PHYSICS LABORATORY MANUAL

Physics Course (PHYS1001P)

I/IV B.Tech. Programme
AY 2021-2022
PHYSICS (PHYS1001P) Laboratory Manual GITAM University

INDEX

S. No. Contents Page No.

1 INSTRUCTIONS & EXPECTATIONS 3-4

2 DO’s & DON’Ts 5-6

3 EXPERIMENTS 7-34

 Circular coil 7

 Hall effect 11

 Dielectric constant 14

 PN junction diode 16

 Solar cell 18

 Photodiode 21

 Band gap 23

 Optical fiber 26

 LCR circuit 29

 BH curve 32

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PHYSICS (PHYS1001P) Laboratory Manual GITAM University

INSTRUCTIONS & EXPECTATIONS

1. Note the cycle of experiments.

2. Read the laboratory manual thoroughly.

3. When you are coming to Physics laboratory you must carry the following:
 Observation notebook
 Calculator
 Manual
 Pen, Pencil, Sharpener, Eraser, Ruler

4. Prepare for the experiment by noting the aim, apparatus, formulae, symbols, figures, blank
tabular forms, model graph, and precautions in your observation notebook. Do not write the
theory or procedure in observation notebook. However, the procedure must be studied
thoroughly prior to performing the experiment.

5. Immediately after entering the laboratory, you must show your initial preparation of the
experiment to your teacher. The teacher will check your observation notebook and grade
you accordingly.

6. After taking observations in the practical class, note them in tabular forms, plot the graph
(if any) on the graph sheet provided at the end of the observation notebook. Calculate the
result showing the intermediate steps. Write the additional precautions taken while
performing the experiment.

7. Note all the observations in ink only (do not use pencil). Use pencil only to draw diagrams
and graphs.

8. Get your observations and calculations done for the experiment signed by your concerned
teacher before leaving the lab.

9. It is your responsibility to return the apparatus. Appropriate fines will be imposed for
breakages.

10. Upload your assignment for the relevant experiment before the due date in Moodle.

11. Assessment Procedure (100 marks)

 The laboratory assessment for 100 marks is completely continuous evaluation.

 For each experiment you will be graded for 10 marks.
 At the end of the cycle, you would have been assessed for 80 marks.
 An assessment of 20 marks will be made at the end of the cycle where you must perform
one of the 8 experiments.
 To pass the practical course, you need to secure minimum 50% of the marks
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PHYSICS (PHYS1001P) Laboratory Manual GITAM University

12. You may not receive the maximum grades in the following cases

 Incomplete initial preparation

 Not uploading the assignment in Moodle within the due date
 Not maintaining the observation notebook properly and neatly
 Copying calculations from others
 Wrong handling of apparatus
 Not being punctual and regular
 Indiscipline and misbehavior
 Any kind of malpractice

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PHYSICS (PHYS1001P) Laboratory Manual GITAM University

DO’s and DON’Ts

The equipment and apparatus that you will use involve various safety hazards, which you must
be aware of. Your teacher will guide you· in properly using the equipment and carrying out the
experiments, but you must also take responsibility for your part in this process. With the active
involvement of you and your teacher, these risks can be minimized so that working in the
physics laboratory can be a safe, enjoyable process of discovery.

DO’s
1. Be regular and punctual to the lab. Be present in the lab before your teacher arrives.
2. Come prepared with the experiment to be performed in the lab. Read the entire experiment
before entering the lab.
3. Follow all written and verbal instructions. Your teacher will review applicable safety
precautions before the lab. If you are not sure of something, ask your teacher about it.
4. Be alert and attentive at all times in the lab and proceed with caution. Act like an adult.
5. Be aware of others near you or your equipment when you are performing an experiment.
6. Use equipment with care and for the purpose for which it is intended.
7. Only the lab notebook and the lab manual needed for the experiment should be used in the
lab. Keep other books, backpacks, purses and similar items in the rack or designated storage
area.
8. Report all accidents, injuries and breakages to the instructor immediately, no matter how
minor. Also, report any equipment that you suspect is malfunctioning.
9. If you get a headache, feel uneasy or feel dizzy, tell your teacher immediately.
10. Dress appropriately. Cotton clothing is preferable to woolen, nylon, or polyester. Wear
shoes that will protect your feet from chemical / hot water spills and falling objects. Pin or
tie back long hair and roll up loose sleeves.
11. Mobile phones in the ‘switch-off’ or ‘silent’ mode should be kept in bags or backpacks.
12. Use only materials and equipment listed in the activity equipment list or as authorized by
your teacher.
13. Steps in a procedure should only be performed as described in the lab manual or approved
by your teacher.
14. Exercise caution when working with electrical equipment. Be sure your hands are dry before
using electrical equipment. Ask the instructor to check all electrical circuits before you turn
on the power. When working with electrical circuits make sure that the current is turned off
before adjusting the circuit.
15. Be careful when working with apparatus that may be hot. If you must pick it up, use tongs,
a wet paper towel or other appropriate holder. Keep your head, hands, hair, and clothing
away from the flame or heating area and turn heating devices off when they are not in use.
Gas burners should be lit only with a spark lighter.
16. If a thermometer breaks, inform the instructor immediately.

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PHYSICS (PHYS1001P) Laboratory Manual GITAM University

17. Report all spills to your teacher immediately. Call your teacher or lab technician rather than
trying to clean up a spill yourself. Your teacher will tell you if it is safe for you to clean up
the spill; if not, your teacher will know how the spill should be cleaned up safely.
18. Keep work areas and apparatus clean and neat. Make use of dustbins to deposit trash.
19. Rearrange equipment in an orderly manner and return all apparatus in good condition to the
designated location at the end of the lab period.
20. Leave your lab area cleaner than you found it.

DON’Ts
1. Never work alone in the laboratory. Work in the lab only while under the supervision of
your teacher.
2. Do not perform unauthorized experiments. Get the instructor's permission before you try
something original.
3. Laboratory equipment and apparatus are not toys. Never play in the lab or use lab time or
equipment for anything other than their intended purpose.
4. Do not use mobile phones during laboratory.
5. Do not indulge in cross talking during lab session.
6. Do not write or scribble on benches and walls.
7. Do not damage lab equipment, accessories, and furniture in any manner.
8. Do not touch either the broken glassware or the mercury of a broken thermometer with your
bare skin.
9. Avoid looking directly at a light source. Looking directly at a light source may cause
permanent eye damage.
10. On lab days avoid wearing long necklaces, dangling bracelets, bulky jewellery, and loose-
fitting clothing. Loose, dangling items may get caught in moving parts, accidentally contact
electrical connections, or interfere with the investigation in a potentially hazardous manner.
11. Do not connect the terminals of a battery or power supply to each other with a wire.
12. Do not work with any batteries, electrical devices, or magnets other than those provided by
your teacher.
13. Never rewire or adjust any element of a closed circuit.
14. Do not use electrical equipment with frayed or twisted wires. Do not let electrical cords
dangle from workstations; dangling cords can cause electrical shocks and other injuries.
15. If a bulb breaks, do not remove broken bulbs from sockets. Notify your teacher
immediately.
16. Do not leave any equipment particularly, a hot plate or other heating device unattended
while it is in operation.
17. Do not eat or drink anything in the laboratory.

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PHYSICS (PHYS1001P) Laboratory Manual GITAM University

Date: ____________
Experiment No.: ___ CIRCULAR COIL
Serial No.: ____________

Aim: To determine the intensity of magnetic field at different points along the axis of a circular
coil carrying current by Stewart and Gee’s galvanometer.
Apparatus: Stewart and Gee’s galvanometer, storage cell, ammeter (0-2A), rheostat, plug key,
commutator, connecting wires, thread, and deflection magnetometer.

Arms Coil Deflection magnetometer

West East



Plug key
Commutator

+ - - +
A

Rheostat Storage cell Ammeter

Figure 1: Experimental set-up of Stewart and Gee’s Galvanometer

Description of apparatus: The apparatus consists of a thick insulated wire wound on a circular
shaped wooden frame. The frame is fixed to a horizontal support (arms) which is graduated in
centimeters fixed at the middle of the scale. There is a stand to hold the deflection
magnetometer which slides on the horizontal support (arms). The height of the stand is such
that the center of the magnetic needle lies in horizontal plane passing through the center of the
coil.

Theory: When the coil is placed with its vertical plane in the magnetic meridian, the direction
of the intensity of magnetic field, F produced is perpendicular to the magnetic meridian. Hence
on placing the deflection magnetometer at any point on the axial line of the coil, the field F due
to the current and the horizontal component of the Earth’s magnetic field ( H = 0.38 oersteds)
act in perpendicular directions on the magnetic needle of the magnetometer and deflects it
through an angle  .

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 PHYSICS (PHYS1001P) Laboratory Manual GITAM University

Formula: The intensity of magnetic field F at any point along the axis of is given by,

2 r 2 nc
F  3
oersteds (Oe)
10 (r  d )
2 2 2

where, r = radius of coil (cm)

n = number of turns in the coil
c = current passing through the coil (A) and
d = distance of the point (magnetometer) from the center of the coil along its axis (cm)

Procedure:

1. Set the Stewart and Gee’s Galvanometer with its coil in the magnetic meridian, (Tan-A
position, i.e., the aluminium pointer of the deflection magnetometer should be exactly
parallel to the horizontal support/arms) without connecting the circuit.

2. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure. To start with, set the magnetometer at the centre
of the coil (i.e., at 0 cm) and rotate it such that the two ends of the aluminium pointer reads
(0, 0) deflection.

3. Close the key K and adjust the rheostat till the magnetometer shows a deflection of about
600. Reverse the current with the commutator and see that the deflections do not differ by
more than 20. If the difference is higher, readjust the setup by bringing the coil into the
magnetic meridian by removing the plug key. When correctly adjusted, the deflections on
reversal of current do not vary much from the deflections before reversal of the current.

4. When the last adjustment appears satisfactory, record deflections before (θ1, θ2) and after
reversal (θ3, θ4) of current by noting both ends of the aluminium pointer and thereby get
four values of deflections. Their mean gives the deflection for d=0 cm.

5. Next remove the plug key and move the magnetometer towards East along the axis of the
coil in steps of 2 cm and readjust the magnetometer such that aluminium pointer reads (0,
0) at a time. At each position close the key K and note deflections before and after reversal
of current and find mean deflection  E.

6. Continue the shift towards East until the deflection falls to about 300 (300 <  < 600). Repeat
the above process similarly by shifting the magnetometer towards West from the centre of
the coil in steps of 2 cm, each time noting the deflections before and after reversal of current
and find mean deflection  w. Continue the shift towards West until the deflection falls to
about 300 ( 300 <  < 600 ).

7. Record the observations as shown in Table 1.

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PHYSICS (PHYS1001P) Laboratory Manual GITAM University

Table 1: Magnetometer deflections as a function of distance from the center of the coil.

Distance of Deflections of the Mean tan  E Deflections of the Mean tan  w

deflection magnetometer E magnetometer w
magnetometer towards East of the (degrees) towards West of (degrees)
from the coil  E the coil  w
centre of the (degrees) (degrees)
coil Current Current Current Current
d (cm) direct reversed direct reversed
1  2  3  - 1 2 3 4
4

8. Plot a graph with distance d on the x-axis and values of tan  E and tan  w on the y-axis.

Model Graph

300    600

tan W tan E

tan 

West East

12 10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Distance from centre of the coil d (cm)

2 r 2 nc
9. The intensity of magnetic field, F can be expressed as F = A/B, where A=
10
and B = (r2 + d2)3/2. Calculate A and B and note down the values of F = A/B in Table 2.

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PHYSICS (PHYS1001P) Laboratory Manual GITAM University

Table 2: Comparison of the experimental and theoretical values of the magnetic field.

Distance of From Table – 1

magnetometer (degrees) F = H tan  F = A/B
from centre of (Oe) (Oe)
coil d (cm) Mean ‘  E’ Mean ‘  w’  = (  E+  w) / 2

Result: The intensity of magnetic field at different points along the axis of the circular coil
carrying current is determined by Stewart and Gee’s galvanometer. The experimental values
(F = H tanθ) and the theoretical values (F = A/B) are given in Table 2.

It is observed that for each distance, values of H tan and A/B tally, thus verifying the
formula,
2 n r 2 c
F=
10 (r 2  d 2 )3 / 2

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PHYSICS (PHYS1001P) Laboratory Manual GITAM University

Date: ____________
Experiment No.: ___ HALL EFFECT
Serial No.: ____________

Aim: To determine the Hall coefficient (RH) and carrier concentration (n) for the given sample
using the Hall effect set-up.

Apparatus: Electromagnet, Power supply for electromagnet, Hall probe (InAs crystal),
Semiconductor (Ge) crystal of thickness 0.6 mm mounted on a Hylam PCB, Constant current
power supply for Ge crystal, Gauss meter for measuring magnetic flux density, Clamp stand.

Theory: When a semiconductor crystal carrying current is placed in a magnetic field which is
perpendicular to the direction of current, then due to the magnetic force, the free charge carriers
get accumulated on one side of the crystal along its length. This produces a transverse electric
field (called Hall electric field) in the crystal which opposes the magnetic force on the charge
carriers. This phenomenon is called Hall Effect.

Fig. 1 Hall effect measurement set-up

The figure given above shows a semiconductor crystal of thickness ‘d’ along z-axis, width ‘b’,
along y-axis, length ‘l’ along x-axis place in a magnetic field ‘B’ generated along z-axis by an
electromagnet. If a current ‘Ix’ is passed along the x-axis of the crystal, a potential difference
called the ‘Hall potential difference’, VH, is produced along the y-axis of the crystal. The sign
of the Hall potential depends on the nature of the charge carriers. Thus, by noting the direction
of Hall potential and the magnetic field, the nature of charge carriers may be determined using
Fleming’s left-hand rule.

Formula: (i) The Hall coefficient RH is given by

R = × m /C
where
VH = Hall voltage (V)

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PHYSICS (PHYS1001P) Laboratory Manual GITAM University

d = Thickness of the crystal along z-axis (m)

Ix = Current through the sample (A)
B = Applied magnetic field (T)

Note: The magnetic field measured by using Gauss meter is in gauss (G), which needs
to be converted into tesla (T) (1 G = 10-4 T)

(ii) The carrier concentration n is given by

1
n m-3
e RH
RH = Hall coefficient (m3/C)
e = charge of an electron or hole (1.6 x 10-19 C)

Procedure:
1. Switch on the Gauss meter. Hold the Hall probe in air and then adjust for zero reading on
the meter using the SET ZERO knob.
2. Switch on the power supply to the electromagnet and place the Hall probe in between the
pole pieces of the electromagnet to sense the generated magnetic field. Gradually increase
the current through the electromagnet and observe the Gauss meter reading. The
corresponding change in the generated magnetic field is displayed in the Gauss meter. Keep
the current fixed at any one value and note the corresponding value of magnetic field as ‘B’
in gauss. (Ideally set the magnetic field to around 1000 G.)
3. With the help of a clamp stand fix the Ge crystal mounted on the Hylam PCB exactly in
between the pole pieces of the electromagnet and adjust the alignment such that the surface
of the crystal is perpendicular to the generated magnetic field.
4. Switch on the constant current power supply connected to the Ge crystal mounted on the
PCB. Change the value of current, IX through the sample in steps and note down the
corresponding Hall voltage, VH. Tabulate the values of IX and VH in Table 1.

Table1: Measurements for Current and corresponding Hall Voltage

Magnetic field (magnetic induction) B = ____ G = ____ x 10-4 T

Thickness of Ge crystal along z-axis, d = 0.6 mm = 0.6 x 10-3 m

S.No. Hall Current Hall Voltage

IX (mA) VH (mV)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

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PHYSICS (PHYS1001P) Laboratory Manual GITAM University

5. Plot a graph (as shown below) between the readings of current ‘IX’ on the positive x-axis
and Hall Voltage ‘VH’ on the positive y-axis. It will be a straight line passing through origin
and whose slope will be .

Model Graph

(mV)
(mV)
Slope = VH/IX

HallVoltage, HH
Voltage,VV Slope = BC/AB

I
Hall

Current, IX (mA)

6. Calculate the Hall co-efficient as follows:

R = × = (Slope of the line) ×

1
7. Calculate the charge carrier concentration by using the formula n  .
e RH
Precautions:
1. Handle the Ge crystal and the Hall probe with care as they are very fragile.
2. The current through the electromagnet should not be increased beyond 1.5 A because high
current through the electromagnet for a long duration may heat up the electromagnet.
3. Ensure that the gap between the pole pieces of the electromagnet remains fixed throughout
the experiment.
4. The surface of the Ge crystal should be perpendicular to the magnetic field and fixed exactly
in between the pole pieces of the electromagnet while measuring VH.

Result: Using the Hall effect experimental setup, for germanium (Ge), the Hall coefficient is
determined as _____________________ and the carrier concentration is
___________________ .

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PHYSICS (PHYS1001P) Laboratory Manual GITAM University

Date: ____________
Experiment No.: ___ DIELECTRIC CONSTANT
Serial No.: ____________

Aim: To determine the dielectric constant of a substance by resonance method.

Apparatus: (i) Dielectric constant kit with a built in RF oscillator, p-n junction diode, and a
microammeter (ii) Variable capacitor (10 - 270 pF capacitance) (iii) Test capacitor with a
facility to fill it with a dielectric (iv) Three sheets of solid dielectric material (one sheet of 2
mm thickness and other two sheets of 4 mm thickness each

Basic Theory: Permittivity (ε) relates to the material's ability to allow or permit an electric
field. It is expressed as a ratio of the electric displacement (D) to the intensity of the electric
field (E) that produces it. In free space ε can be expressed as εo and is called permittivity of free
space.

Dielectric constant (k) or relative permittivity (εr) of a medium is defined as the ratio of the
absolute permittivity (ε) of that medium to the permittivity of free space (ε o). This value may
vary from unity to ten for ordinary materials and be over 3000 for ferroelectric materials.

Using a capacitor, the dielectric constant (k) of a dielectric can be expressed as the ratio of the
capacitance of the capacitor with the dielectric filled between its plates to the capacitance it
would posses if the dielectric were removed. These capacitances may be measured conveniently
by the resonance method for which the circuit diagram is as shown in Fig.1. This circuit includes
a variable capacitor connected in parallel with the test capacitor. Initially, with no dielectric
between the plates of test capacitor (C0), the circuit is tuned to resonance by varying the variable
1
capacitor. If the variable capacitance is C1, the resonance frequency is 1  .
{L(C1 C 0)}
The test capacitor is then filled with the dielectric material (kC0) whose dielectric constant is to
be determined and the circuit is again tuned to resonance. If the variable capacitance is now C 2,
1
the resonance frequency is 2  . Since the resonance frequency is constant
{L(C2  kC 0)}
(ω1 = ω2), k can be determined provided C0 is known.

PN
RF Oscillator

junction
Variable Test diode
L Capacitor µ
Capacitor
C1, C2 C0, kC0

Fig.1 Circuit diagram for measuring dielectric constant

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PHYSICS (PHYS1001P) Laboratory Manual GITAM University

C1  C2
Formula: Dielectric constant, k  1 
C0
where Co is the capacitance of the test capacitor without the dielectric (pF)
C1 is the capacitance of the variable capacitor for maximum deflection in
microammeter (resonance point) when test capacitor is without dielectric (pF)
C2 is the capacitance of the variable capacitor for maximum deflection in
microammeter (resonance point) when test capacitor is filled with dielectric (pF)

Procedure:

Step 1. Connect the variable capacitor plugs to the sockets provided for it on the front panel of
the dielectric constant kit.
Step 2. Switch on the instrument using ON/OFF toggle switch provided on the front panel.
Step 3. Set the sensitivity of the meter at 0.5 by varying the sensitivity potentiometer knob.
Step 4. Connect the test capacitor without dielectric (in parallel with the variable capacitor)
across the sockets provided for it on the front panel.
Step 5. Vary the capacity of the variable capacitor till the deflection in the microammeter
reaches the resonance point, i.e., till the deflection is maximum. Note down this value
of variable capacitor at maximum deflection as C1.
Step 6. Insert the 4 mm thick dielectric material, whose dielectric constant is to be determined,
between the plates of the test capacitor.
Step 7. Vary the variable capacitor till the microammeter deflection reaches the resonance point,
i.e., maximum deflection. Note down this capacitance of the variable capacitor as C 2.
Step 8. Determine the area (A) of the test capacitor plate and then calculate C0, the capacitance
of the test capacitor without the dielectric for different distances (d) between the plates
by using the formula C0 = (0A/d).
Step 9. Determine the dielectric constant k of the material by using the measured values C 1, C2
and C0.
Step 10. Repeat the afore-mentioned steps for 6 mm, 8 mm and 10 mm thickness dielectric
sheets and report the average of the four values.

Table 1: Measurements for determining dielectric constant of the solid dielectric

S. Distance Capacitance of Dielectric
No. between Test Variable capacitor at Variable capacitor at Constant,
plates capacitor resonance when test resonance when test C1  C2
(mm) without capacitor is without capacitor is with
k  1
C0
dielectric dielectric dielectric
C0 (pF) C1(pF) C2 (pF)
1. 4
2. 6
3. 8
4. 10
Average value of dielectric constant =

Result: The dielectric constant of the given dielectric material is __________ .

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PHYSICS (PHYS1001P) Laboratory Manual GITAM University

Date: ____________
Experiment No.: ___ PN JUNCTION DIODE
Serial No.: ____________

Aim: To plot the V-I characteristics of a diode.

Apparatus: A kit containing two p-n junction diodes, micro-ammeter, milli-ammeter, two
voltmeters, power supply, connecting wires, potentiometer.

Procedure:

Forward bias characteristics

Step 1. The connections as shown in Figure 1(a) are built in. Ensure that the knob of the
potentiometer R1 is at its minimum position.
Step 2. Put the power switch to ON position.
Step 3. Ensure that the voltage is 0 V.
Step 4. Increase the voltage in small steps of 0.1V to a maximum of 0.7V and note down the
corresponding current in Table 1.
Step 5. Plot a graph between voltage and current as shown in Figure 1(b).

(a) (b)
Figure 1: Circuit diagram for forward-biased p-n junction

Table 1: Measurements of forward bias characteristics

S. No. Forward voltage Forward current

(V) (mA)
1 0.0
2 0.1
3 0.2
4 0.3
5 0.4
6 0.5
7 0.6
8 0.7

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PHYSICS (PHYS1001P) Laboratory Manual GITAM University

Reverse bias characteristics

Step 1. The connections as shown in Figure 2(a) are built in. Ensure that the knob of the
potentiometer R2 is at its minimum position.
Step 2. Put the power switch to ON position.
Step 3. Ensure that the voltage is 0 V.
Step 4. Increase the voltage in small steps of 2.5V to a maximum of 25V and note down the
corresponding current in Table 2.
Step 5. Plot a graph between voltage and current as shown in Figure 2(b).

(a) (b)
Figure 2: Circuit diagram for reverse-biased p-n junction

Table 2: Measurements of reverse bias characteristics

S. No. Reverse voltage Reverse current

(V) (µA)
1 0.0
2 2.5
3 5.0
.. 7.5
.. ..
.. ..
11 25.0

Result: The plotted V-I characteristics show that a diode offers low resistance when forward
biased and high resistance when reverse biased.

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PHYSICS (PHYS1001P) Laboratory Manual GITAM University

Date: ____________
Experiment No.: ___ SOLAR CELL
Serial No.: ____________

Aim: To plot the V-I characteristics of a solar cell.

Apparatus: Solar cell kit with a built in circuit, Solar cell, light source, connecting wires

Theory: Solar cell is a P-N junction diode that is used for converting radiation energy into
electrical energy. A built-in voltage exists across a P-N junction, but this voltage cannot deliver
current in an external circuit. However, if light energy is incident on the junction, there will be
current in the circuit. This effect is called photovoltaic effect.

To understand the principle underlying the photovoltaic effect, let us consider that the junction
is illuminated by light energy from a light source. Under this condition, a large number of
electron-hole pairs are generated in the region on either side of the junction via absorption of
photons. As the field within the junction is from N-side to P-side, the excess minority carriers
thus generated diffuse to the junction where they are carried across and become majority
carriers – the holes generated on N-side move towards the P-side and the electrons generated
on P-side move towards the N-side. If the junction is now open-circuited, the excess majority
carriers charge will build on both sides of the junction (positive charge on P-side and negative
charge on N-side) tending to lower the built-in voltage from V0 to some value V0-V. This
change in built-in voltage appears as a measureable potential difference across the junction,
thus making the solar cell behave as a source of voltage. If the external circuit is closed, the
current will therefore flow. This current will continue so long as there is diffusion of excess
electrons from N-side and holes from P-side. This in turn means that the current will flow as
long as the semiconductor regions are illuminated. This is how the incident light sets up the
current flow in the external circuit.

Circuit diagram: The provided solar cell kit has a built in circuit as shown in the below figure:
Solar Cell

Load Resistance

Fig.1 Circuit diagram for studying V-I characteristics of solar cell

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PHYSICS (PHYS1001P) Laboratory Manual GITAM University

Procedure:

Step 1. Keep the solar cell in sunlight for 15 to 20 minutes so that it gets activated.
Step 2. Check the built in circuit as assembled on the board and complete the remaining circuit
connections as shown in Fig. 1.
Step 3. Place the light source at a distance of 10 cm from the solar cell.
Step 4. Switch on the instrument using ON/OFF toggle switch provided on the front panel.
Step 5. Find the open circuit voltage VOC by disconnecting the load resistance RL from the
circuit. (This can be done by opening the connecting wire joining the milli-ammeter to
the load.)
Step 6. Reconnect the wire joining the milli-ammeter to the load and then set the load selector
switch at S.C. position and note the reading in the ammeter under short circuit condition.
This maximum current is called short circuit current ISC. In case the pointer in the
ammeter goes out of scale then decrease the light intensity.
Step 7. Now introduce the load resistance in the circuit (start from a low value of R L) and note
down the current and voltage readings from the corresponding meters.
Step 8. Repeat the same with different values of load resistances.
Step 9. Plot a graph between V and I as shown in the model graph.
Step 10. Repeat the experiment (Steps 3-9) for different intensities of light. This can be done
by placing the light source at different distances.

Precautions:
1. See that the light from the source falls vertically on the solar cell.
2. In order to prevent the solar cell from permanent damage, it should not be short circuited
for longer duration while taking down the reading ISC. Load selector switch should not be
set to S.C. position when the instrument is not in use.

Table 1. Measurements to study the V-I characteristics of a solar cell at different

distances
S.No. Load D = ___ cm D = ___ cm D = ___ cm
Resistance VOC = ___ mV VOC = ___ mV VOC = ___ mV
RL () ISC = ___ mA ISC = ___ mA ISC = ___ mA
Current Voltage Current Voltage Current Voltage
I (mA) V (mV) I (mA) V (mV) I (mA) V (mV)
1. 10
2. 22
3. 33
4. 47
5. 82
6. 100
7. 150
8. 220
9. 1000
D is the distance between light source and solar cell
VOC is the open circuit voltage, i.e., when RL is 
ISC is the short circuit current, i.e., when RL is 0

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PHYSICS (PHYS1001P) Laboratory Manual GITAM University

Model Graph

ISC

high

Current I (mA)
medium

low

Voltage V (mV) VOC

Result: The V-I characteristics of the given solar cell for different intensities of incident light
are as depicted in the graph.

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PHYSICS (PHYS1001P) Laboratory Manual GITAM University

Date: ____________
Experiment No.: ___ PHOTODIODE
Serial No.: ____________

Aim: To study the characteristics of a photodiode.

Apparatus: Photodiode kit with a built-in circuit, light source, connecting wires

Theory: A photodiode is a P-N junction diode which is reverse biased in normal operation and
whose junction is exposed to the radiant energy source through a window in its encapsulation.
Both germanium and silicon have been used in photodiodes, but germanium has largely been
supplanted with silicon since the former material has a higher value of ‘dark current’. This is
the leakage current that flows when the incident radiation is zero. The dark current associated
with a germanium device may be as high as 10 mA and for silicon device it may be as low as
20 nA.

An increase in illumination results in an increase in the number of electron hole pairs generated
in the semiconductor and the minority charge carriers which are generated close to the junction
are swept across it. The carriers that cross the junction in this way constitute flow of ‘photo
current’ through the diode. When illuminated, the diode current under reverse biased condition
becomes leakage current + photo current. The characteristics are as shown in the model graph.

Circuit diagram: The provided photo diode kit has a built in circuit as shown in the below
figure:

Fig.1 Circuit diagram for studying photodiode characteristics

Procedure:

Step 1. Check the built in circuit as assembled on the board and connect the remaining
components using connecting wires.
Step 2. Place the light source in front of the photo diode.
Step 3. Switch on the instrument using ON/OFF toggle switch provided on the front panel.

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PHYSICS (PHYS1001P) Laboratory Manual GITAM University

Step 4. Increase the voltage to 10 V. Then adjust the light intensity of the light source such that
at 10 V, milli-ammeter reading is around 2.5 mA. This intensity is noted as “High
Intensity”. Bring back the voltmeter reading to zero.
Step 5. Increase the voltage from 0 V to a maximum of 10 V in steps of 1 V and note down
the corresponding values of diode current in Table 1 under “High Intensity” column.
Step 6. Now reduce the light intensity falling on the photo diode such that at 10 V, milli
ammeter reading is around 1.5 mA. This intensity is noted as “Medium Intensity”.
Bring back the voltmeter reading to zero.
Step 7. Repeat Step 5 for “Medium Intensity”.
Step 8. Now reduce the light intensity falling on the photo diode further such that at 10 V,
milli-ammeter reading is around 1 mA. This intensity is noted as “Low Intensity”.
Bring back the voltmeter reading to zero.
Step 9. Repeat Step 5 for “Low Intensity”.
Step 10. Plot a graph between reverse voltage and reverse current, as shown in model graph.

Table 1. Measurements to study the characteristics of a photo diode at different

intensities

S.No. Voltage, V Diode current, I (mA)

(V) High Intensity Medium Intensity Low Intensity
1. 0
2. 1
3. 2
4. 3
5. 4
6. 5
7. 6
8. 7
9. 8
10. 9
11. 10

Model Graph

Voltage V (V)
Current I (mA)

low intensity
medium intensity Increasing
illumination
high intensity

Result: The characteristics of the given photo diode for different intensities of incident light
are as depicted in the graph. The plotted V-I characteristics show that with increasing
illumination the diode current increases.

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PHYSICS (PHYS1001P) Laboratory Manual GITAM University

Date: ____________
Experiment No.: ___ BAND GAP
Serial No.: ____________

Aim: To determine energy band gap of a semiconductor using a junction diode.

Apparatus: OMEGA TYPE Experimental training board–58, Thermometer (0-110 0C)

The board consists of the following built–in parts:

1. 3V D.C. at 15 mA , regulated Power Supply.
2. D.C. microammeter, 65 mm rectangular dial to read 0-50 mA.
3. Semiconductor diode.
4. Oven, electrical heated to heat the semiconductor diode.
5. Main ON/OFF switch, Fuse and Jewel light.

Theory: A semiconductor doped or undoped always possesses an energy gap between its
conduction and valence bands. For conduction of electricity a certain amount of energy is to
be given to the electron, so that it goes from the valence band to the conduction band. This
energy so needed is the measure of the energy gap Eg between the two bands.

P N

- +

Figure 1: Reverse biasing of a PN junction diode

When a p-n junction is reverse biased as shown in Figure 1, the current through the
junction is due to minority carriers i.e., due to electrons in P section and holes in N section. The
concentration of these carriers is dependent upon the energy gap E g. The reverse saturation
current IS is a function of the junction diode temperature, and varies according to the following
relation

  eEg 
IS = I S(max) exp  
  2kT 

where

IS(max) = Maximum value of reverse saturation current in µA

k = Boltzmann’s constant (1.38 x 10-23 J/K)
e = charge of an electron (1.6 x 10-19 C)
Eg = Energy band gap in eV
T = Absolute temperature of the junction in K

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PHYSICS (PHYS1001P) Laboratory Manual GITAM University

e Eg
ln (IS / IS(max)) = -
2kT
(1.6 x 10 19 ) E g
ln (IS / IS(max)) = -
2 (1.38 x 10  23 ) T
 103 
ln (IS / IS(max)) = - 5.797   Eg
 T 
 ln[Is / Is(max)]
Eg    3

 5.797{10 / T } 

Thermometer

PN junction diode

Figure 2: Practical circuit diagram

Procedure:
1. Plug the mains lead to the nearest mains socket carrying 230V  10% at 50 Hz A.C.
2. Insert the thermometer and the diode in the holes of the oven (The holes near the meter is
for diode OA-79 ).
3. Plug the two leads to the diode in the socket, red plug in red socket and black plug in black
socket.
4. No other connections are necessary as rest of the wiring is built in.
5. Now put the power ON/OFF Switch to ‘ON’ position and see that the jewel light is glowing.
6. Put the ‘OVEN’ switch to ‘ON’ position and allow the oven temperature to increase up to
850C.

Note: As soon as the temperature reaches 850C switch off the oven enabling the
temperature to rise further and then become stable around 900C.

7. When the temperature becomes stable at around 900C, start taking readings of current and
temperature. The current reading should be noted for every 100C drop in temperature. The
readings should be taken till the thermometer reading drops to 40 0 C.

8. Tabulate your readings in the form shown in Table 1.

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Table 1: Measurements for temperature and reverse saturation current

S.No. Temperature Temperature 103 / T Reverse Saturation ln (IS / IS(max))
0 -1
in C T in K (K ) Current IS
in µA

1. 90 = IS (maximum I)
2. 80
3. 70
4. 60
5. 50
6. 40

9. Plot a graph between the readings of 103 /T on positive x–axis and ln (IS/IS(max)) on negative
y–axis.

10. After determining the slope of the line calculate the band gap as follows:-

 y 2  y1 
 
Slope of the line  x 2  x1 
Eg    .  ...... eV
5.797 5.797

Model Graph

0.0 2.75 2.80 2.85 2.90 2.95 3.00 103/T ((K-1)

0.5 x1 x2

1.0 y1

1.5

2.0 y2

2.5

ln(IS/IS(max))

Precautions :

1) The maximum temperature should not exceed 950 C.

2) Bulb of the thermometer and the diode should be inserted well in the oven.

3) Silicon diodes should not be used with the set up as in that case the temperature needed
is 1250 C, and the oven thermometer provided will not stand to this temperature.

Result: The band gap of the semiconductor is _____________________.

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PHYSICS (PHYS1001P) Laboratory Manual GITAM University

Date: ____________
Experiment No.: ___ OPTICAL FIBER
Serial No.: ____________

Aim: To determine the bending loss and numerical aperture for the given optical fiber.

Apparatus: Optical bench, power source, laser source, optical fiber cable, photo cell, digital
multimeter, screen, graph paper, a binder clip.

Formulae
Bending loss = −10log (𝐼 /𝐼 ) in dB

where 𝐼 is the intensity of light at the exit end with n bends in the fiber
𝐼 is the intensity of light at the exit end with no bends in the fiber

Numerical aperture
𝐷
𝑁𝐴 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 =
√𝐷 + 4𝐿
where D = average diameter of the spot on the screen (cm)
L = distance from the output end of the optical fiber to the screen. (cm)
𝜃 = acceptance angle for the optical fiber (degrees)

Part I: Measuring bending loss

Procedure: The schematic diagram for measuring the bending loss is shown below and is self
explanatory.

Figure 1: Set-up for measuring bending loss

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 PHYSICS (PHYS1001P) Laboratory Manual GITAM University

Step 1. Set the digital multimeter to read from a scale of 2000 mV(DC) and connect it to the
photo cell. Align the laser source with the photo cell using the adjustment screws on the
mounts of the laser and photo cell. Adjust till the multimeter shows a maximum value.
(Note: This experiment should be performed in a completely dark room. Any ambient
light can affect the readings.)
Step 2. Mount the optical fiber between the laser source and photo cell. One end of the fiber
should be placed as close as possible to the laser source. The distance of other end
(which is nearer to the photo cell) from the photo cell has to be kept fixed. Ensure that
the fiber does not have a circular bend. The reading of the multimeter is proportional to
the intensity without any bending loss. Let this intensity be I0.
Step 3. Make a circular bend in the optical fiber. The distance from the fiber end to the photo
cell is to be kept the same as in Step 2. The reading of the multimeter is proportional to
the reduced intensity due to the bend in the fiber. Let this intensity be I1.
Step 4. Make another circular bend in the optical fiber. Repeat the measurement as in Step 3.
Let this intensity be I2. Repeat this step for three bends in the fiber. Note the observations
and calculate the losses as shown in Table 2.

Table 1 Measurements of initial setup

Distance between the laser source and photo cell
Multimeter reading for direct incidence on the photo cell
Multimeter reading after propagation through the fiber (no bends) V0

Table 2 Measurement of bending loss

No. of Multimeter reading Vn Bending loss = −𝟐𝟎𝐥𝐨𝐠 (𝐕𝐧 /𝐕𝟎 )
Bends (n) (mV) (dB)
1
2
3

Part II: Measuring the numerical aperture

Figure 2a: Set-up for measuring numerical aperture

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Figure 2b: Parameters for numerical aperture measurement

Step 1. In the previous setup, replace the photocell with the screen. Clip a graph sheet to the
screen. Light from the exit end of the optical fiber will illuminate a circular region on
the graph sheet.
Step 2. Place the mounts of the white screen and the output end of the optical fiber at a distance
L from each other. Mark the periphery of the illuminated portion on the graph sheet.
Measure the diameter of the illuminated portion along the horizontal (D1) and along the
vertical (D2). The average diameter is calculated from the readings 𝐷 = (𝐷 + 𝐷 )/2.
Step 3. Repeat Step 2 for two more values of L.

Table 3: Measurement of numerical aperture

Sl. No. L D1 D2 D NA θa
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (degrees)
1
2
3

Average value of numerical aperture = ________________________

Result
The measurements recorded in Table 2 show that the loss increases with an increase in the
number of bends.
The numerical aperture of the given optical fiber is _____________________.

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PHYSICS (PHYS1001P) Laboratory Manual GITAM University

Date: ____________
Experiment No.: ___ LCR Circuit
Serial No.: ____________

Aim: To find the resonance frequency and Quality factor of LCR series resonant circuit.

Apparatus: The instrument comprises of the following built-in parts:

1. Three resistors, three capacitors and one inductor are placed inside the cabinet with
connections brought out on sockets / terminals.
2. Two meters to measure voltage and current are mounted on the front panel with
connections brought out on sockets / terminals.

Additionally inter connectable patch cords are provided for inter connections

Theory: If the value of the frequency of applied signal is so adjusted that the impedance of the
circuit becomes minimum, the current flowing through the circuit is maximum. This particular
frequency at which the impedance of the circuit becomes minimum and therefore the current
becomes maximum is called the Resonance Frequency.

Formule: (i)

where fo is the resonance frequency (Hz)

L is the inductance (H)
C is the capacitance (F)

(ii)

where Q is the Quality factor

R is the resistance ()
fo is the resonance frequency
L is the inductance (H)
Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 1.

2. Connect Resistance R1, Capacitor C1 and inductance in the circuit.
3. Connect Audio Frequency Function Generator across input of the circuit as shown in
Figure 1.
4. Switch ON the Function Generator using ON/OFF switch.
5. Set the output of Function Generator to sine wave signal of approximately 2 V AC r.m.s.
and set the frequency at 100Hz.
6. Increase the frequency in small steps and every time note down the observations in Table 1.
7. At a particular frequency current starts decreasing. The frequency at which current starts
decreasing is the Resonance Frequency.

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PHYSICS (PHYS1001P) Laboratory Manual GITAM University

Figure 1: LCR Series Resonance

Table 1: Measurements for LCR series resonance

S. No. Frequency (Hz) Current (mA)

8. Plot a graph between frequency and current by taking frequency along X axis and current
along Y axis as shown in model graph 1.

Model Graph 1

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PHYSICS (PHYS1001P) Laboratory Manual GITAM University

9. From the graph determine the resonance frequency fr and compare this value with the value
obtained using the formula (theoretical value fo).
10. From the graph determine the bandwidth BW = f2 -f1 and then compute the Quality
factor using the expression Q = = . Compare this value with the theoretical
value.

Result: For the studied LCR series resonant circuit the resonance frequency is determined as
______ Hz and the Quality factor is ________.

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PHYSICS (PHYS1001P) Laboratory Manual GITAM University

Date: ____________
Experiment No.: ___ BH CURVE
Serial No.: ____________

Aim: To trace the hysteresis curve (BH curve) for a ferromagnetic material using a CRO.

Apparatus: Assembled circuit board connections and a CRO.

Theory: A bar of a ferromagnetic material placed in a magnetic field whose field strength can
be changed exhibits hysteresis. The magnetization of the material increases non-linearly with
increasing magnetic field till it reaches saturation. The saturation occurs as nearly all the
magnetic dipoles arrange themselves along the applied magnetic field. A typical hysteresis loop
is shown in Fig. 1.

Figure 1: Hysteresis loop

The magnetic induction of a ferromagnetic material is plotted as a function of the applied

magnetic field strength. The material is subjected to an alternating magnetic field. We begin
with an unmagnetized piece of ferromagnetic material and describe what happens to it when
taken through a cycle of this alternating field.

The magnetization (that is, the magnetic dipole moment per unit volume) and hence the
magnetic induction increases nonlinearly with the applied magnetic field. The magnetic dipoles
orient themselves along the applied field during the process. The point O represents an
unmagnetized piece of ferromagnetic material on the B-H curve. The rise in magnetic induction
is less at higher magnetic field strengths since most of the dipoles would have oriented
themselves along the applied field. With all the magnetic dipoles oriented along the applied
field, the magnetization and therefore the magnetic induction reaches a state of saturation (see
point A on the graph). When the magnetic field strength is decreased, the decrease in
magnetization is less rapid and follows a path AD. OD represents the retentivity or remanance,
that is, residual magnetization in the material when the externally applied magnetic field is
withdrawn. If the magnetic field is now reversed and its strength slowly increased, the
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PHYSICS (PHYS1001P) Laboratory Manual GITAM University

magnetization in the material is lost at the point E on the graph. OE is known as coercivity, that
is, the magnetic field strength required to destroy any residual magnetism. Increasing the field
strength further leads to saturation at F. Decreasing the magnetic field strength brings the
material to G on the B-H curve. OG is the retentivity and equals OD. Reversing the magnetic
field takes the material along GIA where it reaches saturation at A. Taking the ferromagnetic
material through the next cycle of an alternating field retraces the curve ADEFGIA. This closed
curve is called the hysteresis loop or the B-H curve.

Hysteresis curves are not only characteristic for the material, the area enclosed by the loop
represents the energy lost in taking the ferromagnetic material through a cycle of an alternating
magnetic field. This is of great practical importance in choosing magnetic materials for a
purpose,

Procedure: The circuit is assembled on board as shown in Fig. 2 and all the connections are
built in.

Figure 2: Circuit board for the B-H curve apparatus

Step 1: Points A and B are connected to X-plates of the cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO)
shown in Fig. 3. Points C and D are connected to Y-plates.
Step 2: Power supply to the board is switched on.
Step 3: The X and Y amplifiers of the CRO are adjusted to get the pattern within the screen.
The pattern obtained should be like Fig. 4d. It is usually difficult to obtain these
patterns. Below we list the procedure to be followed if the obtained patterns are any
of Figs. 4a, 4b or 4c.
i. If the pattern is like Fig. 4a, reverse the main lead connections from the supply
board.
ii. If the pattern is like Fig. 4b, the VR2 potentiometer is adjusted in such a way that
the flatness of loops at the tips of the pattern are removed.
iii. If the pattern is like Fig. 4c, the VR1 potentiometer is adjusted so that the magnetic
saturation becomes parallel to the H-axis.
Step 4: Note that a pattern like in Fig. 4d can be obtained by keeping the X-amplifier at 0.1V
and Y-amplifier at 0.5V.
Step 5: Having obtained the hysteresis loop, it is traced out on a tracing paper.

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PHYSICS (PHYS1001P) Laboratory Manual GITAM University

Figure 3: The CRO used for the B-H curve tracing experiment

Figure 4: Possible patterns that are seen on the CRO

Results: The hysteresis loop for the given ferromagnetic material has been traced for the X-
amplifier at ------ V and Y-amplifier at -------V.

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