2

Geography 2

Objectives:

a. define the Different Spheres of the Earth; (1.1.1)

b. analyze the significance of Balance Ecosystem; (1.1.1) and
c. explain the significance of Human Sphere and its Implication to Population Growth. (1.1.1)

Spheres of the Earth

Everything in Earth's system can be

placed into one of four major subsystems:
land, water, living things, or air. These four
subsystems are called "spheres." Specifically,
they are the "lithosphere" (land),
"hydrosphere" (water), "biosphere" (living
things), and "atmosphere" (air). Each of these
four spheres can be further divided into sub-
spheres. The Lithosphere--contains all of the
cold, hard solid land of the planet's crust
(surface), the semi-solid land underneath the
crust, and the liquid land near the center of
the planet. The surface of the lithosphere is
very uneven. There are high mountain ranges like the Rockies and Andes, huge plains or flat areas like
those in Texas, Iowa, and Brazil and deep valleys along the ocean floor.

The solid, semi-solid, and liquid land of the lithosphere form layers that are physically and
chemically different. If someone were to cut through Earth to its center, these layers would be
revealed like the layers of an onion. The outermost layer of the lithosphere consists of loose soil rich
in nutrients, oxygen, and silicon. Beneath that layer lies a very thin, solid crust of oxygen and silicon.
Next is a thick, semi-solid mantle of oxygen, silicon, iron, and magnesium. Below that is a liquid outer
core of nickel and iron. At the center of Earth is a solid inner core of nickel and iron. The Hydrosphere
-- contains all the solid, liquid, and gaseous water of the planet. It ranges from 10 to 20 kilometers in
thickness. The hydrosphere extends from Earth's surface downward several kilometers into the
lithosphere and upward about 12 kilometers into the atmosphere. A small portion of the water in the
hydrosphere is fresh (non-salty). This water flows as precipitation from the atmosphere down to
Earth's surface, as rivers and streams along Earth's surface, and as groundwater beneath Earth's
surface. Most of Earth's fresh water, however, is frozen. 2 Ninety-seven percent of Earth's water is
salty. The salty water collects in deep valleys along Earth's surface.
These large collections of salty water are referred to as oceans. The image above depicts the
different temperatures one would find on oceans' surfaces. Water near the poles is very cold while
water near the equator is very warm. The differences in temperature cause water to change physical
states. Extremely low temperatures like those found at the poles cause water to freeze into a solid
such as a polar icecap, a glacier, or an iceberg. Extremely high temperatures like those found at the
equator cause water to evaporate into a gas. The Biosphere --contains all the planet's living things.
This sphere includes all of the microorganisms, plants, and animals of Earth. Within the biosphere,
living things form ecological communities based on the physical surroundings of an area. These
communities are referred to as biomes.
Deserts, grasslands, and tropical rainforests are three of the many types of biomes that exist
within the biosphere. The Atmosphere--contains all the air in Earth's system. It extends from less than
1 m below the planet's surface to more than 10,000 km above the planet's surface. The upper portion
of the atmosphere protects the organisms of the biosphere from the sun's ultraviolet radiation. It also
absorbs and emits heat. When air temperature in the lower portion of this sphere changes, weather
occurs. As air in the lower atmosphere is heated or cooled, it moves around the planet. The result can
be as simple as a breeze or as complex as a tornado.
 Although the four systems have their individual identities, there is important interaction
between them. Environmental scientists study the effects of events in one sphere on the other
spheres. There are ten possible types of interactions that could occur within the earth system. Four of
these interactions are between the event and each of the 3 earth's spheres. The double-headed
arrows indicate that the cause and effect relationships of these interactions go in both directions.
These four types of interactions can be illustrated in Figure #1. The "event < > hydrosphere" refers to
the effects of the event on the hydrosphere, as well as the effects of the hydrosphere on the event.
For example, a volcanic eruption in the geosphere may cause profound direct and indirect effects on
the hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere as follows.

Atmosphere
Earth's atmosphere protects us from incoming space projectiles (comets, asteroids) that burn up
before reaching the planet's surface, and blocks harmful short wavelength radiation from the Sun. The lower
boundary of the atmosphere is considered to lie on Earth's surface; the upper boundary is the gradational
transition into space. The atmosphere can be divided into four layers on the basis of their thermal
characteristics. The structure of the atmosphere is described in the next section. The weather we experience
at the land surface is largely determined by the interaction of different wavelengths of incoming solar radiation
with the atmosphere. Solar radiation supplies the energy necessary for cloud formation, precipitation, and
local weather conditions. The relatively pleasant average global temperature of 15°C is a direct result of two
factors. First, visible light is converted to heat when solar radiation strikes Earth's surface. Second, the heat is
trapped close to the planet's surface by greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, water
vapor) that make up just a fraction of the atmosphere.
All planets have atmospheres but the specific mix of gases in Earth’s atmosphere is termed air. Two
common gases, nitrogen and oxygen, make up ~99% of dry air (Fig. 2). Moist air may contain up to 7% water
vapour and/or aerosols (microscopic particles). In addition, trace amounts of other gases (carbon dioxide,
methane, ozone) have proved crucial in recent discussions of global climate issues. Water is the only naturally
occurring compound that exists in three states (liquid, gas, solid) on Earth’s surface. Heat energy is transferred
through the atmosphere as water changes from one state to another. Heat is absorbed in processes such as
melting, sublimation, and evaporation. In contrast, heat is lost to the atmosphere during freezing,
condensation, and precipitation. The presence of moisture in the atmosphere is measured by the humidity of
the air. Humidity and condensation are closely related as condensation inevitably occurs when the air is
saturated with moisture (100% humidity). Air pressure decreases with altitude and results in temperature
changes as descending air is compressed or rising air expands. The section on air pressure and condensation
explains how such pressure changes can lead to condensation and cloud formation.
There are a variety of mechanisms that cause air to rise, thus leading to condensation and cloud
formation. The form of clouds provides us with clues to approaching weather systems. The section on clouds
and cloud formation discusses the lifting mechanisms that lead to cloud development and describes how we
can read the sky to learn what the clouds can tell us about regional weather patterns. Weather systems are
carried cross-country by prevailing winds that are tied directly to regional low- and high-pressure systems
characterized by warm, ascending and cool, descending air, respectively. Pressure and wind details the
relationship between air pressure and wind strength and direction and explores how other factors (friction,
rotation of Earth) result in the flow of air into low-pressure systems and out of high-pressure systems. The
natural laws that govern the interaction between temperature, pressure, and moisture in the atmosphere
make it possible for meteorologists to predict short-term changes in local weather conditions (weather
forecasts). The fact that these forecasts are sometimes wrong illustrates the dynamic changes that such
systems undergo during a single day and underscores the complexity of the atmospheric system.

Layers of Atmosphere

Troposphere
The troposphere begins at the Earth's surface and extends up to 4-12
miles (6-20 km) high. This is where we live. As the gases in this layer decrease
with height, the air becomes thinner. Therefore, the temperature in the
troposphere also decreases with height. As you climb higher, the temperature
drops from about 62°F (17°C) to 60°F (-51°C). Almost all weather occurs in this
region.
 The height of the troposphere varies from the equator to the poles. At the equator it is around 11-12
miles (18-20 km) high, at 50°N and 50°S, 5½ miles and at the poles just under four miles high. The transition
boundary between the troposphere and the layer above is called the tropopause. Both the tropopause and the
troposphere are known as the lower atmosphere.

Stratosphere
The Stratosphere extends from the tropopause up to 31 miles above the Earth's surface. This layer
holds 19 percent of the atmosphere's gases but very little water vapor. Temperature increases with height as
radation is increasingly absorbed by oxygen molecules which leads to the formation of Ozone. The
temperature rises from an average -76°F (-60°C) at tropopause to a maximum of about 5°F (-15°C) at the
stratopause due to this absorption of ultraviolet radiation. The increasing temperature also makes it a calm
layer with movements of the gases slow. The regions of the stratosphere and the mesosphere, along with
the stratopause and mesopause, are called the middle atmosphere by scientists. The transition boundary
which separates the stratosphere from the mesosphere is called the stratopause.

Mesosphere
The mesosphere extends from the stratopause to about 53 miles (85 km) above the earth. The gases,
including the oxygen molecules, continue to become thinner and thinner with height. As such, the effect of the
warming by ultraviolet radiation also becomes less and less, leading to a decrease in temperature with height.
On average, temperature decreases from about 5°F (-15°C) to as low as -184°F (-120°C) at the mesopause.
However, the gases in the mesosphere are thick enough to slow down meteorites hurtling into the
atmosphere, where they burn up, leaving fiery trails in the night sky.

Thermosphere
The Thermosphere extends from the mesopause to 430 miles (690 km) above the earth. This layer is
known as the upper atmosphere. The gases of the thermosphere are increasingly thinner than in the
mesosphere. As such, only the higher energy ultraviolet and x-ray radiation from the sun is absorbed. But
because of this absorption, the temperature increases with height and can reach as high as 3,600°F (2000°C)
near the top of this layer. However, despite the high temperature, this layer of the atmosphere would still feel
very cold to our skin because of the extremely thin air. The total amount of energy from the very few
molecules in this layer is not sufficient enough to heat our skin

The Hydrologic Cycle

The distribution of water on Earth is dependent upon
the complex interaction between the planet's surface and the
atmosphere that we call climate. The circular path of the
hydrologic cycle links evaporation, condensation, runoff,
infiltration, percolation, and transpiration (Fig. 10). These
processes cause water to change state (vapor, liquid, or solid) as
it moves between different elements of Earth system. (See the
chapter, Groundwater & Wetlands, for more on the hydrologic
cycle.) At any given moment, over 97% of Earth’s water is
present in the oceans, most of the rest is on the continents in the
form of ice, groundwater, streams, and lakes (Fig. 11). Less than 0.001% of all the water on the planet is in the
atmosphere. Water is continually added to the atmosphere by evaporation from the oceans and is lost by
precipitation. The volume of water falling as precipitation is approximately 0.42 x10 15 m3 per year, many
times greater than the moisture stored in the atmosphere. Water must be constantly cycled through the
atmosphere to maintain such high precipitation volumes.

Three States of Water

Water is the only natural compound that can exist in three states on Earth’s surface; as liquid water, a
gas (water vapor), and a solid (ice). Water molecules are in motion in all three states and the speed of the
moving molecules determines the state of water for a given location. Covalent atomic bonds between
hydrogen and oxygen atoms create a characteristic bipolar atomic structure that has a negative charge
adjacent to the oxygen atom and positive charge between the hydrogen atoms. The bipolar nature of the
water molecules results in the formation of a bond (hydrogen bond) between the negative and positive poles
of adjoining molecules. In solid form the molecules join together in a well-ordered hexagonal structure. Groups
of molecules remain attached in the liquid phase of water but have sufficiently rapid motion to generate less-
ordered structures. Water molecules move too rapidly in the gas phase to allow bonding between molecules.
Heat energy is released or absorbed as water changes state. The heat capacity of a material is the
amount of heat required (in calories) to raise the temperature of 1 gram of the substance by 1oC. Water has a
high heat capacity because it can absorb or release substantial quantities of heat without any significant
change in temperature. We can measure the loss or gain of sensible heat by measuring temperature changes.
Thus, if a pan of cold water (temperature of 0 oC) was heated on a stove we could record the increase in water
temperature with a thermometer. However, if the pan initially contained a mixture of water and ice, the
temperature would not increase until the ice had melted. Heat is absorbed by the water during the change
from ice to water but there would be no corresponding change in temperature until all the ice has melted. The
amount of heat gained (or lost) as water changes state is termed latent heat.
Latent heat is released into the environment as water changes from a less-ordered state to a more-
ordered state. Heat is absorbed as water changes to a less-ordered state. The amount of heat lost or gained
per gram of water is expressed in calories of latent heat. The latent heat of fusion, the heat released as water
is converted from liquid to solid, is 80 calories per gram of water. The reverse reaction, the conversion of ice to
water described above, absorbs 80 calories of heat for each gram of water converted from a solid to a liquid
state. There are six potential changes in state where latent heat is either released (freezing, condensation,
precipitation) or absorbed (melting, evaporation, sublimation). Two of these processes, evaporation and
condensation, occur over large areas of Earth's surface and contribute significantly to the generation of
weather phenomena and the redistribution of heat on Earth’s surface.
Liquid water is converted to water vapour during Evaporation. Heat is absorbed to convert the liquid
to a less-ordered form. You may have noticed this change of state occurring on your skin after you step out of
a hot shower or while you perspire during exercise; your body supplies the heat needed for evaporation, as
heat is lost you feel cooler. Much more latent heat is lost/gained during changes between liquid and gas states
than during changes between solid and liquid state. This is a function of the number of bonds that must be
broken or modified between water molecules. During freezing/melting these bonds are altered but generally
do not break as the atomic structure changes slightly. In contrast, during evaporation/condensation all the
bonds between the molecules must be broken or formed, requiring much more energy.

Activity 1: Short Answer (5 points each)

1. Give 3 important function of the atmosphere.





2. In your own opinion, is the depletion of ozone layer normal? Why or why not? What causes the
depletion of ozone layer?
Hydrosphere
The pressure and temperature conditions on Earth allow liquid water to be stable; it is also abundant,
a situation that is unique in the solar system. Water is also present as a gas, which is known as water vapor,
and as solid ice. The Earth became cool enough for liquid water to form early in the planet’s history. Under
present conditions, the substance cycles between the atmosphere, oceans, and surface sources such as lakes,
streams, and groundwater. Any water moving on the ground surface, from a rivulet to the world’s largest river,
is a stream. Groundwater is water that is found in rock or soil beneath the land surface. Most of these water
reservoirs contain liquid water, although the atmosphere holds water vapor, and glaciers and ice caps hold
water in the form of ice. A glacier is a moving mass of ice and snow that forms on land. The Earth’s
hydrosphere contains all of the water found in its atmosphere, oceans, lakes, streams, and groundwater.
Water is also found in animals and plants. A look at Earth from space shows that 97.5% of the Earth’s water is
in the oceans. This water is saline (salty), containing about 3.5% salt on average. Brackish water has salinity
levels between freshwater and seawater and is found in saline lakes and estuaries. Only a tiny amount of the
planet’s water—the remaining 2.5%—is fresh. The table on page 5 shows the percentages of Earth’s
freshwater held in the planet’s reservoirs. Most of this water is held in ice, permanent snow, and the
permanently frozen soil known as permafrost.

The Hydrologic Cycle

 Water moves continually between the Earth’s water reservoirs: the oceans, atmosphere, terrestrial
water features, and organisms. This cycling between reservoirs is known as the hydrologic cycle or water cycle.
Because of their huge size, the oceans play a major role in the water cycle. The Sun’s rays evaporate water
from the sea surface, creating water vapor, which may stay in the atmosphere for days or weeks. Water vapor
is invisible but often condenses into tiny liquid droplets to form clouds. The droplets can come together to
create precipitation in the form of rain, sleet, hail, snow, frost, or dew. If the precipitation falls as snow, it may
become frozen in a glacier or ice cap and remain there for hundreds or even thousands of years. When the ice
melts, the water may join a stream that flows into a lake or pond. Precipitation that falls as rain may also join
streams, lakes, and ponds. Some of this water will infiltrate soil and rock into a groundwater reservoir.
Groundwater moves slowly through the rock beneath the Earth’s surface but eventually emerges into a
stream, a lake, or the ocean. Liquid water may evaporate into the sky—or may become part of a living
organism—at any time. Evapotranspiration is the process of water evaporating from plants.

The Surface Water

As part of the hydrologic cycle, water flows through the oceans, evaporates into the atmosphere,
rains down onto the land, and is absorbed by living organisms. Freshwater on land takes the form of solid ice in
glaciers and ice caps and is a liquid in streams, ponds, lakes, and wetlands, which are the focus of this chapter.
Streams linking these water reservoirs run from glaciers to ponds, from groundwater to lakes, and from lakes
to the oceans. Lakes vary in most characteristics such as nutrient and gas content, water motions, and the
ecosystem, for example. (An ecosystem includes the plants and animals of a region and the resources they
need in order to live.) Wetlands are poorly drained regions that are covered with fresh or saline water all or
part of the time. They contain distinctive ecosystems, as do streams and lakes. Together, lakes, streams, and
wetlands have provided food for people throughout history. Many inland people have long depended on
freshwater fisheries for animal protein. In today’s world, thanks to transportation improvements, ocean fish
are easily available in developed countries, so much so that freshwater 13 fish currently account for only about
5% of the global fish catch. In developed countries, much of the fishing in inland waters is recreational,
although commercial fishing does take place in these areas in both developed and developing nations.
Freshwater fish are being raised on farms in increasing numbers by a process called aquaculture. Aquaculture
of both marine and freshwater fish is rapidly increasing, particularly in Asia.

Glaciers
Glaciers store a tremendous amount of freshwater in the form of ice. Most of the snow that falls in
the winter melts during the following spring or summer; but in cold climates, the winter snow may not melt at
all. When the air is very cold, this snow becomes compressed by the weight of the new snow that falls on top
of it; the deeper snow crystals become rounder and denser until they finally convert to ice. If the ice has not
melted by the following winter, new snow falls on top of it. This accumulation of ice over the years creates a
glacier.
Glaciers grow when the amount of snow falling in winter exceeds the amount that melts in spring and
summer and shrink when annual snowmelt exceeds snowfall. Continental glaciers, also called ice caps, cover
enormous areas of 20,000 square miles (50,000 square kilometers) or more. The ice cap spreads outward from
the center, pushed by its own weight. The Antarctic and Greenland ice sheets, the only two ice caps currently
on the Earth, hold 99% of the world’s ice and about 75% of its freshwater. The largest of them, the Antarctic
ice sheet, covers about 5 million square miles (13 million sq. km), nearly 1.5 times the size of the United States.
The Greenland ice sheet covers 700,000 square miles (1.8 million sq. km) and reaches a thickness of
more than 1.6 miles (2.7 km) in places. Alpine glaciers grow in mountainous regions where winter snows are
heavy and summers are short and cool. The glaciers flow downhill from their source in the mountains, where
excess snow accumulates. The Siachen glacier in the Himalaya Mountains, at 48 miles (78 km) Surface Waters
14 hydrosphere long, is the largest alpine glacier in the world. Its ice eventually melts to become the Indus
River, which is a crucial source of water for both India and Pakistan. The more water that glaciers trap as ice,
the lower the overall sea level becomes. During ice ages, the sea level drops; but when glaciers and ice caps
melt, it rises. Since the end of the Pleistocene ice age, around 10,000 years ago, the glaciers have been melting
while the sea level has been rising.

Streams
Water flows in streams on the land surface between glaciers, lakes, ponds, groundwater, and the
ocean. Wherever rain falls and snow melts, water drops collect as rivulets and run downhill into small
channels. The location where a stream begins is called its headwaters. Headwaters usually begin in the
mountains, where rain and snow are more abundant. Several small streams, known as tributaries, meet to
form a river. A stream may also be fed by a spring, which is water that flows onto the surface from beneath the
ground. A stream that flows year round is called perennial. For a perennial stream to flow when there is no
rain or snowmelt, it must be fed by groundwater. An ephemeral stream flows only part of the year, usually
during the rainy season. Some perennial streams flow through deserts where there is little or no rain. For
example, the Colorado River originates high in the Rocky Mountains of Colorado, where it is fed year round by
snowmelt, rain, and groundwater. The fifth longest river in the United States, the Colorado rolls across the
parched lands of Utah and Arizona and into Mexico, where evaporation far exceeds precipitation.
The river currently provides water to rapidly growing desert cities such as Los Angeles, California; Las
Vegas, Nevada; and Phoenix and Tucson in Arizona. As the water flows, it picks up salts (present in such low
concentrations that people do not taste them) and particles of dirt and organic matter such as tiny bits of
leaves, dead animal tissue, and 15 many other items. Large streams carry larger items such as sticks,
leaves, animal waste, logs, brush, sand, pebbles, and even boulders. Some streams differ dramatically
in such characteristics as temperature and sediment content along their lengths. For example, the same drop
of water may enter a stream as melt water from a frigid, lifeless glacier and travel downstream for weeks until
it becomes part of a warm, slow, sediment-filled river. A river and all of its tributaries make up a drainage basin
or watershed. North America’s largest river basin, the Mississippi, drains 41% of the contiguous United States,
or most of the area between the Rocky Mountains and the Appalachian Mountains.
The Mississippi basin is the third largest river basin in the world, after the Amazon of South America
and the Congo of Africa. The Mississippi River is the world’s third longest river, after the Nile River of eastern
Africa and the Amazon of South America. The Missouri River flows into the Mississippi; combined, these two
rivers create the longest river in North America, a total of 3,895 miles (6,270 km). (Without the Missouri, the
Mississippi is only the fourteenth longest river in the world.) On its journey into the Gulf of Mexico, the
Mississippi runs through or borders 10 states: Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, Kentucky,
Arkansas, Tennessee, Mississippi, and Louisiana. Drainage basins are separated by rock ridges known as
divides. On either side of a continental divide, the water flows toward different oceans. For example, the crest
of the Rocky Mountains forms the continental divide in North America. Rain and snow falling on the east side
of the divide drains into the Atlantic Ocean; precipitation on the west side drains into the Pacific Ocean.

Flooding
Streams vary greatly in size. The amount of water they carry changes by season and by year. When
more water flows down a stream than its channel can hold, or when a natural lake or reservoir (an artificial
lake) overflows its banks or a dam, flooding occurs. Floods are caused by heavy rain, rapid snow melt, or surge
from storms coming in from the ocean (such as during a hurricane). Summer thunderstorms that drop copious
amounts of rain may initiate sudden torrents of water and mud called flash floods that race through mountain
valleys or desert canyons. In flatter regions, floodwaters overflow a stream’s banks onto the nearby flatlands
(which are called floodplains). Floods are important because they enrich floodplain soil with nutrients that are
important to ecosystems.
Throughout human history, farmers have depended on regular spring floods for the soil fertility they
need to grow their crops. Many animal and plant species are adapted to flood conditions, and some even need
floods as part of their life cycle. For example, cottonwood trees need floodwaters to germinate. Many insects
wait for flooding to lay their eggs, hatch, or metamorphose. Floods also flush dead plants into streams,
providing food for fish and other organisms. For some fish species, spring floods become the trigger to breed.
Waterfowl depend on the wetlands created by floods for their habitat.

Lakes and Ponds

Water collects in depressions on land to form lakes or ponds. Water may stay in these reservoirs,
briefly or for years, until it evaporates or flows into another reservoir. Lakes vary both horizontally and
vertically Lakes can form without glaciation. In mountain ranges such as those in the Pacific Northwest, melting
glaciers and snow supply water for lakes. Water can fill a volcanic crater or caldera, as it has at Crater Lake,
Oregon. Water also dissolves rock limestone to create depressions that fill with water, such as in the Florida
Everglades. A stream that winds its way across the landscape may cut off a meander, or loop, to form an
oxbow lake. Lakes can also arise in swampy regions where groundwater floods the surface. The world’s
deepest (5,712 feet [2,741 meters]) and most voluminous freshwater lake is Lake Baikal, in Siberia. This lake
fills an active earthquake fault that deepens when the land along the fault moves. Lakes have a life cycle.
Over time, they fill with sediment, until they become swamps, meadows, and, eventually, even
forests. Lakes, present and former, in all of these stages, can be seen today. In geologic terms, lakes are short
lived, existing only in the millennia after glacial periods. Because the Pleistocene epoch ended only 10,000
years ago—relatively recently in geologic time—an unusual number of lakes exist today .
2 Types of Lake

When aquatic plants and animals die, their tissues and the nutrients they contain sink slowly to the
bottom of the lake. If the lake is deep, the nutrients fall into the dark depths where no plants can live and
make use of them. Lakes such as these, called oligotrophic, have few usable nutrients and so can support little
plant life. Brilliant blue Crater Lake, Oregon, is classified as an ultra-oligotrophic lake. Lake Tahoe, on the
California–Nevada border, is oligotrophic but is losing clarity due to development in its watershed. In a shallow
lake, nutrients also fall to the bottom but because sunlight can reach them, plants can use the nutrients for
photosynthesis.
The abundant plant life of a shallow lake gives it a green hue. 23 These lakes may also be covered
with a green scum of plants and phytoplankton. Bacteria thrive in these eutrophic lakes. Bacteria are
microscopic, single-celled organisms that are not plants or animals but are members of their own kingdom.
These tiny organisms decompose organic material and use oxygen as plants and animals do. However,
eutrophic lakes are often oxygen poor.

Freshwater Ecosystems
Streams, lakes, and other freshwater bodies support rich and complex ecosystems. An estimated 12%
of all animal species live in freshwater ecosystems, and most other terrestrial species depend in some way on
freshwater ecosystems for their survival. A food web is the complex network of feeding relationships among
the organisms in an ecosystem. Supporting the base of an aquatic food web are photosynthesizing
phytoplankton and plants. Organisms that cannot make their own food must eat other plants or animals. The
tiniest of these organisms are zooplankton, which range in size from 0.04 to 0.12 inches (1 to 3 millimeters)
and feed on phytoplankton. Soft-bodied invertebrates—animals without backbones—may have a hard outer
covering, such as a shell, for protection.
 These animals have many eating strategies: Some, such as worms or snails, tunnel through or slide
along lake mud, eating organic material; others, such as freshwater mussels, may filter their food right from
the water. If the sediment contains a large amount of organic material, invertebrate life will be abundant and
diverse. Further up the food web, small fish species feed on zooplankton, bacteria, or decaying plant and
animal tissue; above them, larger fish consume the small fish. Finally, ducks and other waterfowl, plus beavers
and other mammals, feed on the fish or invertebrates below them on the food web. Completing the food web
are decomposers, which are usually bacteria. Decomposers break down dead plant and animal tissue 27 and
animal wastes into nutrients that can be used by plants or animals.
Without decomposers to recycle nutrients, life on Earth could not exist. In the shallows near a lake’s
shore, where sunlight can penetrate to the bottom, aquatic plants live with their roots at the bottom and
leaves near the surface and provide food and habitat for animals. In a eutrophic lake, green scum coating the
surface is filled with phytoplankton, bacteria, fungi, and other organisms that feed on dead or decaying organic
material. In an oligotrophic lake, sunlight penetrates deeply, allowing photosynthesis to take place even in
deep waters. For example, algae in Lake Tahoe grew at depths of up to 330 feet (100 m) before pollutants
obscured the lake’s clarity.
The riparian corridor is a ribbon of vegetation that thrives along the banks of streams. Here, the
stream provides water, nutrients, and organic materials that allow plants to grow that are different from those
that grow in areas farther away from the stream bank. A perennial stream running through an arid region, for
example, supports leafy trees and an abundance of plants that are not found in the nearby desert. As streams
flow through the riparian corridor, they receive organic material, such as leaves and dead bugs. Streams also
help living things such as plants, fungi, larvae, crustaceans, mollusks, worms, fishes, and mammals to migrate
to new habitats.

Wetlands
Extremely biologically productive areas, wetlands are homes to varied and complex ecosystems. The
three types of wetlands—marshes, swamps, and bogs—are defined by the soil and plant types found within
them. Marshes are the most common and widespread wetlands in the United States. Their water may be tidal
(saline) or fresh, and may come from surface or groundwater sources. The rich soils and nearly neutral pH of
marshes provide the foundation for one of the richest ecosystems on Earth. Soft-stemmed plants such as
water lilies, Surface Waters 28 hydrosphere cattails, reeds, and bulrushes and a wide variety of wildlife make
their home in marshes. These ecosystems teem with waterfowl and mammals such as otters (Lutra sp.) and
muskrats (Ondata zibethicus).
The Florida Everglades are a spectacular example of a marsh ecosystem. Swamps form in poorly
drained depressions where hardwood trees and other woody plants thrive. Swamp flora in temperate
climates, such as in the northeastern United States, includes sphagnum moss (Sphagnum fimbriatum), the red
maple, (Acer rubrum), and various rushes and grasses. Cypress and mangrove forests dominate tropical areas.
Swamp vegetation provides great habitat for invertebrates such as freshwater shrimp, crayfish, and clams and
for fish, water birds, and such small mammals as beavers and otters. Rare species, such as the American
crocodile, are also found in swamps.
Approximately 100,000 square miles (260,000 sq. km) of the United States, particularly in the Atlantic
and Gulf Coast states, are covered with swamps, although many square miles of swamp have been lost in
recent decades. For example, draining and development have reduced the Great Dismal Swamp of
southeastern Virginia to less than half its original size. Bogs are small lakes that have no inlet or outlet in the
form of streams or rivers. Their water comes from rainfall. With no inflow, bog soils have fewer nutrients and
are more acidic than other wetlands. Bogs are covered with spongy peat, which is partially decomposed
organic matter formed by layers of dead plants and covered by a thick cover of sphagnum moss.
Over time, other plants and animals, including the carnivorous sundew (Drosera sp.), will move into
such an area. Most bogs in the United States are found in old lakes in the formerly glaciated areas of the
northeastern and Great Lakes regions, where tall cotton grass (Eriophorum angustifolium), cranberry
(Vaccinium macrocarpon), blueberry (Vaccinium sp.), tamarack (Larix laricina), and various pines grow. These
plants support animals such as moose (Alces alces), lynx (Lynx canadensis), and various deer. Evergreen trees
and shrubs grow in southeastern bogs, where black bears roam. Bogs are sometimes drained for farmland, and
their rich peat deposits are used for fuel.

Freshwater Fisheries
 Surface water sources are home to many food sources, especially fish. Freshwater fishing takes place
in lakes, streams, and wetlands, and in manmade reservoirs and ponds. Inland fisheries contribute about 12%
of all fish consumed by humans. Well-known freshwater fish include various trout, catfish, tilapia (Tilapia sp.),
lake whitefish (Coregonus clupeaformis), and carp (Cyprinus carpio). Important food species also include
salmon, Atlantic whitefish (Coregonus huntsmani), and sturgeon (Acipenser sp.), which live in the sea but
spawn in freshwater, while fish such as the American eel (Anguilla rostrata) spawn in the sea but live in
freshwater. Inland waters have enormous variations in their primary productivity (the amount of food energy
created). The type and abundance Great egrets in the morning fog in the Florida Everglades.
Surface Waters 30 hydrosphere of lake fish are determined by characteristics such as the quantity of
nutrients and dissolved oxygen. Fish species may also vary along a single stream’s course: Trout can be caught
in a river’s cold, clean headwaters, while smelt and flounder thrive far downstream in the warmer, brackish
estuary. Much of the fishing that takes place today in inland waters is recreational, and important to many
local economies. Lakes and streams are often stocked with fry, or small fish, that are allowed to grow to a size
large enough for recreational fishers, who may also practice “catch and release,” meaning that the fish are
released back into the water after they are caught. Great Lakes recreational fishing brings in about $4.5 billion
annually from species such as Lake Whitefish (Coregonus clupeaformi), chub, and yellow perch (Perca
flavescens). Although any water can be fished recreationally, only large lakes and rivers are fished
commercially.
Three factors have hurt commercial fishing in inland waters in recent years: competition from
recreational fishing, overfishing, and pollution. Competition with recreational fishers is decreasing the scope of
some commercial fishing. Commercial fishing of walleye (Stizostedion vitreum), for example, is banned to
preserve fish populations for sports fishing. Overfishing occurs where there are not enough mature fish left to
replenish those that have been caught. In developed nations, some freshwater fisheries that were extensively
overfished in the past are recovering. Despite these efforts, however, fish such as the lake sturgeon of the
Great Lakes remain critically endangered. In addition, developing nations are not managing their inland
fisheries well. Many large freshwater fish in the Mekong River of Southeast Asia, including what is considered
the world’s largest freshwater fish, the Mekong giant catfish (Pangasianodon gigas), are endangered. Fisheries
are being exploited systematically, with the largest fish being fished out first, followed by the removal of
progressively smaller species, until nothing is left. Freshwater fisheries in the United States have been in
decline because of pollution for several decades. Water pollution is a change in the chemical, physical, and
biological health of a waterway due to human activity.

What is groundwater?
Water is almost everywhere under the ground, but it is only usable if it is contained in an aquifer. Not
all rocks and sediments make good aquifers. First, the material must have holes or cracks, a feature known as
porosity. Soil usually has high porosity, about 55%. Rocks are generally less porous than soil, although their
porosity differs greatly. For example, hard rocks, such as granite, have between 5% and 40% porosity,
depending on the extent to which they are fractured. Other porous rocks include partially dissolved limestone
(10% Groundwater and Its Use 53 to 30% porosity) and sandstone (5 to 30%). Besides high porosity, an aquifer
must have good permeability, which refers to the interconnectedness of the pores and cracks. Fractured rocks
often have good permeability, but clay, although it is porous, has low permeability because the holes are not
interconnected.
Aquifers are recharged by water that seeps into the ground, often from a lake or a wetland area. Like
surface water, groundwater usually flows downhill, traveling with the slope of the water table. Groundwater
flows toward, and eventually into, streams, rivers, lakes, wetlands, and the oceans. The water table is the level
in an aquifer above which its pores are filled with air and below which they are filled with water. During the
wet season, rain seeps into the ground to refill the aquifer, and the water table rises. During the dry season,
the water table falls. In humid regions, the water table intersects the ground surface to feed streams or lakes.
Aquifers supply water to streams even when there has been no rain. In arid regions, the water table is well
below the ground surface, so desert streambeds are usually dry. Groundwater flows through the aquifer at
different rates depending on the permeability and porosity of the rock or soil. Groundwater may move as an
underground river through dissolved limestone. However, groundwater ordinarily moves through an aquifer
slowly, only about 1.5 inches (4 cm) per day, 5 feet (15 m) per year. The amount of time a water molecule
spends in a groundwater aquifer varies, based on the aquifer’s porosity, its slope, and the distance the water
travels. The amount of time varies from days or weeks to 10,000 or more years. By contrast, a water molecule
spends about two weeks in a river.
Groundwater Use
Groundwater is not as easy to use as surface water, but where there is an aquifer, it is always
available, even in dry seasons. The springs that come from groundwater acquifers have long provided water to
animals and humans in areas where there is no permanent surface water. Even in the Sahara Desert, springs
support about 90 different oases—islands of life in a dry, harsh environment. Groundwater is an abundant,
year-round water source, provided the aquifer is accessible. All over the world, people drill wells directly into
aquifers and pump water to cities, towns, and farms. The cost of the water depends on the depth of the water
table and the type of rock the well must be drilled through. Due to the abundance of groundwater, even
desert cities such as Las Vegas, Nevada, are able to use water in what many consider wasteful ways.
Groundwater exploitation causes problems. Because the water replenishes slowly, overuse of an aquifer
causes the water table to fall and wells to run dry. The solution to the problem is to drill deeper, an expensive
and sometimes difficult task. Ultimately, overuse may cause an aquifer to go dry or to become uneconomical
to use. Groundwater removal also causes subsidence, or sinking of the land surface. After water is removed
from an aquifer, the weight of the overlying rock may collapse the voids left behind, causing the ground
surface to sink. Where groundwater use is extreme, the land above the aquifer may collapse at a rate of 2 to 4
inches (5 to 10 Fountain at the Bellagio Hotel in otherworldly Las Vegas, Nevada. The average annual rainfall of
Las Vegas is 4 inches (10.2 cm). (Dennis Flaherty / Photo Researchers, Inc.) 57 cm) per year. Subsidence is
partially responsible for the tilt of the Leaning Tower of Pisa, which currently leans at about 7 feet (2.25 m) off
center: Its tilt is increasing 0.05 inches (1.2 mm) per year. Mexico City is built on old lakebeds and draws 80%
of its water from the aquifers beneath it.
As a result, the city, which is one of the largest and most populous in the world, has sunk an
estimated 30 feet (9 m) in some locations. In many locations in the world, including the United States,
groundwater is being taken from aquifers much more rapidly than it is being recharged. Farmers depend on
this water for their crops, and cities depend on it for their municipal water supplies. In the long term, the
practice of groundwater mining is not sustainable. (Resource use that is sustainable does not compromise the
current needs for resources or the resources that will be needed by future generations for present economic
gain.)
Where there are hot springs, groundwater can be used as a source of energy. Geothermal energy is
used for heating homes and generating electricity. Hot water and steam are pumped directly into houses via
pipes or are used to turn turbine generators to produce electricity. Geothermal energy is renewable, and
because no fuel is burned, no pollutants are released. In Iceland, about 87% of all houses are heated with
geothermal energy, and only a small fraction of the energy available has been harnessed. The Geysers, a
complex of geothermal power plants in northern California, is the largest producer of geothermal energy in the
United States.

How Surface Water Becomes Polluted

Surface water pollution is an enormous problem in the United States and elsewhere around the
world. According to the Natural Resources Defense Council, about one- third of rivers and one- half of lakes are
unfit for swimming, fishing, and other uses. For example, 83% of the water along approximately 980 miles
(1,570 km) of the Ohio River is withdrawn for use within five miles (8 km) downstream of effluent discharge
from a wastewater treatment plant. Pollutants enter surface water from a distinct, identifiable source or from
an extensive, poorly de- fined region. Pollutants that originate at a single location, such as a pipe, ditch, tank,
or sewer, are examples of point source pollution. Point sources are easy to identify and therefore are relatively
easy to block. Point source pollutants can enter the water directly.
Boats with outboard motors, Jet Skis, and other recreational watercraft release up to 30% of their fuel
straight into the water. Ships on large lakes may leak oil or dump waste, sometimes inadvertently. Routine ship
operations such as discharging ballast water (water that is used to stabilize a ship) can bring in non-native
plants and animals and cause the decline of native species. Pollutants that come from a larger area, such as a
fertilized field, livestock feedlot, parking lot, roadway, or even the atmosphere, are examples of non-point
source pollution. Because non-point source pollution comes from many polluters, it is much more difficult to
regulate than is point source pollution. Some non-point sources of pollution are described below.

Sewage
Anything that is flushed down a toilet, runs through a sink, or enters a sewer drain in the street
becomes sewage, the waste matter that passes through sewers. Sewage is 95% water. The remaining 5% is
mostly human waste but also includes oil, toxic chemicals, fertilizers, pharmaceuticals (drugs), pesticides,
pathogens, and trash. The organic material is biodegradable, which means it can be broken down by bacteria
into stable, nontoxic inorganic compounds, such as carbon dioxide (CO2), water (H2O), and ammonia.
Pathogens, synthetic (manmade) chemicals, and most trash are not biodegradable. Sewage may run raw into
lakes and streams, or it may be treated. In industrialized nations, sewage goes through a sewage treatment
plant before it is released into the environment. How these plants work is described in Chapter 10. But even
where there are sewage treatment plants, the sewage is not always thoroughly cleansed. The sewage systems
of many large cities are now old and overextended.

Runoff
Water that flows across roadways and rooftops and over landfills and contaminated soil often drains
directly into streams or lakes. This run- off can be contaminated with oil, with pollutants that were applied as
pesticides or fertilizers, with chemicals from improperly maintained landfills, with pathogens from pet waste,
with road salts, and with heavy metals from mines and other sources. According to the Environmental
Protection Agency, polluted runoff is the greatest source of water quality problems in the United States. More
cities are diverting roadway runoff to sewage treatment plants. However, the plants are unable to remove
some kinds of pollutants, specifically fertilizers and other chemical compounds, which wind up running off into
surface waters anyway. Animal wastes enter surface water as runoff, primarily from animal feeding operations
at factory farms. These farms are enormous production facilities: In some cases, hundreds of thousands of
animals— pigs, cattle, dairy cows, and poultry—are crowded into a small area.
The main purpose of factory farms is to grow animals for slaughter as quickly as possible. Farmers are
contracted to grow the animals for large corporations, which take the product but leave behind the pollutants.
These pollutants include nutrients in the waste and what- ever chemicals or pharmaceuticals were used to
facilitate raising the animals. Such pollutants may kill fish and other aquatic life and contaminate drinking-
water supplies. Although factory farms do not bear much resemblance to family farms, feeding operations
work under laws that were designed for small farms that did not house enough animals to cause major
environmental damage. Factory farms are major polluters because of the sheer numbers of animals they raise
and process. In all, the feedlots in the United States produce nearly 300 billion pounds (136 million Polluted
runoff from a shopping center parking lot in Inverness, Florida, is stored in a drainage pond.

Industrial Waste
Industrial waste may be piped into surface water directly, or it may be stored in ponds and
contaminated waste sites. Water trickling through disposal areas brings contaminants to streams, lakes, ponds,
and groundwater. Many waste disposal sites were built before regulations were in place. Others are
improperly maintained, and there is often little enforcement.

How Groundwater Becomes Polluted

Groundwater is less likely to be polluted than surface water. Pollut- ants are filtered out of the water
as they seep down through the soil and rock above the aquifer or travel slowly through the aquifer. But the
ability of soil and rock to remove pollutants from groundwater varies widely depending on the pollutants and
the rock type. As a result, up to 25% of the total usable groundwater and about 45% of the municipal
groundwater supply in the United States is contaminated. Pollutants in groundwater come primarily from the
same sources as those in surface waters. Water standing in ponds and lakes or in agricultural fields filters
through the soil and rock into the aquifer.
Groundwater is especially susceptible to toxins stored in landfills and underground storage tanks.
More than 100,000 underground storage tanks in the United States are leaking, and millions more will develop
leaks. Once pollutants are in an aquifer, they spread as a plume of contamination away from the source. The
plume moves as slowly as the water in the aquifer, as little as a few inches a day. Wells in 38 states contain
pesticide levels high enough to threaten human health. In New Jersey, every major aquifer is contaminated.
Water Pollution in the Philippines.

MANILA, Philippines — The Philippines, or the Republic of the Philippines, is a country comprised of 7,107
islands in Southeast Asia in the western Pacific. The country is surrounded by water: the Luzon Strait, the
South China Sea, the Sulu Sea, the Celebes Sea and the Philippine Sea. According to the United Nations,
uncontrolled, rapid population growth has contributed to extreme poverty, environmental degradation and
pollution in the Philippines. Water pollution is a major problem in the Philippines. According to Water Environment
Partnership in Asia (WEPA), 32 percent of the Philippines’ land mass — approximately 96,000 square kilometers
— is used for agriculture. The primary crops are palay (rice), corn, sugar cane, fruit, root crops, vegetables and
trees (for rubber). Increased population, urbanization, agriculture and industrialization have all reduced the
quality of water in the Philippines.
According to WEPA, water pollution’s effects cost the Philippines approximately $1.3 billion annually. The
government continues to try to clean up the problem, implementing fines to polluters as well as environmental
taxes, but many problems have not been addressed. According to government monitoring data, up to 58
percent of the groundwater tested was contaminated with coliform, and approximately one third of illnesses
monitored during a five-year period were caused by water-borne sources. In addition to this, during the dry
season, many areas experience water shortages.

On its website, Greenpeace reports the water pollution in the Philippines is mostly wastewater from the
following sources:
1.  Industrial: The metal varies according to industry — lead, mercury, chromium, cadmium and cyanide.
2.  Agricultural: Organic — decayed plants, dead animals, livestock manure, soil runoff; and non-organic —
pesticides and fertilizers.
3.  Domestic sewage: Contains pathogens that threaten human health and life.
4.  Other sources: Oil, mine or chemical spills and illegal dumping in or near water.

One of the most alarming things Greenpeace reports is that out of the Philippines’ 421 rivers, as many
as 50 are considered dead and unable to support any but the most robust life. Greenpeace has been working
to develop a solution to water pollution in the Philippines. The organization supports the Clean Production
context in which the public has a right to know which toxins they are exposed to in their daily lives.
The Pollutant Release and Transfer Register (PRTR) also deals with water quality and is “a national or
regional environmental database or inventory of potentially hazardous chemical substances and/or pollutants
released to air, water and soil. It also contains information on materials that are transferred off-site for
treatment or disposal.” According to Greenpeace Philippines, the concept of Clean Production is “a new way of
looking at production and consumption patterns.” The concept of producing consumer goods in this way
entails:

1.  The elimination of all hazardous chemicals at all stages of production and the seeking of safe, sustainable
alternatives.
2.  The reduction of waste generated.
3.  The decreasing of the need for raw materials and energy.
4.  The utilization of clean, renewable energy sources in the production process and design.

Hopefully with the implementation of PRTR, the public’s right to know and Clean Production, a lot of
the problems with water pollution in the Philippines will start to be solved.
The World Bank has helped address the problem of sewage wastewater in the Manila Bay. Its Manila Third
Sewerage Project (MTSP) tackled the sewage problem a growing urban population poses. Some of the results
of the project were:

1.  Over 77,000 connections to water and sewage were provided between 2005 and 2012.
2.  Approximately 50,000 more septic tanks were dislodged per year from 2008 to 2012 for a total of over
262,000.
3.  Over 3.5 million people were educated by the project’s “public information campaign” from 2005 to 2012.
4.  Connection to water gave women and children better health and hygiene and more time since they did not
have to spend time collecting and sanitizing water.
5.  Soil conditions and crop yields were improved from using treated sewage as fertilizer.
6.  In communities where the waste water treatment plants were built, urban renewal projects also sparked —
teams got out and cleaned up river banks; parks were built; and social interaction took place.

The rivers in the capital city of Manila have received some attention lately. For instance, the Marilao
River which runs through the Bulacan Province and into Manila Bay was on the 10 Most Polluted Rivers in the
World list. The river is contaminated with several kinds of heavy metals and chemicals from tanneries, gold
refineries, dumps and textile factories. It is one of 50 dead rivers in the Philippines.
In another instance, a group of nine Filipino artists painted watercolor portraits with sterilized pigments
from six polluted rivers in Manila. The images painted are of everyday events, children playing in the rivers,
people in boats and families fishing. “The people who enjoy the water are not aware of the dangers,” said Cid
Reyes, the curator of the exhibit. Money made from selling the pictures goes to clean the rivers, thus reducing
water pollution in the Philippines.

Activity 2: Make a slogan concerning water pollution. Explain your slogan of at least 300 words. (40 points)
Lithosphere

THE EARTH’S INTERIOR

The Earth’s lithosphere is composed of three major solid layers as outermost Crust, middle Mantle
and the central Core. The Crust is the outermost layer of the earth on which all living organisms survive. This is
a very thin layer. It is ranging from 5 km under the oceans to 100 km under the mountainous areas of
continents. Usually, it’s about 40 km thick under the flat continents. The crust is made of many types of rocks
and thousands of minerals. These rocks and minerals are made from just 8 elements. They are Oxygen (46.6%),
Silicon (27.72%), Aluminum (8.13%), Iron (5.00%), Calcium(3.63%), Sodium (2.83%), Potassium (2.70%) and
Magnesium (2.09%). The rocks present in the earth’s crust are solid, rigid and brittle in nature. They are also
highly variable, including rocks of molten origin, rocks of sedimentary origin, and rocks that have undergone all
sorts of structural and chemical alterations through metamorphism.
The crust itself can be divided into two sub-layers. One kind of layer is found everywhere, under the
oceans and also below the continents. This is called as the oceanic crust. This layer is dominated by relatively
heavy, dark, dense rocks of “mafic” composition. Most of these mafic rocks are of volcanic in origin and are
called “basalts.” This dense, heavy mafic layer is sometimes called the “SiMa” denoting its chemistry as silica
and magnesium. It tends to be relatively thin, usually from about 5-12 km in thickness. A second layer is
normally found in the continents. It is made up of light colored rocks. These rocks are primarily composed of
silicates enriched in lighter elements, such as aluminum (Al), potassium (K), and sodium (Na). This layer is
called as “SiAl” as it is dominated by silicate rocks with lighter elements mixed with aluminum. These rocks are
granitic masses and hence, this layer is called as the granitic layer. This is considerably thicker, around 40 km,
than the basaltic lower layer, Below this crust, the earth’s solid constituents have shown a transition. The
density of the mass is very high and very rigid. Seismic soundings have identified a discontinuity between the
crust and this layer.
This is the mantle layer of the earth. There is a sharp increase in the velocity of seismic waves as they
pass into this layer of differing density and rigidity. The Mohorovicic discontinuity (often called, simply, “the
Moho”) marks the transition from the bottom of the crust to the top of this mantle layer. Andrija Mohorovicic
first noticed this effect in the year 1909. He found that some of the earthquake waves near the surface, moved
slower than the earthquake waves that passed through the interior of the Earth. He also noticed that the P
(primary, first and strongest) waves that passed through the interior of the Earth, did move in a straight line.
These waves were bent or deflected by something. He decided that the outside layer of Crust was made of less
dense material (Rock) and the mantle. The Mantle was much denser. Waves of all other kinds move faster and
straighter through this denser, more solid layer. Based on this observation, the nature of the mantle was
identified.

The Earth’s Mantle

The middle, mantle, layer makes up the largest volume of the Earth’s interior. It is almost 2900
kilometers thick and comprises of about 83% of the Earth’s volume. It is divided into two layers as upper
mantle and lower mantle. The upper mantle is about 670 kilometers in depth. It is brittle and less dense. It is
made up of peridotites. These are rocks made up of olivine and pyroxene minerals. These are largely silicate
minerals and the rocks are basic in character.
These rocks are highly enriched with iron and magnesium, and hence they are called as “ultramafic”
rocks. These ultramafic rocks are dark in color due to the presence of iron and magnesium. These rocks are
extremely heavy and dense compared with the typical surface rocks. The rocks in the upper mantle are more
rigid and brittle because of cooler temperatures and lower pressures. The Lower Mantle is much thicker and
denser. It is 670 to 2900 kilomteres below the Earth’s surface.
This layer is hot and plastic. The higher pressure existing in this layer causes the formation of minerals
that are different from those of the upper mantle. The mantle varies in its state of matter. It is soft and in
nearly liquid condition near its inner boundary with the liquid outer core and again near the top, a few
kilometers under the earth’s crust. In other areas, it may show nearly brittle condition and solidity.

The Earth’s Core:

The Earth’s central Core contains two different layers as Outer Core and Inner Core. The Outer Core is
a hot liquid layer and the Inner Core is a hot and solid layer. Beno Gutenberg discovered the boundary as a
discontinuity between the mantle and the outer core. This boundary was named after him, as Gutenberg
discontinuity. The outer core is at 2890-5150 km below the earth’s surface. The temperature in the outer core
is about 4000-50000C. The molten, liquid iron in the outer core is important because it helps to create the
Earth’s magnetic field. The outer core is about 2250 km thick. The outer core is known to exist in a liquid state
because of the behavior of earthquake waves, particularly shear body waves or secondary waves. Liquid
cannot respond to shear forces, so it can’t transmit shear waves. As a result, there is a seismic shadow on the
side of the earth antipodal to an earthquake’s epicentre.

The Lithospheric Plates

The lithosphere is broken up into tectonic plates. There are currently seven or eight major and many
minor plates. The lithospheric plates ride on the asthenosphere. These plates move in relation to one another
at one of three types of plate boundaries as convergent( or collisional )boundaries, divergent boundaries(also
called as spreading centers); and conservative transform boundaries. Plate size can vary greatly, from a few
hundred to thousands of kilometers across; the Pacific and Antarctic Plates are among the largest.
Plate thickness also varies greatly, ranging from less than 15 km for young oceanic lithosphere to about 200 km
or more for ancient continental lithosphere. Tectonic plates probably got developed in the earlier period of the
Earth's 4.6-billion-year old history. They have been drifting on the surface ever since-like slow-moving bumper
cars repeatedly clustering together and then separating each other.
The movement of plates has caused the formation and break-up of continents over time, including
occasional formation of a supercontinent that contains most or all of the continents. The supercontinent
Columbia or Nuna was formed during a period of 2.0–1.8 billion years. It got broken up about 1.5–1.3 billion
years ago. The supercontinent Rodinia is thought to have formed about 1 billion years ago and to have
embodied most or all of Earth's continents. It also got broken up into eight continents around 600 million years
ago. The eight continents later re-assembled into another as a supercontinent called as Pangaea. This Pangaea
also got broken into two units as:

1) Laurasia (which became North America and Eurasia) and

2) Gondwana (which became the remaining continents).

The Major plates of the earth are called as o Indian Plate

primary plates: o Australian Plate
 African Plate  Eurasian Plate
 Antarctic Plate  North American Plate
 Indo-Australian Plate, sometimes  South American Plate and
subdivided into:  Pacific Plate.
 The notable Minor plates are called as secondary plates:

 Arabian Plate
 Caribbean Plate
 Juan de Fuca Plate
 Cocos Plate
 Nazca Plate
 Philippine Sea Plate and
 Scotia Plate

There are also some tertiary plates which are

1) The African Plate encompasses Madagascar Plate, Nubian Plate, Seychelles Plate, and Somali Plate.
2) The Antarctic Plate including Kerguelen microcontinent, Shetland Plate and South Sandwich Plate.
3) The Caribbean Plate including Panama Plate and Gonâve Microplate.
4) The Cocos Plate including Rivera Plate
5) The Eurasian Plate including Adriatic or Apulian Plate, Aegean Sea Plate (or Hellenic Plate), Amurian
Plate, Anatolian Plate, Banda Sea Plate, Burma Plate, Iberian Plate, Iranian Plate, Molucca Sea Plate ,
Halmahera Plate, Sangihe Plate, Okinawa Plate, Pelso Plate, Sunda Plate, Timor Plate, Tisza Plate and
Yangtze Plate.
6) The Indo-Australian Plate including Australian Plate, Capricorn Plate, Futuna Plate, Indian Plate,
Kermadec Plate, Maoke Plate, Niuafo'ou Plate, Sri Lanka Plate, Tonga Plate and Woodlark Plate.
7) The Juan de Fuca Plate including Explorer Plate and Gorda Plate.
8) The North American Plate including Greenland Plate and Okhotsk Plate.
9) The Pacific Plate including Balmoral Reef Plate, Bird's Head Plate, Caroline Plate, Conway Reef Plate,
Easter Plate, Galapagos Plate, Juan Fernandez Plate, Kula Plate, Manus Plate, New Hebrides Plate,
North Bismarck Plate, North Galapagos MicroPlate, Solomon Sea Plate and South Bismarck Plate.
10) The Philippine Sea Plate includes Mariana Plate and Philippine Microplate.
11) The South American Plate including Altiplano Plate, Falklands Microplate, and North Andes Plate.

Plate Tectonics
The theory of “plate tectonics” is the most important advancement in earth sciences in the 20th
century. It provides the framework for all understanding of the earth’s processes that are happening today and
also which have happened in the past.
 In 1915, a Bavarian scientist named Alfred Wegener noticed, while working near the North Pole, that
his compass needle did not point to where north "should" have been. In other words, true north and magnetic
north were in two separate localities. Wegener conceptualized that the poles of the earth (both North and
South) were "wandering" with time. He called this as "Polar Wandering". Subsequent to his first observation,
he began to also notice how continents fit together like a jigsaw puzzle…most fittingly the western coast of
Africa and the eastern coast of South America.
In addition, rocks from these localities were also of the same type, same age, and type of fossils. He
revised his theory and called it as "Continental Drift", due to the idea, that it was not the poles that got shifted,
but the continents themselves have moved apart. Wegener died of a heart attack on a voyage studying glaciers
near the North Pole in the early 1930's and his work was virtually forgotten. After the World War II, Echo
Sounding technology was developed. It provided the opportunities to carry out stunning discoveries by a
geologist and seaboat commander, Harry Hess. He noticed that rocks on either side of a prominent geologic
feature, in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean were a perfect mirror image of each other on either side of the rift
zone. This was called as the mid-oceanic rift zone.
He found that the rift zone was oozing out magmatic material from submarine volcanoes and that the
material got spread laterally across either sides of the rift. As time progressed, Hess took more and more
samples to back up his findings. He did it as part of a series of drill voyages aboard using the research vessel,
Glomar Challenger. Later in the 1960’s, Frederick Vine and Drummond Matthews, a professor/student team,
discovered the principles of magnetic patterns on the ocean floor.
They published their findings in journal first and then delivered lectures at Scripps Oceanographic
Institute. Further findings revealed that not only did the stripes have the same age of rocks, but a magnetic
polarity image resulted in addition to it. This has shown that during the earth history, there have been several
"magnetic reversals" occurred in which the compass needle have pointed towards south instead of north, in
several places. In the late 1960's and early 1970's, two scientists, revisited Wegener's findings. 6 They
combined the observations along with Hess' discoveries to formulate a new package called as "Plate
Tectonics". Robert Palmer and Donald Mackenzie are credited with naming and synthesizing them into one
common theory of “plate tectonics”. Alfred Wegener was referred to as the "Father of Plate Tectonics".

Alfred Wegener

The plate motion is driven by one or more of the following mechanisms:

1. Convection -- heat transferred by movement of a fluid (magma)

2. Conduction -- heat transfer by touching plates
3. Push-Pull Slab -- heavy slabs pull plates downward and magma forced upward pushes
plates to the surface (upwelling.)

There are several geological processes that occur where plates meet each other. They are called as plate
boundaries or margins. The notable processes are:
 1. Volcanoes tend to erupt at plate margins as a result of a process called subduction

2. Earthquakes occur where plates grind against or over one other

3. Mountain building occurs as one plate is pushed over another

4. Seafloor spreading
occurs where two
oceanic plates pull
apart.

1.
A.Balasubramanian (2011). The Earth’s
Lithosphere – Documentary. Retrieved on: January 15, 2021 Retrieved from:

Activity 3: Essay: For you when is the perfect time to be prepared when it comes to natural calamities such as
earthquake? Elaborate your answer. (30 points)
Biosphere
Relatively thin life-supporting stratum of Earth’s surface, extending from a few kilometres into
the atmosphere to the deep-sea vents of the ocean. The biosphere is a global ecosystem composed of living
organisms (biota) and the abiotic (nonliving) factors from which they derive energy and nutrients. Before the
coming of life, Earth was a bleak place, a rocky globe with shallow seas and a thin band of gases—
largely carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, molecular nitrogen, hydrogen sulfide, and water vapour. It was a
hostile and barren planet. This strictly inorganic state of Earth is called the geosphere; it consists of
the lithosphere (the rock and soil), the hydrosphere (the water), and the atmosphere (the air). Energy from the
Sun relentlessly bombarded the surface of the primitive Earth, and in time—millions of years—chemical and
physical actions produced the first evidence of life: formless, jellylike blobs that could collect energy from
the environment and produce more of their own kind. This generation of life in the thin outer layer of the
geosphere established what is called the biosphere, the “zone of life,” an energy-diverting skin that uses the
matter of Earth to make living substance.
The biosphere is a system characterized by the continuous cycling of matter and an accompanying
flow of solar energy in which certain large molecules and cells are self-reproducing. Water is a major
predisposing factor, for all life depends on it. The elements carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus,
and sulfur, when combined as proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids, provide the building blocks,
the fuel, and the direction for the creation of life. Energy flow is required to maintain the structure of
organisms by the formation and splitting of phosphate bonds. Organisms are cellular in nature and always
contain some sort of enclosing membrane structure, and all have nucleic acids that store and transmit genetic
information.
All life on Earth depends ultimately upon green plants, as well as upon water. Plants utilize sunlight in
a process called photosynthesis to produce the food upon which animals feed and to provide, as a by-product,
oxygen, which most animals require for respiration. At first, the oceans and the lands were teeming with large
numbers of a few kinds of simple single-celled organisms, but slowly plants and animals of increasing
complexity evolved. Interrelationships developed so that certain plants grew in association with certain other
plants, and animals associated with the plants and with one another to form communities of organisms,
including those of forests, grasslands, deserts, dunes, bogs, rivers, and lakes. Living communities and their
nonliving environment are inseparably interrelated and constantly interact upon each other. For convenience,
any segment of the landscape that includes the biotic and abiotic components is called an  ecosystem. A lake is
an ecosystem when it is considered in totality as not just water but also nutrients, climate, and all of the life
contained within it. A given forest, meadow, or river is likewise an ecosystem. One ecosystem grades into
another along zones termed ecotones, where a mixture of plant and animal species from the two ecosystems
occurs. A forest considered as an ecosystem is not simply a stand of trees but is a complex of  soil, air, and
water, of climate and minerals, of bacteria, viruses, fungi, grasses, herbs, and trees, of insects, reptiles,
amphibians, birds, and mammals.
Stated another way, the abiotic, or nonliving, portion of each ecosystem in the biosphere includes the
flow of energy, nutrients, water, and gases and the concentrations of organic and inorganic substances in the
environment. The biotic, or living, portion includes three general categories of organisms based on their
methods of acquiring energy: the primary producers, largely green plants; the consumers, which include all the
animals; and the decomposers, which include the microorganisms that break down the remains of plants and
animals into simpler components for recycling in the biosphere. Aquatic ecosystems are those involving
marine environments and freshwater environments on the land. Terrestrial ecosystems are those based on
major vegetational types, such as forest, grassland, desert, and tundra. Particular kinds of animals are
associated with each such plant province.
Ecosystems may be further subdivided into smaller biotic units called communities. Examples of
communities include the organisms in a stand of pine trees, on a coral reef, and in a cave, a valley, a lake, or a
stream. The major consideration in the community is the living component, the organisms; the abiotic factors
of the environment are excluded.
A community is a collection of species populations. In a stand of pines, there may be many species of
insects, of birds, of mammals, each a separate breeding unit but each dependent on the others for its
continued existence. A species, furthermore, is composed of individuals, single functioning units identifiable as
organisms. Beyond this level, the units of the biosphere are those of the organism: organ systems composed of
organs, organs of tissues, tissues of cells, cells of molecules, and molecules of atomic elements and energy. The
progression, therefore, proceeding upward from atoms and energy, is toward fewer units, larger and more
complex in pattern, at each successive level.
 The characteristics and dynamics of biological populations and communities are dealt with, as are the
interactions that constitute the primary stabilizing links among the constituent organisms. Due attention is also
given to the distribution patterns of these biotic units and to the processes that produced such patterns. The
major aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems of Earth are treated in some detail. Other points include energy
transformations and transfers within the biosphere and the cyclic flow of materials needed for life. For
the development, methodology, and applications of the study of interrelations of organisms with their
environment and each other, see ecology. Further treatment of the various aquatic and terrestrial
environments is provided in ocean, lake, river, continental landform, Arctic, and Antarctica. For a discussion of
the origin of life on Earth and the varieties of and commonalities among organisms, see life and Earth,
pregeologic history of. The characteristics and classifications of living organisms are covered in detail
in algae, amphibian, angiosperm, animal, annelid, arachnid, arthropod, aschelminth, bacteria, bird, bryophyte, 
chordate, cnidarian, crustacean, dinosaur, echinoderm, fern, fish, flatworm, fungus, gymnosperm, insect, lamp
shell, mammal, mollusk, moss animal, plant, protist, protozoa, reptile, sponge, and virus.

The Diversity of Life

The biosphere supports between 3 and 30 million species of plants, animals, fungi, single-celled
prokaryotes such as bacteria, and single-celled eukaryotes such as protozoans (Figure 1). Of this total, only
about 1.4 million species have been named so far, and fewer than 1 percent have been studied for their
ecological relationships and their role in ecosystems. A little more than half the named species are insects,
which dominate terrestrial and freshwater communities worldwide; the laboratories of systematists are filled
with insect species yet to be named and described. Hence, the relationships of organisms to
their environments and the roles that species play in the biosphere are only beginning to be understood.

The organization of the biosphere

Natural groupings
This tremendous diversity of life is organized into natural ecological groupings. As life has evolved,
populations of organisms have become separated into different species that are reproductively isolated from
one another. These species are organized through their interrelationships into complex biological
communities. The interactions in these communities affect, and are affected by, the physical environments in
which they occur, thereby forming ecosystems through which the energy and nutrients necessary for life flow
and cycle. The mix of species and physical environments vary across the globe, creating ecological
communities, or biomes, such as the boreal forests of North America and Eurasia and the rainforests of the
tropics. The sum total of the richness of these biomes is the biosphere.

Processes of evolution
This hierarchical organization of life has come about through the major processes of evolution—
natural selection (the differential success of the reproduction of hereditary variations resulting from the
interaction of organisms with their environment), gene flow (the movement of genes among different
populations of a species), and random genetic drift (the genetic change that occurs in small populations owing
to chance). (See evolution.) Natural selection operates on the expressed characteristics of genetic variants
found within populations, winnowing members of the population who are less well suited to
their environment from those better suited to it. In this manner, populations become adapted to their local
ecosystems, which include both the physical environment and the other species with which they interact in
order to survive and reproduce.
The genetic variation that is necessary for a species to adapt to the physical environment and to other
organisms arises from new mutations within populations, the recombination of genes during sexual
reproduction, and the migration of and interbreeding with individuals from other populations. In very small
populations, however, some of that variation is lost by chance alone through random genetic drift. The
combined result of these evolutionary processes is that after many generations populations of the same
species have widely divergent characteristics. Some of these populations eventually become so genetically
different that their members cannot successfully interbreed, resulting in the evolution of a separate species
(speciation).
The diversification of life through local adaptation of populations and speciation has created the
tremendous biodiversity found on Earth. In most regions 1 square kilometre (0.4 square mile)
will harbour hundreds—in some places even thousands—of species. The interactions between these species
create intricate webs of relationships as the organisms reciprocally evolve, adapting to one another and
becoming specialized for their interactions (coevolution; see community ecology: The coevolutionary process).
Natural communities of species reflect the sum of these species’ interactions and the ongoing complex
selection pressures they constantly endure that drive their evolution. The many ecological and evolutionary
processes that affect the relationships among species and their environments render ecology one of the most
intricate of the sciences. The answers to the major questions in ecology require an understanding of the
relative effects of many variables acting simultaneously.

The importance of the biosphere

The continued functioning of the biosphere is dependent not only on the maintenance of
the intimate interactions among the myriad species within local communities but also on the looser yet crucial
interactions of all species and communities around the globe. Earth is blanketed with so many species and so
many different kinds of biological communities because populations have been able to adapt to almost any
kind of environment on Earth through natural selection. Life-forms have evolved that are able to survive in
the ocean depths, the frigid conditions of Antarctica, and the near-boiling temperatures of geysers. The great
richness of adaptations found among different populations and species of living organisms is Earth’s greatest
resource. It is a richness that has evolved over millions of years and is irreplaceable.
It is therefore startling to realize that our inventory of Earth’s diversity is still so incomplete that the
total number of living species cannot be estimated more closely than between 3 and 30 million species.
Decades of continuous research must be carried out by systematists, ecologists, and geneticists before the
inventory of biodiversity provides a more accurate count. The research has been slow. Only recently, as
the extinction rate of species has been increasing rapidly, have societies begun to realize the interdependence
of species. To sustain life on Earth, more than the few animal and plant species used by humans must be
preserved. The flow of energy and the cycling of nutrients through ecosystems, the regulation of populations,
and the stability of biological communities, all of which support the continued maintenance of life, rely on the
diversity of species, their adaptations to local physical conditions, and their coevolved relationships.
Despite the limited scientific knowledge of most species, ecological studies during the 20th century
made great headway in unraveling the mechanisms by which organisms coevolve with one another and adapt
to their physical environment, thereby shaping the biosphere. Each new decade has produced a steady stream
of studies showing that the biological and physical elements of Earth are more interconnected than had been
previously thought. Those studies also have shown that often the most seemingly insignificant species are
crucial to the stability of communities and ecosystems. Many seemingly obscure species are at risk worldwide
of being dismissed as unimportant. The effect that the loss of species will have on ecosystems is appreciated
only by understanding the relationships between organisms and their environments and by studying the
ecological and evolutionary processes operating within ecosystems.
The need to understand how the biosphere functions has never been greater. When human population levels
were low and technological abilities crude, societies’ impact on the biosphere was relatively small. The increase in human
population levels and the harvesting of more of Earth’s natural resources has altered this situation, especially in recent
decades. Human activities are causing major alterations to the patterns of energy flow and nutrient cycling through
ecosystems, and these activities are eliminating populations and species that have not even been described but which
might have been of central importance to the maintenance of ecosystems.
The biologist Edward O. Wilson, who coined the term biodiversity, estimated conservatively that in the late 20th
century at least 27,000 species were becoming extinct each year. The majority of these were small tropical organisms. The
impact that this freshet of extinctions would have on the biosphere is akin to receiving a box of engine parts and discarding
a portion of them before reading the directions, assuming that their absence will have no negative repercussions on the
running of the engine. The following sections describe how many of the biological and physical parts fit together to make
the engine of the biosphere run and why many seemingly obscure species are important to the long-term functioning of
the biosphere.

Resources of The Biosphere

The flow of energy

The photosynthetic process
Life on Earth depends on the harnessing of solar energy by the process of photosynthesis.
Photosynthetic plants convert solar energy into the chemical energy of living tissue, and that stored chemical
energy flows into herbivores, predators, parasites, decomposers, and all other forms of life. In the
photosynthetic process, light energy is absorbed by the chlorophyll molecules of plants to convert carbon
dioxide and water into carbohydrates and oxygen gas. Proteins, fats, nucleic acids, and other compounds also
are synthesized during the process, as long as elements such as nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus are available.

Efficiency of solar energy utilization

Most solar energy occurs at wavelengths unsuitable for photosynthesis. Between 98 and 99 percent
of solar energy reaching Earth is reflected from leaves and other surfaces and absorbed by other molecules,
which convert it to heat. Thus, only 1 to 2 percent is available to be captured by plants. The rate at which
plants photosynthesize depends on the amount of light reaching the leaves, the temperature of
the environment, and the availability of water and other nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus. The
measurement of the rate at which organisms convert light energy (or inorganic chemical energy) to the
chemical energy of organic compounds is called primary productivity. Hence, the total amount of
energy assimilated by plants in an ecosystem during photosynthesis (gross primary productivity) varies
among environments. (Productivity is often measured by an increase in biomass, a term used to refer to the
weight of all living organisms in an area. Biomass is reported in grams or metric tons.)
Much of the energy assimilated by plants through photosynthesis is not stored as organic material but
instead is used during cellular respiration. In this process organic compounds such as carbohydrates, proteins,
and fats are broken down, or oxidized, to provide energy (in the form of adenosine triphosphate [ATP]) for
the cell’s metabolic needs. The energy not used in this process is stored in plant tissues for further use and is
called net primary productivity. About 40 to 85 percent of gross primary productivity is not used during
respiration and becomes net primary productivity. The highest net primary productivity in terrestrial
environments occurs in swamps and marshes and tropical rainforests; the lowest occurs in deserts. In aquatic
environments, the highest net productivity occurs in estuaries, algal beds, and reefs. Consequently, these
environments are especially critical for the maintenance of worldwide biological productivity.

Energy transfers and pyramids

A small amount of the energy stored in plants, between 5 and 25 percent, passes into herbivores
(plant eaters) as they feed, and a similarly small percentage of the energy in herbivores then passes into
carnivores (animal eaters). The result is a pyramid of energy, with most energy concentrated in the
photosynthetic organisms at the bottom of food chains and less energy at each higher trophic level (a division
based on the main nutritional source of the organism; see community ecology: Trophic pyramids and the flow
of energy). Some of the remaining energy does not pass directly into the plant-herbivore-carnivore food
chain but instead is diverted into the detritus food chain. Bacteria, fungi, scavengers, and carrion eaters that
consume detritus (detritivores) are all eventually consumed by other organisms.
The rate at which these consumers convert the chemical energy of their food into their own biomass is
called secondary productivity. The efficiency at which energy is transferred from one trophic level to another is
called ecological efficiency. On average it is estimated that there is only a 10 percent transfer of energy.

ecosystem energy transfer

Transfer of energy through an ecosystem. At each trophic level only a small proportion of energy
(approximately 10 percent) is transferred to the next level.

Energy is lost in several ways as it flows along these pathways of consumption. Most plant tissue is
uneaten by herbivores, and this stored energy is therefore lost to the plant-herbivore-carnivore food chain. In
terrestrial communities less than 10 percent of plant tissue is actually consumed by herbivores. The rest falls
into the detritus pathway, although the detritivores consume only some of this decaying tissue. Oil and coal
deposits are major repositories of this unused plant energy and have accumulated over long periods
of geologic time.
The efficiency by which animals convert the food they ingest into energy
for growth and reproduction is called assimilation efficiency. Herbivores assimilate between 15 and 80 percent
of the plant material they ingest, depending on their physiology and the part of the plant that they eat. For
example, herbivores that eat seeds and young vegetation high in energy have the highest
assimilation efficiencies, those that eat older leaves have intermediate efficiencies, and those that feed on
decaying wood have very low efficiencies. Carnivores generally have higher assimilation efficiencies than
herbivores, often between 60 and 90 percent, because their food is more easily digested.
The overall productivity of the biosphere is therefore limited by the rate at which plants convert solar
energy (about 1 percent) into chemical energy and the subsequent efficiencies at which other organisms at
higher trophic levels convert that stored energy into their own biomass (approximately 10 percent). Human-
induced changes in net primary productivity in the parts of the biosphere that have the highest productivity,
such as estuaries and tropical moist forests, are likely to have large effects on the overall biological
productivity of Earth.

What's a Biome?
To make sense of complexity, humans often need to categorize, or
group, things. We have food groups, sexes, eye colors, ages, and
movie genres, to name a few. We categorize all types of things,
whether they are ideas or objects, and whether they are small or large. One of the largest things that we try to
categorize may be the types of environments found on Earth.
The natural world is more varied than we can imagine, and one way to try to make this variation easier to
handle is to put different environment types into groups. We can divide our surroundings many ways—by how
much water there is, by how warm it is, or by the types of plants or animals we find there. Depending on what
characteristics we choose to describe an environment, the groupings we end up selecting may be different.
Usually we group the different natural areas on Earth into categories based on plant and animal life and how
they are able to survive in that part of the world. Making groups based on living organisms can be very
complicated. We already know of over 1.7 million species of organism, and there are likely over 17 million that
exist. But again, by grouping organisms with similar adaptations together, we can see through some of
the complexity and have a chance to better understand the living Earth.

A biome is a type of environment that is defined by the types of organisms that live there. We can also think of
these as life zones ("bio" means life). Dividing land up in this way lets us talk about areas that are similar, even
if they’re on different continents. But depending on whom you talk to, the way we divide up the world into
separate biomes differs.

Biomes of the World

In order to give you a small taste of the huge diversity of the types of environments out there, we
divide the world up into only nine biomes. Just remember that these groups could also be divided into nearly
20 biomes. That means that within each of these biomes there is a range of temperature and weather
conditions, and we also find some organisms that are adapted to only part of the biome and others that are
adapted to the full range of conditions within the boundaries we are defining.

Tropical Rainforest
You probably picture tropical rainforest as a jungle, where it stays
warm all year. There are too many animals to count and the huge
numbers of trees keep their leaves year-round. Many of these forests
get so much rain that there isn't even much of a dry season – more like
a rainy season and a rainier season.
Temperate Forest
This is the kind of forest where there are four relatively distinct seasons. Many of the trees shed their leaves in
the fall and become inactive through the cold winter. In these forests, you find deer, woodpeckers, and bears,
some of which hibernate through the winter.

Desert
Deserts make up the hottest biome, but can also get cold
temperatures in winter. Such temperature swings make this an
extreme environment, where many animals have to burrow
underground to find more stable temperatures in order to
survive. Plants and animals here must be able to withstand long
periods without water.

Tundra
Tundra is flat and cold with low plants like grass and moss that
only grow during the short summer. A thick layer of ice lies just
below the shallow soil (permafrost) all year around, and trees
cannot penetrate it to anchor their roots. Many birds visit the
tundra in the summer to nest, but most escape the winter by
migrating to warmer areas. Mice and other small mammals stay
active during the winter in protected tunnels under the snow.
Taiga (Boreal Forest) 
Taiga is the largest land (terrestrial) biome in the world.  It is
made up of mainly conical-shaped evergreen trees with
needle-like leaves. These trees are called conifers because
their seeds are clumped into cones. The taiga has long, cold
winters when most mammals hibernate and birds migrate, or
leave the area because the winters are too cold for them to
stay. Animals like weasels, grouse and rabbits that do not
migrate or hibernate grow dense feathers or fur and turn
white to match the snow.

Grassland 
Sometimes called plains or prairie, grasslands are almost
entirely short to tall grasses with no trees. This land type gets
just enough rain to help grasses, flowers, and herbs grow, but
stays dry enough that fires are frequent and trees cannot
survive. Here we find large mammals that often travel
together in huge herds.

Savanna
These tree-studded grasslands receive enough
seasonal rainfall so that trees can grow in open groups or
singly throughout. The animals living here have long legs
for escaping predators and usually are seen in herds. A
combination of fire and grazing animals are important for
maintaining the savannah.
Freshwater
This water biome is named for the low concentration of salt found in the water. This includes most ponds,
streams, lakes, and rivers. Because salt is important to body function, the plants and animals here have many
adaptations that help them save salt.

Marine
This water biome is the largest biome in the world, as it
includes the five major oceans that cover 70% of the
Earth. Marine water has high levels of salt, so animals and
plants living here have adaptations that help them get rid
of salt or take on water.

Virtual Biomes
Take a virtual look inside some of these biomes using a
computer, smart phone, tablet, or Google Goggles. Our first
two virtual biomes are the desert and rainforest. Compare how
the two are different and how they are the similar. Write up
your results in our biologist notebook.
Activity 4: In your own opinion why do you think that environmental degradation is still an issue up until
today? What are your reasons? And as a social studies major how can you help mother nature in recovering
from her wounds caused by human? (40 points)
Human sphere and Population Growth

The Human Sphere

It’s difficult to talk about the human sphere in the same way you would talk about the hydro, bio, or
atmosphere. Without the human sphere, those other spheres are always connected in circulation with each
other and the flow of energy and matter is always at equilibrium. However the human sphere is a huge player
of the spheres. We create, control and manipulate all the other spheres in an effort to fit us rather than trying
to fit in with them. By doing this we cause massive changes in the balance of the spheres and through our
actions we are seeing and feeling the effects.
The human sphere affects just about everything through many of our daily activities. Our industry,
land use, and just general negligence negatively affect all the other spheres. Our industry produces huge
amounts of carbon dioxide, methane, and all the other greenhouse gases. These greenhouse gases produced
are causing warming in the atmosphere, weather extremes, ocean acidification and so much more
Since the industrial revolution the human sphere has heavily relied on coal, oil, and natural gas as a major
source of energy. This paired with deforestation due to the need for cleared land space is a major cause of why
we see such elevated levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere today. Data gathered from gas bubbles in ice
cores provide numerical values that help us understand the huge change in CO2 concentrations from the last
pre-industrial period to modern industrialized times. Natural CO2 concentrations from the last pre-industrial
period show atmospheric gas levels to be around 280 ppm. Compared to the levels today, which are closer to
390 ppm of CO2.
Methane is also another green house gas that has increased as a result of human activity. Emissions of
methane come from anoxic environments such as wetlands, bogs and swamps, cattle and other grazing
animals that consume vegetation, and human and animal waste. With the growth of the human population
came the need for more widely available food sources. Raising and grazing cattle was an easy way to assure
that meat and dairy was readily available. However with this wide spread domestication of cattle came an
increase in methane gases from the animal as well as its waste. While meat and dairy are staples in many diets,
the consumption of rice is much higher. Grown in artificial wetlands rice paddies provide a huge source of
methane gas, which is directly vented into the atmosphere. Gas bubbles in ice cores also provide information
that helps us understand the drastic change in methane emissions from pre-industrial to industrial
times.  Natural methane emission during the last pre-industrial time was at levels around 700-725 ppb.
Compared to today which are at levels well over 1750 ppb.
These emissions are the leading cause in atmospheric warming. Carbon dioxide and methane (CO2,
and CH4) stay in the atmosphere where they absorb incoming solar radiation rather then reflect it. This
absorption is what is raising atmospheric temperatures. The increase in temperature leads to changes in
humidity and weather patterns that intern affect all the other spheres including the human sphere. CO2 is also
absorbed into the oceans and with higher atmospheric concentrations of CO2 comes an increased absorption
of CO2 into the oceans. This increase of absorption is causing ocean acidification, which harms all carbonate
and shelly animals in the ocean such as corals, shrimp, and oysters.   
Changing natural habitats through deforestation for our land use purposes such as agriculture, and
industry also negatively affects the other spheres. The increased need for agricultural, and industrial space
ultimately brings about the destruction of many animal’s homes and habitats. Deforestation provides us with
wood for industry and space for agriculture but significantly cuts back on a natural storage reservoir for carbon
dioxide.
Deforestation and land use change also significantly impacts the grounds ability to hold on to topsoil,
natural minerals and nutrience, and water. Plants root systems help anchor and hold the soil together, as well
hold onto water that has been absorbed into the ground. Without these root systems soil losses its ability to
hold on to hold on to water and becomes extremely susceptible to wind and water erosion. With this change
the human sphere heavily relies on the use of fertilizers and irrigation.  Given that land use change and
deforestation removes the anchoring system for topsoil; fertilizers frequently wash away from irrigation and
rainstorms or blow away with the wind. This fertilizer run off and erosion not only harms all ecosystems and
waterways that it gets into but also only reinforces the human spheres need for more fertilizers and irrigation
for agriculture.
            There are so many actions we carry out in our every day lives that have negative repercussions on all the
spheres. Unfortunately the lack of education on the subject of global climate change paired with skepticism on
the issue makes it hard for any real strides in the right direction to be taken. However its important to
understand that change will only happen when we the human sphere initiate it. No other sphere is going to be
able to initiate the change. The atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere will only react to our actions, both
good and bad. If we make the right choices and work towards decreasing our impacts on the environment
change will happen, it may not be immediate but we would be preserving the future of the planet for many
generations to come.  

Relationships between human activity and the environment

Our environment means our physical surroundings and the characteristics of the place in which we
live. It also refers to the wider natural world of land, sea and atmosphere. Humans have been interacting with
their environment since people first walked the Earth. For example, humans have been cutting down forests to
clear land to grow crops for centuries and by doing so we have altered the environment. Conversely, the
environment affects us in many different ways as well. A simple example is the way we change our clothes in
response to cold or hot weather. In this section we will introduce some of the ways in which humans influence
their environment and how the environment influences us, both positively and negatively.
A good climate, accessible clean water, fertile soil, etc. are aspects of the physical environment that
enable people to live and thrive. However, harsh environments, such as a very hot climate, limited water and
infertile land, make it more difficult for people to survive. We are also affected by major environmental events
such as earthquakes, floods and drought that damage homes, property and agriculture. These can lead to the
displacement of people and can cause injury, loss of life and destruction of livelihoods. They can also damage
water sources and pipelines, causing water contamination and spreading waterborne diseases. In Study
Session 10 you will learn more about the effects of floods and droughts.
Our relationship with the environment changed with industrialisation, which began in the 18th
century in the UK, shortly followed by elsewhere in Europe and North America, and then spreading across the
world. Prior to industrialisation, the impacts of human activity were not very significant because the
technologies used were not capable of modifying the environment on a large scale. People at that time lived in
agricultural societies using hand tools and simple technologies with limited environmental impact (Figure 1.1).
Industrialisation has allowed for a greater exploitation of resources. For example, we now use powerful
chainsaws to cut down trees and industrially produced chemical fertilisers and pesticides for crop production.
These changes have rapidly increased the human impact on the environment.

The links between human activity and the environment are complex and varied, but can be grouped into two
main types of activity:
 use of natural resources such as land, food, water, soils, minerals, plants and animals

 production of wastes from a range of activities including agriculture, industry and mining, as well as
wastes from our own bodies.
Use of natural resources
We use many different types of natural resources in our daily lives. We depend on food and water for
survival and we need energy for many different purposes, from domestic cooking through to major industrial
processes. Our clothes, transport, buildings, tools and all other items we use require many different resources
for their production. Let’s take a simple example. Think about the resources that have been used to produce a
notebook of the type you may be using right now as you study this Module. Manufacturing the paper needed
raw materials of wood and water as well as energy for the production process. The trees that supplied the
wood required soil, water and land to grow on. There may be ink or metal staples or other components in your
notebook that were made from other types of resources. Our need for resources is vast and it is growing as
the population increases and consumption per person increases with socio-economic progress. Depletion of
natural resources by extraction and exploitation is especially of concern for non-renewable resources.

Renewable and non-renewable resources

The resources we use can be classified as renewable or non-renewable. The basic difference between
the two is the rate at which they are regenerated back into a usable form, relative to the rate at which they are
used by humans. Non-renewable resources cannot be replenished by natural means as quickly as the rate at
which they are consumed. They include minerals and fossil fuels such as oil, coal and gas, which are formed
over millions of years by natural processes from decayed plants and animals.
Renewable resources are constantly available or regenerated over short timescales by natural
processes. Some renewable resources, such as solar energy, are not modified or used up by humans. Others,
such as water, are altered when we use them and can be over-exploited or damaged such that the resource is
no longer available for use.

Deforestation
One particular problem caused by over-exploitation of natural resources is deforestation, which
occurs when forest areas are cleared and the trees are not replanted or allowed to regrow. In Ethiopia,
clearing land for agriculture to meet the food needs of the growing population and the demand for fuel and
construction materials has resulted in a steady loss of forest area.

 Proportion of land area in Ethiopia covered by forest (%) from 2002 to 2010. (MoFED, 2012a)

The loss of forest has several undesirable consequences. Forests are home to many different types of trees,
as well as other plants, and a wide range of animals from insects to birds and mammals. The conversion of
forests to agriculture greatly reduces biodiversity, which is a measure of the variety of living organisms (all life
forms). Biodiversity is important for humans because we use other living organisms to provide several
essentials:

 Food: we use plants and animals such as fish, goats, wheat, rice and maize as sources of food.

 Medicines: many traditional medicines are made from plants and animals and new medicines are
developed from them.

 Ecological services: living organisms, especially plants and micro-organisms, play an important role in
processes that maintain our lives and environment such as providing oxygen, cleaning the air, purifying
water, breaking down wastes and controlling erosion.
Deforestation is a significant contributory cause of soil erosion. Once the trees and undergrowth are
removed, the underlying ground is exposed. Without the intercepting effect of the vegetation and the tree
roots binding the soil together, the soil is more likely to be washed away when it rains. Loss of forests also has
a significant impact on water supply. Tree roots reach deep into the soil and create spaces between the
particles which increases soil permeability, allowing rainwater to soak in and replenish groundwater.
(Permeability means the ease with which water moves through soil or rock.)

Water resources
 You may have noticed that the four categories of resources shown in Figure 1.2 do not include water, and yet
this is one of our most vital resources and is obviously central to the WASH sector. The direct use of water by
people falls into three main categories:

 domestic uses, including drinking, washing and cooking

 agricultural uses, principally irrigation

 industrial uses, in manufacturing processes and for energy generation.

The relative proportions of these three categories vary in different parts of the world, but globally the sector
using the most water is agriculture (FAO, 2012) (Figure 1.5).

As well as direct use of water for human activities, water is also essential for the environment and to
maintain biodiversity. Rivers, lakes and wetlands are important habitats for wildlife and need a minimum
amount of water at all times. This becomes a problem when the demand for water for human activities
exceeds the supply.
Water is not an endlessly renewable resource. In many parts of the world water demand is
significantly above sustainable water supply. Sustainable water supply means there are adequate supplies, in
both quality and quantity, to meet the current and future needs of people and of the environment.
Many countries are already experiencing water stress or scarcity. These terms refer to the volume of
water available relative to the use and demand for it, which is linked to the population served. Figure 1.6
shows the availability of freshwater across the world. Countries which have less than 1700 m 3 of water per
person per year for all purposes are defined as water stressed (United Nations, 2014). Water scarce countries
have been defined as those with less than 1000 m 3 of water per person per year. These precise figures should
be used with caution, however, because they do not recognise variations between countries and they hide the
underlying causes of water scarcity.

Technology and the environment

Technologies have transformed transport, industry, communications and our lives at home and work.
For instance, gadgets such as mobile phones, computers, televisions, microwave ovens and refrigerators have
improved living standards for those people who can afford them. Technology can also improve the quality of
our environment. For example, energy can be generated from renewable sources such as wind and solar
power, which reduces our reliance on non-renewable energy sources such as fossil fuels, and also helps to
reduce the release of polluting gases to the atmosphere.
Another example of the benefits from technology is the highly advanced eco-friendly wastewater
treatment plant at the St. George Brewery in Addis Ababa. This plant recovers nutrients and waste water from
the brewery that would otherwise be released into the environment. This type of technology can help to
alleviate the problem of water shortage, prevent surface water pollution and protect the environment.
When electronic equipment or gadgets get old or stop working they are often thrown away. This type
of electronic waste is referred to as e-waste. E-wastes pose a huge challenge to the environment because they
contain toxic substances such as cadmium and lead from batteries, which leach out and pollute rivers and
groundwater. (Leaching means the substances seep out or are washed out by rain into the soil below.) Toxic
substances may get into the soil, making it unfit for agriculture. Copper from wiring is valuable for recycling,
but if wiring is burned, it produces very hazardous air pollution.
E-waste is becoming a major problem in many African countries, including Ethiopia, where the use of
electrical equipment has increased sharply with the rising number of people on higher incomes. According to a
United Nations University report, there are about 4300 tonnes of non-functioning computers, televisions,
mobile phones and refrigerators in Ethiopia, mostly in the ten largest cities (Manhart et al., 2013).
As there is no proper e-waste management system in Ethiopia, some e-wastes are disposed of
together with other household wastes or dumped in an uncontrolled way that may cause huge environmental
problems. Figure 1.9 shows open solid waste disposal sites in Addis Ababa and Bahir Dar close to residential
areas. All types of waste, including hazardous waste like heavy metals, are discarded here without any
treatment, so toxins can seep into the soil and groundwater. (Hazardous waste is any waste that contains
material that is potentially harmful, for example, toxic, infectious, corrosive, explosive or flammable materials.)

How we can protect and restore our environment

We end this study session with a positive message. Humans not only affect the environment
negatively – we can also contribute positively to sustaining it. When we install wastewater treatment plants,
protect endangered species and replant forests, we have a positive impact on our environment. Since 2000,
huge efforts have been made in Ethiopia to increase the forest coverage through government and NGO
reforestation programmes. More than 700 million trees were planted in 2007 alone (AFP, 2010). Figure 1.12
shows people in Konso, Ethiopia, planting trees to celebrate World Environment Day 2012.In some parts of the
country where the reforestation programme has been implemented effectively, the community has already
started to benefit from environmental improvements, through effects such as creating more spring water, a
higher water table, and less soil erosion and flooding (Rinaudo, 2010).

Population growth

Population growth as a driving force for environmental problems

Population growth is known as one of the driving forces behind environmental problems, because the
growing population demands more and more (non-renewable) resources for its own application. So why
exactly does the human population expand to rapidly? To understand this, we must first explain a little about
the difference between linear and exponential growth, in other words, add a little basic math to the
equation.
Growth is usually thought of as a linear process: an increase by a constant amount over a period of time.
The new amount is not influenced by the amount already present. For exponential growth, this is different,
because the increase of a factor is proportional to what is already there. When cells divide, there will be a
constant doubling of the cells already present. In terms of population growth, the numbers of people already
present always influences the number of children born in any country. It is however not a simple matter of a
constant doubling of the amount. Other factors, such as fertility and mortality rates, influence population
growth, and the sexe and age of people already present, and rational decisions influence whether or not
people will actually have one or more children.

Schematically, this can be represented as follows:

Population growth = birth rates – death rates

fertility mortality
(rationality, (health care,
birth control, food availability,
relationships) resource availability)

So how rapid does our population grow? Meadows et al. (2004) state that in 1650 the human population
counted only 0.5 billion heads. By 1900, the population had increased to 1.6 billion heads and was growing
increasingly more rapidly, to 3.3 billion in 1965 (see figure). Not only the population itself was growing, but
also the doubling time was decreasing, which basically means that growth itself was growing. This rapid
growth increase was mainly caused by a decreasing death rate (more rapidly than birth rate), and particularly
an increase in average human age. By 2000 the population counted 6 billion heads, however, population
growth (doubling time) started to decline after 1965 because of decreasing birth rates.

The European population is now thought to decline in the future, because of a decreasing average
number of children per family. Total world population continues to grow, but less rapidly because of
population dynamics in developed countries.
Population growth for specific countries

China – China currently has the world’s largest population size and growth. In 1970 it was discovered that
population growth in the country threatened the food supplies. Starting that year, efforts were made to
control population growth, and simultaneously decrease it. The strictest birth control programme ever was
introduced. Couples were urged to marry older, and have no more than one child. People that signed
contracts to have no more than one child were provided with financial aid, and free educational
opportunities for the child in question. Sterilization and other birth control methods were widely provided.
Between 1970 and 2000 fertility rates dropped, and the number of children born per woman decreased, as
well. But despite all the efforts made, the population still grew by 12 million heads, and it is projected to
count 1.6 billion by 2050.

India – In 1990 its population achieved a size of one billion humans. Projections have been made that this
number will increase to 1.63 million by 2050 at current growth rates. While some believe that increasing
welfare and its additional measure such as birth control may solve the problems occurring in future India,
many state that only governments aggressively reducing births may make a difference. The alternative is
natural population growth control by mass starvation or disease, or control by crime and war.

Iran – After the Islamic Revolution in 1979 the Iranian population rapidly grew, from 34 million to 63 million
in just 20 years. Birth rate per woman rose unbelievably, as everyone was encouraged to increase the Islamic
population, and birth control was forbidden. The stimulation of giving birth and raising as many children as
possible increased when the war broke out in 1980 and many young soldiers were killed. In the late 1990s
the Iranian government became aware of the cost of such rapid population growth, and attempted to limit it
by introducing mandatory family planning courses for couples. Birth control was now available, and
educational programmes were organized. Currently, the population is still increasing, but only slowly. Birth
rates per woman have dropped remarkably.

Nigeria – In 1950 the country had a population size of about 36 million humans. By the year 2000 this
number had grown to 125 million. This is a nearly fourfold increase in population size in 50 years. If growth
was unlimited by resource application, the population would increase eight more times before 2050.
However, food shortages and environmental deterioration prevent such rapid growth.

Russia – The Russian population is currently declining by nearly 1 million people a year. Many different
causes of this decline became apparent: demoralization of the population by a collapsing economy caused a
decline in birth rates, pollution (see environmental disasters), poor nutrition and poor health care in many
cases resulted in infertility, genetic defects or infant mortality, and many men died young because of
drinking problems. All these factors together resulted in the lowest number of children per woman in the
world.

Thailand – Before the 1970s, the Thai population was growing extremely rapidly. After 1971, a programme
for population control was adopted, including a government-supported family planning programme,
increases in women’s rights, including working possibilities, better health care and opportunities for birth
control, and religious support for family planning. Vasectomies were particularly stimulated, and special
clinics were opened everywhere. The number of births per woman fell, and the population stopped growing
so rapidly. There is however still a major pollution problem for the government and the people of Thailand to
deal with.

United States – In 1900 the United States population counted only 76 million heads, but by 1998 this had
grown to 270 million. Birth rates per woman were particularly high after World War II in 1950, and have been
steadily declining after that. The United States has the most rapidly expanding population of any developed
country. The growth is more than double that of most other developed countries. It is estimated that the
population will increase to nearly 340 million heads by 2050, and some environmental agencies even expect
it to grow to over 500 million by than. Reasons for the expected population growth include increase in the
number of young unmarried mothers, high fertility rates for some ethnic groups, and inadequate sexual
education and birth control provision.

Causes of Population Growth

The Decline in the Death Rate

At the root of overpopulation is the difference between the overall birth rate and death rate in
populations. If the number of children born each year equals the number of adults that die, then the
population will stabilize. Talking about overpopulation shows that while there are many factors that can
increase the death rate for short periods of time, the ones that increase the birth rate do so over a long period
of time. The discovery of agriculture by our ancestors was one factor that provided them with the ability to
sustain their nutrition without hunting. This created the first imbalance between the two rates.

Agricultural Advancements
Technological revolutions and population explosions occur at the same time. There have been three
major technological revolutions. They are the tool-making revolution, the agricultural revolution, and the
industrial revolution. Agricultural advancements in the 20th century have allowed humans to increase food
production using fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides and yields further. This allowed humans with more
access to food that leads to subsequent population explosions.

Better Medical Facilities

Following this the industrial revolution started. Technological advancement was perhaps the biggest
reason why the balance has been permanently disturbed. Science was able to produce better means of
producing food, which allowed families to feed more mouths. Besides, medical science made many
discoveries, thanks to which they were able to defeat a whole range of diseases. Illnesses that had claimed
thousands of lives until now were cured because of the invention of vaccines. Combining the increase in food
supply with fewer means of mortality tipped the balance and became the starting point of overpopulation.

More Hands to Overcome Poverty

However, when talking about overpopulation, we should understand that there is a psychological
component as well. Poverty is considered as the leading cause of overpopulation. In the absence of
educational resources, coupled with high death rates, which resulted in higher birth rates, that is why
impoverished areas are seeing large booms in population.
For thousands of years, a very small part of the population had enough money to live in comfort. The rest
faced poverty and would give birth to large families to make up for the high infant mortality rate. Families that
have been through poverty, natural disasters, or are simply in need of more hands to work are a major factor
for overpopulation. As compared to earlier times, most of these extra children survive and consume
resources that are not sufficient in nature. According to the UN, the forty-eight poorest countries in the world
are also likely to be the biggest contributors to population growth. Their estimates say that the combined
population of these countries is likely to increase to 1.7 billion in 2050, from 850 million in 2010.

Child Labor
It is no less than a tragedy that child labor is still in practice extensively in many parts of the world. As
per the UNICEF, approximately 150 million children are currently working in countries having few child labor
laws. The children being seen as a source of income by impoverished families begin work too young and
also lose the educational opportunities reflected, particularly when it comes to birth control.

Technological Advancement in Fertility Treatment

With the latest technological advancement and more discoveries in medical science, it has become
possible for couples who are unable to conceive to undergo fertility treatment methods and have their own
babies. Today there are effective medicines that can increase the chance of conception and lead to a rise in the
birth rate. Moreover, due to modern techniques, pregnancies today are far safer.

Immigration
Many people prefer to move to developed countries like the US, UK, Canada, and Australia, where the
best facilities are available in terms of medical, education, security, and employment. The result is that those
people settle over there, eventually making those places overcrowded.If the number of people who are leaving
the country is less than the number of people who enter, it usually leads to more demand for food, clothes,
energy, and homes. This gives rise to a shortage of resources. Though the overall population remains the
same, it just affects the density of the population, making that place simply overcrowded.

Lack of Family Planning

Most developing nations have a large number of people who are illiterate, live below the poverty line,
and have little or no knowledge about family planning. Besides, getting their children married at an early age
increases the chances of producing more kids. Those people are unable to understand the harmful effects of
overpopulation, and lack of quality education prompts them to avoid family planning measures.

Poor Contraceptives Use

Poor family planning on the part of partners can lead to unexpected pregnancies though contraceptives are
easily available in developed countries. As per statistics, 76% of women aged between 16 and 49 in Great
Britain used at least one form of contraceptive, leaving a quarter open to unexpected pregnancies. Whereas a
study by the World Health Organization (WHO) shows that this figure drops to 43% in underdeveloped
countries, which leads to higher birth rates.

Effects of Population Growth

Fatal Effects of Overpopulation

Depletion of Natural Resources
The effects of overpopulation are quite severe. The first of these is the depletion of resources. The
Earth can only produce a limited amount of water and food, which is falling short of the current needs.
Most of the environmental damage seen in the last fifty-odd years is because of the growing number of people
on the planet. They include cutting down forests, hunting wildlife in a reckless manner, causing pollution, and
creating a host of other problems. Those engaged in talks about overpopulation have noticed that acts of
violence and aggression outside of a war zone have increased tremendously while competing for resources.

Degradation of Environment
With the overuse of coal, oil, and natural gas, it has started producing some serious  effects on our
environment. Besides, the exponential rise in the number of vehicles and industries has badly affected the
quality of air. The rise in the amount of CO2 emissions leads to global warming. Melting of polar ice
caps, changing climate patterns, rise in sea levels are a few of the consequences that we might have to face
due to environmental pollution.

Conflicts and Wars

Overpopulation in developing countries puts a major strain on the resources it should be utilizing for
development. Conflicts over water are becoming a source of tension between countries, which could result in
wars. It causes more diseases to spread and makes them harder to control. Starvation is a huge issue that the
world is facing, and the mortality rate for children is being fuelled by it. Poverty is the biggest hallmark we see
when talking about overpopulation. All of this will only become worse if solutions are not sought out for the
factors affecting our population. We can no longer prevent it, but there are ways to control it.

Rise in Unemployment
When a country becomes overpopulated, it gives rise to unemployment as there are fewer jobs to
support a large number of people. The rise in unemployment gives rise to crime, such as theft, as people want
to feed their families and provide them basic amenities of life.

High Cost of Living

As the difference between demand and supply continues to expand due to overpopulation, it raises
the prices of various essential commodities, including food, shelter, and healthcare. This means that people
have to pay more to survive and feed their families.

Pandemics and Epidemics

Poverty is linked to many environmental and social reasons, including overcrowded and unhygienic
living conditions, malnutrition and inaccessible, inadequate, or non-existent health care, for which the poor
are more likely to be exposed to infectious diseases. Further, high densities of population increase the chance
of the emergence of new pandemics and epidemics.

Malnutrition, Starvation and Famine

When the availability of resources is scarce, starvation, malnutrition, along with ill health and diseases
caused by diet-deficiency such as rickets become more likely. Famine is typically associated with less-
developed regions, and there is a high correlation with poverty levels.

Water Shortage
Roughly 1% of the world’s water is fresh and accessible. Overpopulation is a major issue that creates
immense pressure on the world’s freshwater supplies.As per the study, the human demand for
freshwater would stand at approximately 70% of freshwater available on the planet by 2025. Therefore,
people living in impoverished areas that already have limited access to such water will be at great risk.

Lower Life Expectancy

A large proportion of the world’s population growth occurs in less developed countries. Therefore,
lower life expectancy caused by the booms in population is experienced by less-developed nations. This causes
a shortage of resources in these countries resulting in less access to medical care, freshwater, food and jobs,
and ultimately in a sharp fall in life expectancy.

Extinction
The impact of overpopulation on the world’s wildlife is severe. As demand for land grows, the
destruction of natural habitats, such as forests, becomes common. Data has also been collected to show a
direct link between increases in human population and decreases in the number of species on the planet. If
present trends continue, as many as 50% of the world’s wildlife species will be at risk of extinction, some
scientists warn.

Increased Intensive Farming

With the growth of population over the years, farming practices have evolved to produce enough
food required to feed a larger number of people. However, this intensive farming methods cause damage to
local ecosystems and the land that may pose problems in the future. Furthermore, intensive farming is
also contributed to climate change due to the machinery required. If the population continues to grow at its
current rate, this effect will likely intensify.

Faster Climate Change

Overpopulation forces larger nations, like China and India, to continue to develop their industrial
capacities. They now rank as two of the three largest contributors to emissions in the world, other than the
United States. According to 97% of the scientific community, human activities are changing global
temperatures. If more is not done to reduce individual carbon footprints on a wide scale, larger populations
may speed these changes up.

Incredible Solutions To Overpopulation

Better Education
One of the first measures is to implement policies reflecting social change. Educating the masses helps
them understand the need to have one or two children at the most. Similarly, education plays a vital role in
understanding the latest technologies that are making huge waves in the world of computing. Families that are
facing a hard life and choose to have four or five children should be discouraged.
Family planning and efficient birth control can help in women making their own reproductive choices. Open
dialogue on abortion and voluntary sterilization should be seen when talking about overpopulation.
Education for Girl Child
Currently, over 130 million young women and girls around the globe are not enrolled in school. The
majority of these live in male-dominated societies, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa and South and West Asia,
that does not give women equal right to education as men.  Entrenched gender norms and child marriage
further disrupt their access to education. The girl who receives less education is more likely to have children
early and vulnerable to exploitation. Moreover, impoverished families are less likely to enroll their female
children in school.

Making People Aware of Family Planning

As the population of this world is growing at a rapid pace, raising awareness among people regarding
family planning and letting them know about serious after-effects of overpopulation can help curb population
growth. One of the best ways is to let them know about various safe sex techniques and contraceptive
methods available to avoid any unwanted pregnancy.

Tax Benefits or Concessions

The government of various countries might have to come up with various policies related to tax
exemptions to curb overpopulation. One of them might be to waive a certain part of income tax or lowering
rates of income tax for those married couples who have single or two children. As we humans are more
inclined towards money, this may produce some positive results.

Knowledge of Sex Education

Imparting sex education to young kids at the elementary level should be a must. Most parents feel shy
in discussing such things with their kids that results in their children going out and look out for such
information on the internet or discuss it with their peers.
Mostly, the information is incomplete, which results in sexually active teenagers unaware of contraceptives
and embarrassed to seek information about the same. It is, therefore, important for parents and teachers to
shed their old inhibitions and make their kids or students aware of solid sex education.

Social Marketing
Social marketing has already been started by some societies to educate the public on overpopulation
effects. The intervention can be made widespread at a low cost. A variety of print materials (flyers, brochures,
fact sheets, stickers) can be distributed in places such as at local places of worship, sporting events, local food
markets, schools and at car parks.
Activity 5: In your own opinion why do humans are important in the keeping the balance of ecosystem? Do
over population really exploit the equilibrium of the ecosystem? Why? Why not? (at least 500 words) (50
points)
Activity 6: In your own point of view which is the most important sphere? Why? (at least 500 words)
(50 points)

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 Major Output: Infographics: Choose from the choices below and make your own disaster preparedness
infographics.

 Flooding
 Earthquake
 Typhoon
 Landslide
 Volcanic Eruption
Geography of Resources

Climate and Weather

Objective:

a. Compare and contrast the characteristic of climate and weather.

b. explain the significance of land and water forms to human life; and
c. discuss the importance of forest resources on the way of living of the Filipinos.

What is weather?
What are some characteristics of weather? When we talk about weather, we mean the daily
conditions in the atmosphere of a local area. Many conditions make up the weather. A few are cloud cover,
wind, humidity, and temperature, which is how hot or cold the air is. One condition that is important for
planning a vacation is rainfall. Rain is a type of precipitation. Precipitation is water that falls to Earth from
clouds. There are many forms of precipitation including rain, snow, sleet, and hail. They are all slightly different
based on the temperature of the air as the water falls through it. Rain is liquid water that falls in droplets.
Snow and hail, on the other hand, are particles of ice that fall when it is colder outside. Sleet is a mixture of
rain and snow. Weather is an important part of daily life. It describes the changing conditions of the
environment around us. What is the weather like where you are today?
All weather is caused by the Sun heating Earth. When the Sun’s energy heats the atmosphere
unevenly, it causes different air pressures. Pressure is the weight of the air. Cold air weighs more than warm
air because it is denser. Low-pressure air and high-pressure air cause different weather conditions. Low-
pressure air often brings rain, thunderstorms, and hurricanes. High-pressure air usually means clear skies and
sunshine. The uneven heating of the atmosphere is the reason there is different weather in most places on
Earth during spring, summer, autumn, and winter.

What is climate?
What are some characteristics of climate? Weather is constantly changing. Scientists who predict, or
forecast, the weather can’t usually make forecasts beyond 10 days. Even weather reports cannot guarantee
that the forecasts will be accurate. However, climate in a particular area is consistent. Climate is the type of
weather in an area averaged over a long period of time, such as 30 years or more. For example, when most
people think of Hawaii they picture sunshine, high temperatures, and warm rainfall. Hawaii has a tropical
climate. The weather there is usually warm and humid with cool breezes and it has been that way for many
years. But that doesn’t mean that Hawaii doesn’t have days with cold temperatures and storms. The climate of
an area describes its average temperatures, precipitation, humidity, wind, cloud cover, and other weather
conditions over long periods of time. An area’s climate is affected by several factors. These may include its
distance from water (like oceans or lakes), its latitude on the globe, and its elevation above sea level. There are
several different climate zones in the world. Tropical climate zones are found closest to the equator. The
climate in a tropical zone is hot and humid with lots of rain. Rainforests are found mostly in tropical climates.
Farther away from the equator is the temperate climate zone. Most of the United States has temperate, or
subtropical, climate. The temperatures are neither very high nor very low, and there are moderate amounts of
precipitation. Temperate climates usually have different weather for each of the four seasons. Past the
temperate climate zones are the polar zones. They are found close to the North and South Poles. These zones
are well known for their extremely cold temperatures and snow. However, polar climate zones are also quite
dry, with little precipitation during the year.

What is the difference between weather and climate?

You can use time to tell the difference between weather and climate. Weather is immediate. It
describes the conditions in the atmosphere for a short period of time— today or the next few days. Climate is
the overall weather conditions for a long period of time. Because weather can change from day to day,
climates are averages and trends. For example, over the past 30 years the temperature in Houston in October
has ranged from as high as 88°F (31°C) to as low as 29°F (–2°C). Houston’s climate is an average of those
temperatures over time and falls somewhere in between. For many places on Earth, the weather may be cold
and rainy one day and hot and sunny the next. The climate, though, is an average of those weather patterns
from many years of data. It describes an area’s overall atmospheric conditions.

Activity 1
Instruction: Base on the characteristic you had read in both weather and climate, differentiate using
Venn diagram whether it applies to weather or to climate. Then place the characteristic in the circle
with the correct heading. If a description applies to both weather and climate, place it in the space
where the two circles overlap, labeled “Both.” (20pts)

Weather Climate
Both
Land Forms and Resources

MOUNTAINS
Mountain, plateau and plain are broad by present day land features of the earth’s surface produced
by the deformation of its crust. Among them, mountains are the most awe-inspiring landform. About 27% of
the earth’s surface is covered by the mountains. Generally, they are uplifted portions of the earth’s surface
which are much higher in contrast to the surrounding areas. But all uplifted or elevated areas are not
mountains. In fact height and slope together give rise to a particular form of land which we identify as a
landform. For example, the elevated portion in Tibet, which is about 4500 metres high above sea level, is
called a plateau and not a mountain. It may also be remembered that the formation of a mountain range takes
millions of years. During these years, the internal forces of the earth uplifting the land are fighting against
erosion wearing it down. In order to form one Mt. Everest, internal forces must push up the land faster than
the external forces constantly eroding it. Therefore, mountains are those uplifted portions of the earth’s
surface which have steep slopes and small summit area rising more than thousand metres above the sea level.
Mountains have the maximum difference of height between their high and low portions.

CLASSIFICATION OF MOUNTAINS
On the basis of their mode of formation, the mountains have been classified as:

(a) Fold Mountains

(b) Block Mountains

(c) Volcanic Mountains

(d) Residual Mountains

Fold Mountains
Mountain range mainly consisting of uplifted folded sedimentary rocks are called Fold Mountains.
When these rocks are subjected to horizontal compressional forces for millions of years, they get bent into up
and down folds. This leads to the formation of anticlines and synclines. Such earth movements occur from time
to time and lift the folds to a considerable height which result in the formation of Fold Mountains. The
Himalayas in Asia, the Alps in Europe, the Rockies in North America and the Andes in South America are the
most prominent fold mountains of the world. Since these mountain ranges were formed during the most
recent mountain building period, they are known as young fold mountains. Some of these mountain ranges,
for example, Himalayas, are still rising.

Block Mountains
Block Mountains are also formed by the internal earth movements. When the forces of tension act on
the rocks, they create faults in them. When the land between the two almost parallel faults is raised above the
adjoining areas, it forms a block mountain. It may also occur when land on the outer side of the faults slips
down leaving a raised block between them. The rocks composing the fault levels may be flatlying or even
folded. Block Mountain is also called horst. The Vosges in France, Black Forest Mountains in Germany and
Sierra Nevada in North America are the typical examples of Block Mountains.

Volcanic Mountains
Due to high temperature deep inside the earth rocks turn into a molten magma. When this molten
rock material is ejected to the earth’s surface during volcanic eruption, it accumulates around the vent and
may take the form of a cone. The height of the cone increases with each eruption and it takes the form of a
mountain. As these mountains are formed by the accumulation of volcanic material, they are known as
volcanic mountains or mountains of accumulation. Mount Mauna Loa in Hawaii Islands, Mount Popa in
Myanmar, Vesuvius in Italy, Cotopaxi in Equador and Fuji Yama in Japan are examples of volcanic mountains,
and Mayon volcano of Philippines.
Residual Mountains
The weathering and different agents of erosion – rivers, winds, glaciers etc. are constantly acting on
the earth’s crust. As soon as an elevated mountain range appears on the earth’s surface, the agents of
gradation begin their work of levelling it down. To a large extent, the process of wearing down depends on the
shape and structure of the rocks. After thousands of years, soft rocks are worn down into sand and the hard
rocks are left standing up in the area that has been reduced in height. These are called residual mountains.
Hills like the Nilgiris, the Parasnath, the Rajmahal and the Aravalis in India are examples of residual mountains.

THE ECONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE OF MOUNTAINS

Mountains are useful to us in the following ways :

(a) Storehouse of Resources Mountains are the storehouse of natural resources. Large resources of
minerals are found in mountains. The Appalachian range in the United States is well-known for coal
and limestone deposits. We get timber, lac, medicinal herbs and wood for making pulp from the
forests of the mountains. Tea and coffee plantations and some fruits orchards have been developed
on mountain and hill slopes.
(b) Generation of Hydro-electricity Hydro-electricity is generated from the waters of perennial rivers in
the mountain regions. The mountainous countries like Japan, Italy and Switzerland, which suffer from
the shortage of coal have developed hydro-electricity.
(c) Abundant Sources of Water Perennial rivers rising in the snow fed or heavily rain fed mountains are
the important source of water. They help in promoting the irrigation and provide water for many
other uses.
(d) Formation of Fertile Plains The rivers that originate in the high mountain region bring silt along with
water to the lower valleys. This helps in the formation of fertile plains. The great alluvial plain of
northern India has been formed by the rivers Ganga, Sutlej and the Brahmaputra
(e) Natural Political Frontiers The mountain ranges do act as natural political frontiers between countries
and protect them from invasions to some extent. The Himalaya have formed a political frontier
between India and China.
(f) Effect on Climate Mountainous areas have lower temperatures. They serve as climatic divide between
two adjoining regions. The Himalaya for example form a barrier to the movement of cold winds from
Central Asia towards the Indian subcontinent. They also force the South West Monsoons to ascend
and cause rainfall on their southern slopes.
(g) Tourist Centres The pleasant climate and the beautiful scenery of the mountains have led to their
development as centres of tourist attraction. The tourist and hotel industries get an additional
encouragement in such regions. Shimla, Nainital, Mussorie and Srinagar are some of the important hill
stations of India which attract tourists all over the world

PLATEAUS
Intermontane Plateau
The plateau which are bordering the fold mountain range or are partly or fully enclosed within them are
the intermontane plateaus. Vertical movements raise this extensive landforms of nearly horizontal rocks to
thousands of metres above sea level. The extensive and over 4500 metres high plateau of Tibet is one such
example. It is surrounded by folded mountains like Himalaya, Karakoram, Kunlun, Tien Shah on its two sides.
The plateau of Colorado is another well known example, over one km high into which rivers have cut the
Grand Canyon and a series of gorges. The plateau of Mexico, Bolivia and Iran are all other examples of this
type.

Piedmont Plateau
The plateaus that are situated at the foot of the mountains and are bounded on other sides by a plain
or an ocean are called piedmount plateau . The plateau of Malwa in India, those of Patagonia facing the
Atlantic ocean and the Appallachian situated between the Appalachian Mountain and the Atlantic Coastal Plain
in U.S.A are their examples. In their case, the areas once high have now been reduced by various agents of
erosion. For this reason, these are also called the plateaus of denudation
 Continental plateau
These are formed either by an extensive continental uplift or by the spread of horizontal basic lava
sheets completely covering the original topography to a great depth. The volcanic lava covered plateau of
Maharashtra in India, Snake River Plateau in North West USA are the examples of this type. These are also,
called the ptateau of accumulation. All continental plateaus show an abrupt elevation in contrast to the nearby
lowland or the sea. As compared to other, these plateaus, cover a vast area like the Great Indian Plateau and
those of Arabia, Spain, Greenland, Africa and Australia. They may be tilted on one side without any disturbance
in the horizontal nature of underlying rock strata as in the case of Great Indian plateau.

Activity 2

Question to ponder: Respond the following question base on your understanding.

1. Based on the information you have looked over in the learning material, which landforms makes the
most sense to you? Why?

2. In what ways can landform be useful to you in your current field of study?

Water Forms and Resources

WATER is essential for human survival and well-being and important to

many sectors of the economy. However, resources are irregularly distributed in
space and time, and they are under pressure due to human activity. Around the
world, human activity and natural forces are reducing available water resources.
Although public awareness of the need to better manage and protect water has
grown over the last decade, economic criteria and political considerations still tend
to drive water policy at all levels. Science and best practice are rarely given adequate
consideration. Pressures on water resources are increasing mainly as a result of
human activity – namely urbanisation, population growth, increased living
standards, growing competition for water, and pollution. These are aggravated by
climate change and variations in natural conditions. Still, some progress is being
made. More and more, officials are evaluating water quantity and quality together,
and coordinating management efforts across borders.
 Where and in what forms is water available on Earth?

The world’s water exists naturally in different forms and locations: in the air, on the surface,
below the ground, and in the oceans. Freshwater accounts for only 2.5% of the Earth’s water, and
most of it is frozen in glaciers and icecaps. The remaining unfrozen freshwater is mainly found as
groundwater, with only a small fraction present above ground or in the air. Looking at how water
moves through the Earth’s water cycle helps us understand how it interacts with the environment and
how much is available for human use.

Precipitation – rain, snow, dew etc. – plays the key role in renewing water resources and in defining
local climatic conditions and biodiversity. Depending on the local conditions, precipitation may feed
rivers and lakes, replenish groundwater, or return to the air by evaporation.

Glaciers
Glaciers -store water as snow and ice, releasing varying amounts of water into local
streams depending on the season. But many are shrinking as a result of climate
change.

River basins are a useful “natural unit” for the management of water resources and
many of them are shared by more than one country. The largest river basins include
the Amazon and Congo Zaire basins. River flows can vary greatly from one season to
the next and from one climatic region to another. Because lakes store large amounts Davao river basin
of water, they can reduce seasonal differences in how much water flows in rivers
and streams.

Wetlands – including swamps, bogs, marshes, and lagoons – cover 6% of the world’s
land surface and play a key role in local ecosystems and water resources. Many of
them have been destroyed, but the remaining wetlands can still play an important
role in preventing floods and promoting river flows. Of the freshwater which is not
frozen, almost all is found below the surface as groundwater. Generally of high Negros occidental wetlands
quality, groundwater is being withdrawn mostly to supply drinking water and
support farming in dry climates. The resource is considered renewable as long as
groundwater is not withdrawn faster than nature can replenish it, but in many dry
regions the groundwater does not renew itself or only very slowly. Few countries
measure the quality of groundwater or the rate at which it is being exploited. This
makes it difficult to manage.
 Bodies of water

 Oceans- Large bodies of SALT water the surround a continent.

 Seas- Large bodies of SALT water that is often connected to an ocean. May be partly or completely
surrounded by land.
 Rivers- Large, flowing bodies of FRESH water that usually empty into a sea or ocean.
 Streams- Small, flowing bodies of FRESH water that usually flow into rivers.
 Lakes and Ponds- Areas of fresh water that are surrounded by land. Lakes are larger than ponds.
 Glaciers- Huge sheets of ice that cover land. They are found where temperatures are very cold. High
mountains or poles of the Earth.
 Pond- A pond is also surrounded on all sides by land and is typically smaller than a lake. Many lakes and
ponds are human-made.
 Lagoon- A lagoon is a shallow body of salt or brackish water along a coastal area. It is usually separated
from the deeper sea by a shallow or exposed barrier beach area.
 Channel- A channel is a body of water that connects two larger bodies of water and is often used for
transportation and navigational purposes.
 Bay- A bay is a body of water partly enclosed by land and typically smaller than a gulf. Bays generally have
calmer waters than the surrounding sea areas because they are protected by the land.

Activity 3

Question for reflection:

1. Using information in the instructional material, explain how water makes life on Earth
possible. (10 pts)

2. As a student, how can water resources be managed sustainably while meeting an ever
increasing demand? (10pts)
 3. Site one either landforms or bodies of water that can be found in your locality and how it
affects your daily living? (10 pts)

Forest Resources
A forest is a complex ecosystem which is predominantly composed of trees, shrubs and is usually a
closed canopy. Forests are storehouses of a large variety of life forms such as plants, mammals, birds, insects
and reptiles etc. Also the forests have abundant microorganisms and fungi, which do the important work of
decomposing dead organic matter thereby enriching the soil. Nearly 4 billion hectares of forest cover the
earth’s surface, roughly 30 percent of its total land area
The forest ecosystem has two components- the non-living (abiotic) and the living (biotic) component.
Climate, soil type are part of the non-living component and the living component includes plants, animals and
other life forms. Plants include the trees, shrubs, climbers, grasses and herbs in the forest. Depending on the
physical, geographical, climatic and ecological factors, there are different types of forest like evergreen forest
(mainly composed of evergreen tree species i.e. species having leaves all throughout the year) and deciduous
forest (mainly composed of deciduous tree species i.e. species having leaf-fall during particular months of the
year). Each forest type forms a habitat for a specific community of animals that are adapted to live in it.
The term forest implies ‘natural vegetation’ of the area, existing from thousands of years and
supporting a variety of biodiversity, forming a complex ecosystem. Plantation is different from natural forest as
these planted species are often of same type and doesn’t support a variety of natural biodiversity.
Forests provide various natural services and products. Many forest products are used in day-today life.
Besides these, forests play important role in maintaining ecological balance & contributes to economy also.
Ecological Role of Forest

 Forests provide an environment for many species of plants and animals thus
protects and sustains the diversity of nature.
 Plants provide habitat to different types of organisms. Birds build their nests on the
branches of trees, animals and birds live in the hollows, insects and other organisms
live in various parts of the plant.
 Forests act as hydrologic flow modulators
 Plants provide a protective canopy that lessens the impact of raindrops on the soil,
thereby reducing soil erosion. Roots help to hold the soil in place. They provide
shade which prevents the soil to become too dry. Thus increases the soil moisture
holding capacity.
 Forests help in maintaining microclimate of the area.
 Plants clean the air, cool it on hot days, conserve heat at night, and act as excellent
sound absorbers. Transpiration from the forests affects the relative humidity and
precipitation in a place. Forests clean the environment by muffling noises, buffering
strong winds and stopping dust and gases.
 The layer of leaves that fall around the tree prevents runoff and allows the water to
percolate into the soil. Thus helping in ground water recharge.
 Dead plants decompose to form humus, organic matter that holds the water and
provide nutrients to the soil.
Classification of Forests
Coniferous forests
Grow in the Himalayan mountain region, where the temperatures are low. These forests have tall
stately trees with needle-like leaves and downward –sloping branches, so that the snow can slip off the
branches.

Broad-leaved
Forests are of several types, such as evergreen forests, deciduous forests, thorn forests, and
mangrove forests. Broad-leaved trees usually have large leaves of various shapes and are found in middle to
lower latitude.

Evergreen forests
Grow in the high rainfall areas of the Western Ghats, North –eastern India and the Andaman and
Nicobar Islands. These forests grow in areas where the monsoon period lasts for several months.

Deciduous forests
Are found in regions with a moderate amount of seasonal rainfall that lasts for only a few months.
Most of the forests in which Teak trees grow are of this type. The deciduous trees shed their leaves during the
winter and hot summer months.

Thorn forests
Are found in the semi-arid regions of India. The trees, which are sparsely distributed, are surrounded
by open grassy areas.

Mangroves forests
Grow along the coast especially in the river deltas. These plants are uniquely adapted to be able to
grow in a mix of saline and freshwater. They grow luxuriantly in muddy areas covered with silt that the rivers
have brought down. The mangrove trees have breathing roots that emerge from the mud banks.

Moist tropical forests

Wet evergreen
Wet evergreen forests are found in the south along the Western Ghats and the Nicobar and Andaman
Islands and all along the north-eastern region. It is characterized by tall, straight evergreen trees that have a
buttressed trunk or root on three sides like a tripod that helps to keep a tree upright during a storm. These
trees often rise to a great height before they open out like a cauliflower. The more common trees that are
found here are the jackfruit, betel nut palm, jamun, mango, and hollock. The trees in this forest form a tier
pattern: shrubs cover the layer closer to the ground, followed by the short structured trees and then the tall
variety. Beautiful fern of various colours and different varieties of orchids grow on the trunks of the trees.

Semi-evergreen
Semi-evergreen forests are found in the Western Ghats, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, and the
Eastern Himalayas. Such forests have a mixture of the wet evergreen trees and the moist deciduous trees. The
forest is dense and is filled with a large variety of trees of both types.

Moist deciduous
Moist deciduous forests are found throughout India except in the western and the north-western
regions. The trees have broad trunks, are tall and have branching trunks and roots to hold them firmly to the
ground. Some of the taller trees shed their leaves in the dry season. There is a layer of shorter trees and
evergreen shrubs in the undergrowth. These forests are dominated by sal and teak, along with mango,
bamboo, and rosewood.

Littoral and swamp

Littoral and swamp forests are found along the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the delta area of
the Ganga and the Brahmaputra. It consists mainly of whistling pines, mangrove dates, palms, and bullet
wood. They have roots that consist of soft tissue so that the plant can breathe in the water.
Dry tropical forests
1. Dry deciduous forest
Dry deciduous forests are found throughout the northern part of the country except in the Northeast.
It is also found in Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu. The canopy
of the trees does not normally exceed 25 metres. The common trees are the sal, a variety of acacia,
and bamboo.
2. Thorn
This type is found in areas with black soil: North, West, Central, and South India. The trees do not
grow beyond 10 metres. Spurge, caper, and cactus are typical of this region.
3. Dry evergreen
Dry evergreens are found along the Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka coast. It has mainly hard leaved
evergreen trees with fragrant flowers, along with a few deciduous trees.

Montane sub tropical forests

1. Broad-leaved forests
Broad-leaved forests are found in the Eastern Himalayas and the Western Ghats, along the Silent
Valley. There is a marked difference in the form of the vegetation in the two areas. In the Silent
Valley, the poonspar, cinnamon, rhododendron, and fragrant grass are predominant. In the Eastern
Himalayas, the flora has been badly affected by the shifting cultivation and forest fires. These wet
forests consist mainly of evergreen trees with a sprinkling of deciduous here and there. There are
oak, alder, chestnut, birch, and cherry trees. There are a large variety of orchids, bamboo and
creepers.
2. Pine
Pine forests are found in the steep dry slopes of the Shivalik Hills, Western and Central
Himalayas, Khasi, Naga, and Manipur Hills. The trees predominantly found in these areas are the
chir, oak, rhododendron, and pine. In the lower regions sal, sandan, amla, and laburnum are found.
3. Dry evergreen
Dry evergreen forests normally have a prolonged hot and dry season and a cold winter. It
generally has evergreen trees with shining leaves that have a varnished look. Some of the more
common ones are the pomegranate, olive, and oleander. These forests are found in the Shivalik Hills
and foothills of the Himalayas up to a height of 1000 metres.
 Activity 4
Instruction: Write in the fishbone analysis the 6 factors that contribute to the destruction of the
forest. (30pts)

Destruction
of the forest

Follow up question:

1. Deforestation is a very important issues which affects every single one of us. Why do so few people participate in the struggle
protecting the rainforest? (10pts)

2. As a student, what can you do for the local population in the deforested areas to stop deforestation? (10pts)
 Major Environmental Problem
Objectives:
a. discuss the implication of the rapid growth of population; and
b. explain the importance of land production

Population Explosion
Population growth and population structures are key factors for sustainable
development. Several countries have already expressed their concerns about high
population growth and have already started formulating reproductive health policies
(UNFPA, 2012). Disproportionate population growth puts pressures on natural
resources, human well-being, and global warming (Bremner et al., 2010). Whereas,
developed countries and some middle income economies are raising concerns
regarding declining population growth rates. This scenario led to shrink in working-
age populations, rapid population ageing, and problems in renewability of the labor
force and sustainability of social security and health care systems (UN DESA, 2011).
As such, government policies and programs should address population stabilization
and management while maintaining a balance between population processes
(fertility, mortality and migration) and socio-economic development outcomes.

In 2011, the Philippines ranked as the 12th country with the highest population
(CIA, 2013). With the exception of Nigeria, the population growth rate of the Philippines
exceeds the rates of the 11 most populous countries (UN DESA, 2012). The declining
growth rate of the Philippines is still higher than the average global population growth rate
of 1.19% (UN DESA, 2012; POPCOM, 2013). The Philippines will even have a faster
population growth than India and China (Jones, 2013). In Southeast Asia, the Philippines is
only second to Indonesia in terms of population size. However, in the next 20 years, the
greatest relative increase in population in Southeast Asia will be in the Philippines. The
continued positive population growth rate and its slow decline in the Philippines are due to
the continued relatively high total fertility rate (Pastrana and Harris, 2011; NSO, 2012a).
High fertility is due to unwanted childbearing, and a desired family size of more than two
children (Bongaarts and Bruce, 1998).
As one of the countries that signed the 1967 UN Declaration of Population and the
https://www.google.com/search? 1994 Statement of Population Stabilization of World Leaders, the Philippines recognized
the population problem “as a principal element in long-range planning if governments are
q=philippines+population+2020&tb to achieve their economic goals and fulfill the aspirations of their people” (Concepcion,
m=isch&client=opera&hs=mu0&hl= 1973). Since 1969, the Philippine government under different administrations adopted
population policies and programs of varying degrees to achieve population stabilization.
However, most of these policies and programs address reproductive health and family
planning that indirectly affect population growth (Herrin, 2002).
Impacts of Population Growth on the Physical Environment
The earth’s population in 1800 was 1 billion, having taken all of human history to reach that mark. Only 2
centuries later, the global population is 6 billion, half of which lives in cities. The impact that this population
explosion has had on the environment has been just as striking, as seen by changes in greenhouse gas
emissions, rates of soil erosion, and the extinction of species. Nature reserves currently comprise about 10% of
land area globally, but most are small, disconnected from other reserves, and subject to tremendous human
pressures. Population size is clearly an important factor in measuring environmental impact. Other multipliers
in this equation are level of affluence—measured as consumption per person and unit of consumption,
reflected in the technologies used to supply energy, food, and other resources. The combined effects of
population growth, consumption, overuse, wastage and misuse of resources has strained the capacity of the
earth to sustain life. That’s why the study and control of human population is very important today.

Impacts of Population Growth on the Physical Environment

Physical environment means – non living environment or the land, air, water, soil and minerals. The
utilization, overuse and misuse of physical resources increased manifold due to the growth of human
population. As it has been told earlier, more population means more mouths to eat food which requires more
agricultural production. More cultivable land has been made available by clearing forests and by reclaiming
wet lands, ponds and green belts. Advanced agriculture requires utilization of more water, more fertilizers and
more pesticides. Application of fertilizers and pesticides makes the soil infertile. Clearing of forests has its own
serious impacts and the environment on the whole gets imbalanced.
More population means more space to construct houses and availability of more consumer goods. It also
requires more means of transport, more consumption of fossil fuels and more pollution of air, land and water.
Thus growth of population leads to pollution of air, land and water. Different types of pollutions are causing a
number of problems in the physical environment that are further affecting the biological environment
seriously.

Air and water pollution

As the population grows, more and more forests are cleared. The two most
common reasons for deforestation are to make houses for increased number of people
to live in, and to use wood as a fuel in the industries. As a result, the trees that help us in
reducing the air pollution through the process of photosynthesis are not able to do so
any more. One of the major issues that have lately been bothering environmentalists all
over the world is global warming. Like glass in a greenhouse, gases like carbon monoxide
admit the sun's light but tend to reflect back downward the heat that is radiated from
the ground below, trapping heat in the earth's atmosphere. This is called the greenhouse
effect. Air pollution is not the only environmental damage being done by the increasing
population. Nowadays water pollution is also one of the increasing problems due to the
population explosion. Water is considered the essence of life. As in the case of air
pollution, the increasing population calls for increasing numbers of factories. These
factories lead to various kinds of pollution, including water pollution. Also, India being an
agrarian country, the water pollution also comes from pesticides used for agriculture. As
we can observe, the increased population size is leading to increased pollution, which in
turn is leading to a more hostile environment for human beings themselves.

Depletion of ozone layer

The ozone layer protects the Earth from the ultraviolet rays sent down by the sun. The Ozone layer
has been gradually ruined by the effect of the CFCs. These CFCs were used as solvents, refrigerants, aerosol
propellants, and to blow foam plastics. For this reason, the use of CFCs in aerosols has been banned
everywhere. Other chemicals, such as bromine halocarbons, as well as nitrous oxides from fertilizers, may also
attack the ozone layer. Nitrogen oxides and methane are also compounds which adversely affect the
stratosphere’s ozone. The concentration of CFCs has been increased as the human population has grown, and
 the thickness of the Ozone layer has been lesser to the extent that a hole in the layer has been formed.
Scientists have found that there are other emissions derived from human activities, which have contributed to
the depletion of the ozone layer. Antarctica was an early victim of ozone destruction. A massive hole in the
ozone layer right above Antarctica now threatens not only that continent, but many others that could be the
victims of Antarctica's melting icecaps.
Extinction of species
Today, human activities are causing a massive extinction of species, the full
implications of which are barely understood. More than 1.1 billion people live in areas
that conservationists consider the richest in non-human species and the most threatened
by human activities. While these areas comprise about 12 percent of the planet's land
surface, they hold nearly 20 percent of its human population. The population in these
biodiversity hotspots is growing at a collective rate of 1.8 percent annually, compared to
the world's population's annual growth rate of 1.3 percent. Modern agricultural practices
strip the Earth of its thin layer of topsoil through water and wind erosion, destroying this
precious micro ecosystem that takes centuries to form and supports all life on land. Many
species are of immense value to humans as sources of food, medicines, fuel and building
materials. Between 10,000 and 20,000 plant species are used in medicines worldwide.
The diversity of nature helps meet the recreational, emotional, cultural, spiritual and
aesthetic needs of people.

Land/soil degradation
The land serves as storage for water and nutrients required for plants and other
living micro-macro-organisms. The demand for food, energy and other human requirements
depends upon the preservation and improvement of the productivity of land. The loss of
arable land has been caused by a number of factors, many or most of which are tied to human
development. The primary causes are deforestation, overexploitation for fuel wood,
overgrazing, agricultural activities and industrialization. On the global basis, the soil
degradation is caused primarily by overgrazing (35%), agricultural activities (28%),
deforestation (30%), over exploitation of land to produce fuel-wood (7%), and
industrialization (4%). In order to combat land degradation, several efforts have been made at
the national and regional levels to develop monitoring and data collection methodologies and
to formulate appropriate policies, programs and projects. At the national level, such measures
include watershed managementsoil and water conservation, sand dune stabilization,
reclamation of waterlogged and saline land, forest and range management and the
replenishment of soil fertility in arable lands by use of green manures and cultivation of
appropriate crops.

Activity 5

Instruction: Respond to the following question using your own word in an essay format. (30pts)

1. Why are developing countries experiencing rapid population growth while developed countries are
growing more slowly or not at all?
2. In your own locality, describe the population growth and how it affects the economic status of the
community.
3. One effect of rapid population is the air and water pollution. As a student, what actions can you take
to improve the water and air quality?
 Rubric

CATEGORY 10 8 5
Introduction Entire essay is focused Most of the essay is Most of the essay is
on the assigned topic focused on the not focused on the
and does not stray to assigned topic but assigned topic.
unrelated topics some areas of the
essay depart from the
assigned topic.
Organization The essay is clear and Some aspects of the No essay was turned
easily read. At no time essay are not clear, in.
is the reader and the reader is left
wondering what the wondering what the
writer is trying to say. writer is trying to say.
Development of Main Main ideas are clear, Main ideas are Main ideas are overly
Ideas specific, and well- identifiable, but may broad or simplistic.
developed. be somewhat general.
Significance Writer fully explains Writer explains how Writer does not
the importance of evidence and effects connect evidence to
evidence & effect to connect to & prove the the point or theme,
the point the reader point or thesis, leaving leaving reader puzzled
thoroughly persuaded. reader persuaded or unpersuaded.

This major problem can also be solved through certain program such as Agricultural production,
Industrialization and urbanization, Solid waste disposal, Environmental laws.

Agricultural Production
Resource and Efficiency in Traditional Agriculture
In many other developing countries with a rich agricultural tradition of their own, the words
‘improved agriculture’ and ‘progressive agriculture’ have become synonymous with the spread of HYVs grown
with ever-increasing doses of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. Wherever the new crop varieties have spread,
time-honoured crop rotations, inter-cropping patterns and other important features of traditional agriculture
have been harshly uprooted.
At the back of this trend, and the official policies which support it, is the belief that traditional agriculture is
‘backward’ and incapable of meeting the need of increasing population.

1. Traditional Implements: The existing ploughs and other implements used by the farmers were
useless and ready to be replaced. The native cultivator had ‘improved’ ploughs he could dispense with
the many ploughings which he gives to the land.
2. Irrigation System: An important agent of traditional Indian agriculture was the well-developed
irrigation system. Irrigation by wells is at once the most widely distributed system, and also the one
productive of the finest examples of careful cultivation. Further, as regards wells, one cannot help
being struck by the skill with which a supply of water is first found by the native cultivators, then by
the construction of the wells, the kinds of wells and their suitability to the surroundings and means of
the people; also by the various devices for raising water, each of which has a distinct reason for its
adoption, but efficiency of traditional irrigation system was less productive.
3. Crop rotation system: Another important aspect of traditional agriculture was that of the scientific
rotation system of crop cultivation. Frequently more than one crop at a time may be seen occupying
the same ground but one is very apt to forget that this is really an instance of rotation being followed.
Now- a -days mono crop culture has been introduced, it increase the productivity of land and earn
market surplus.

IRRIGATIONAL SYSTEM CROP ROTATION

4. Soil-mixing practices: Mixing is not unknown in India. The addition changes the consistence of the
sand, so that it becomes better suited for sugar cane and other garden crops rose under irrigation.
The cultivator appreciates the value of tank silt and in those districts where these water reservoirs are
common they are cleaned out with the utmost care and regularly each year. The silt which has
collected in these tanks being the washings of village sites and cultivated fields, has some manorial
value, and applied as it is at the rate of 40 bullock cart loads or more per acre, adds considerably to
the body of the soil.
5. Grain-storage practices: Food grain storage of Indian farmers is no less glowing. Indian farmers are
great adepts in storing grain, and will turn out of rough earthen pits, after 20 years, absolutely
uninjured. They know the exact state of ripeness to which grain should be allowed to stand in
different seasons; in other words under different meteorological conditions, to ensure its keeping
when thus stored; and equally the length of time that, under varying atmospheric conditions, it
should lie upon the open threshing floor to secure the same object.
6. Scientists Farmer: In the Chhatisgarh region has revealed the high level of skills of the farmers of
remote tribal villages still untouched by the official development programmes. Tribal communities still
lead a life of their own; they were taking comparable and even larger yields from indigenous rice
varieties, compared to the HYVs being spread officially in other parts of the state. Another revelation
was the very large number of rice varieties being grown by the farmers, who possessed detailed
knowledge of each of their properties. Some of those varieties were remarkable for their high yields,
some for their supreme cooking qualities, some for their aroma, and some for other cherished
qualities.
7. Grazing land: Traditionally, man, animals, trees, grass lands and agricultural fields were inseparable
and harmonious components of a single system. The villager looked after the trees on his fields and
also contributed to the maintenance of the community grazing land. Farmer looked after the animals
owned by him, sometimes with the assistance of a grazing hand and cultivated the fields owned by
him, with or without hired labour or share croppers. Meanwhile their soil and water conservation
properties were beneficial for the villagers and contributed to maintaining the fertility of agricultural
fields, as well providing shade during the summer season.

Scientists Farmer
Grain-storage
Soil-mixing practices
practices
 8. Husbandry: Cattle provided milk and milk products and contributed to the nutritional content of the
villagers' diet. Cattle dung provided organic fertilizers for the fields, while the poultry provided eggs
and meat. The skins of dead cattle were used for making footwear and other leather products-all such
activity being carried out in the village. Not least, bullocks ploughed the fields.
9. Crop Management: The numerous varieties of crops being grown in traditional agriculture, it should
then make good quality seeds available to the villagers. Better field preparation and help with
manuring, sowing operations, crop management and with post harvest storage will lead to better
quality of crops as well as yields.
10. New agricultural technology: New agricultural technology in the form of tractors and fertilizers will
again benefit the richer farmers, who will therefore be able to increase their agricultural production
and cash receipts. On the other hand, their dependence on organic manure and bullocks is reduced,
so that their requirement for fodder becomes less. All those factors may lead them to neglect the
growth and proper maintenance of grazing lands.

Queston to ponder:

1. Among all the techniques in agricultural production which one is feasible in your community and how
it helps? (10 pts)

2. How do you think that the different technique in agricultural production be a possible solution of land
pollution? (10pts)

Major Environmental Problems: Some Possible Solutions

a. discuss on the positive and negative effects of Industrialization and Urbanization; and
b. explain the significance of proper waste segregation and solid waste disposal.

Industrialization

What Is Industrialization?
 Industrialization is the process by which an economy is transformed from primarily
agricultural to one based on the manufacturing of goods. Individual manual labor is often replaced
by mechanized mass production, and craftsmen are replaced by assembly lines. Characteristics of
industrialization include economic growth, more efficient division of labor, and the use of
technological innovation to solve problems as opposed to dependency on conditions outside human
control.

Industrialization, the process of converting to a socioeconomic order in which

industry is dominant. How or why some agrarian societies have evolved into industrial
states is not always fully understood. What is certainly known, though, is that the changes
that took place in Great Britain during the Industrial Revolution of the late 18th and 19th
centuries provided a prototype for the early industrializing nations of western Europe and
North America. Along with its technological components (e.g., the mechanization of
labour and the reliance upon inanimate sources of energy), the process of
industrialization entailed profound social developments. The freeing of the labourer from
feudal and customary obligations created a free market in labour, with a pivotal role for a
specific social type, the entrepreneur. Cities drew large numbers of people off the land,
massing workers in the new industrial towns and factories.

Later industrializers attempted to manipulate some of these elements. The

Soviet Union, for instance, industrialized largely on the basis of forced labour and
eliminated the entrepreneur, while in Japan strong state involvement stimulated and
sustained the entrepreneur’s role. Other states, notably Denmark and New Zealand,
industrialized primarily by commercializing and mechanizing agriculture.

Although urban-industrial life offers unprecedented opportunites for individual mobility and personal freedom, it can
exact high social and psychological tolls. Such various observers as Karl Marx and Émile Durkheim cited the alienation and anomie
of individual workers faced by seemingly meaningless tasks and rapidly altering goals. The fragmentation of the extended family
and community tended to isolate individuals and to countervail traditional values. By the very mechanism of growth, industrialism
appears to create a new strain of poverty, whose victims for a variety of reasons are unable to compete according to the rules of
the industrial order. In the major industrialized nations of the late 20th and early 21st century, such developments as automated
technology, an expanding service sector, and increasing suburbanization signaled what some observers called the emergence of a
postindustrial society. See also history of the organization of work.

Urbanization
Urbanization implies a change in the economic, social and cultural aspects of the society. It is a
process of becoming urban, the movement of people or processes to urban areas, increase of urban areas,
population or processes .Urbanized societies, in which a majority of the people live crowded together in towns
and cities, represent a new and fundamental step in man’s social evolution. The large and dense
agglomerations comprising the urban population involve a degree of human contact and of social complexity
never before known. The reason behind this complexity lies in the fact that the contemporary urbanized
societies have attained such a gigantic size and have received such a substantial degree of population in its
ambit, which has been unknown to human history. As per Davis (1961) urbanization is an extremely new
phenomenon in human history, so recent that its rapid growth and full potentialities are not yet thoroughly
understood or realized.
The first small urban centres appeared only some five to six thousand years ago, a fact which
demonstrates how recent the faint beginnings were in the long course of sociocultural evolution. However, as
the history unfolds itself, despite its recent past, these cities have acted as the magnets of attraction for a
substantial proportion of population, who have aggregated in this spatial entity to spend their lives within its
 bounds. Those who did not, nevertheless were influenced by the city’s peculiar way of life, as the influence of
the city radiated towards its peripheries and hinterlands. The world has witnessed many dramatic
transformations on the social, economic and political planes in the course of human history. The city, however,
has been a central locale for many of these transformations because the city not only has acted as the centre
of innovation but also has been a potential source of control on social life.
The aggregation of population from a dispersed settlement pattern to a compact one, indeed was a
break from the past, which subsequently paved way for great transformations in the society. Thus, the story of
urbanization of human population is the story of change and transformation – change not only in the
settlement pattern but change in the normative as well as institutional spheres of social life. The story behind
this transformation presents an epitome of the natural inclination and innate tendency of human beings to
progress and move forward on the path of development. Tisdale (1942) endorses this point when he accepts
the inevitability of the process of urbanization. As per him urbanization is inherent in the society and to
understand this inevitability there are two ways. One is to regard it as the inescapable approach of the
predestined march of fate. The other is to see it as the simple outgrowth of what has gone before. In the latter
sense, then urbanization was inevitable, inevitable in the limited sense that it was quite natural, inevitable in
the way man puts on his coat when the wind blows. Thus urbanized societies represent a new and advanced
stage in the course of evolutionary development. Before 1850 no society could be described as predominantly
urbanized, and by 1900 only one - Great Britain - could be regarded so. Between 1850 and 1950 the index
changed at a much higher rate than from 1800 to 1850, but the rate of change from 1950 to 1960 was twice
that of preceding fifty years . Today all the industrial nations are highly urbanized and in the world as a whole
the process of urbanization is accelerating rapidly. The process of urbanization is especially occuring at an
accelarating and unprecedented rate in the third world countries. According to the estimates and projections
of the United Nations Population Division, by the turn of this century, over 50 percent of the world population
will be urban against 29 percent in 1950, 39 percent in 1975 and 43 percent in 1985. The urban population of
the world, which doubled between 1950 and 1970, has further doubled between 1975 and 20008 . The rate of
urbanization between 1950 and 2014, defined as the growth rate of the proportion urban and equal to the
difference between the urban growth rate and the total growth rate, was 0.93 per cent per year on average. As
a result of this rapid urbanization, the population of the world became in 2007 more urban than rural for the
first time. The urbanization process is expected to continue for decades and an ever-increasing majority of
humankind will likely be living in urban areas . Thus, the globe is witnessing an urban explosion.

Concept/s of urbanization
Cities are products of the process of urbanization. In other words urbanization is the social process
that leads to the creation of cities. Thus the relationship between cities and urbanization is one of cause and
effect. Urbanization is a very complex phenomenon, with myriad dimensions which can be analyzed from
various perspectives. Owing to the complex nature of this phenomenon, the study of urbanization is an
enterprise that is being pursued by different disciplines. This has made the contributions to urbanization
interdisciplinary in nature

As per United Nations (2014), the process of urbanization describes a shift in a

population from one that is dispersed across small rural settlements in which agriculture
is the dominant economic activity towards one where the population is concentrated in
larger, dense urban settlements characterised by industrial and service activities.
Urbanization refers both to a condition at a point in time and to a process occurring over
time. The condition of urbanization, referred to as the level of urbanization, is indicated
by the percentage of a population that is living in urban areas, however defined. The
process of urbanization has been used in several ways. These include migration from
rural areas to urban areas, absolute growth in the urban population (urban growth) and
urban growth that is faster than rural growth29. Hence, urbanization as a process implies
an increase in the percentage urban and the rate of urbanization, thus, refers to the
growth rate in the level of urbanization.

Effects of Urbanization
 1. Flooding
Extreme flood events in Metro Manila are usually caused by heavy precipitation events
lasting over 1 to 3 days generally resulting from typhoons and storm surges. Other causes of flooding
are high tide combined with excess runoff from rivers, heavy rains, and sea level rise (WB, 2010). In
addition to natural causes,WB (2010) said that extreme flood events are also caused by
anthropogenic factors such as: a) reduction in river channel capacity resulting from encroachment of
houses, siltation from deforestation, and garbage, b) disappearance of small river channels (esteros),
c) reduced infiltration due to urbanization, d) loss of natural retention areas, and e) land subsidence
resulting from over extraction of ground water. Drainage canals already clogged with rubbish is a
major factor causing severe flooding in the metropolis (Singru and Lindfield, 2014).
2. Solid Wastes Problem
Metro Manila resident generates 0.69 kg of solid wastes per day in 2010 which is higher
than the national average of 0.40 kg/capita/day (NSWMC, 2015). Total garbage produced by Metro
Manila is estimated at 8,400 to 8,600 tons each day or equivalent to 25% of the national waste
generation. About 17% of the daily total is paper wastes while 16% are plastics. Wastes collected from
NCR are disposed in the three disposal facilities, namely: the Rizal Provincial Sanitary Landfill (SLF)
located in Rodriguez, Rizal; the Payatas SLF in Quezon City and the Tanza SLF in Navotas. These
facilities service the 17 local government units of Metro Manila. They also serve as disposal sites for
the garbage collected by MMDA from the different esteros and pumping stations in the region. The
MMDA (2014) reported that more than 9.9 million cubic meters of garbage/wastes were disposed in
these in 2014. This is 1.7 percent increase over 2013.It was estimated that only 70 % of the total
garbage generated in Metro Manila are collected. The uncollected garbage goes into the river systems
and esteros resulting in the clogging of waterways. This aggravates flooding in the metropolis.
3. Water Quality Problem
Five river systems traverse Metro Manila: the Marikina River, San Juan River, Parañaque
River, Pasig River and Navotas-Malabon-Tullahan-Tenejeros River. Both the Marikina and San Juan
rivers are major tributaries of the Pasig River. Except for the upper reaches of the Marikina River,
which are classified as Class A, all five river systems were classified as Class C water bodies.Manila Bay
was classified as Class SB, which means that the area is to be used for contact recreation such as
bathing, swimming, skin diving, and similar activities and as spawning areas for milkfish and other
similar species.
4. Air Pollution and Greenhouse Gas Emission
The increasing population in the metropolis and the rapid development in the area
caused the poor quality of ambient air in the region. In 2013, total suspended particulates (TSP) or the
amount of dust in the air in Metro Manila (132 Pg/Ncm) exceeded the standard level of90 Pg/Ncm by
47% (EMB, 2014). The amount of particulate matters PM10 was recorded as 74 Pg/Ncm during the
same year, exceeding the standard of 60 Pg/Ncm by 23%. The high TSP and PM10 levels were due
mainly from vehicular emissions (80%) while stationary sources contributed only 20%.

Reference:
Activity 6

Instruction: Discuss on the positive and negative effects of industrialization and urbanization using the chart
below. (20pts.)

Positive impact of industrialization Negative impact of industrialization

 Positive impact of urbanization Negative of urbanization

Solid Waste Disposal

Solid waste management issue is the biggest challenge to the authorities of both small and large cities’ in developing
countries. This is mainly due to the increasing generation of such solid waste and the burden posed on the municipal budget. In
addition to the high costs, the solid waste management is associated lack of understanding over different factors that affect the
entire handling system. Population increase, rapid urbanization, booming economy, and the rise in the standard of living in
developing countries have greatly accelerated the rate, amount and quality of the municipal solid waste generation.

Municipal solid waste (MSW) is one of the important challenges to the

environment. Municipalities; generally; are responsible for solid waste segregation
depends mainly on the public awareness and the active participation of such waste
generators in the different communities (i.e., how they follow the fundamental and
principles of waste sorting and separation). Solid waste generation (SWG) is a
problematic and is an issue of concern everywhere in the world, particularly in all
urban centers. Such SWG is considered one of the most challenging issues faced by
most developing countries that suffer from sever environmental pollution problems
caused by the large quantities of SWG. Increased generation of solid waste in urban
cities affected dramatically on the sanitary related problems and the basic services
such as sanitation facilities, water supply, waste management, and transport
infrastructure.
Disposal of solid waste
It has been reported that improper bin collection practices, collection, transfer and/or transport systems have great effect on
the characteristics of the solid wastes. Besides, the poor route of planning, lack of information concerning the collection schedule,
number of vehicles for solid waste collection and poor roads [34] and insufficient infrastructure can also effect of the characteristics’
of the solid wastes. The effective ways and affordable waste collection services were studied and reported by Sharholy et al. To
organize the informal sector and promoting microenterprises. Knowledge of treatment by authorities is one of the important factors
affecting the handling of solid waste. Factors influence household waste disposal were analyzed by Tadesse et al.
Their results indicated that the supply of waste facilities significantly affects the choice of waste disposal. They reported that
Problems of solid waste disposal within rural communities in developing countries
the inadequate supply of waste containers as well as the longer distance of transporting these containers increases the possibility of
Disposal of garbage as solid wastes is a stengent and widespread problem in both urban and rural areas in several
dumping such wastes in open areas and roadsides along the trip. Pokhrel and Viraraghavan [39] mentioned that insufficient financial
developing countries. Several Canals and drains as open places are widely used to dump varieties of garbage as a source of
resources, absence of legislation, well equipped, and engineered landfills all contribute to the limitation of solid waste safe disposal.
domestic organic and inorganic waste. Due to the absence of continuous garbagecollection systems, convenient landfills, open
canals and drains are being blocked by dumping huge amounts of solid and garbage wastes. Thus, they are no longer in function.
These garbage wastes are mostly plastic and papers and little toxic matrials. However, such toxic matrials represent hazard impact
to the environment due to the breakdown of their degradable constituents, a matter that adds significant loads of the BOD to the
local eco-system.
Many people and most organizations did not arrange for on-site treatment and/or safe disposal of the solid wastes to
cope with the environmental preservation measures. Disposal of garbage solid waste and of untreated effluent into the nearby
drains by people is; thus; irresponsible and are not aware with the sequences of their health hazard. There are no what is called
financial incentives to stop them from such prctice and to encourage them to alter their habits. Individual see that the way they
dispose their wastes is effective and cheap. In fact, it is serious disaster for the the surrounding communities and to the country.
The fact is small volumes of effluent induces pollution to very large volume of water bodies. Meanwhile, laws are not effective to
prevent the environment from such hazardous practice unless better sollution could be achieved.
Solid Waste Management

Different categories of solid waste includes:

Organic waste: waste from preparation of food, market place, etc
Combustibles: Paper, wood, dried leaves, packaging for relief items, etc. (high orhanic and low moisture
content)
Non-combustible: Metal, tin cans, bottles, stone etc.
Ashes/dust: residue from fires used for cooking
Bulky waste: Tree branches, tyres, etc.
Dead animals: Carcasses of domestic animals and livestock
Hazardous waste: oil, battery acid, medical waste
Construction waste: Roofing, rubble, broken concrete, etc.

In order to establish effective solid waste management in the affected area the following process should be
used:

Identify the type of waste

Identify the source of waste

Determine the potential health

hazard from waste

Determined the volume generated

Identify safe collection method/s

Identify safe transportation

method/s

Identify safe disposal method/s

Solid waste management in the developing countries
Because of the demographics changes, consumer behavior, rapid urbanization, and fast growing
population municipalities in the developing countries, the decision makers are confronted with serious new
challenges in solid waste management. Numerous cities have increased their efforts, over the past few
decades, to find sustainable solution in the solid waste management problem. Particular focus was to develop
integrated solid waste management strategies, including construction, operation and maintenance of sanitary
landfills and the related problem. To cover part of the costs, it was found that valorizing and recycling
activities, has turned into a valuable income. It was reported that in Ankara, Turkey, as an example, scavengers
collect and sell to middle men about 50% of the recyclables wastes produced by households, commerce and
trade that yield a total amount of USD 50,000/day. Furthermore, in Delhi’s waste management system at least
150,000 waste pickers divert more than 25% of all waste generated into recyclables. This management system
saves the municipal authorities substantial costs.
Solid waste is one of the important challenges to the environment. The inadequate waste
management cause alteration the ecosystems including air, water, and soil pollution, thus it represents a real
threatening to human health. Some studies gave evidence that local population nearby MSW facilities have
low weight at birth, congenital anomalies, and few types of cancers. The increasing generation of solid wastes
posed the burden on the high costs of municipal budget. Population increase, rapid urbanization, booming
economy, and the rise in the standard of living have greatly accelerated the rate, amount and quality of the
municipal solid waste generation. Biodegradation of MSW according to the time is an important factor that
governs the amount of recyclable material particularly the organic contents. MSW generated from the
developing countries are highly; heterogeneous in nature.
The improper bin collection practices, collection, transfer and/or transport systems have great effect
on the characteristics of the solid wastes. The plastics waste disposal is a major global environmental problem.
As plastics are essentially hydrocarbons, they possess a calorific values ranged between 30 and 40 MJ/kg. Thus,
they can be burned or incinerated in the municipal or other dedicated wastes with power and heat generation.

Activity 7

Instruction:

Respond to the following question using your own word in an essay format. (30pts)

1. What are the ideas you get in proper waste segregation?

2. Explain the significance of proper waste segregation and solid waste disposal?
3. Aside from waste segregation, what else can you suggest to help your community in solid waste
disposal?

Rubric

CATEGORY 10 8 5
Introduction Entire essay is focused Most of the essay is Most of the essay is
on the assigned topic focused on the not focused on the
and does not stray to assigned topic but assigned topic.
unrelated topics some areas of the
essay depart from the
assigned topic.

Organization The essay is clear and Some aspects of the No essay was turned
easily read. At no time essay are not clear,
 is the reader and the reader is left in.
wondering what the wondering what the
writer is trying to say. writer is trying to say.

Development of Main Main ideas are clear, Main ideas are Main ideas are overly
Ideas specific, and well- identifiable, but may broad or simplistic.
developed. be somewhat general.
Significance Writer fully explains Writer explains how Writer does not
the importance of evidence and effects connect evidence to
evidence & effect to connect to & prove the the point or theme,
the point the reader point or thesis, leaving leaving reader puzzled
thoroughly persuaded. reader persuaded or unpersuaded.

Basic Laws on Environment and Natural Resources in the Philippines

Objectives:
a. discuss possible ways on how Philippine government implement the Basic Laws on Environment and
Natural Resources and
b. discuss on the issues concerning the implementation the Basic Laws on Environment and Natural
Resources

REPUBLIC ACT 9003 ECOLOGICAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT ACT OF 2000

In partnership with stakeholders, the law aims to adopt a systematic, comprehensive and ecological
solid waste management program that shall ensure the protection of public health and environment. The law
ensures proper segregation, collection, storage, treatment and disposal of solid waste through the formulation
and adaptation of best eco-waste products.

REPUBLIC ACT 9275 PHILIPPINE CLEAN WATER ACT OF 2004

 The law aims to protect the country's water bodies from pollution from land-based sources (industries
and commercial establishments, agriculture and community/household activities). It provides for
comprehensive and integrated strategy to prevent and minimize pollution through a multi-sectoral and
participatory approach involving all the stakeholders.

REPUBLIC ACT 8749 PHILIPPINE CLEAN AIR ACT OF 199

The law aims to achieve and maintain clean air that meets the National Air Quality guideline values
for criteria pollutants, throughout the Philippines, while minimizing the possible associated impacts to the
economy.

REPUBLIC ACT 6969 TOXIC SUBSTANCES, HAZARDOUS AND NUCLEAR WASTE CONTROL ACT OF 1990
The law aims to regulate restrict or prohibit the importation, manufacture, processing, sale,
distribution, use and disposal of chemical substances and mixtures the present unreasonable risk to human
health. It likewise prohibits the entry, even in transit, of hazardous and nuclear wastes and their disposal into
the Philippine territorial limits for whatever purpose; and to provide advancement and facilitate research and
studies on toxic chemicals.

PRESIDENTIAL DECREE 1586 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT (EIS) STATEMENT OF 1978 

The Environment Impact Assessment System was formally established in 1978 with the enactment of
Presidential Decree no. 1586 to facilitate the attainment and maintenance of rational and orderly balance
between socio-economic development and environmental protection. EIA is a planning and management tool
that will help government, decision makers, the proponents and the affected community address the negative
consequences or risks on the environment. The process assures implementation of environment-friendly
projects.

PD 1586 (Environmental Impact Statement System)

Is a PROCESS involving predicting and evaluating the likely impacts of a project on the environment
during construction, commissioning, operation and abandonment. Section 4 of PD 1586 provides that no
person, partnership or corporation shall undertake or operate any such declared environmentally critical
project (ECP) or area (ECA) without first securing an Environmental Compliance Certificate (ECC).

Environmental Compliance Certificate (ECC)

Is a document issued by the DENR/EMB after a positive review of an ECC application, certifying that
based on the representations of the proponent, the proposed project or undertaking has complied with all
the requirements of the EIS System and has committed to implement its approved Environmental
Management Plan, EMP to address the environmental impacts.

RA 9275 - Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004

Water Quality Standards, General Effluent Standards, Designation of Water Quality
Management Area

RA 9275 Prohibited Acts

Discharging, depositing or causing to be deposited material of any kind directly or indirectly
into water bodies or along the margin of any surface water. Disposal of potentially infectious medical
wastes into seawater by vessels.

Importance of Environmental Protection In The Philippines

Environment has been and will always be part of human lives. Whether we like it or not, it
will affect us in many ways that is why no wonder, laws for environmental protection are
proliferating not only domestically but across the globe. According to Cali (2010), Laws on
Environmental Protection are important since it has a significant effect on human health, well-being
of humans, and to the ecosystem. Due to the importance of environmental protection to human
lives, it is expected that even at the smallest unit of the government of every state has policy
implementation when it comes to the protection of the environment.
The Philippine Government has upheld numerous laws for environmental protection not
only to follow the international law but as well as for the country’s own benefit.

Question to ponder

1. Explain the possible ways on how Philippine government implement the Basic Laws on Environment
and Natural Resources.

2. What are the issues concerning the implementation the Basic Laws on Environment and Natural
Resources in your community?
You’re almost there!

Major task
Instruction: Create a brochure that show either of the following. Make sure that your brochure
explain the chosen topic.
1. Geographic Resources
2. Major environmental problem
3. Possible solution
3.1 Depletion of natural resources
3.2 Agricultural production
3.3 Industrialization and Urbanization
3.4 Solid waste disposal
3.5 Environmental laws

Rubric

  20 15 5

Topic/Purpose The topic/purpose of the The topic/purpose was The topic/purpose of the
brochure was clear and somewhat broad and did brochure was not clear
concise not allow viewer to and concise
understand the purpose
Data Data of the brochure was Data of the brochure was Data of the brochure was
accurate and relevant to somewhat accurate and not accurate and was not
topic relevant to topic. relevant to topic.

Layout The brochure had a great The graphics were The graphics had nothing
layout, with applicable somewhat applicable to to do with the topic and
graphics. the brochure, creating an had a poor layout. There
average layout. was an overload of text.

Sourcing Citations for the brochure Citations for some of the No citations of the
sources were included sources used were brochure sources were
included. included.

References:

Ali, M.,& Porciuncula, F. “Urban and peri-urban agriculture in Metro Manila: resources and opportunities for
food production”. AVRDC Technical Bulletin No. 26, 45 pp(2001).

Davis, K. (1965). The Urbanization of human population. Scientific American. 213, pp. 26-2

Desonie, D.(2008). Hydrosphere: freshwater system and pollution Retrieved on January 14, 2021 Retrieved
from: https://b-ok.asia/s/hydrosphere

Gates. D, et.al (nd). Britannica.com. Bisophere. Retrieved on: January 18, 2021 Retrieved from:
www.britannica..com/science/biosphere
Gaston, G.D. 2007 World Population Collapse: Lessons for the Philippines. Retrieved on September 10, 2013
from http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/gas/gas_01populationcollapse.html.

Global Climate Change (nd). The Human Sphere. Global Climate Change Retrieved on January 18, 2021
Retrieved from: https://sites.google.com/site/gccclimatechange/the-different-spheres/the-human-sphere

Human Interactions with the Environment (nd). Open.edu. Human Interactions with the Environment
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