Allen 2020

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JMEXXX10.1177/1052562920903077Journal of Management EducationAllen
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Journal of Management Education
On the Cutting Edge

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Mindset and Tech

Literacy in Business
Management Education
Scott J. Allen1
Abstract
We are on the precipice of significant change in industry. Some have called
it industry 4.0, and without significant attention, business management
educators will be unfamiliar and underprepared—and as a result, they
will not adequately equip their students for change. This essay explores
the need for a digital mindset and tech literacy in business management
education. The essay begins by examining why the need exists and continues
by discussing some of the critical concepts that must be integrated into a
business management program to better prepare students for the future of
work. The essay concludes by sharing several pedagogical applications that
can be incorporated into the material in the undergraduate or graduate
classroom.
Keywords
tech literacy, digital mindset, future of work, management education,
management business education, technology enabled disruption, innovation
1
John Carroll University, University Heights, OH, USA
Corresponding Author:
Scott J. Allen, John Carroll University, One John Carroll University Boulevard, University
Heights, OH 44118, USA.
Email: [email protected]
2 Journal of Management Education 00(0)
If you don’t innovate fast, disrupt your industry, disrupt yourself, you’ll be left
behind.
—John Chambers, CEO of Cisco
In the early 1900s, electricity changed business. Everything that could be elec-
trified—drills, dishwashers, clocks, machines—was electrified. The electric-
ity revolution recast the landscape of business and opened up new business
opportunities, product lines, and efficiencies. Late in the 20th century, two
other inventions—the personal computer and the internet—fundamentally
transformed business again. As a result, the world’s first trillion-dollar compa-
nies, Apple and Amazon, were born. Today, many economic and political indi-
cators suggest that we stand on the precipice of another shift (Bundy, 2017;
Diamandis & Kotler, 2016; Yang, 2019). In many ways, the technologies
enabling disruption associated with the next evolution—the augmented age,
or “industry 4.0,” as some have called it (Conti, 2017; Lasi et al., 2014)—will
bring forth multiple disruptions that will continue to change the face of busi-
ness (Brynjolfsson & Mcafee, 2017), and with it, management education.
In his book The War on Normal People (2019), Andrew Yang presents a
convincing case that offshoring, automation, and artificial intelligence, along
with other technologies that enable disruption, will continue to eliminate mil-
lions of blue- (e.g., truck driver, call center employee, sales/retail associate)
and white-collar jobs (e.g., radiologist, paralegal, financial advisor). Job
functions once considered “routine and manual” (e.g., transportation) by the
Federal Reserve are decreasing, or “flat,” while tasks that are deemed “non-
routine and cognitive” (e.g., manager, computer scientist) are increasing (The
FRED Blog, 2016) at a rapid pace. These shifts have been in process for a
couple decades, as exemplified in the industrial sector of the United States,
which lost roughly five million manufacturing jobs between 2000 and 2017
(Abel & Deitz, 2019).
As such, the manufacturing numbers from the past two decades are not
encouraging, and according to some influential sources, the future is looking
uncertain as well. Scholars, global consulting firms, and the White House
have each published concerning predictions. One of the first indicators sur-
faced in a study by scholars Frey and Osborne (2017) at the University of
Oxford, who concluded that upward of 47% of jobs in the United States are
at risk of being replaced by automation over the next two decades. Similarly,
big four accounting firm PWC reported that 38% of U.S. jobs are at risk of
automation by the 2030s (Berriman & Hawksworth, 2017). As another exam-
ple, global management consulting firm Bain & Company’s research esti-
mates the number as between 20 and 25 million lost jobs in the United States
Allen 3
by the end of the 2020s (Harris et al., 2018). In addition to these forecast
figures, the White House has also reported on the prospect of a widespread
loss of jobs in the United States. In 2016, The Economic Report of the
President reported an 83% chance that automation will replace jobs with
wages below $20. For workers who make between $20 and $40, there is a
31% chance that their roles will be replaced by automation (White House,
2016). On a global scale, the numbers are staggering. For instance, global
consulting firm McKinsey estimates that “between 400 million and 800 mil-
lion individuals could be displaced by automation and need to find new jobs
by 2030 around the world” (McKinsey Global Institute, 2017). These fore-
casts should be a major topic of conversation in our journals, associations,
and among business school faculty. I am not sure they are.
Another way to look at this topic is the opportunity and exponential growth
associated with the many individual technologies enabling disruption. For
instance, cybersecurity is an area growing at an exponential rate. According
to Morgan (2017), global spending on cybersecurity will exceed $1 trillion in
the next 5 years (para. 3)—this number was $3.5 billion in 2004 (para. 1).
Perhaps more interesting is that cybercrime will cost the world $6 trillion
annually by 2021 (Morgan, 2017). In addition, to cyber security, artificial
intelligence is another technology enabling disruption in multiple sectors.
There is an active arms race between corporations (e.g., Facebook, Google,
Amazon, Baidu, Alibaba, Huawei) and countries (e.g., United States, China,
Russia) to be the first to harness the power of artificial general intelligence
(Bostrom, 2014; Geist, 2016). According to Jones (2017), the artificial intel-
ligence industry will be worth an estimated $14.2 billion by 2023—an indica-
tor that this technology alone is experiencing exponential growth. The
numbers are staggering, and in the coming decades, the business world will
endure shifts unforeseen by many of today’s business and management edu-
cators. For example, according to a senior executive at EY, recruitment of
auditors and accountants could be reduced by 50% due to artificial intelli-
gence (Schemmann, 2019; Williams-Grut, 2016).
Many reading this essay will know that we are in the middle of the fray of
these shifts. Every day, numerous articles emerge about topics such as Elon
Musk’s company Neuralink, a breakthrough in immunotherapy, autonomous
vehicles, a use case for blockchain, or training applications for virtual reality
(VR)/augmented reality (AR). For novice and expert readers alike, it can be
challenging to know what is sound science and what is “clickbait.” The real-
ity is, no one can predict which of the technologies enabling disruption will
live up to the hype and which will fall by the wayside. However, given the
amount of money being invested and the traction gained thus far, it’s clear
that many of the individual technologies explored in this essay will converge
(Park, 2017) and will continue to shift business in the coming years.
Companies (and countries) are investing billions of dollars in artificial intel-
ligence, quantum computing, data/analytics, cloud computing, 5G, and many
other technologies that enable disruption.
In industry, IBM, Microsoft, Google, Alibaba, Tesla, Walmart, Netflix,
Apple, Spotify, Facebook, Twitter, Amazon, and Tencent are using artificial
intelligence and other technologies enabling disruption (e.g., chatbots, block-
chain, 5G, data/analytics) as a strategic advantage. Likewise, organizations
such as Gartner (Panetta, 2018), Deloitte (Briggs & Buccholz, 2019),
McKinsey (McKinsey Global Institute, 2017), and ARK Invest (ARK Invest,
2019) are publishing research and closely monitoring the corporate context.
Beyond the consulting firms and trade publications, papers are emerging in
academic business journals on topics such as artificial intelligence (Lee et al.,
2019; S. A. Wright & Schultz, 2018), blockchain (McCallig et al., 2019),
additive manufacturing (Hannibal & Knight, 2018), nanotechnology (Von
Wartburg & Teichert, 2008), sensor technology (Teixeira et al., 2017), and
extended reality (Tredinnick, 2018). Technologies that enable disruption are
rapidly moving from concept to common practice in corporate life. The inter-
section of business management and disruptive technologies is becoming a
more prominent topic; from an academic perspective, this academic intersec-
tion is ripe for building a body of knowledge and business management edu-
cators can be at the forefront.
The purpose of this essay is not to predict the future but to sound an alarm.
Though management educators are charged with preparing young people for
successful careers in business, I believe that we ourselves are not fully
informed. Accordingly, our lack of preparation, and in some cases, under-
standing, means that our students will be at a disadvantage. This reality will
have a dramatic impact on the marketability of our students and our relevance
among stakeholders (e.g., employers, alumni). My assertion in this article
challenges management educators to develop a digital mindset, study the
technologies enabling disruption, and begin introducing assignments, mod-
ules, and courses that will prepare students for the future of work. I am not
proposing that we cast aside the theories and knowledge that serve as the
foundation of our work. Rather, we need to provide students with a solid
foundation of business and management theory and build upon this to look
forward. As one reviewer of this manuscript wrote, “our theories of the past
provide that context for the future.” I agree and assert that a robust curricu-
lum consists of educational pieces that look back, explore the present, and
look forward (George & Jones, 2000). Management educators must use this
solid foundation to more intentionally focus on the future so their students are
prepared to navigate the path ahead.
Allen 5
The following section highlights the need for faculty and students to embrace
a digital mindset. Likewise, it is necessary to develop tech literacy throughout
coursework in the business school as a requisite knowledge base. Next, the
notion of reframing how we teach is explored, and several pedagogical
approaches to doing so are introduced. While I feel strongly that all business
majors should have an understanding of the technologies enabling disruption,
this essay focuses generally on business management educators and students
studying topics such as strategy, human resources organizational behavior, and
management, as well as adjacent topics such as business ethics, supply chain,
marketing, international business, entrepreneurship, and leadership.
Digital Mindset and Tech Literacy

Disruptive technologies are changing the landscape of economic, business,
societal and personal paradigms. The institutions of the status quo must
calibrate their speed of change to the pace of the market or risk falling into
irrelevance. (Steven Hill, Global Head of Innovation, KPMG)
As the above quote alludes, the landscape is shifting rapidly. Robots have
performed oral surgery—alone (Lui, 2017). Google reportedly achieved
quantum supremacy in October 2019 (Lichfield, 2019). Quantum computing
will theoretically disrupt blockchain technology (Sharma, 2017). But first,
blockchain technology may disrupt the business models of the big four
accounting firms (Carlozo, 2017), financial services (Tapscott & Tapscott,
2017), and companies like Uber, PayPal, Airbnb, and iTunes (De Filippi,
2017). Companies are printing everything from steel (Lawrence Livermore
National Laboratory, 2017) to human cells (Wells, 2019) in 3-D. With nano-
technology, the U.S. military has developed a rudimentary cloaking device
(University of Michigan, 2017), and the weight of combat armor is decreas-
ing exponentially (ARL Public Affairs, 2017). Ford is investing in delivery
robots (Jee, 2020) and artificial intelligence systems are replacing managers
(Copeland & Hope, 2016), low-level law associates (Koebler, 2017), and
financial advisors (Libert & Beck, 2017; Lightbourne, 2017; Shen, 2017).
And, in a recent study, an AI system outperformed human physicians in
breast cancer prediction (McKinney et al., 2020). Amazon is beta testing a
store (Amazon Go) with no cashiers at a time when “retail salesperson” and
“cashier” are the most common jobs in the United States—positions held by
about 8.8 million people (Holden, 2017; Nutting, 2015). To compete with
retailers such as Amazon, retailer Walmart is self-identifying as a technology
company and rapidly adjusting its strategy to maintain relevance (Danziger,
2018; Thomas, 2019). And yet, 40,000 cybersecurity jobs are going unfilled
in the United States each year (Kauflin, 2017) and by some estimates, there
will be 3.5 million unfilled cybersecurity jobs by 2021 (Morgan, 2017).
Whether it is cloud computing, chatbots, or the Internet of Things, it seems
that very few management educators (and managers in industry, for that mat-
ter) genuinely understand how these technologies individually and in combi-
nation are shifting the landscape of business. While some educators may be
familiar with one or two technologies, they may not understand how the eco-
system of 5G, sensors, big data, cloud computing, and artificial intelligence
create a strategic advantage. To be clear, there is currently no evidence that
proves or disproves my own sense of management educators’ level of knowl-
edge. In addition, how this suite of technologies will influence the work of
our students is still unknown—these are areas ripe for academic investiga-
tion. To start with, embracing a digital mindset and improving their tech lit-
eracy are two actions management educators can take immediately.
Embracing a Digital Mindset

An initial step toward addressing the issue is embracing a digital mindset. In
his work, The Innovator’s Dilemma: When New Technologies Cause Great
Firms to Fail, Christensen (2013) differentiates sustaining technologies (i.e.,
incremental improvement in established products) from disruptive technolo-
gies (i.e., new products that render the previous iterations irrelevant or drasti-
cally less relevant to consumers). In today’s business landscape, digitization
has been the source of multiple disruptive innovations. The work of physi-
cians, attorneys, scientists, and factory workers is being digitized, and once a
product or service moves from analog to a digital state, growth occurs at an
exponential rate (Diamandis & Kotler, 2016). Diamandis explored this notion
of exponential growth with his conceptualization of the Six Ds of Tech
Disruption. According to Diamandis and Kotler (2016), “The Six Ds are a
chain reaction of technological progression, a road map of rapid development
that always leads to enormous upheaval and opportunity” (p. 25). A futurist,
entrepreneur, and expert of emerging technologies, Diamandis has developed
the Six Ds of Tech Disruption to help educators, entrepreneurs, and business
leaders make sense of the shifts happening in the marketplace. His categories
reinforce the notion that anything that can be digitized (e.g., medical records,
business processes, services) is moving to that format, and that programs,
products, and services that are not yet digitized will be some time soon. By
presenting definitions and examples of the Six Ds in Table 1, I encourage
readers to think about how the concepts have affected the ways we consume
entertainment, receive education, conduct business, preserve memories,
interact with others, travel, bank, purchase products, and receive health care.
Allen 7
Table 1. The Six Ds of Tech Disruption.
The “D” Description Example

Digitization Moving from a physical product The move from paper to
to a digitized state. According electronic medical records.
to Diamandis & Kotler
(2016), once something
is digitized, it enters
exponential growth.
Deceptive Once a product, service, or The digital camera was
process is digitized, its growth developed in 1975 but was
trajectory can be deceptively not sold to consumers until
slow. Visionaries see the the late 1990s.
potential, but the business
application may not be ready
for immediate application.
Disruptive After the deceptive phase, Services like iTunes disrupted
the technology enters the compact disc sales, and
mainstream and rapidly takes streaming services have
hold—to the casual observer, disrupted digital album sales.
quite quickly.
Demonetized Money begins to be removed Free apps that facilitate any
from the equation. number of services (e.g.,
banking, transportation,
shopping, scheduling, gaming).
Dematerialized Separate physical products are The iPhone dematerialized any
integrated into a single device number of objects (e.g., video
or platform. games, television, internet,
phone, calendar, camera,
phone books).
Democratized When a product, service, or From a cell phone, people can
process is digitized, more perform tasks like open a
people have access to bank account, learn something
knowledge, resources, and new (e.g., YouTube) or run
tools via devices, such as a business—often at little to
smartphones. no cost.
The Six Ds represent a foundational concept for the notion of a digital

mindset. Lankshear and Knobel (2006) suggested that
The idea of a mindset usually refers to the point of view, perspective, or frame
of reference through which individuals or groups of people experience the
world, interpret or make sense of what they encounter, and respond to what
they experience. (p. 31)
For Dweck (2015), the concept of a mindset was about “how people perceive
their abilities” (para. 2). Thus, a mindset is about an individual’s perceptions,
beliefs, frames of reference, and attitudes toward something—their ability to
do math, engage with technology, or master a skill, for example. Mindsets
shape one’s orientation to learning for students and educators alike (Dweck
et al., 2014). In other words, an individual’s mindset can either open up pos-
sibilities or shut them down.
Some who have written about the concept of a “digital mindset” have
discussed an individual’s attitude or perceptions toward or comfort with
technology (Tank & Frederiksen, 2007; Tour, 2015). While this is undoubt-
edly one dimension, it fails to include the broader concept of an individu-
al’s or group’s understanding that digitization can add strategic value. A
digital mindset reframes how people think about and conduct business.
Managers with a digital mindset search for new business models, opportu-
nities, and strategic advantages—in other words, they understand that a
digital mindset is the foundation of industry 4.0, or the augmented age.
Ultimately, I would assert that a digital mindset is an orientation or belief
that moving a physical product or process to a digital state could differenti-
ate and add value (cost, speed, quality, functionality) to individuals and/or
stakeholders.
In part, a digital mindset relates to awareness. In multiple sectors, technol-
ogy is moving from a department or function to a strategic priority for leaders
in C-suites and boardrooms (Bughin & Van Zeebroeck, 2017; Kane et al.,
2015; Siebel, 2017). Managers with digital mindsets understand that digitiza-
tion is one strategy that can add value, improve customer experience, save
time, increase productivity, and improve margins. Individuals with digital
mindsets do not shy away from what they do not understand; instead, they
appreciate the power of digitization and believe that if needed, they can help
facilitate a strategic advantage for their organizations. To be clear, a digital
mindset is not necessarily elevated above other mindsets and skillsets. Rather
it is simply one key orientation toward business.
However, a digital mindset is only one piece; management educators and
their students must all have some level of tech literacy in order to have a
baseline understanding of the tools that facilitate digitization. These tools are
informing strategy, eliminating roles, creating efficiencies, automating the
work, and keeping people safe; it is important to note that these are more than
just tools—they are also are business opportunities.
Fostering Tech Literacy in Students

According to Kumar et al. (1999):
Allen 9
technology has two primary components: 1) a physical component which

comprises items such as products, tooling, equipment, blueprints, techniques
and processes; and 2) the informational component which consists of know-
how in management, marketing, production, quality control, reliability, skilled
labor and functional areas. (p. 82)
Similar to how cost behavior, cost–volume–profit analysis, and ratio analysis

tools encompass the language of accounting, business in 2020 (and beyond)
will require managers to understand how deep learning, augmented reality,
and sensor technology could benefit their businesses. At this point in the
higher education landscape, management educators have an opportunity to
ensure that their students are technologically literate.
In a general sense, to be “literate” means to have an understanding of a
body of knowledge or subject. For instance, Deming et al. (2012) describe
scientific literacy as “the philosophical model of scientific literacy which
describes the content knowledge and conceptual understanding that is desir-
able for future scientists” (p. 10). However, because literacy is content- and
context-specific (Nutbeam, 2009), some scholars take the notion of literacy
further and add a skills component to the definition. For example, in health
care, health literacy is defined as the “capacity to acquire, understand, and
use information in ways which promote and maintain good health” (Nutbeam,
2009, p. 304). Likewise, the International Technology Education Association
defines tech literacy as “having the ability to use, assess, and understand
technological products and systems” (International Technology Education
Association, 2007, p. 114). In the context of general business education, I
suggest that tech literacy is a general understanding of the function, benefits,
limitations, ethical considerations, and strategic value of various technolo-
gies that enable disruption. For now, it’s an important starting point that man-
agement students conceptually understand the landscape versus displaying
skill, unless skill mastery is required by their specific degree. For instance, a
tech literate student would have a general understanding of sensor technol-
ogy and the various ways it’s being used as a differentiator in business. The
student would also have a general understanding of the benefits, limitations,
and ethical concerns associated with the technology. They would think criti-
cally about its use and know to explore several considerations prior to adop-
tion. For instance,
•• Who has access to the data, where is stored, and how is it protected?
•• Will the new technology integrate with current systems?
•• Is it more cost effective to purchase “off the shelf” or develop
in-house?
•• What is the projected return on investment? What is the initial

investment?
•• Does the solution save time and money or increase efficiency?
•• What are the ethical implications of adopting the technology? Which
biases are embedded and what are the ramifications?
As Stephan et al. (2017) suggested,
all workers—from executives to interns—will need to learn much more about

critical systems: their capabilities and adjacencies, their strategic and
operational value, and the particular possibilities they enable. In other words,
individuals will need to become tech fluent. (para. 5)
This quote summarizes the important opportunity for business management

educators.
While disruptive technologies have begun to enter the conversation of
major academic bodies, the scope is relatively narrow—often focusing on
one or two technologies such as big data, analytics, and perhaps artificial
intelligence. For instance, the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of
Business’ (AACSB) “digital transformation” affinity group is designed for
“AACSB Members with interest in the digital transformation of business
through the advent of artificial intelligence, machine learning and data ana-
lytics” (Affinity Group Meetings, 2019). There is so much more to tech lit-
eracy and limiting the scope to artificial intelligence and analytics limits our
students’ understanding of how multiple disruptive technologies are chang-
ing the face of business (Diamandis & Kotler, 2016; Kurzweil, 2005).
Likewise, in its domain statement, the Technology and Innovation
Management (TIM) division of the Academy of Management (AOM) men-
tions nothing about efforts to prioritize a curricular agenda. Much of its effort
is focused on research in the domain; while that is an understandable empha-
sis, I believe that we are missing an opportunity in a different way than
AACSB—too much focus is placed on the academic pursuit of the topic, as
opposed to the curricular opportunities for students (Academy of Management
Division & Interest Group Domain Statements, 2019). While the TIM divi-
sion does provide sample syllabi for undergraduate and doctoral courses, the
samples are not focused on developing tech literacy; in addition, those mate-
rials are somewhat dated, and there are no samples for MBA programs. What
this means is that two very influential institutions in the realm of business
education are missing an important opportunity, because their scopes are too
narrow in content (AACSB) or in purpose (TIM division of AOM). In addi-
tion, both could place greater focus on education as a priority for business
educators, which would better prepare students for the future of work.
Allen 11
To be clear, I am not advocating that management educators develop

coding or engineering expertise in any of these domains. Nor do I believe it
is realistic to think that they can teach students the technological underpin-
nings of drones, or the engineering of sensors (unless this is the purpose of
the program). It’s unlikely that the vast majority of management educators
and their students will understand the machinery behind the disruptive
technologies covered in this essay. However, I do believe that management
educators can help students better understand the language and application
of disruptive technologies and industry 4.0. While students may not be
“skilled” at the end of their time with instructors, they will at least be better
informed of future trends, the technologies shaping business, the applica-
tions of those technologies, and ethical considerations (e.g., bias coded into
algorithms). Perhaps most important, students will understand the necessity
to more intentionally orient their careers in a manner that keeps their knowl-
edge, skills, and abilities at the forefront of their chosen professions. Thus,
management educators have the opportunity to design and facilitate this
important learning.
Table 2 categorizes 18 disruptive technologies with promise and market
growth. The columns name each technology, provide a brief definition, share
data on market growth, and highlight courses or majors with use cases for the
technology. While it is unknown which of these will have the most significant
impact, organizations such as Gartner (Panetta, 2018), ARK Invest (ARK
Invest, 2019), and KPMG (2019) are conducting research and working to
measure current use and accurately predict how and when these technologies
will become adopted by the masses. It is important to note that each repre-
sents a rich container for dialogue around many current topics such as eco-
nomics, human capital, ethical decision making, marketing, innovation,
entrepreneurship, hiring, staffing, leadership, supply chain, finance, interna-
tional business, and social responsibility. Thus, there is an important dual
purpose—each technology listed in Table 1 provides educators with occa-
sions on which to challenge students to think critically and creatively while
simultaneously developing a digital mindset and tech literacy. I am not pro-
posing that educators cover all 18—just those that align with each specific
major, topic, or module so students have an idea of how business is shifting.
While reviewing the technologies enabling disruption, readers should keep
two questions in mind:
•• Which of the technologies enabling disruption are already shifting

how work is conducted in my discipline or area of study?
•• How could the topic of technologies enabling disruption be taught in
my courses?
Table 2. Disruptive Technologies Shaping Business in 2019 and Beyond.
12
Technology Definition Projected market Sample business courses and majors
Additive “3-D printing or additive manufacturing is a $65 billion by 2022 Strategy, management (e.g., manufacturing,
manufacturing process of making three dimensional solid (ARK Invest, 2018) health care), supply chain, entrepreneurship,
(3-D printing) objects from a digital file . . . In an additive international business
process, an object is created by laying down
successive layers of material until the object
is created. Each of these layers can be seen as
a thinly sliced horizontal cross-section of the
eventual object.” (What is 3D Printing? n.d.)
Artificial “Artificial intelligence (AI) is the ability of $14.2 billion by 2023 Strategy, management (e.g., manufacturing,
intelligence computer systems to perform tasks normally (Jones, 2017) health care), Human resources (e.g., staffing,
(Machine associated with the aptitudes of intelligent document management, training), supply chain,
learning) beings, such as learning and generalizing or organizational behavior, marketing, ethics,
even reasoning and interpreting.” (Schueffel, entrepreneurship, international business
2017 p. 2)
Augmented reality “An AR system supplements the real world with $26.89 billion by Strategy, management (e.g., sports,
(AR) and virtual virtual (computer-generated) objects that appear 2022 (Zion Market manufacturing), Human resources (e.g.,
reality (VR) to coexist in the same space as the real world” Research, 2017) training), organizational behavior (e.g., digital
(Azuma et al., 2001, p. 34). In virtual reality, “the workstations), marketing, entrepreneurship,
surrounding environment is virtual” (e.g., sight, international business
sound, or touch; Azuma et al., 2001, p. 34).
Automation/ Automation occurs when technology replaces $82.7 billion by 2020 Strategy, Management (e.g., manufacturing,
robotics humans as the source of work or function. (Allied Market construction), Human resources, business
While traditionally associated with blue-collar Research, 2015a, law, supply chain, organizational behavior,
work in manufacturing, automation is quickly 2015b) marketing, ethics, entrepreneurship,
entering other professions, such as health care, international business
law, retail, and finance.
(continued)
Table 2. (continued)
Big data/analytics “Big data is a term for extremely large or $203 billion by 2020 Strategy, human resources, supply chain,
complex data sets that organizations can mine (International Data marketing, organizational behavior,
and analyze for their gains with specific data Corporation, 2016) entrepreneurship, international business
processing software.” (Schueffel, 2017, p. 4)
Blockchain “Blockchain is an open, distributed ledger that $7.74 billion by Strategy, human resources, supply chain,
technology can record transactions between two parties 2024 (Grand View marketing, ethics, entrepreneurship,
efficiently and in a verifiable and permanent Research, 2016) international business
way.” (Lakhani & Iansiti, 2017, para. 2)
Brain-computer “Brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) acquire brain $1.46 billion by 2020 Strategy (e.g., health care, home control,
interface signals, analyze them, and translate them into (Allied Market entertainment, military, communication),
commands that are relayed to output devices Research, 2017) ethics, entrepreneurship
that carry out desired actions.” (Shih et al.,
2012, para. 1)
Chatbots A chatbot is “a computer program which $1.23 billion by 2025 Strategy, human resources (e.g., training, hiring),
is designed to simulate conversation with (Nguyen (2017), supply chain, marketing, entrepreneurship
human users via auditory or textual methods, citing research by
oftentimes over the Internet.” (Schueffel, Grand View Research
2017, p. 5) (2016)
Cloud computing “Cloud computing is the practice of using a $203.4 billion by 2020 Strategy, management, human resources
network of remote servers hosted on the (International Data (e.g., PeopleSoft), supply chain, marketing,
Internet to store, manage, and process data, Corporation, 2017) Entrepreneurship
rather than a local server or a personal
computer.” (Schueffel, 2017, p. 6)
Cybersecurity “Cybersecurity are the measures, technologies, $1 trillion by 2022 Strategy, management, human resources, supply
processes, and practices taken to protect (Morgan, 2017) chain, marketing, ethics, entrepreneurship,
a computer or computer system against international business
unauthorized access or attack or damage.”
(Schueffel, 2017, p. 8)
13
(continued)
14
Drones Beyond the individual consumer, there is a $82 billion by 2025 Strategy, Management (e.g., military,
(unmanned growing application for unmanned aircraft (Association construction, real estate), ethics, human
aircraft systems) systems in construction, military, firefighting, for Unmanned resources, supply chain, entrepreneurship
agriculture, law enforcement/public safety, Vehicle Systems
real estate, and data gathering. According to International, 2013)
Anderson (2017), “drones are starting to fill the
‘missing middle’ between satellites and street
level, digitizing the planet in high resolution and
near real-time at a tiny fraction of the cost of
alternatives.” (para. 17)
Fifth generation 5G is a communications network with higher $250 billion in annual Strategy, supply chain, entrepreneurship,
wireless (5G) speeds and increased capacity (Segan, 2017). It service revenue international business
will serve as the core infrastructure to facilitate by 2025 (The 5G
widespread adoption of advancements such Wireless Ecosystem,
as the internet of things, smart manufacturing, 2016)
smart cities, and autonomous vehicles.
Internet of Things The Internet of Things connects the physical $11.1 trillion by 2025 Strategy, management (e.g., manufacturing,
(IoT) world with the digital world (e.g., toasters, (Manyika et al., 2015, health care) Human resources, supply chain,
machinery, thermostats, light switches, para. 3) marketing, ethics, entrepreneurship
vacuums, smart watches/fitness trackers, ovens,
blenders, washers, faucets, flood sensors, and
robomowers). In manufacturing a similar term
that is used is Industrial Internet of Things (IIOT).
(continued)
Light fidelity (Li-Fi) Li-Fi uses the visual light spectrum as a medium $75.5 billion by 2023 Strategy, management (e.g., manufacturing),
for communications. Unlike Wi-Fi, which uses (Market Watch, supply chain
radio waves, it is susceptible to hacking, and 2019)
consumes a great deal of energy, Li-Fi taps into
the already-existing infrastructure (an estimated
14 billion light bulbs) (Haas, 2011).
Nanotechnology “Nanotechnology is science, engineering, and $39.2 billion in 2016 Strategy, Management (e.g., health care,
technology conducted at the nanoscale, which and could reach $90.5 manufacturing, retail/clothing), supply chain,
is about 1 to 100 nanometers” (What is billion by 2021 (BCC ethics, entrepreneurship, international
nanotechnology, n.d.) Research, 2016) business
Quantum “Quantum computing takes advantage of the $5 billion by 2020 Strategy, entrepreneurship
computing strange ability of subatomic particles to exist (Market Research
in more than one state at any time. Due to the Media, 2019)
way the tiniest of particles behave operations
can be done much more quickly and use less
energy than classical computers.” (Beall &
Reynolds, 2018, para 3)
Renewable energy “Energy derived from natural processes (e.g., $855.2 billion by 2023 Strategy, management (e.g., energy,
(clean energy) sunlight and wind) that are replenished at a (BCC Research, manufacturing, retail), ethics,
faster rate than they are consumed. Solar, wind, 2019) entrepreneurship, international business
geothermal, hydro, and some forms of biomass
are common sources of renewable energy”
(International Energy Agency, 2018, para. 1).
Sensor technology Sensors are “physical devices that measure $60 billion by 2022 Strategy, management (e.g., manufacturing,
physical quantities” (Onal, 2011, slide 5). (Allied Market transportation, health care), human resources
Sensors track a wide range of data including Research, 2017) (e.g., performance management), supply
vibration, position, lights, blood chemistry, chain, ethics, entrepreneurship, international
heart rate, pressure, acceleration, sound, and business
15
temperature.
I will provide brief answers to these questions in the following section to

guide readers through ways of considering these issues.
Whether entering management, human resources, sales, or other related
fields, students will need the requisite understanding of the technologies
shaping the future of their chosen professions and industries. Even if the pre-
dicted number of layoffs due to automation is inflated (or is offset by job
creation), incorporating lessons about disruptive technologies into course
curricula ensures that management educators will better equip their graduates
with the tech literacy and digital mindset to position themselves for success.
Incorporating the Topic of Disruptive Technologies

Into the Classroom
Technology is always changing and it is crucial that managers understand the
basics of how to understand which technologies are emerging and how these
technologies could change—or even disrupt—the customer requirements,
supply chains, and business models of every business. This is particularly true
given the advancements coming in data analytics, machine learning, robotics,
and communications. (Michael Miller, former editor-in chief, PC Magazine)
Some readers may feel intrigued but slightly overwhelmed, by the amount of
information presented thus far. So far, this essay has explored why manage-
ment education must change, and what must be changed—namely, the need
to foster a digital mindset and tech literacy. The objective of the next section
is to help instructors see how these changes can be seamlessly incorporated
into already existing courses. This section begins by briefly answering the
two questions posed before Table 2 through the lens of my specific area of
teaching—management and human resources. At the conclusion of this sec-
tion is an in-depth description of a special topics graduate course I taught at
my institution.
The Two Questions

Which of the Technologies Enabling Disruption Are Already
Shifting How Work Is Conducted in My Discipline or Area of
Study?
As a management and human resources professor, I work with students who
will be entering many different industries—sports/entertainment, health care,
manufacturing, retail, banking, real estate, and nonprofit, to name a few. These
students will also enter many possible roles in such as management, human
resources, and sales. There are multiple examples of how the technologies
Allen 17
enabling disruption listed in Table 2 affect human resources. For instance, the
use of automation via platforms such as Workday’s human capital manage-
ment system, VR/AR technology as a means of training (BasuMallick, 2019),
chatbots in training or recruitment (Parlo, 2018), and sensor technology as a
means of identifying underperforming workers (Lecher, 2019). According to
KPMG (2019), HR leaders on the cutting edge “are following strategic plans
and implementing new technologies such as analytics, digital labor and artifi-
cial intelligence (AI)” (p. 2). Some readers may be surprised to know that an
online search will also yield examples of HR’s role in cybersecurity (Chavez,
2018), how the topic of drones applies to human resources (A. Wright, 2017),
or blockchain applications for human resources (Fincher, 2019). The field of
human resources is changing rapidly and according to an industry analysis
report conducted by Deloitte (2019), “The HR technology market is rapidly
evolving to try to meet organization’s needs. Today more than 1,400 HR tech-
nology vendors are in the market, many focusing on using AI, cognitive inter-
faces, advanced analytics, sentiment analysis, and other new technologies
designed to make work easier” (p. 96).
Beyond human resources, many of the technologies listed in Table 2 are
being used in processes, functions, and industries that may seem off-topic at
first glance. In fact, most of the technologies are being used individually, or
in combination with other technologies enabling disruption. For instance,
drones are being used in real estate appraisal, construction, the military,
search/rescue, safety/security, agriculture, wildlife management, delivery,
and entertainment. In some of these areas, drones are being used in combina-
tion with 5G, artificial intelligence, cloud computing, and virtual reality. As a
result, drones (and the converging technologies) are shifting how work is
conducted in supply chain, strategy, human resources, management, account-
ing, entrepreneurship, and finance. Therefore, a first step is for instructors to
identify those particular technologies that are impacting the work in their
discipline, and to research that work—if necessary—to determine how the
information should be presented to students.
How Could the Topic of Technologies Enabling Disruption Be

Taught in My Courses?
Management educators have multiple options when considering this ques-
tion. First, clarity around the amount of time the topic deserves is important.
For instance, is the topic a stand-alone course, one specific module, or a
theme that’s revisited throughout the course? Another way for an instructor to
incorporate the content is by slightly adjusting their current assignments to
meet new learning objectives.
Another way to answer “how” is by connecting the question with teaching

and learning (T&L) approaches, that suit each instructor, such as collaborative
learning/communities of practice (Monaghan, 2011; Palocsay et al., 2004),
action learning (Raelin & Coghlan, 2006), case method (Greenhalgh, 2007),
flipped classroom (Lopes & Soares, 2018), and problem-based learning
(Bigelow, 2004; Jayawardana & O’Donnell, 2007; Sherwood, 2004). For
instance, management educators could employ case methodology (Greenhalgh,
2007) by using the Harvard Business Case, DuPont’s Artificial Intelligence
Implementation Strategy Case Study Analysis & Solution. This approach
could help students studying human resources understand the cultural dimen-
sions of thoughtfully integrating new technology into an organization. As
another example, a recent report suggested that Amazon used an artificial
intelligence algorithm to identify and fire roughly 400 workers who displayed
low productivity (Lecher, 2019). The Amazon case is a contemporary one that
could be studied in an organizational behavior course that explores the ethical,
motivational, and cultural ramifications of using technology to hold people
accountable and even remove them from the organization.
Educators could also combine approaches to facilitate learning. For
instance, the combination of collaborative learning/communities of practice
(Monaghan, 2011; Palocsay et al., 2004) and problem-based learning
(Bigelow, 2004; Jayawardana & O’Donnell, 2007; Sherwood, 2004) could
yield a powerful educational experience. For example, an instructor could
assign small groups of students to help a real organization explore use cases
for chatbots in their hiring efforts. Together with their peers, students would
have to define the problem, learn about the technology, identify vendors,
determine costs, explore the return on investment, and ultimately decide if
the technology is an appropriate intervention for the organization.
In sum, there are multiple paths forward when exploring how an educator
teaches tech literacy in the classroom. Because, the topic lends itself to many
well-established T&L approaches. Developing a student’s tech literacy can
take many forms, depending on course objectives and other variables such as
institutional norms, instructor preferences, and students’ specific learning
styles. In the following section, I share one example of how I have done so.
Case Study: A Graduate Course on The Future of

Work
At my institution, I have taught both undergraduate and graduate versions of
a “Future of Work” course. The undergraduate section was a capstone course
for management majors (spring 2017), and the other was an elective special
topics course for MBA students (spring 2019). I also included disruptive
Allen 19
technologies as a module in my leadership and management skills course for

undergraduate juniors. For this essay, I will focus on how I conducted the
graduate course and will provide some of the feedback shared by students.
The special topics elective MBA course focused heavily on the T&L
methodologies of experiential learning (Kolb, 1984), problem-based learning
(Bigelow, 2004; Jayawardana & O’Donnell, 2007; Sherwood, 2004), and
flipped classroom (Lopes & Soares, 2018). While my course was a traditional
face-to-face course, the course could be successful online, because the pur-
pose of tech literacy is to promote understanding (Arbaugh, 2014; Benson &
Kolsaker, 2015; Ross & Rosenbloom, 2011). For instance, speakers could be
streamed, discussion groups could focus on the course materials, and mini
lectures could be posted by faculty.
One stated objective of the course was to increase students’ tech literacy
and foster a digital mindset. A second objective focused on students’ under-
standing of how technologies enabling disruption are shaping work in their
chosen industry or function. I approached the curriculum design as a survey
course on disruptive technologies shaping the future of business and intended
to build an understanding of the broader landscape. The limitation of this
decision was that I did not have time to provide great depth on any one topic.
To prepare for the course, I subscribed to online resources such as MIT
Technology Review, Science Daily, Abundance Insider, Scientific American,
Interesting Engineering, Harvard Business Review, MIT Sloan Management
Review, and Singularity Hub. Each of these resources is relatively low on
hype, is generally rooted in academic rigor, and presents the information in a
user-friendly and digestible manner. In addition, I read multiple books on the
topic of disruptive technologies (e.g., Superintelligence by Nick Bostrom and
The Singularity Is Near by Ray Kurzweil). I also attended two conferences
(Singularity University Global Summit, and EmTech at MIT) to increase my
awareness, knowledge, and enthusiasm for the topic. These resources pro-
vided me with a solid baseline and the daily learning needed to develop tech
literacy.
In terms of the course itself, about 75% of the class meetings occurred
offsite at organizations throughout the region (the connection to experiential
learning). While designing the curriculum, I looked to local businesses and
discovered several business leaders who were more than willing to serve as
guest lecturers. I quickly learned that there was a deep reservoir of activity
in Northeast Ohio and invited speakers to help engage students in their areas
of expertise. I found organizations focused on virtual/augmented reality
(Vocon, an architecture firm), sensor technology (GE Current), artificial
intelligence (IBM Watson Health), nanotechnology (the Cleveland Clinic),
the operationalization of big data (the Cleveland Indians), 3-D printing/
additive manufacturing (The Technology House), hologram technology

(EventWorks4D), cybersecurity (Progressive Insurance) and blockchain
(Blockland). The leaders of these businesses were eager to share their work
with students, and each was willing to host our class (25 students) for an
evening. The guest lecturers were also asked to identify some of the read-
ings, videos, and podcasts that informed their work. These resources nicely
augmented the foundational resources and advance readings assigned to stu-
dents. Each week, students reviewed academic articles, blogs, podcasts,
TED Talks, and trade publication articles before visiting an organization in
the community. For instance, when we explored the topic of cybersecurity,
students completed all prework ahead of the class, and when we arrived at
Progressive Insurance to speak with an industry expert, they were prepared
to engage in the dialogue. This methodology closely aligns with a flipped
classroom approach and was beneficial because students arrived with a
baseline understanding of the topic and were better prepared to engage in
dialogue with industry experts.
The offsite meetings were well-received by the students because they kept
the experience new and fresh each week; thus, I would recommend this
approach for instructors. Within my course, students enjoyed the opportunity
to tour the facilities, hold 3D printed products, and view the hologram tech-
nology firsthand. In other instances, the opportunity to visit a Major League
Baseball front office or a Fortune 500 company was new and engaging—all
of which enhanced and deepened the students’ learning experiences.
In addition to readings and off-site visits, students spent the semester pre-
paring for a final presentation that required them to analyze the industry they
are employed in. Students conducted research and determined how they
would “disrupt” their industry/function with technologies we explored (an
example of problem-based learning). I challenged them not only to under-
stand what was currently happening but also to move beyond and apply
seemingly disparate technologies to their industry/function. One key obser-
vation of the entire experience was the students’ low level of knowledge at
the beginning of the course. There is some lore that today’s “digital natives”
are informed and plugged in to “all things” technology. Thus, I expected that
my students would arrive with a base level knowledge of many topics, such
as augmented reality, artificial intelligence, or 5G. I was amazed to learn how
little most students knew about the technologies and their applications within
their industries, so I adjusted by providing some base-level, foundational
readings. For example, one student was passionate about the film industry,
and as he conducted his research, he learned that studios are using digital
actors (e.g., Carrie Fisher’s postmortem performance in Star Wars—The Last
Jedi). He also learned that artificial intelligence had created a movie trailer.
Allen 21
Similarly, for other students, the assignment uncovered several interesting,

and sometimes disturbing applications: the use of drones in construction,
chatbots in hiring, the use of deepfakes, IoT applications in showers, and VR/
AR in sports entertainment. My impression was that this assignment contex-
tualized the content to a specific domain, and many students commented the
assignment allowed them to learn how some of the technologies were being
implemented in their chosen fields.
After students completed the course, I asked for their thoughts; following
are some representative student responses:
•• “Learning about the disruptive technologies that are changing the

workforce has been the most valuable part of my MBA thus far. The
course gave insight into innovations that I knew about, but never fully
comprehended . . . it has truly prepared me to be a better employee
moving forward.”
•• “Studying disruptive technology provided the opportunity to interact
with products, services, and techniques that will change the future of
countless industries. In finance, [technologies such as] blockchain,
artificial intelligence, and quantum computing have the ability to com-
pletely alter how critical financial functions are executed.”
•• “The class was exciting and full of individuals working to create
change. The off-campus experience gave us a chance to read about the
different companies and actually get to see, touch, and feel the techno-
logical changes.”
•• “It all comes down to giving students an understanding of what is out
there, so they can innovate and shape the future. Many students don’t
know what is out there until they are shown. They don’t need to
become subject matter experts in school. Those that want to make a
difference will learn what they need to accomplish their vision.”
•• “This class challenged me to think creatively and futuristically. It chal-
lenged me to consider how my own industry and others will be dis-
rupted through innovation. In addition, I had to come to every class
prepared to engage in the discussion.”
•• “This course opened my eyes to many different disruptive technolo-
gies and provided a platform for me to continue learning in the future.”
•• “This class was extremely beneficial in my understanding of various
technologies. This course is unlike any other and really should become
a required course as technology is our future. More people need to
have a greater understanding of it to continue to be on top of it rather
than behind. Having a class like this is what continues to allow us to
stand out from other grads.”
Developing a curriculum with a specific objective—to address a contem-

porary and relevant need of students—has been rewarding. In my experience,
the topic is resonating with graduate students and helping them better under-
stand the future of their chosen paths. Likewise, as a result, I believe they are
better equipped to understand the current landscape of business. On the
course evaluations, 100% of students strongly agreed that they “learned a lot
of relevant materials in this course,” that “the course increased their under-
standing of the subject,” and that they were “satisfied with this course.”
Conclusion
While most of the examples presented in this essay are situated outside of
higher education, we are not immune to the technologies enabling disrup-
tion highlighted in this essay. Whether it is partnerships between corpora-
tions and universities offering online learning options (e.g., Starbucks’
partnership with Arizona State University) or corporate programs such as
Goldman Sachs’ 10,000 Small Businesses program, there are many shifts in
the landscape of higher education as well. For instance, Google, Microsoft,
Amazon, and Facebook all provide certifications that directly apply to
the work of millions in business around the globe (e.g., Facebook Blueprint
Certification, AWS Certified Alexa Skill Builder, Google Certified Educator,
Microsoft Certified Professional). Other services, such a Podium Education
(www.podiumeducation.com) allow university administrators the oppor-
tunity to outsource online courses and sequences of course in topics such
as data analytics. Likewise, a quick online search of “artificial intelli-
gence and higher education” leads to some interesting paths for our
profession.
Harvard Professor Clayton Christensen famously commented that he feels
there will be significant shifts in higher education in the coming years. In
fact, he asserts that more than half of all higher education institutions will
close over the next 10 to 15 years, in part because of online learning and an
“alternative set of providers of postsecondary credentials” (e.g. corporate
universities, bootcamps; Lederman, 2017, para 4). This statement hits close
to home in northeast Ohio, where one coding bootcamp (Tech Elevator)
boasts a 94% placement rate, with a 95% graduation rate. The cost is $15,500
for 3 months, and the average starting salary of graduates is $58,000 (Tech
Elevator, 2019). After three months of training. At present, there are roughly
3,500 software development positions open in northeast Ohio alone (Team
NEO, 2019). Some readers may dismiss the notion of a bootcamp replacing a
four-year computer science degree, but at least one employer survey suggests
otherwise. According to IndeedBlog, “72% of employers think bootcamp
Allen 23
grads are ‘just as prepared’ to be high performers as degree holders” (“Are

coding bootcamps worth it?” 2017, para. 6).
Management scholar Peter Drucker suggested that the “best way to predict
the future is to create it” (Williamson, 1986). I believe we are on the precipice
of significant change across industries and within each functional discipline.
The technologies listed in Table 1 are multibillion-dollar industries, and each
is predicted to grow. As this growth occurs, technology will become more
and more aligned with business strategy. This new reality will also impact
management-oriented topics such as teams, organizational culture, leader-
ship, motivation, and project management. As this happens, leaders in all
industries (higher education included) will need a requisite understanding of
the various disruptive technologies and how they are transforming business.
Management educators in particular have a clear opportunity to differentiate
their discipline by owning this topic as an area of focus. They could poten-
tially be at the forefront, and I would encourage readers to explore the inter-
section between disruptive technologies and management (and management
education) in order to begin creating a body of knowledge. I believe manage-
ment educators can maintain their core identity (e.g., developing functional
expertise and skills such as critical thinking) and foster a digital mindset/tech
literacy in their students. A commitment to doing so ensures that our curricula
will be based on traditional business education fundamentals while keeping
an eye on the future. Perhaps more important, as educators who are charged
with contributing to the formulation of students’ futures, we—as well as our
students—will remain on the cutting edge, not on the chopping block.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research,
authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publica-
tion of this article.
ORCID iD
Scott J. Allen https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9371-2036
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903077

On the Cutting Edge

Mindset and Tech

Digital Mindset and Tech Literacy

Embracing a Digital Mindset

Table 1. The Six Ds of Tech Disruption.

The “D” Description Example

The Six Ds represent a foundational concept for the notion of a digital

Fostering Tech Literacy in Students

technology has two primary components: 1) a physical component which

Similar to how cost behavior, cost–volume–profit analysis, and ratio analysis

•• What is the projected return on investment? What is the initial

As Stephan et al. (2017) suggested,

all workers—from executives to interns—will need to learn much more about

This quote summarizes the important opportunity for business management

To be clear, I am not advocating that management educators develop

•• Which of the technologies enabling disruption are already shifting

Technology Definition Projected market Sample business courses and majors

Technology Definition Projected market Sample business courses and majors

Technology Definition Projected market Sample business courses and majors

I will provide brief answers to these questions in the following section to

Incorporating the Topic of Disruptive Technologies

The Two Questions

How Could the Topic of Technologies Enabling Disruption Be

Another way to answer “how” is by connecting the question with teaching

Case Study: A Graduate Course on The Future of

technologies as a module in my leadership and management skills course for

additive manufacturing (The Technology House), hologram technology

Similarly, for other students, the assignment uncovered several interesting,

•• “Learning about the disruptive technologies that are changing the

Developing a curriculum with a specific objective—to address a contem-

grads are ‘just as prepared’ to be high performers as degree holders” (“Are

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

Academy of Management Division & Interest Group Domain Statements. (2019).

Christensen, C. M. (2013). The innovator’s dilemma: When new technologies cause

Lightbourne, J. (2017). Algorithms & fiduciaries: Existing and proposed regulatory

Onal, C. (2011). Sensing & sensors: RSS Lecture 4. http://courses.csail.mit.edu/6.141/

White House. (2016). The economic report of the President. http://go.wh.gov/7J6qNx

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