis for
10 days. As an engineer, use the water balance to determine the average daily
leakage out of the swimming pool in ft3/day. Assume the pool is exactly 5 ft (60
inches) deep at the end of day 1.

DAY 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Evaporation, inches 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Rainfall, inches 1.0 2.0 4.0
Measured Water level, inches 60 52

2. In a given month, a watershed with an area of 1500 m2 received 100 cm of

precipitation. During the same month, the loss due to evaporation was 15 cm.
Ignore losses due to transpiration and infiltration due to ground water. What
would be the average rate of flow measured in a gage at the outlet of the
watershed in m3/day?

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 Accomplish the self-evaluation checklist for Unit 1.

I understand the definition of hydrology.

I browsed the PAG-ASA website.
I watched the videos on water cycle in its entirety.
I am able to distinguish between the different processes in
the hydrologic cycle.
I can clearly delineate a catchment from a Google map.
I understand and can formulate the water budget equation.
I am able to solve problems on the water budget equation.
I posted a comment on the forum.

Accomplish Unit Quiz.

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 UNIT 2: PRECIPITATION

Did you know that clouds can help predict weather? Try to match the following cloud
types on column A to their description on column B, and then to the weather they are
most likely to bring on Column C.

Column A Column C Column C

Cloud type Description Most likely weather
_____ 1. Cirrus ____ A. Heavy dense clouds in AA. These clouds indicate fair
the form of mountains or but cold weather.
_____ 2. Cirrocumulus towers. BB. Widespread light to
____ B. Small puffy clouds with moderate precipitation.
_____ 3. Cumulonimbus minimal vertical CC. Heavy showers with thunder
development and lightning or hail.
_____ 4. Nimbostratus ____ C. Small, rounded white
DD. Fair weather. Never
puffs. Isolated or in long
produce precipitation.
_____ 5. Cirrostratus rows.
____ D. Dark, low uniformly grey EE. May signal precipitation
_____ 6. Cumulus Humilis clouds. within 15 to 25 hours.
____ E. Thin and wispy, they can FF. Approaching front and
appear in a variety of stormy weather.
shapes.
____ F. Sheet-like clouds
covering the entire sky.

Weather systems play an important role in the formation mechanisms of precipitation.

Click on the links below to read about this!

http://bagong.pagasa.dost.gov.ph/learning-tools/clouds
http://bagong.pagasa.dost.gov.ph/learning-tools/fronts
https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=5&v=yJoi_UmZ76E&feature=emb_logo

Precipitation denotes all forms of water that reach the earth from the atmosphere. For
precipitation to form:
1. The atmosphere must have moisture
2. Moist air must undergo lifting and resultant cooling
3. A phase change must occur with resulting condensation onto small nuclei in the air

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 4. Droplets must grow large enough to overcome drag and evaporation to reach the
ground.

FORMS OF PRECIPITATION

 Drizzle – a light steady rain in fine drops (0.5mm) and intensity <1 mm/hr

 Rain – the condensed water vapour of the atmosphere falling in drops >0.5 mm
from the clouds. Maximum size – 6mm
Type Intensity, mm/hr
1. Light rain Trace to 2.5
2. Moderate rain 2.5 to 7.5
3. Heavy rain 7.5 to 15
4. Intense rain 15 to 30
5. Torrential rain >30

 Glaze – freezing of drizzle or rain when they come in contact with cold objects.

 Sleet – frozen rain drops while falling through air at subfreezing temperature.

 Snow – ice crystals resulting from sublimation (i.e. water vapour condenses to
ice)

 Snowflakes – ice crystals fused together

 Hail – small lumps of ice (>5mm in diameter) formed by alternate freezing and
melting, when they are carried up and down in highly turbulent air currents.

 Dew – moisture condensed from the atmosphere in small drops upon cool
surfaces.

 Frost – a feathery deposit of ice

formed on the ground or on the
surface of exposed objects by
dew or water vapour that has
frozen.

 Fog – a thin cloud of varying size

formed at the surface of the earth
by condensation of atmospheric
vapour (interfering with visibility)

 Mist – a very thin fog

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 CLASSIFICATION OF PRECIPITATION

1. Thermal Convection (convective lifting) - This type

of precipitation is in the form of local whirling
thunder storms and is typical of the tropics. The air
close to the warm earth gets heated and rises due
to its low density, cools adiabatically to form a
cauliflower shaped cloud, which finally bursts into a
thunder storm. When accompanied by destructive
winds, they are called ‘tornados’.

2. Conflict between two air masses (frontal lifting)

- When two air masses due to contrasting
temperatures and densities clash with each
other, condensation and precipitation occur
at the surface of contact.

3. Orographic lifting (orographic lifting) - The mechanical lifting of moist air over
mountain barriers, causes heavy precipitation on the windward side.

4. Cyclones (cyclonic precipitation) - This type of precipitation is due to lifting of

moist air converging into a low-pressure belt, i.e., due to pressure differences
created by the unequal heating of the earth’s surface. Here the winds blow
spirally inward counter clockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in
the southern hemisphere.

There are two main types of cyclones — tropical cyclone

(also called hurricane or typhoon) of comparatively small
diameter of 300-1500 km causing high wind velocity and
heavy precipitation, and the extra-tropical cyclone (anti-
cyclone) of large diameter up to 3000 km causing wide
spread frontal type precipitation.

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 Rainfall varies greatly in space and time. Time variation occurs seasonally or within a
single storm, and distribution varies with storm type, intensity, duration and time of year.
This is particularly important when planning water resources projects such as storm
water systems, flood control and irrigation projects to characterize the hydrologic
response for a certain watershed.

Point rainfall measurements are taken by the use of a rain gauge. This instrument
measures rainfall rate in a certain period of time. There are two types of rain gauges:

1. Non-recording type  most common type of rain

gauge used that consists of a cylindrical vessel
with an enlarged base. At its top section, a
funnel is provided whose shank is inserted in the
neck of a receiving bottle placed into it to
receive rainfall. The Symons rain gauge is an
example of this. During heavy rainfall, amount of
rain is frequently exceeded, so the reading
should be measured 3 to 4 times in a day. Water
contained in the receiving bottle is measured by
a graduated measuring glass.

2. Recording type  also called self-recording, automatic or integrating rain

gauge. This type of rain gauge has an automatic mechanical arrangement
consisting of a clockwork, a drum with a graph paper fixed around it and a
pencil point, which draws the mass curve of rainfall. From this mass curve, the
depth of rainfall in a given time, the rate or intensity of rainfall at any instant
during a storm, time of onset and cessation of rainfall, can be determined.

a. Weighing Bucket Type Rain Gauge - most common self-

recording rain gauge. When a certain weight of rainfall is
collected in the tank, which rests on a spring-lever
balance, it makes a pen to move on a chart wrapped
round a clock-driven drum. The rotation of the drum sets
the time scale while the vertical motion of the pen records
the cumulative precipitation.

b. Tipping Bucket Type Rain Gauge - a circular rain gauge

consisting of a sharp-edged receiver and provided with a
funnel inside. A pair of buckets is pivoted under this funnel
in such a manner that when one bucket receives 0.25mm
of rainfall, it tips discharging its rainfall into the container,
bringing the other bucket under the funnel.

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 c. Floating or Natural Syphon Type Rain Gauge – a funnel
receives the water which is collected in a rectangular
container. A float is provided at the bottom of container,
and this float rises as the water level rises in the container.

Point rainfall measured by rain gauges can be plotted as accumulated total rainfall or
as rainfall intensity vs. time. The first plot is referred to as a cumulative mass curve, which
can be analyzed for a variety of storms to determine the frequency and character of
rainfall at a given site. A hyetograph is a plot of rainfall intensity vs. time.

Illustrative example 1.
For the record of precipitation
from a recording gage for a
storm, for the period between
12:00 MN and 11:15 AM of the
same day, in increments of
0.25hr, develop the mass curve
and the rainfall hyetograph.
Determine the maximum intensity
rainfall in inches per hour.

Since the data given is already

cumulative, the mass curve is
simply the plot of the first column
with respect to the second
column.

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 The mass curve and hyetograph plots as,

In the rainfall hyetograph, rainfall intensity is computed by subtracting gage readings

and dividing them by the time interval. Consider the boxed data in the table,
( . . )
𝑖= = 1.6 𝑖𝑛/ℎ𝑟 This is rainfall intensity at 3:30 AM,
.

( . . )
𝑖= = 1.8 𝑖𝑛/ℎ𝑟 This is rainfall intensity at 3:45 AM,
.
From when measurement started at 12 MN, the accumulated rainfall over the duration of 0.25hr is
the difference between the cumulative readings (numerator) taken at this interval (denominator).

The maximum rainfall intensity of the storm is represented by the tallest bar in the
hyetograph which occurs at 4:00 AM.
(3.1 − 2.32)𝑖𝑛
𝑖 = = 3.12 𝑖𝑛/ℎ𝑟
0.25ℎ𝑟

The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) recommends the Rain Gauge Density as
follows:
 In flat areas of temperate, Mediterranean and tropical zones:
o 1 station for 600 – 900 sq. kms. (Ideal)
o 1 station for 900 – 3000 sq. kms. (Acceptable)

 In mountainous regions of temperate, Mediterranean and tropical zones:

o 1 station for 100 – 250 sq. kms. (Ideal)
o 1 station for 25 – 1000 sq. kms. (Acceptable)

 In arid and polar zones: 1 station for 1,500 – 10,000 sq.kms. Depending on the
feasibility

Ideally, at least 10% of installed rain gauges shall be self-recording type.

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 When a rain gauge is inoperable due to damage, missing data may be estimated by
the following methods:

1. The Inverse Distance Power Method

This based on weighted average of surrounding values. The weights are
reciprocals of the sum of squares of distances D, measured from the point of
missing data.
∑
𝑊= 𝐸𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑃 = ∑

Where 𝐷= distance measured between a station to the location of the station of missing
data, 𝑃 = gage readings at each station

2. The Arithmetic Mean

Used when normal annual precipitation is within 10% of the gauge for which
data are being reconstructed
𝑃 𝑃 + ⋯+ 𝑃
𝐸𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑃 =
𝑚

Where 𝑃 , 𝑃 … 𝑃 = known gage readings and 𝑚= number of neighbouring stations

considered whose data is used for estimation of missing rainfall.

3. The Normal Ratio Method

Calculations here are based on normal rainfall as a standard of comparison.
Normal rainfall is the average value of rainfall at a particular date, month or year
over a specified 30-yr period. This is also termed average annual precipitation at
a station based on a 30-year record.

When the normal annual precipitation at any of the index station differs from
that of the interpolation station by more than 10%, the missing gage reading is
taken as,
𝑁 𝑃 𝑃 𝑃
𝐸𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑃 = + + ⋯+
𝑚 𝑁 𝑁 𝑁

Where 𝑁 , 𝑁 , 𝑁 , 𝑁 = known normal rainfall in each stations, 𝑃 , 𝑃 … 𝑃 = known gage

readings and 𝑀= number of neighbouring stations considered whose data is used for
estimation of missing rainfall.

4. The Double Mass Curve

The double-mass curve may be used to estimate missing precipitation data. The
theory of the double-mass curve is based on the fact that a graph of the
cumulation of one quantity against the cumulation of another quantity during
the same period will plot as a straight line so long as the data are proportional;
the slope of the line will represent the constant of proportionality between the
quantities.

Checkout pp.30 to 40 of a publication accessible through this link for a simple example:
https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1541b/report.pdf

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 In order to characterize the response of a catchment area to a given precipitation
event, it is better to consider the areal distribution of average rainfall over a watershed
in a specified duration. In other words, we can convert point rainfall to areal rainfall by
the following methods.

The Arithmetic Mean Method

This is the simplest method of determining mean rainfall over a catchment. This is simply
the mean of point rainfalls from gages within the catchment.
𝑷𝑨 + 𝑷𝑩 + 𝑷𝑪 + ⋯ + 𝑷𝒏
𝑷𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏 =
𝒏

Illustrative Example 2. A watershed has a system of five

rainfall gages, as shown in the figure. Determine the
average rainfall over the watershed using the arithmetic
mean method.
To solve for 𝑃 , we consider gages within the
catchment at stations A, B, C and E.

𝑃 +𝑃 +𝑃 +𝑃 (0.55 + 0.87 + 2.33 + 1.89)𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠

𝑃 = =
𝑛 4 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑷𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟏 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒉𝒆𝒔

The Thiessen Polygon Method

This method allows for areal weighting of rainfall from each gage and the most widely
used of the three methods. Connecting lines are first drawn between stations followed
by perpendicular bisectors that define the Thiessen polygon around each gage. The
weight of each station’s rainfall is the ratio of the area of each polygon to the total
area of the watershed. Thus,
𝑃 = ∑ 𝒘𝒊 𝑃
𝑨
Where 𝒘𝒊 = 𝒊
𝑨𝑻

Illustrative Example 3. A watershed covering 23.6 mi2 has a

system of four adjacent rainfall gages as shown. Determine the
average rainfall over the watershed using the Thiessen polygon
method.

In order to use the formula for mean precipitation, we need to

define the Thiessen polygons.

To do this, we first plot the catchment area and locate

the rain gauge stations.

We then draw lines connecting each of the stations

together as shown with none intersecting.

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 Next, perpendicular bisectors are drawn between the
connecting lines. It should be noted that these bisectors
are between two stations and are perpendicular to the
lines connecting these.

By extending the bisectors and finding a common

intersection, the polygons are generated.

This shows the areal extent of each rain gage within the
catchment. Assuming that the table below gives the
estimated area,

Gage Area of Thiessen

Sta
Reading, in polygon, mi2
A 2.0 1.5
B 1.2 5.1
C 1.8 7.2
D 1.0 9.8

The mean precipitation over the catchment is computed by,

𝑃 = 𝒘𝒊 𝑃

Tabulating the solution,

Gage 𝑨𝒊
Area of Thiessen 𝒘𝒊 =
Sta Reading, 𝑨𝑻 𝒘𝒊 𝑷𝒊
polygon, mi2
in
1.5
A 2.0 1.5 𝑤 = = 0.0636 𝑤 𝑃 = (0.0636)(2.0𝑖𝑛) = 0.1270 𝑖𝑛
23.6
5.1
B 1.2 5.1 𝑤 = = 0.2161 𝑤 𝑃 = (0.2161)(1.2𝑖𝑛) = 0.2593 𝑖𝑛
23.6
7.2
C 1.8 7.2 𝑤 = = 0.3051 𝑤 𝑃 = (0.3051)(1.8𝑖𝑛) = 0.5492 𝑖𝑛
23.6
9.8
D 1.0 9.8 𝑤 = = 0.4153 𝑤 𝑃 = (0.4153)(1.0𝑖𝑛) = 0.4153 𝑖𝑛
23.6

23.6 𝑤 = ≈ 1.0 𝑃 = 𝒘𝒊 𝑷𝒊 = 1.3508 𝑖𝑛

This answer is fairly more accurate than the arithmetic mean computed as of 1.5 inches.

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 The Isohyetal Method
This method involves drawing contours of equal precipitation called isohyets and is the
most accurate. However, in order to draw isohyets accurately, an extensive gage
network is required. The rainfall calculation is based on finding the average rainfall
between each pair of contours, multiplying by the area between them, taking the sum
of the products, and then dividing by the total area. The formula is very similar to the
previous method except that instead of using point rainfall, the average between
isohyets is used.
𝑃 +𝑃
𝑃 =
2
𝑃 = 𝒘𝒊 𝑃

𝑨𝒊
where 𝒘𝒊 =
𝑨𝑻

Illustrative Example 4. Compute the average areal rainfall by the Isohyetal Method for
the catchment shown.

Zone Areas enclosed

by isohyets,
mi2
I 5.1
II 9.8
III 3.1
IV 5.6

To determine the mean precipitation,

Areas enclosed 𝑨𝒊
Zone by isohyets, 𝑷𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒘𝒊 = 𝒘𝒊 𝑷𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆
𝑨𝑻
mi2
2.0 + 1.8 5.1
I 5.1 = = 1.9𝑖𝑛 𝑤 = = 0.2161 = 0.2161(1.9") = 0.4106"
2 23.6
1.8 + 1.2 9.8
II 9.8 = = 1.5𝑖𝑛 𝑤 = = 0.4153 = 0.4153(1.5") = 0.6230"
2 23.6
1.2 + 1.0 3.1
III 3.1 = = 1.1𝑖𝑛 𝑤 = = 0.1314 = 0.1314(1.1") = 0.1445"
2 23.6
5.6
IV 5.6 1.0𝑖𝑛 𝑤 = = 0.2383 = 0.2383(1.0") = 0.2383"
23.6
23.6 𝑃 = 1.4164 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠

Again, in comparison with the arithmetic mean of 1.375”, the Isohyetal Method gives a
fairly more accurate answer of 1.4164 inches average rainfall over the catchment.

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 Try to work on the following problems for this unit in groups of two.

1. The table below lists rainfall data recorded at a USGS gage

for the storm of September 1, 1999. The basin area is 2050
acres. Using these data, develop a mass diagram (in vs. t)
and a rainfall hyetograph (in./hr vs. t) in 15-min intervals and
determine the time period with the highest intensity rainfall.

2. The shape of a drainage basin can be approximated by a polygon whose

vertices are located at the following coordinates:

(5, 5), (-5, 5), (-5, -5), (0, -10), and (5, -5)

The rainfall amounts of a storm were recorded by a number of rain gages

situated within and nearby the basin as follows:

All coordinates are expressed in kilometers. Determine the average rainfall on

the basin by (a) the arithmetic-mean method, (b) the Thiessen method, and (c)
the isohyetal method.

Hints: For the Thiessen method, begin by drawing a polygon around gage 9, then
draw polygons around gages 2, 3, 5, and 7.

For the Isohyetal method, draw the isohyets with maximum rainfall on a ridge
running southwest to northeast through (-3, -3). Set an isohyetal interval between
10 to 20mm.

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 If you have a laptop or computer, you may work on the Thiessen and Isohyetal
methods using AutoCAD, QGIS or ArcGIS to make area determination easier.

After completing your problem set, exchange solutions with another group. Focus on
the solution for problem No. 2. How were the Thiessen polygons drawn? Do you have
similar polygons? In the Isohyetal Method, what interval was used? Were the enclosed
areas between isohyets computed accurately? Are the values for mean precipitation
nearly the same between the three methods? Discuss your answers.

Make the needed adjustment if there are any and then turn in your work individually.

Accomplish the Unit Quiz.

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 UNIT 3: INFILTRATION

Consider a small container covered with wire gauze as shown in

the figure. If water is poured into the container a part of it will go
into the container and part overflows. Further, the container can
hold only a fixed quantity and when it is full no more flow into the
container can take place.

Infiltration can be schematically modelled in two situations. One is under low intensity
rainfall, and the other under high intensity rainfall.

Given these,

(a) If the rate of supply of

water at the surface is less
than the potential infiltration
rate then, the actual
infiltration rate will be less
than the potential.

(b) If water is ponded on

the surface, the infiltration
occurs at the potential
infiltration rate.

Most infiltration equations

are described by (b) where 𝑖
is always greater than 𝑓 .

Try to understand the infiltration that occurs in soil due to light rainfall and compare this
to when rain is continuous like during the monsoon season. Is there a difference? In the
models given above, can you differentiate what it means by actual and potential
infiltration?

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 Infiltration is the flow of water into the ground through the soil surface. Infiltration volume
is subtracted from a precipitation event in order to determine the net volume of rainfall,
or rainfall excess, which is equivalent to the direct runoff from a watershed area.

Factors that affect infiltration include:

1. condition of soil surface and vegetative cover
2. soil properties: porosity and hydraulic conductivity
3. current moisture content of soil
4. Soil strata with different physical properties may overlay each other forming
horizons. e.g. silt soil overlying a clay zone

The distribution of soil moisture within the soil profile during the downward movement of
water is illustrated by the figure below.

There are four moisture zones:

Zone 1: Saturated Zone - a thin layer near the surface

Zone 2: Transition Zone – shows the variation in moisture

content along the wetting front

Zone 3: Transmission Zone. MC is above FC but below SC;

Fairly uniform moisture content.

Zone 4: Wetting Zone. MC is near FC and decreases with

depth.
*MC = moisture content (amount of water in the soil), FC = field
capacity (amount of water that a soil can hold after excess has
drained away by gravity), SC = saturation capacity (level of soil
moisture where all voids are filled with water)

Horton (1933) showed that when the rainfall rate 𝑖

exceeds the infiltration rate 𝑓, water infiltrates the
surface soils at a rate that generally decreases
with time as shown by the figure.

He developed one of the earliest infiltration

equations where 𝑖 is always greater than 𝑓.

𝒇 = 𝒇𝒄 + (𝒇𝟎 − 𝒇𝒄 )𝒆 𝒌𝒕
Horton’s Equation

Where:
𝑓= infiltration capacity 𝑓 = initial infiltration capacity
𝑓 = final/ equilibrium infiltration capacity 𝑘=empirical constant

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 Illustrative example 1. The initial infiltration capacity of a watershed is estimated as 1.5
in./hr., and the time constant is taken to be 0.35/ hr. The equilibrium capacity is 0.2
in./hr. Use Horton’s equation to find (a) the values of 𝑓 at 𝑡 = 10 min, 30 min, 1 hr., 2 hrs.,
and 6 hrs., and (b) the total volume of infiltration over the 6-hr period.

We first identify the given parameters:

𝑓 = initial infiltration capacity = 1.5 in/hr.
𝑓 = final/ equilibrium infiltration capacity = 0.20 in/hr.
𝑘=empirical constant = 0.35/hr.

Substituting these in Horton’s equation, 𝑓 = 0.20 + (1.30)𝑒 .

(a) For the given time values,

Time, 𝒕 Infiltration capacity, 𝒇

10 mins = 0.1667 hr 𝑓 = 0.20 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑟 + 1.30 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑟 𝑒 . / ( . )
= 1.4263 𝑖𝑛/ℎ𝑟
30 mins = 0.5 hr 𝑓 = 0.20 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑟 + 1.30 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑟 𝑒 . / ( . )
= 1.2913 𝑖𝑛/ℎ𝑟
1 hr 𝑓 = 0.20 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑟 + 1.30 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑟 𝑒 . / ( ) = 1.1161 𝑖𝑛/ℎ𝑟
2 hr 𝑓 = 0.20 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑟 + 1.30 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑟 𝑒 . / ( )
= 0.8456 𝑖𝑛/ℎ𝑟
6 hr 𝑓 = 0.20 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑟 + 1.30 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑟 𝑒 . / ( )
= 0.3592 𝑖𝑛/ℎ𝑟

(b) If the values from (a) are plotted in a

curve, the total volume of infiltration
over the 6-hr period can be found
by finding the area under the curve
as shown.

Alternatively, this can also be

determined by integrating Horton’s
equation,
𝑓0 − 𝑓𝑐 This is the equation for the mass curve of infiltration
𝐹 =𝑓𝑡+ 1−𝑒 or cumulative infiltration volume
𝑘

(1.30)
𝐹 = 0.20 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑟 (6ℎ𝑟) + 1 − 𝑒−(0.35/ℎ𝑟)(6ℎ𝑟) 𝑭 = 𝟒. 𝟒𝟓𝟗𝟒 𝒊𝒏
0.35

To check,

𝐹 = 0.20 + (1.30)𝑒 .
𝑑𝑡 = 0.2𝑡 + (1.30 − 0.35)𝑒 . ]6
0

𝑭 = 𝟒. 𝟒𝟓𝟗𝟒 𝒊𝒏

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 Philip (1957), using analytical solutions for unsaturated flow, developed two
equations of the form,

𝑓 = 𝑆𝑡 +𝐾 and 𝐹 = 𝑆𝑡 + 𝐾𝑡 Philip’s Equations

Where: 𝑓= infiltration capacity

𝐹= cumulative infiltration volume
𝑆= sorptivity, a constant related to soil suction potential
𝐾 = soil hydraulic conductivity

A more advanced treatment of infiltration is

by the use of an analytical solution such as
the Green and Ampt infiltration model. It
represents the typical relationship between
moisture content and soil depth as a sharp
wetting front separating saturated moisture
content at the top of the soil column 𝜂 from
the initial moisture content at the column
base 𝜃 . The wetting front has penetrated to
a depth 𝐿 in time 𝑡 since infiltration began.
Water is ponded to a small depth ℎ on the
soil surface.

Considering the vertical column of soil of unit horizontal cross-sectional area between
the surface and depth L, the cumulative infiltration, the Green and Ampt equation for
cumulative infiltration is given by:
𝐹(𝑡)
𝐹(𝑡) = 𝐾𝑡 + 𝜓∆𝜃 ln 1 +
𝜓∆𝜃

and infiltration rate can be obtained by

𝜓∆𝜃
𝑓(𝑡) = 𝐾 +1
𝐹(𝑡)
Where: 𝑓= infiltration rate, 𝐾= hydraulic conductivity, 𝜓 = wetting front soil suction head and 𝐹 =
cumulative depth of water infiltrated into the soil, ∆𝜃 = moisture deficit;

where ∆𝜃 = (1 − 𝑠 )𝜃 ,
𝑠 = effective saturation and, 𝜃 = 𝜂 − 𝜃 is effective porosity

In 1983, Rawls, Brakensiek, and Miller used the Brooks-Corey equation to analyze
approximately 5000 soil horizons across the United States and determined average
values of the Green-Ampt parameters for different soil classes.

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 It can be seen in that as the soil particles get finer, from sands to clays, the saturated
hydraulic conductivity Ks decreases, the average wetting front suction c increases
(negatively), and porosity us is variable.

Illustrative example 2. Compute the infiltration rate 𝑓(𝑡) and cumulative infiltration 𝐹(𝑡)
after one hour of infiltration into a silt loam soil that initially had an effective saturation of
30 percent. Assume water is ponded to a small but negligible depth on the surface.

We can take the Green-Ampt parameters from the table as follows:

The initial effective saturation 𝑠 = 0.30, 𝜃 = 0.486, 𝜓 = 16.68 𝑐𝑚 & 𝐾 = 0.65

We solve for ∆𝜃 = (1 − 𝑠 )𝜃 = (1 − 0.30)(0.486) = 0.3402 so that

𝜓∆𝜃 = 16.68(0.3402) = 5.6745𝑐𝑚

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 The cumulative infiltration at 𝑡 = 1 ℎ𝑟 is determined from the equation,
𝐹(𝑡)
𝐹(𝑡) = 𝐾𝑡 + 𝜓∆𝜃 ln 1 +
𝜓∆𝜃
𝐹(𝑡)
𝐹(𝑡) = 0.65 𝑐𝑚 ℎ𝑟 (1ℎ𝑟) + (5.6745𝑐𝑚) ln 1 +
5.6745𝑐𝑚
𝑭(𝒕) = 𝟑. 𝟏𝟔𝟓𝟔 𝒄𝒎

The infiltration rate after 𝑡 = 1 ℎ𝑟 is then obtained from,

𝜓∆𝜃 5.6745𝑐𝑚
𝑓(𝑡) = 𝐾 + 1 = 0.65 𝑐𝑚 ℎ𝑟 1 + = 1.8152 𝑐𝑚/ℎ𝑟
𝐹(𝑡) 3.1656 𝑐𝑚

The infiltration methods discussed above uses the assumption that water is ponded to a
small depth on the soil surface so all the water that the soil can infiltrate is available at
the surface. However, this ponding only results when the rainfall intensity is greater than
the infiltration capacity of the soil.

The ponding time t is defined as the time

elapsed between when rainfall begins
and the time water begins to pond on the
soil surface. The figure shows the variation
in moisture profile before, during and after
ponding time occurs.

Mein and Larson (1973) presented a

method for determining the ponding time
with infiltration into the soil described by
the Green-Ampt equation for rainfall of
intensity 𝑖 starting instantaneously and
continuing indefinitely. This involves the following concepts:

1. prior to the time ponding occurs, all the rainfall is infiltrated

2. the potential infiltration rate is a function of the cumulative infiltration F
3. ponding occurs when the potential infiltration rate is less than or equal to the
rainfall intensity

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 Infiltration rate 𝑓(𝑡) and cumulative infiltration
𝐹(𝑡) are related by the Green-Ampt equation by,
𝜓∆𝜃
𝑓(𝑡) = 𝐾 +1
𝐹(𝑡)
The figure shows that cumulative infiltration at
ponding time 𝐹 is equal to

𝐹 = 𝑖𝑡 and 𝑓 = 𝑖,

Where 𝑖 = rainfall intensity, 𝑡 = ponding

time, and 𝑓 = infiltration rate

So that substituting these in 𝑓(𝑡),

𝜓∆𝜃
𝑖=𝐾 +1
𝑖𝑡

and solving for 𝑡

𝑲𝝍∆𝜽
𝒕𝒑 =
𝒊(𝒊 − 𝑲)

Illustrative example 3. Compute the ponding time and the depth of water infiltrated at
ponding for a silt loam soil of 30 percent initial effective saturation, subject to rainfall
intensity of 5 cm/h.

Since the parameters given are the same as in illustrative example 3, we may use the
values for
𝐾 = 0.65 𝑐𝑚 ℎ𝑟 and 𝜓∆𝜃 = 5.6745
In solving for the ponding time,
𝑐𝑚
𝐾𝜓∆𝜃 0.65 𝑐𝑚 ℎ𝑟 5.6745
𝑡 = = ℎ𝑟 = 0.1696 ℎ𝑟 (≈ 10.1760 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑠)
𝑖(𝑖 − 𝐾) 𝑐𝑚 𝑐𝑚 𝑐𝑚
5 5 − 0.65
ℎ𝑟 ℎ𝑟 ℎ𝑟
This means that it takes 10.1760 minutes to saturate the soil.

For the depth of water infiltrated,

𝑐𝑚
𝐹 = 𝑖𝑡 = 5 (0.1696 ℎ𝑟) = 0.8479 𝑐𝑚
ℎ𝑟
This is the ponding depth required to produce saturation.

In this case, the infiltration rate 𝑓(𝑡) is equal to rainfall intensity 𝑖 at ponding.

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 However, after ponding 𝑡 > 𝑡 , the infiltration depth increases exponentially
according to this equation,
𝜓∆𝜃 + 𝐹
𝐹 − 𝐹 − 𝜓∆𝜃 ln =𝐾 𝑡−𝑡
𝜓∆𝜃 + 𝐹

where infiltration depth varies with time. Only the cumulative infiltration is unknown at at
any time after ponding. The infiltration rate is later obtained using the equation,

𝜓∆𝜃
𝑓(𝑡) = 𝐾 +1
𝐹(𝑡)

Illustrative example 4. Calculate the cumulative infiltration 𝐹 and the infiltration rate 𝑓
after one hour (𝑡 = 1 ℎ𝑟) of rainfall of intensity 5 cm/hr on a silt loam soil with an initial
effective saturation of 30 percent.
Since the parameters given are the same as in illustrative examples 3 and 4, we may use
the values for

𝐾 = 0.65 𝑐𝑚 ℎ𝑟, 𝜓∆𝜃 = 5.6745 , 𝑡 = 0.1696 ℎ𝑟 and 𝐹 = 0.8479 𝑐𝑚

Substituting,
𝜓∆𝜃 + 𝐹
𝐹 − 𝐹 − 𝜓∆𝜃 ln =𝐾 𝑡−𝑡
𝜓∆𝜃 + 𝐹
𝑐𝑚
𝑐𝑚 5.6745 +𝐹
𝐹 − 0.8479 𝑐𝑚 − 5.6745 ln ℎ𝑟 = 0.65 𝑐𝑚 ℎ𝑟 (1 − 0.1696 ℎ𝑟)
ℎ𝑟 𝑐𝑚
5.6745 + 0.8479 𝑐𝑚
ℎ𝑟

𝑭 = 𝟑. 𝟎𝟏𝟔𝟓 𝒄𝒎
This is the cumulative infiltration (depth) after an hour of rainfall of intensity of 5 cm/hrl.

The infiltration rate is obtained as,

𝑐𝑚
𝜓∆𝜃 5.6745
𝑓(𝑡) = 𝐾 + 1 = 0.65 𝑐𝑚 ℎ𝑟
𝐹(𝑡) ℎ𝑟 𝟑. 𝟎𝟏𝟔𝟓 𝒄𝒎 + 1 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟕𝟐𝟕 𝒄𝒎/𝒉𝒓

Comparing the results in example number 2 and 4, the infiltration depth obtained under
continuous ponding is more than the infiltrated depth after an hour of 5cm/hr of rainfall. This is
because of the time it took for ponding to occur in the first 0.1696 hr and during this period, the
infiltration rate is also less than its potential value.

𝒇(𝒕) = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟏𝟓𝟐 𝒄𝒎
Under continuous ponding 𝑭 = 𝟑. 𝟏𝟔𝟓𝟔 𝒄𝒎
/𝒉𝒓
Under 1 hr of 5cm/hr rainfall 𝐹 = 3.0165 𝑐𝑚 𝑓(𝑡) = 1.8727 𝑐𝑚/ℎ𝑟

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 Another infiltration method is the use of
the ∅-index. It assumes that infiltration loss
is uniformly distributed across the rainfall
pattern where the area above the ∅-
index sums to the volume of direct runoff
and the area below sums to the volume
of infiltration loss.

Illustrative example 5. Use the rainfall data below to determine the ∅-index for a
watershed that is 0.875 square miles, where the runoff volume is 228.7 ac-ft.

Infiltration when taken away from precipitation is equal to the direct runoff from a watershed
area, 𝑃 − 𝐼 = 𝑅. This may be written as,

(𝑖 − ∅)∆𝑡 = 𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ

Where: 𝑖 = rainfall intensity, ∅ = infiltration index and ∆𝑡= time interval.

Given the runoff volume of 228.7 ac-ft, its equivalent depth can be computed by
dividing it the runoff volume with the watershed area,
228.7 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑡
𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ = = 0.4084 𝑓𝑡 ≈ 4.9007 𝑖𝑛
640 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑠
0.875𝑚𝑖 ×
𝑚𝑖
Substituting this in our first equation,

(𝑖 − ∅)∆𝑡 = 4.9007 𝑖𝑛

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 We can now determine the ∅-index by trial and error. In choosing a starting point, it is
logical to choose any of the rainfall intensities.

Say we start with a ∅-index = 1.1 in/hr,

(1.4 − ∅)2ℎ𝑟 + (2.3 − ∅)3ℎ𝑟 + (1.1 − ∅)2ℎ𝑟 + (0.7 − ∅)3ℎ𝑟 + (0.3 − ∅)2ℎ𝑟 = 4.9007 𝑖𝑛
Note that when the assumed ∅-index is greater that rainfall 𝑖, the term is cancelled out. This is
because it is assumed that 𝑖′𝑠 did not generate any runoff, thus fully infiltrated into the soil. In this
case we remove the 3rd, 4th and 5th terms in the equation that correspond to intensities less than 1.1
in/hr.

The first trial yields a ∅-index of 0.9599 in/hr. But since it is not equal to the original
assumption of 1.1 in/hr., another iteration is needed.

We can use the outcome of the first iteration as the starting point of the next iteration
such that we remove the 4th and 5th terms (since they correspond to intensities less
than 0.9599 in/hr.)
(1.4 − ∅)2ℎ𝑟 + (2.3 − ∅)3ℎ𝑟 + (1.1 − ∅)2ℎ𝑟 + (0.7 − ∅)3ℎ𝑟 + (0.3 − ∅)2ℎ𝑟 = 4.9007 𝑖𝑛

The second trial yields a ∅-index of 0.9999 in/hr ≠ 0.9599 in/hr (from the 1st iteration)

With a ∅-index = 0.9999 in/hr., the equation remains the same which means that
(1.4 − ∅)2ℎ𝑟 + (2.3 − ∅)3ℎ𝑟 + (1.1 − ∅)2ℎ𝑟 + (0.7 − ∅)3ℎ𝑟 + (0.3 − ∅)2ℎ𝑟 = 4.9007 𝑖𝑛

It gives us the same ∅-index of 0.999 in/hr. This is the closest approximation of the
infiltration index ∅.

Plotting the ∅-index against the

rainfall hyetograph gives us the
boundary between infiltration
losses and rainfall excess
(surface runoff. The duration of
rainfall excess (direct runoff) is
also shown equal to 7 hours
long.

The total depth of infiltration is equal to

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑤 ∅ 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 1 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑟 7ℎ𝑟 + 0.7 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑟 3ℎ𝑟 + 0.3 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑟 2ℎ𝑟 = 9.70 𝑖𝑛

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 The volume of infiltration losses can easily be estimated by solving the shaded area
under the plot of the ∅-index, and multiplying by the watershed area.
𝑓𝑡 640 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑠
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 9.70 𝑖𝑛 × × 0.875𝑚𝑖 × = 452.6667 𝑎𝑐. 𝑓𝑡
12𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖
To check, the runoff volume should be equal to the shaded area above the ∅-index
line multiplied by the watershed area.

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 ∅ 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 1.4 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑟 − 1 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑟 2ℎ𝑟 + 2.3 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑟 − 1 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑟 3ℎ𝑟 + 1.1 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑟 − 1 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑟 2ℎ𝑟 = 4.9 𝑖𝑛

𝑓𝑡 640 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑠
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑢𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑓𝑓 = 4.90 𝑖𝑛 × × 0.875𝑚𝑖 × = 228.6667 𝑎𝑐. 𝑓𝑡
12𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖

This value checks with the given runoff.

EFFECT OF INFILTRATION

The effect of infiltration is to:

1. reduce flood magnitude
2. delay the time of arrival of water to the channel
3. reduce the soil erosion
4. recharge to the ground water reservoir
5. fill the soil pores with water to its field-capacity, which subsequently supply water
to the plants
6. avail the ground water during the non-rain periods in the channels
7. help to supply water to plants

FACTORS AFFECTING INFILTRATION

Factors affecting infiltration depend on both meteorological and soil medium

characteristics. These are:
• Surface Entry
• Percolation
• Antecedent Moisture Condition
• Rainfall Intensity and Duration
• Human Activities
• Depletion of Ground Water Table
• Quality of Water

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 Methods of measuring Infiltration

 Flooding type infiltrometers - used to measure the rate of water infiltration into soil
or other porous media

Check out the video on the use of infiltrometer from this link
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PYvfTxQhbOQ

 Measurement of subsidence of free water in a large basin or pond.

 Rainfall simulator

 Hydrograph analysis

Answer the following problems with your choice of study mate:

1. A 5-hr storm over a 15-ac basin produces a 5-in. rainfall: 1.2 in./hr for the first hour,
2.1 in./hr for the second hour, 0.9 in./hr for the third hour, and 0.4 in./hr for the last
2 hr. Determine the infiltration that would result from the Horton model with 𝑘 =
1.1/hr, 𝑓 = 0.2 in./hr, and 𝑓 = 0.9 in./hr. Plot the overland flow for this condition in
in./hr vs. t.

2. Parameters in Philip's equation for a clay soil are S = 45 cm-h-1/2 and K = 10 cm/h.
Determine the cumulative infiltration and the infiltration rate at 0.5-hour
increments for a 3-hour period. Plot both as functions of time. Plot the infiltration
rate as a function of the cumulative infiltration. Assume continuously ponded
conditions.

3. For a sandy loam soil, calculate the infiltration rate (cm/h) and depth of
infiltration (cm) after one hour if the effective saturation is initially 40 percent,

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 using the Green-Ampt method. Assume continuously ponded conditions.

4. Compute the ponding time and cumulative infiltration at ponding for a clay
loam soil with a 25 percent initial effective saturation subject to a rainfall intensity
of 1 cm/hr.

5. A storm with 10 cm precipitation produced a direct runoff of 5.8 cm. The

duration of the rainfall was 16 hours and its distribution is given below:

Take note that the rainfall data given is cumulative.

Accomplish your Unit Quiz.

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 UNIT 4: EVAPORATION

Pre-assessment Quiz. For the following, write T if the statement is true and F is false.
____ 1. Water lost through evaporation and transpiration is in the form of water vapor.
____ 2. Transpiration occurs only in the daytime.
____ 3. Evaporation continues all day and all night at a constant rate.
____ 4. Evaporation stops when air is fully saturated.
____ 5. Water intercepted by plant leaves that turn to water vapor still comprise
transpiration.

Click the link below for supplemental reading on evaporation.

https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/evaporation-and-water-cycle?qt-
science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects

Evaporation is the process by which liquid water from water bodies (rivers, ponds, lakes)
or soil is converted to vapor. It is commonly expressed in mm/h or in/hr.

Water molecules in a water body are tightly held by intermolecular forces. In

evaporation, energy is consumed to overcome these forces and move the molecules
away. The energy required to move to the vapor form is called the latent heat of
vaporization (λ). Its value is about 2.5 MJ/kg; this also depends upon temperature and is
computed by

𝜆 = 2.501 − 0.00236𝑇 where 𝑇= temperature in degrees Celsius

The figure shows that under normal conditions, there is

a regular exchange of molecules between a water
body and the atmosphere.

The rate at which water is converted into vapor is called the rate of vaporization. While
the rate at which water vapor is converted to liquid water, is called the rate of
condensation.

When the vapor pressure is low, vaporization takes place, and so does evaporation. If
the rate of vaporization equals condensation, the air is saturated and evaporation
stops. The difference between saturated vapor pressure (eS) and vapor pressure of the

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 air (ea) determines the rate of evaporation. As this difference increases, evaporation
also increases, and vice versa.

Evapotranspiration (ET) is considered separately as the combined loss of water vapor

from the surface of plants (transpiration) and the evaporation of moisture from soil.

Factors that affect evaporation in open water include solar radiation, temperature of
the water and air, difference in vapor pressure between water and the overlying air,
and wind speed across the lake.

The amount of water evaporated from a water surface is estimated by the following
methods: (a) using evaporimeter data, (b) empirical formulas and (c) analytical
formulas

(a) Evaporimeters are water-containing pans exposed to the atmosphere wherein loss
of water is monitored at regular intervals. Examples of these are

Each pan has a coefficient given by Cp, so that lake evaporation is estimated as,

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 (b) Empirical Equations commonly used meteorological data. Some formulas are
enumerated below:

Dalton’s Law of Evaporation where:

𝐸 lake evaporation in mm/day
𝐾 a coefficient
𝑬𝑳 = 𝑲 𝒇(𝒖) (𝒆𝒘 − 𝒆𝒂 ) 𝑓(𝑢) wind speed correction factor
𝑒 saturated vapor pressure at water surface temperature in mm
Hg
𝑒 actual vapor pressure of overlying air at a specified height in
mm Hg

Meyer’s Formula where:

𝒖𝟗 𝐸 lake evaporation in mm/day
𝑬𝑳 = 𝑲𝑴 (𝒆𝒘 − 𝒆𝒂 )(𝟏 + ) 𝐾 coefficient (0.36 for large deep waters, 0.50 for small, shallow
𝟏𝟔
waters)
𝑒 saturated vapor pressure at water surface temperature in mm
Hg
𝑒 actual vapor pressure of overlying air at a specified height in
mm Hg
𝑢 monthly mean wind velocity in km/hr at about 9m above
ground
* At the lower part of the atmosphere, wind velocity can be
assumed to follow the 1/7 power law,
𝑢 = 𝐶ℎ ⁄

Rohwer’s Formula 𝑬𝑳 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟕𝟏(𝟏. 𝟒𝟔𝟓 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟕𝟑𝟐𝒑𝒂 )(𝟎. 𝟒𝟒 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟑𝟑𝒖𝟎 )(𝒆𝒘 − 𝒆𝒂 )

where:
𝐸 lake evaporation in mm/day
𝑒 saturated vapor pressure at water surface temperature in mm Hg
𝑒 actual vapor pressure of overlying air at a specified height in mm Hg
𝑝 mean barometric reading in mm of Hg
𝑢 monthly mean wind velocity in km/hr at 0.6 m above ground

(c) Analytical Methods include the water budget, energy budget and mass transfer
methods

Between the three approaches, analytical methods can provide good results.
However, they involve parameters that are difficult to assess. Empirical equations can at
best give approximate values of the correct order of magnitude. In view of the above,
pan measurements find wide acceptance in practice.

1. A sunken pan was set-up adjacent to a lake. The depth of water in the pan at
the beginning of the week was 195mm. In that week, there was rainfall of 45mm and
15mm of water was removed from the pan to keep the water level within the specified
depth range. If the depth of water in the pan at the end of the week was 190mm,
calculate the pan evaporation. Using a pan coefficient of 0.78, estimate the lake
evaporation in that week.

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 2. The monthly pan evaporation measured in a lake for the month of January was
16.7 cm. If the average water surface area is 2.55 km2 , estimate the evaporation loss
that month in cubic meters if the pan coefficient is 0.70?

Accomplish the Unit Quiz

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 Individual Coursework:
Journal Paper Review in CE 3141 Hydrology

Look for a journal article published within year 2006 to present. The journal paper/
article should be on case studies of engineering projects that failed due to improper
assessment of hydrologic aspects such as failure of hydraulic structures: dams, levees,
dikes; flooding, water shortage, saline intrusion, etc.

Browse on open access journal internet sites or on e-sources from the SLU library on the
topic you chose. Download the journal/ research article. Please do not purchase the
journal/ research article, it is not necessary.
Make sure that you are not reviewing the same paper as any of your classmates. To
facilitate this, an enlistment will be posted on the Google classroom to collect your
name and the title of the journal you intend to review. The sooner you have one, the
better.

The requirement is to critique and review the journal article. Below is a suggested step-
by-step procedure on how you could accomplish this successfully.

1. Read the article.

This is usually a short read. Start by just reading the abstract, introductory statements of
each paragraph and then the conclusions.

2. Read the article again.

This time, read the entire article, reread it several times until you get the gist of the
paper. When you are ready, start taking down notes on the essential parts and
highlights. You may need to do additional research and reading to understand these as
you are required to comment and have your own opinions on the article and the topic.

3. Try to rewrite the article in your own words.

Do not copy the article verbatim. Review your notes and delete items you deem
unnecessary.

4. Compose your journal review.

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 Contents of your paper:

INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY:

 Name(s) of the author(s), Title of article, Title of journal, volume number, date,
month and page numbers, doi number
 Statement of the problem or issue discussed
 The author’s purpose, approach or methods, hypothesis, and major conclusions.

CRITIQUE
This contains your personal opinion on the journal/ research article. Include how well it
was written and what you were able to learn from reviewing the article; comment on
the importance of hydrology in the field of application in the journal; state your
arguments if any, specify if you agree with the author’s methods in comparison to what
you know about it; and lastly, what benefit did you get from reading the article? Take
note that this is the essence of your review. This should be 60% of your report.

CONCLUSION
Summarize the main points and the critique about the paper. This should tie-up your
journal/ research article review. This should only be 10% of your report.

Integrity Pledge

(All parts of your journal/ research article review shall be in narrative form, only relevant
figures/ tables or graphs may be included.)

The CE3141 course will be culminated by a 3 to 5 minute presentation of the journal you
reviewed.

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 MODULE 2 – Hydrological Analysis
UNIT 1: BASIC SUBSURFACE FLOW

Go to the link below for a pre-assessment quiz on groundwater.

https://water.usgs.gov/edu/activity-tf-groundwater.html

Read and understand the explanation for each statement in the pre-assessment quiz.
This should give you a good background on groundwater hydrology concepts.

Ground water is an important

source of water supply for
municipalities, agriculture, and
industry. It may be
characterized according to
vertical distribution, indicating
the main divisions of subsurface
water as shown.

In the zone of aeration, soil

pores are partially filled with
water. It is bounded by the
ground surface and water
table. Its three subzones are the:

1. Soil Water Zone – major root band of vegetation; varies with soil type and
vegetation, water content depends primarily on recent exposure to rain and
infiltration.
2. Vadose/ unsaturated zone
3. Capillary zone/ fringe – extends from the water table to the limit of capillary rise

The water table is defined as the level to which water will rise in a well drilled into the
saturated zone, which divides the unsaturated zone from the saturated zone.

In the zone of saturation, all pores of the water are filled with water. For most aquifers,
porosity, expressed as the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume, ranges from
25% to 35% for most aquifer systems. Water can be removed from the saturated zone by
drainage or by pumping from a well.

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 There are four types of aquifer systems or saturated formations:

An aquifer is a formation that contains sufficient An aquitard is a saturated, low permeability

permeable material to yield significant quantities of stratum, such as a silty clay, that may leak water
water to wells and springs. It is generally areally from one aquifer to another. It is a formation
extensive and may be overlain or underlain by through which only seepage is possible and thus
confining beds. It transmits water relatively easily the yield is insignificant compared to an aquifer. It is
due to its high permeability. is partly permeable.
i.e. unconsolidated deposits of sand and gravel i.e. sandy clay

An aquiclude is saturated and is a relatively

impermeable confining unit that might act as
a confining layer above or below an aquifer An aquifuge is a geological formation that is
neither porous nor permeable. It has no
system. It may be considered as closed to
interconnected openings and hence it cannot
water movement even though it may contain transmit water.
large amounts of water due to its high
porosity. i.e. massive compact rock without any fractures

i.e. clay

Aquifers are further classified as confined or unconfined.

Confined aquifer/ Unconfined/
artesian well water table aquifer
Confined between two  A free water surface
impervious layers exists.
(aquitards/ aquifuges)
 Recharge takes place
Recharge takes place through infiltration of
only in areas exposed precipitation on the
to the ground surface. ground surface.

Water is under pressure  A well driven into an

therefore its unconfined aquifer will
piezometric level is indicate a static water
much higher than the level corresponding to
top level of the aquifer. the water table at that
location.

Henri Darcy investigated the flow of water through beds of permeable sand and
established the hydraulic principles of the movement of ground water. Darcy’s law
states that “the flow rate through porous media is proportional to the head loss and
inversely proportional to the length of the flow path.”

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 This forms the basis for the governing ground water flow equations applied to well
hydraulics and ground water hydrology.

This was Darcy’s experimental set-up for

determining head loss in a sand column. Applying
Bernoulli’s energy equation yields,
𝑝 𝑣 𝑝 𝑣
+ +𝑧 = + +𝑧 +ℎ
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔

Sinnce velocity in the porous media is very low, the

equation is reduced to
𝑝 𝑝
ℎ = +𝑧 − +𝑧
𝛾 𝛾

Darcy related flow rate to head loss and length of column through a proportionality
constant referred to as K, the hydraulic conductivity, or the measure of the ability of the
porous media to transmit water. Darcy’s law can be stated as,

𝑄 𝑑ℎ
𝑉= = −𝐾
𝐴 𝑑𝐿

The negative sign indicates that the direction of flow

is in the direction of decreasing head.

Since the actual flow is limited to the pore channels of the porous medium only, the
seepage velocity 𝑉 is defined as the ratio of Darcy’s velocity by porosity 𝑛,
𝑄
𝑉 =
𝐴𝑛

It should be noted that Darcy’s law applies to laminar flow in porous media, for
Reynolds numbers less than 1 and perhaps as high as 10. Thus, it turns out to be
applicable in most ground systems.

Transmissivity, T is a term often used in ground water hydraulics as applied to confined

aquifers. It is defined as the product of K and the average saturated thickness of the
aquifer, B.

Hydraulic conductivity K is usually expressed in m/day (ft/day), and transmissivity T in

m2/day (ft2 /day).

The table below shows the variation in hydraulic conductivity, K for various materials

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 WELLS form the most important mode of groundwater extraction from an aquifer. If a
well penetrates an extensive homogenous isotropic aquifer in which the water table is
initially horizontal, a circular depression in the water table must develop when the well is
pumped since no flow could take place without gradient toward the well. This
depression is called a cone of depression, and the drop in water level s is called the
drawdown.

The analysis of flow towards such a

well was given by Dupuit (1863).

DUPUIT’S ASSUMPTIONS
1. For small inclinations of the free
surface, the streamlines can be assumed
to be horizontal and the equipotentials
are thus vertical.
2. The hydraulic gradient is equal to
the slope of the free surface and does
not vary with depth. This assumption is
satisfactory in most of the flow regions
except in the immediate neighborhood
of the well.

CASE I: Steady Radial Flow to a Well—Confined

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 𝑄 = 2𝜋𝐾𝑏 𝑇 = 𝐾𝑏 = ( )
𝑙𝑛

CASE II: Steady Radial Flow to a Well—Unconfined

𝑄 = 𝜋𝐾 𝐾= 𝑙𝑛

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 Try to apply the well formulas to the following problems. The challenge is identifying the
given parameters correctly into the reference figure and making sure that the
dimensions are consistent.

1. A well is constructed to pump water from a confined aquifer. Two observation

wells, MW1 and MW2, are constructed at distances of 100 m and 1000 m,
respectively. Water is pumped from the pumping well at a rate of 0.2 m3 /min. At
steady state, drawdown s is observed as 2 m in MW2 and 8 m in MW1. Note that
drawdown is greater (8 m) for well MW1 located closest to the pumping well.
Determine the hydraulic conductivity K and transmissivity T if the aquifer is 20 m
thick.

2. A fully penetrating well discharges 75 GPM from an unconfined aquifer. The

original water table was recorded as 35 ft. After a long time period the water
table was recorded as 20 ft MSL in an observation well located 75 ft away and
34 ft MSL at an observation well located 2000 ft away. Determine the hydraulic
conductivity of this aquifer in ft/s.

Accomplish the Unit Quiz.

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 UNIT 2: RAINFALL-RUNOFF RELATION

This is the Laoag River Basin. Notice the

boundary of the catchment area and the
direction to which it drains. When a rainfall
event occurs over the catchment, water
drains by gravity from the highest elevation,
the “ridge”, confluences to the tributaries
and finally drains to the main river channel
that lead out to the sea.

Stream flow measurement, also referred to as stream gauging, is usually done to

establish baseline data. Historical data allows us to forecast potential effects of such
flow, especially when they extreme or out of the ordinary. An example would be in
establishing flood levels downstream of a river, for certain rainfall intensities. This is also
data needed for engineers in designing flood control structures such as levees and
dikes, bridges, riverbank protection, etc. in terms of their minimum required heights.

Browse the uploaded file on the DPWH Stream Flow Measurement Manual in the
Google classroom or check your USB-OTG for the reading material.

Picture the response of the

watershed/ catchment area to a
rainfall event as given in the figure.
The normal distribution curve
beside the catchment represents
rainfall.

Share your thoughts in 3

sentences.

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 A stream flow/ discharge hydrograph is a graph showing the flow rate as a function of
time at a given location on a stream. It is an integral expression of the physiographic
and climatic characteristics that govern the relations between rainfall and runoff of a
particular drainage basin (Chow, 1959)

There are two types of hydrographs: (a) annual and (b) storm hydrographs

Annual Hydrograph  a plot of stream flow vs. time over a year. Typical examples of
annual hydrograph are shown below.

Hydrograph for a perennial stream

It is evident that the flow regime is
continuous over the entire year. Spikes
in the hydrograph usually indicate
direct runoff/ excess rainfall while the
lows represent base flow (during
rainless periods). The total volume
under the annual hydrograph is
referred to as the basin yield.

Hydrograph for an intermittent stream

It shows that the flow is seasonal. These
are also referred to as runoff rivers as it
is fed by runoff. The hydrograph shows
a certain period in the year when
stream flow does not exist.

Hydrograph for an ephemeral stream

Flow in arid climate is usually
ephemeral. As there are long periods
of no rain rivers get really dry. On the
onset of rain, rainwater becomes direct
runoff and little infiltration occurs.

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 Storm hydrograph  - Peak stream flows are a
result of storm rainfall. The plot has four
components as shown.

The flow/ discharge reflected on the storm

hydrograph is usually made up of various
contributing flows. The channel may contain
base flow which is produced from soil moisture
and groundwater.

The total storm hydrograph consists generally of

direct runoff and base flow. Base flow can be separated by the following methods to
derive the Direct Runoff Hydrograph.

(a) Straight Line Method

- Involves drawing a horizontal line
from the point at which the
surface runoff begins to
intersection with the recession limb
- Applicable to ephemeral streams

(b) Fixed Base Method

- Surface runoff is assumed to end a
fixed time N after the hydrograph
peak.
- the base flow before surface
runoff began is projected to the
time of the peak, and then
projected on the recession limb at
time N after the peak.

(c) Variable Slope Method

- The base flow curve before surface runoff is extrapolated forward to the time of peak
discharge, and then the base flow curve after surface runoff ceases is extrapolated
backward to the point of inflection on the recession limb. A straight line is used to
connect the endpoint of the extrapolated curves.

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 A typical storm hydrograph is a simple plot of 𝑄 vs 𝑡. The main timing aspects of the
hydrograph can be characterized by the following parameters:

1. Duration of rainfall excess (D): the

time from start to finish of rainfall
excess.
2. Lag time (tp): the time from the
center of mass of rainfall excess to
the peak of the hydrograph.
3. Time of rise (TR): the time from the
start of rainfall excess to the peak
of the hydrograph.
4. Time of concentration (tc): the time
for a wave (of water) to
propagate from the most distant
point in the watershed to the
outlet. One estimate is the time
from the end of net rainfall to the
inflection point of the hydrograph.
5. Time base (Tb): the total duration of
the DRO hydrograph.

Illustrative Problem 1. Determine the DRH assuming an initial baseflow of 400cfs, the ∅-
index, and the ERH from the observed rainfall and streamflow data given in the table.
The watershed is 7.03 sq.mi.

Step 1. To determine the DRH, we can use the

Straight-Line Method of base flow separation as it
is assumed to be constant at BF = 400 cfs. We can
also plot the DRH coordinates by subtracting the
BF from each stream flow coordinate. The area
below the DRH is equal to the volume of runoff.

Step 2. We plot the rainfall hyetograph and then

using the DR computed in 1, we can determine
the ∅-index by trial and error.

Step 3. The plot of the ERH is simply the rainfall

hyetograph less the infiltration losses set by the ∅–
index in step 2.

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 Step 1. The plot of the DRH.

The ordinates of the DRH are tabulated as follows:

Step 2. Each observed rainfall shall be divided by the time interval of 0.5hr to get the
rainfall intensity 𝑖. Thus,

Time 8:30 9:00 9:30 10:00 10:30 11:00 11:30

Observed rainfall, in 0.15 0.26 1.33 2.20 2.08 0.20 0.09
Rainfall Intensity, in/hr. 0.30 0.52 2.66 4.40 4.16 0.40 0. 18

The plot of the rainfall hyetograph is as shown.

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 To establish an equation for determining the ∅-index, we need compute the depth of
direct runoff. The area under the DRH may be taken as the sum of the ordinates
multiplied by the time interval.
𝑓𝑡 3600𝑠
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑅 = 43550 𝑠 0.5 ℎ𝑟 × = 78390000 𝑓𝑡
ℎ𝑟
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 78390000 𝑓𝑡 12𝑖𝑛
𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑜𝑓𝑓 = = × = 4.7998 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 ≈ 4.80 𝑖𝑛
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 5280𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡
7.03𝑚𝑖 ×
𝑚𝑖

From, ∑(𝑖 − ∅)∆𝑡 = 𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ

(0.30 − ∅)0.5ℎ𝑟 + (0.52 − ∅)0.5ℎ𝑟 + (2.66 − ∅)0.5ℎ𝑟 + (4.40 − ∅)0.5ℎ𝑟 + (4.16 − ∅)0.5ℎ𝑟
+ (0.40 − ∅)0.50ℎ𝑟 + (0.018 − ∅)0.5ℎ𝑟 = 4.80𝑖𝑛

Assuming a ∅-index of 0.5 in/hr,

(0.52 − ∅)0.5ℎ𝑟 + (2.66 − ∅)0.5ℎ𝑟 + (4.40 − ∅)0.5ℎ𝑟 + (4.16 − ∅)0.5ℎ𝑟 = 4.80 𝑖𝑛

Take note that all 𝑖 < ∅-index are removed from the equation.

The first trial gives us a ∅-index value of 0.535 in/ hr.

Assuming a ∅-index = 0.54 in/hr.

(2.66 − ∅)0.5ℎ𝑟 + (4.40 − ∅)0.5ℎ𝑟 + (4.16 − ∅)0.5ℎ𝑟 = 4.80 𝑖𝑛

The second trial gives us a ∅-index value of 0.54 in/ hr. We therefore adopt this value.

Reflecting the ∅-index on the hyetograph and then plotting the effective rainfall
hyetograph,

The area under the ERH is equal to the depth of runoff.

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 Illustrative example 2. What is the run-off coefficient of the storm in the previous
problem? A runoff coefficient is defined to be the ratio of runoff to rainfall over a given
time period, therefore,
4.80𝑖𝑛
𝐶= = 0.81
1.33 + 2.2 + 2.08 + 0.20 + 0.09
Only rainfall that occurred after direct runoff began is considered.

The UNIT HYDROGRAPH Theory states that “basin outflow resulting from 1.0 inch (1.0 mm)
of direct runoff generated uniformly over the drainage area at a uniform rainfall rate
during a specified period of rainfall duration.”

The following are the essential steps for developing a unit hydrograph from a single
storm hydrograph:
1. Analyze the hydrograph and separate base flow.
2. Measure the total volume under the DRH and convert this to inches (mm) over
the watershed.
3. Convert total rainfall to rainfall excess through infiltration methods, such that
rainfall excess = DRO, and evaluate duration D of the rainfall excess that
produced the DRO hydrograph.
4. Divide the ordinates of the DRH by the volume in inches (mm) and plot these
results as the unit hydrograph

Illustrative example 3.

Following are the ordinates of a storm hydrograph of a river draining a catchment area
of 423 km2 due to a 6-h isolated storm.

Derive the ordinates of a 6-h unit hydrograph for the catchment. Assume a BF = 10 m 3/s.

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 We first plot the flood hydrograph, apply base flow separation, and then plot the DRH.

Time Total
Direct Runoff
from Runoff,
= TR -BF
start m3/s
-6 10 0
0 10 0
6 30 20
12 87.5 77.5
18 115.5 105.5
24 102.5 92.5
30 85 75
36 71 61
42 59 49
48 47.5 37.5
54 39 29
60 31.5 21.5
66 26 16
72 21.5 11.5
78 17.5 7.5
84 15 5
90 12.5 2.5
96 10 0
102 10 0

Σ=611

The total volume of runoff is equal to

3600𝑠
611 𝑚 𝑠 6ℎ𝑟 × = 13197600 𝑚
ℎ𝑟
This is equivalent to a depth of
13197600 𝑚
= 0.0312 𝑚 = 3.12 𝑐𝑚
1000𝑚
423 𝑘𝑚 ×
𝑘𝑚

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 To derive the ordinates of the 6h-UH, we divide the DRH ordinates with the runoff depth,

Direct 6h-UH
Runoff ordinates
0 0
0 0
20 6.4
77.5 24.8
105.5 33.8
92.5 29.7
75 24
61 19.6
49 15.7
37.5 12
29 9.3
21.5 6.9
16 5.1
11.5 3.7
7.5 2.4
5 1.6
2.5 0.8
0 0
0 0

By doing this, we are reducing the plot of the hydrograph such that the area under the
curve is equal to 1cm of runoff, this is what makes it a “Unit” hydrograph. So in solving,
20
= 6.4 𝑚 𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙
3.12 𝑐𝑚
77.5
= 24.8 𝑚 𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙
3.12 𝑐𝑚

… and so on.

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 The assumption of linear response in a unit hydrograph enables the Method of
Superposition to be used to derive DRHs.

Illustrative example 4. Given are the ordinates of a 6-H unit hydrograph for a
catchment. Calculate and plot the ordinates of the DRH due to a rainfall excess of
3.5cm occurring in 6 hours.

In using the method of superposition to derive the DRH, we multiply the rainfall excess
by the ordinates of the 6h-UH.

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 Illustrative example 5. Given the ordinates of a 4h-UH below, derive the ordinates of a
12-h UH for the same catchment by method of superposition.

The solution is tabulated below.

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 One of the simplest rainfall–runoff formulas, which is often used for drainage design
purposes in small watersheds and/or basins, is the Rational Method which allows for the
prediction of peak flow Qp (cfs) from the formula,
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑖𝐴

Where: 𝑄 = peak discharge,

𝐶=runoff coefficient
𝑖=intensity of rainfall of chosen frequency for a duration equal to time of
concentration 𝑡 (in./hr)
𝑡 = equilibrium time for rainfall occurring at the most remote portion of the
basin to contribute flow at the outlet (min or hr),
𝐴 = area of watershed

Where drainage area consists of subareas of different surface characteristics,

𝒎

𝑸𝒑 = 𝒊 𝑪 𝒋 𝑨𝒋
𝒋 𝟏

Consider that when rainfall of uniform intensity

occurs over a very long duration, the runoff
gradually increases from zero to a constant
value. The time taken for a single drop of water
to travel from the remotest part of a catchment
to the outlet is called the time of concentration
𝑡 . Thus, peak flow is reached only when rainfall
goes beyond 𝑡 .

The assumptions associated with the rational method are:

1. The computed peak rate of runoff at the outlet point is a function of the average
rainfall rate during the time of concentration, that is, the peak discharge does
not result from a more intense storm of shorter duration, during which only a
portion of the watershed is contributing to runoff at the outlet.

2. The time of concentration employed is the time for the runoff to become
established and flow from the most remote part of the drainage area to the
inflow point of the sewer being designed.

3. Rainfall intensity is constant throughout the storm duration.

Rainfall intensities are usually in the form:

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 Illustrative example 6. An urban catchment has an area of 85 ha. The slope of the
catchment is 0.006 and the maximum length of travel is 950 m. the maximum depth of
rainfall with a 25-year return period is given below:

If the culvert for drainage at the outlet of this area is to be designed for a return period
of 25 years, estimate the required peak-flow rate by assuming the runoff coefficient as
0.3. The time of concentration is given as a function of the catchment slope and length
as:

To solve for the 𝑡 = 0.01947 (950𝑚) . (0.006) .

= 27.39 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠

From the given table, the rainfall intensity is computed by dividing the depth of rainfall
by its duration,

Duration 5 10 20 𝟐𝟕. 𝟑𝟗 30 40 60
Depth of rainfall, mm 17 26 40 ? 50 57 62
Rainfall intensity at 𝒕𝒄 103.81

The value of rainfall depth at 𝑡 is determined by interpolation which results in a value of

47.39 mm with an intensity of 103.81 mm/hr.
Solving for 𝑄 = 0.3 103.81 𝑚𝑚 ℎ𝑟 × × 85ℎ𝑎 × = 7.3533 𝑚 𝑠

One of the earliest methods on hydrograph analysis

was developed by the Soil Conservation Service
wherein a simple triangle with rainfall duration D (hr.),
time of rise TR (hr.), time of fall B (hr.), and peak flow Qp
(cfs) was used.

The volume of direct runoff is computed as

𝑉𝑜𝑙 = 𝑇 𝑄 + 𝐵𝑄 or 𝑄 =

.
Later it was found that 𝐵 = 1.67𝑇 , so 𝑄 =

Integrating conversion units within the formula, 𝑄 =

Where: 𝐴 = area of basin in square miles, 𝑇 = time of rise in hour

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 The figure also shows that 𝑇 = +𝑡

Empirical solutions by the SCS estimated a formula for lag time

𝐿 . (𝑆 + 1) .
𝑡 =
1900 𝑦

Where 𝑡 = lag time in hr, 𝐿= length of the divide in ft, and 𝑦= average
watershed slope in percent

SCS runoff estimates assume a relationship between accumulated total storm rainfall 𝑃,
runoff 𝑄, and infiltration plus initial abstraction (𝐹 + 𝐼 ) where 𝐼 = 0.2 𝑆. 𝑆 is potential
abstraction
1000
𝑆= 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠
𝐶𝑁 − 10

where 𝐶𝑁 = curve number for various soil/land use as shown below

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 It is also assumed that =
where 𝐹 = infiltration occurring after runoff
begins, 𝑆 = potential abstraction, 𝑄 = direct
runoff (inches), and 𝑃 = effective storm runoff
(𝑃 − 𝐼 ).

Given 𝐹 = (𝑃 − 𝑄) and 𝑃 = (𝑃 − 𝐼𝑎 ) = (𝑃 − 0.2𝑆) based on data from small watersheds,

one can show that
(𝑷 − 𝟎. 𝟐𝑺)𝟐
𝑸=
𝑷 + 𝟎. 𝟖𝑺

The SCS method uses the runoff curve number 𝐶𝑁, related to potential abstraction 𝑆
given by
𝐶𝑁 = or 𝑆= − 10
( )

The graphical solution of rainfall-runoff equation by SCS Method

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 By interpolating rainfall and CN, the direct runoff can easily be determined from the
graph. The curve numbers shown here apply for normal antecedent moisture
conditions (AMC II).

For dry conditions (AMC I) or wet conditions (AMC III), equivalent curve numbers can
be computed by,
4.2 𝐶𝑁(𝐼𝐼)
𝐶𝑁(𝐼) =
10 − 0.058 𝐶𝑁(𝐼𝐼)
23 𝐶𝑁(𝐼𝐼)
𝐶𝑁(𝐼𝐼𝐼) =
10 + 0.13 𝐶𝑁(𝐼𝐼)

Curve numbers have been tabulated by the Soil Conservation Service on the basis of
soil type and land use. Four soil groups are defined:

Group A: Deep sand, deep loess, aggregated silts

Group B: Shallow loess, sandy loam

Group C: Clay loams, shallow sandy loam, soils low in organic content, and soils
usually high in clay

Group D: Soils that swell significantly when wet, heavy plastic clays, and certain
saline soils

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 Illustrative example 7. A watershed is 40% wooded (good condition) and 60%
residential (1/4-ac lots). The watershed has 50% soil group B and 50% soil group C.
Determine the runoff volume if the rainfall is 7 in. Assume antecedent moisture condition
number II.

We get the runoff Curve number from the table, and compute for the composite 𝐶𝑁 as
the watershed is made several soil types:

Land Use Soil Fraction Weighted

𝑪𝑵
Description Group of Area 𝑪𝑵

40% Wooded 50% B 0.40(0.50) =0.2 55 11

(good condition) 50% C 0.40(0.50) =0.2 70 14

60% Residential 50% B 0.60(0.50) =0.3 75 22.5

(1/4-ac lots) 50% C 0.60(0.50) =0.3 83 24.9
Σ =1.0 Σ =72.4

The composite 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 is computed as 𝐶𝑁 = (0.2)(55) + (0.2)(70) + (0.3)(75) +

(0.3)(83) = 72.4. Interpolating 𝑃=7 inches and 𝐶𝑁=72.4 in the SCS graph,

The Direct Runoff from the storm is = 3.9 inches

( . )
This value can also be determined by formula: 𝑄 =
.

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 Using the runoff curve number 𝐶𝑁 = 78.4, related to potential abstraction 𝑆 by
1000 1000
𝑆= − 10 = − 10 = 3.8122
𝐶𝑁 78.4
(𝑃 − 0.2𝑆) [7 − (0.2)(3.8122)]
𝑄= =
𝑃 + 0.8𝑆 [7 + (0.8)(3.8122)]
𝑸 = 𝟑. 𝟖𝟕𝟏𝟓 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒉𝒆𝒔
This value is approximately equal to the answer we got from the graphical solution.

Illustrative example 8. Recompute the runoff from this watershed if the wet
conditions of antecedent moisture condition III are applicable.
23 𝐶𝑁(𝐼𝐼) 23 (78.4)
𝐶𝑁(𝐼𝐼𝐼) = = = 89.3027
10 + 0.13 𝐶𝑁(𝐼𝐼) 10 + 0.13(78.4)
1000 1000
𝑆= − 10 = − 10 = 1.1979
𝐶𝑁 89.3027
(𝑃 − 0.2𝑆) [7 − (0.2)(1.1979)]
𝑄= =
𝑃 + 0.8𝑆 [7 + (0.8)(1.1979)]
𝑸 = 𝟓. 𝟕𝟒𝟐𝟗 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒉𝒆𝒔

The change in runoff caused by the change in antecedent moisture condition is

5.7429 - 3.8715 = 1.8714 in, about 48 percent increase.

Illustrative example 9. Use the SCS method to

develop a UH for the area of 10 mi2. Use rainfall
duration of 𝐷 = 2.0 hr. Sketch the approximate shape of
the triangular UH.

The watershed consists of meadows in good condition

with soil group D. The average slope in the watershed is
100 ft/mi. Sketch the resulting SCS triangular
hydrograph. 𝐿 = 5 miles

In order to sketch the SCS UH, we need to define the timing aspects of the
hydrograph as seen from the figure. It should be noted that since we are to plot
a UH which means that the total depth of runoff is equal to 1 inch.

Solve for the lag time using the equation

𝐿 . (𝑆 + 1) .
𝑡 =
1900 𝑦
Where 𝐿 should be in ft so that 𝑡 will be in hours

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 From the SCS table, the runoff 𝐶𝑁 for the watershed is 78.

The value of potential abstraction 𝑆 is

1000 1000
𝑆= − 10 = − 10 = 2.8205
𝐶𝑁 78

The average watershed slope is given as100 ft/mi so that for 𝐿 = 5 miles, the slope is
500ft. As a percentage,
500 𝑓𝑡
𝑦= (100%) = 1.8939
5280 𝑓𝑡
5 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑠 ×
𝑚𝑖
5280 𝑓𝑡 . .
𝐿 . (𝑆 + 1) . 5 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑠 × (2.8205 + 1)
𝑚𝑖
𝑡 = = = 3.3677 ℎ𝑟𝑠
1900 𝑦 1900√1.8939

Solve for 𝑇 = + 𝑡 = + 3.3677 = 4.3677 ℎ𝑟𝑠

We next determine 𝑄 = where 𝐴 should be in square miles and 𝑇 in hours so that

𝑄 will be in cfs
484 𝐴 484 (10 𝑚𝑖 )
𝑄 = = = 1108.1381 𝑐𝑓𝑠
𝑇 4.3677 ℎ𝑟

We finally solve for 𝐵 from 𝑉𝑜𝑙 = 𝑇 𝑄 + 𝐵𝑄

The 𝑉𝑜𝑙 is computed as the product of depth of runoff and the area of the watershed.
𝑉𝑜𝑙 = 1𝑖𝑛 × 10𝑚𝑖 × = 23232000 𝑓𝑡

Substituting the values and observing dimensional homogeneity,

1 𝑓𝑡 3600𝑠 1 𝑓𝑡 3600𝑠
23232000 𝑓𝑡 = (4.3677ℎ𝑟) 1108.1381 × + 𝑩 1108.1381 ×
2 𝑠 ℎ𝑟 2 𝑠 ℎ𝑟

(23232000 − 8712026.603)𝑓𝑡 = 1994648.58 𝑩 𝑓𝑡 𝑠

𝐵 = 7.2795 ℎ𝑟

Plotting the SCS UH,

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 Try to work on these problems as a review for your upcoming summative quiz on
Module 2.

1. The ordinates of a 6h-UH are given:

A storm has three successive 6-h intervals of rainfall magnitude of 3.0, 5.0, and 4.0
cm, respectively. Assuming a φ-index of 0.20 cm/hr and a base flow of 30m 3/s,
determine the plot of the resulting hydrograph of flow.

Hint: Note that the storms follow a certain sequence: The 3cm rain is followed by the 5cm
rain and then the 4cm rain, all of which are 6 hours in duration. The ordinates of the 5-cm
DRH are lagged by 6 hours and the 4-cm DRH is lagged by 12 hrs. Using the method of
superposition, the ordinates of the resulting 12cm hydrograph is obtained by combining
the ordinates of the 3 DRHs.

2. A flood hydrograph of a river draining a catchment of 189km2 due to a 6-hour

isolated storm is in the form of a triangle with a base of 66 hours and a peak flow
of 36 m3/s occurring at 12 hours from the start. Assuming zero base flow, develop
a 6-h UH for this catchment.

3. Using the 6h-UH in the previous problem, derive a 12-h UH for the catchment.

4. A 500-ha watershed has a land use and corresponding runoff coefficient as

given below:

The maximum length of travel of water in the water shed is about 3000 m and
the elevation difference between the highest and outlet points of the watershed
is 25 m. the maximum intensity duration frequency relation of the watershed is
given by:
6.311𝑇 .
𝑖=
(𝐷 + 0.50) .

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 Where 𝑖 = intensity in cm/hr, 𝑇= return period in years and 𝐷= duration of the
rainfall in hours. Assume that the storm duration reaches the 𝑡 defined by the
equation
𝑡 = 0.01947(𝐾 ) .
where 𝐾 =
∆

Estimate the (a) 25-year peak runoff from the watershed and (b) the 25-year
peak runoff if the forest cover has decreased to 50 ha and the cultivated land
has encroached upon the pasture and forest lands to have a total coverage of
450 has.

5. A watershed is 20% wooded (good condition), 20% urbanized and 60%

residential (1/4-ac lots). In the urbanized area, is 40% is commercial and business,
and 60% is fair condition lawn space. The watershed has 50% soil group B and
50% soil group C for all areas. Determine the runoff volume if the rainfall is 6 in.
Assume antecedent moisture condition number II.

6. Use the SCS method to develop a UH for the area of 10 mi2 described below. Use
rainfall duration of D = 2.0 hr. Sketch the approximate shape of the triangular UH.

The watershed consists of good cover forest lands with soil group B. The average
slope in the watershed is 100 ft/mi. Sketch the resulting SCS triangular
hydrograph. L = 5 miles

Accomplish the Unit Quiz.

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 ASSIGNMENT GUIDE

I. Output
At the start of each module, you are given an activity that aims to motivate you
on the focus of each unit topic. This may be in the form of a short essay question, a
survey, a visual literacy essay, a graphic organizer, a simple home experiment or a pre-
assessment exam.

Similarly, at the end of each unit, you are given problem sets to solve. This
provides you an opportunity to apply what you have learned. Prepare the detailed
calculations and solutions and submit your output as scheduled.

II. Rationale
These assignments aim to build your confidence and ability to understand and
apply what you have learned in the modules for hydrology.

III. Materials
You have to access the weekly modules and video presentations in your Google
classroom or your USB-OTG. This will cover the pertinent topics of the course; however, it
is highly encouraged for you to do some extra reading or web browsing to aid your
understanding on the theories in Hydrology. If you find good sites, do share this with the
class so that we can continuously improve our reference list. Preferably, have a copy of
the course textbooks.

IV. Specific Guidelines

Your outputs may be handwritten or computerized on short bond paper. Make
sure that it is written legibly or encoded in a reasonably sized and readable font type.

This will be the standard format for all your outputs

CLASS CODE SCHEDULE

ID NUMBER 5E ACTIVITY/ COURSEWORK
NAME: LASTNAME, FIRST NAME, M.I.

ASSIGNED QUESTION/PROBLEM:
(Copy the questions/problems assigned to you)

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 ANSWER/SOLUTION:
(Please note that you have to answer only what is being asked in the question/problem
assigned to you. Unnecessary equations/formula/answers/statements will mean
deductions in your scores. Make sure all graphs are clearly drawn and labelled
completely)

(HIGHLIGHT FINAL ANSWERS FOR PROBLEMS AND IMPORTANT

CONCEPTS FOR ESSAY QUESTIONS)

Integrity Pledge:
I, pledge on my honor, that I have not given nor received any unauthorized assistance
on this assignment.
Student’s Signature

Save your work using a SINGLE FILE pdf format with file name:

classcode_LASTNAMEfirst&middleinitials
(i.e. 2020_AquinoAL_M1U2Elab).

You will then upload this file as classwork submission in the Google classroom on
or before the scheduled due date. If you are under the CBL mode, the compilation of
all your formative and evaluative assessments are on the scheduled exam dates.

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 V. Evaluation Tool

All submissions are automatically time stamped and recorded. The rubrics below
will be the basis for evaluation.

I. RUBRIC FOR PROBLEM SET

Program Performance Exemplary Satisfactory Unsatisfactory Score
Learning Indicators (3) (2) (1)
Outcome
PLO 1: Apply Select No errors in One or Two Little or No
a wide range appropriate the theorems, errors in the understanding of
of skills in theorems and principles and theorems, the theorems,
mathematics, principles of mathematical principles and principles and
physical mathematics, equations mathematical mathematical
sciences, and natural science, used equations equations used
engineering engineering used
sciences to fundamentals
the practice and an
of civil engineering
engineering; specialization to
the solution of
complex
engineering
problems.

Solve complex No errors in One or Two Little or No

engineering the solution errors in the understanding of
problems using and solution and solving and
appropriate deduction of deduction of deducing the
theorems and the theorems, the theorems, theorems,
principles of principles and principles and principles and
mathematics, mathematical mathematical mathematical
natural science, equations equations equations used
engineering used used
fundamentals
and an
engineering
specialization

Total Score

Percentage Rating (Total Score/6*100%)

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 II. RUBRIC FOR JOURNAL PAPER REVIEW
Program Performance Exemplary Satisfactory Unsatisfactory Score
Learning Indicators (3) (2) (1)
Outcome
Communicate Global impact Global impact Global impact of
PLO 7: Apply
the impact of of hydrology is of hydrology is hydrology is not
an in-depth
civil engineering well-written somewhat considered
understandin
solutions in a and reported well-written
g of the
global context and reported
impact of civil
engineering Communicate Economic Economic Economic impact
solutions in a the impact of impact of impact of of hydrology is
global, civil engineering hydrology is hydrology is not considered
economic, solutions in an well-written somewhat
environmenta economic and reported well-written
l and societal context and reported
context
Communicate Environmental Environmental Environmental
the impact of impact of impact of impact of
civil engineering hydrology is hydrology is hydrology is not
solutions in well-written somewhat considered
environmental and reported well-written
context and reported

Communicate Societal Societal Societal impact

the impact of impact of impact of of hydrology is
civil engineering hydrology is hydrology is not considered
solutions in a well-written somewhat
societal context and reported well-written
and reported

Total Score

Percentage Rating (Total Score/12*100%)

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 REFERENCES

a. Bedient, P. B., Huber W. C. and Vieux, B. E. Hydrology and Floodplain

Analysis, Pearson 4th Edition, Philippine Edition copyright 2010
b. Ven Te Chow, David Maidment and Larry Mays. Applied Hydrology.
McGraw-Hill International Editions 1988.
c. Linsley, R. et. Al. (1992). Water resources engineering4th Edition. Tokyo,
Japan: McGraw-Hill Kogakusha, Inc.
d. Brooks, Kenneth N. Hydrology and the management of watersheds.
Fourth edition.
e. Chin, David A. Water-resources engineering. Third edition.
f. Mays, L. et. al. (2004). Groundwater engineering. USA
g. Singh, Vijay P. (2013). Entropy theory and its application in
environmental and water engineering. Chichester, West Sussex, United
Kingdom: Wiley-Blackwell

CONTACT INFORMATION OF THE FACILITATOR

Engr. Janice Kaye L. Aquino, MSCE

E-mails: [email protected]
Cellphone No.: 09065395087

Engr. Jazel E. Sano

Email: [email protected]
Contact Number: 09399255137

Engr. Romsan Lopez

Email: [email protected]
Contact Number: 09976737231

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