This softcopy has provided Area Of Concentration ( AOC ) for test and examination and also

some acronyms to always remember what has been read, provided you can learn them by
heart and also with the aid of each course textbook , I guarantee you success in every exam
pertaining to these courses below you are gonna sit for as a Laspotech SPST-R first semester
ND1 computer science student, here are the important courses :
 Computer Programming
 Logic & Algebra
 Statistics 1

COURSE: COMPUTER PROGRAMMING

Definition of computer program : Program can be defined as a simple logical and coded set of instructions
written and compiled in a specific programming language given to a computer to perform a task while the
process is called computer programming.

Steps to take in getting a problem solved as a programmer are as follows:

 Problem definition, there is a need to understand the problem and know both the input and output
parameters
 Setting up of Algorithm, write out each step of computation to arrive at solution
 Prepare a flowchart that will correspond with the algorithm.
 Develop a computer program
 Run and test the program

Features of Good Program (PERFUM DIISC)

Portability: this refers to the ability of an application to run on a different platform with or without minimal
changes
Efficiency: this is the degree with which a software fulfil its purpose without wasting the resources of the system
Reliability: this is the frequency and criticality of software failure, this is the ability of a software to withstand
failure
Flexibility: this is the ability of a program to handle most changes without having to rewrite the entire program
Usability: the amount of effort or time to learn how to use the software should be less
Maintainability
Documentation
Integrity: a software may have side effect which may affect the workings of another application but a quality
software should not have side effects
Interoperability: this is the ability of a software to exchange information with other applications and to make
use of the information transparently
Security and Safety
Correctness
ALGORITHM
An algorithm is a recipe or step-by-step procedures, which must be followed to getting a problem or task solved
while the language used in writing an algorithm is known as PSEUDOCODE

Features of an Algorithm ( DIFOE )

 Finiteness: each step of an algorithm must be terminated after a series of definite steps
 Definiteness: each step of an algorithm must be precised and it must not be ambiguous
 Input : an algorithm must have an input
 Output: an algorithm must generate an output i.e it must produce a result
 Effectiveness : the operation to be performed in an algorithm must be basic

FLOWCHART
This is the diagrammatical representation of an algorithm using the standard symbols

Standard symbols used for flowchart

This is called a terminal used to start and end a flowchart

This is used to input and output processed data

This is used for processing

This is called a connector used to connect brakes in flowchart

This is used to make binary decision

This is used to show direction of operation

System Development Life Cycle
System Development Life Cycle is a conceptual model used in programming which is used to describe the stages
involved in an information system Development from an initial feasibility study through the maintenance of the
completed application.

SDLC STAGES (IAD-DIM)

System Investigation : this is the preliminary investigation which is the first step to be carried out in system
Development project , the techniques include interview, studying of the current system documentation ,
question are , observation of the system in operation , review of the previous studies and surveys.
System Analysis : this is a vital phases that determines what a business’s needs are as well as how they can be
met and who are those that will be responsible for individual pieces of the project and what sort of timeline
should be expected.
System Design: this entails the necessary specifications, features and program that will satisfy the functional
requirement of the system to be put in place.
System Development: this is the phase where work begins, where the programmer, network Engineer and
database developer are called to do their works on the project.
System Implementation: this is where majority of the codes are written and when the newly developed system
is installed
Maintenance and Evaluation: this involves the maintenance and regular required update

DATA FLOW DIAGRAM

Data Flow diagram is a graphical representation of flow of data through an information system. It can be used
for the visualization of data processing and it makes use of defined symbols like rectangles, circles, arrows and
short text labels.

COMPONENT OF DATA FLOW DIAGRAM

External Entity: External system sends and receives data, communicating with the system being diagrammed
Processes: any processing that changes data, producing an output
Data Store: This is where information is stored
Data Flow: this is the routes between external Entity, processes and data Store

Data Flow diagram can be categorized into two: logical data Flow diagram
Physical data flow diagram

LOGICAL DFD: this visualizes the data flow that is essential for a business to operate, it focuses on the business
and the information needed
PHYSICAL DFD: it shows how the system is actually implemented or how it will be.
DECISION TABLE
This is a tabular form that presents a set of conditions and their corresponding actions . The purpose of decision
table is to provide information concerning a problem and solution in concise format that is easy to read and
understand
Decision table is divided into four (4) zones : Zone 1 contains the condition of the statements
Zone 2 contains action statement
Zone 3 contains the rules
Zone 4 contains the result of the action to be taken
Different stubs on a decision table
 Condition stubs: describe the condition that will affect the decision or policy
 Action stubs: describe in form of statement the possible policy actions or decision
 Rules: describe which actions are to be taken under specific combination
 Result.

DEBUGGING
This is the identification and removal of localized implementation of bugs or errors in a program or system while
BUGS are errors in coding or logic that make the computer to malfunction or to produce incorrect result

SOURCES OF BUGS IN A PROGRAM - (CUFS)

 Calling the wrong function
 Using the wrong variable names in the wrong places
 Failing to initialize a variable
 Skipping a check for an error return

PREVENTION OF BUGS – (4G WUL)

 Good commenting
 Good variable naming
 Good code formatting
 Good error checking
 Writing in a human language
 Using magical numbers
 Lab notes

DEBUGGING TECHNIQUES – (RIIDA)

 Recognize that a bug exist
 Isolate the source of the bug
 Identify the cause of the bug
 Determine a fix for the bug
 Apply the fix and test it
DEFINITION OF SYNTAX
Syntax of a program is the rules defining the legal sequences of symbolic elements in a particular language

TYPES OF PROGRAMMING ERROR

 Syntax error: this is an error caused by a programmer as a result of not using the correct grammatical
rules of the language
 Semantic error: this is an error caused as a result of not initializing a variable properly in a code
 Run-time error: this is an error that occurs when the user directs the computer to perform an illegal
operation
 Logic error: this is an error that occurs as a result of mistake in the design of a class or method or the
implementation of an algorithm

PROGRAM MAINTENANCE
This is the modification of a software product after delivery to correct faults, to improve performance or other
attributes.

CATEGORIES OF PROGRAM MAINTENANCE – (PAP)

 Preventive maintenance: modification of a software product after delivery to detect and correct latent
fault in the software product before it becomes effective faults
 Adaptive maintenance: modification of a software product performed after delivery to keep the
software product usable in a changing environment
 Perfective maintenance: modification of a software product after delivery to improve performance or
maintainability

COURSE: LOGIC & LINEAR ALGEBRA

LOGIC
It is a science of reasoning or the ability to think clearly, consistently, coherently and systematically. It is a skill
needed to construct sound argument of one’s own and to evaluate the argument of others.

Classification of Logic - (FM SITE)

 F- Formal logic
 M- Modern mathematical logic
 S- Symbolic logic
 I- inductive logic
 T-Traditional logic
 E- Electronic circuitry logic
 Other ones are: Prepositional logic, syllogistic logic, deductive logic and modal logic .
Importance of Logic
It helps to SPICE
 S- sharpens individual critical awareness
 P- predict with precision
 I- identify and eliminate fallacies
 C- clarify and evaluate our languages and thought
 E-evaluate the argument of others
PREPOSITION
This is a statement that is either true or false but cannot be both true and false

TAUTOLOGY
A compound preposition whose truth value is always T, no matter the initial truth value of its component

CONTRADICTION
A compound preposition whose truth value is always F, no matter the initial truth value of its component

FALLACY
A compound preposition whose truth value is either true (T) or false (F) .

Law of Thought
 Law of Identity: believes that everything is exactly what is supposed to be , a boy is a boy and a chair is
chair
 Law of Contradiction : believes that whatever is declared to be cannot at the same time declared not to
be
 Law of excluded middle: states that a thing is either is or is not .

TRUTH VALUE TABLE

A truth value table is an arrangement of truth value of a simple or compound proposition that depends on the
truth values of its simper components.

LAWS OF TRUTH TABLE

AND (⋀) — it is True when A AND B are true i.e it can only be T if “A” is true and “B” is also true
OR (∨) — it is True when A OR B is true. i.e it can only be T if any of the two (A or B) is true.
IMPLIES ( ) — it is True if where the arrow is pointing to is T and it is also True if they are both F or T
EQUIVALENT (=) — it is True if they are both T or if they are both F
IF AND ONLY IF ( )— it is True if they are both T or if they are both F

NB: Those things with their symbols mentioned above under laws of truth table are called CONNECTIVES, just
like as we have “and” & “or” as conjunction in English Language , so the mathematical equivalence of these
conjunctions are known as CONNECTIVES.

NB: Learn the above laws of truth table by heart, it is very important and also take note of the following topics
 Mathematical induction
 Binomial theorem and series
 Matrix
If you have any problem on those topics, contact my number or whatsapp me (08093379386)
 COURSE: DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
Definition of statistics: Statistics is defined as a science that deals with the techniques used in the Collection,
Organization, Presentation, Analysis, Interpretation and Utilization of numerical data to make inferences.
USE OF STATISTICS
To FEMID, i.e
 To Forecast/predict the future
 To Evaluate policy impact
 To Monitor policy implementation
 To Identify problems that need to be addressed
 To Design policy options and make choices

NATURE OF STATISTICS
Descriptive statistics: deals with the collection, tabulation and summarization of numerical data
Inductive statistics: deals with the tools or techniques used to analyze data to make estimate or draw
conclusion from the data
Decision making: is concerned with taking good decisions on certain action in the form of selecting one or
more alternative courses

DATA COLLECTION
Data is a numerical facts or series of observations/measurements that can be quantified while data collection
is the process of counting or enumeration or measurement and systematic recording of result in a statistical
enquiry/investigation. The person who conducts the statistical enquiry is known as investigator while the
person from which the information is collected is called the respondent and the items which the
measurements are taken are referred to as statistical unit
NB: Variable is a characteristics of a population or sample which varies from one unit to another. The value of
a variable is known as observations

CLASSIFICATION OF DATA
Data is classified into two:
Numeric data – data that can be quantified or data that takes number values. It can either be discrete or
continuous. Discrete data are integers or whole numbers obtained by counting and represented by points
while continuous data are data not restricted to a specific values or data measured on a continuous scale.
Example: height, weight, volume, pressure etc
Non numeric data – are qualitative data that cannot be quantified, they do not take number values, examples
are sex, state of origin, nationality etc

PRIMARY DATA
Refers to firsthand information or data obtained from a particular study or investigation and used for the
purpose of collection . e.g autobiography, financial statement e.t.c

SECONDARY DATA
These are data published or data that already exist and used for different purposes
 TYPES OF DATA
Interval Data: are real numbers or are qualitative or numerical data, e.g are height, weight, temperature.
Nominal Data: are qualitative data . Examples are response to questions about marital status , gender ,
religion and e.t.c
Ordinal Data : appear to be nominal but their values are ordered or ranked
Ratio Data: same thing with interval data

DATA ORGANISATION
This is the presentation of data in a condensed form that will show the important characteristics of the data.
The stages of data organization are ;
 Classification: is the gathering together of data with similar characteristics
 Tabulation : is the systematic presentation of a well classified data into rows and columns in
accordance with some important features

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE

Always have this in mind that to plot the frequency distribution table, you need this acronym (CLIB), i.e:
C - class Centre ( it is represented by x )
L - class Limit
I - class Interval or size ( it is denoted by c )
B - class Boundaries

HISTOGRAM – used to establish mode

Always have it in mind that to plot histogram chart , you need this acronym (FB) , i.e ,
F – no of anything given (denoted by F)
B – class Boundaries

CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY CURVE – used to determine the median

Always have it in mind that to plot cumulative frequency curve , you need this acronym (B CF) , i.e ,
B – Boundaries
CF – Cumulative Frequency
 COURSE : TECHNICAL ENGLISH
Note taking: this is the act of writing out the main ideas of a topic during an oral presentation such as lectures
and sermon .
Note making: this is the act of writing out the main ideas of a topic from a larger text such as textbooks,
internet materials
Difference between note making and note taking
NOTE MAKING NOTE TAKING
It is expected to be error free It is error bound
It is timeless it is time bound
It may do without abbreviation it uses abbreviation
It is done at the liberty of the maker It is done in hurry
It takes place after lecture It is done during lecture

IMPORTANCE OF NOTE TAKING AND NOTE MAKING

1. They help to summarize the main ideas of any given topic
2. They enhance learners active participation in teaching and learning process
3. They improve our sense of recall
4. They help to keep records
5. They improve learners understanding
6. They enhance learners focus
READING TECHNIQUES
SQ3R – Survey
Question
Read – thorough reading
Recall – to remember
Review – to start all over again

IDIOMS AND MEANING

IDIOMS MEANING
To be cocay To be arrogant
To be off color To be sick
To play to the gallery To look for cheap popularity
To be at large To run away
To be at sea To be confused
To cross the rubicon To reach a point when it is difficult to turn back
To put up a dutch courage Courage derived from alcohol
To be a troubleshooter To be a peacemaker
To fall through (opposite of breakthrough) To fail
To act up To malfunction
To do something willy-nilly To do something by force
To take information hook, line and sinker To accept information without complaint
To have a brave wave To have a sudden idea
To have a bee in the bonnet To have very fantastic idea
To be a rough diamond To be uneducated but be naturally wise
 FIGURES OF SPEECH – ( POPE HIS PSLM )
Personification: to give the quality of a person to a non-human. E.g: my shirt is now crying for help
Oxymoron : this is a combination of two opposite ideas in one sentence . E.g: he is a holy criminal
Paradox: presents a statement which appears to make no sense on the surface but which contains a lot of
hidden meaning .E.g: there is water everywhere and everybody is thirsty
Euphenism: this is to present a serious or harsh reality in an unserious manner. E.g: she didn’t make it
Hyberbole: it is an overstatement or exaggeration. E.g: so hungry that I can finish a bag of rice
Irony: this is to present the opposite of what it is intended – it says yes when it means no
Synedoche: it is using the part of an idea to represent whole. E.g: heads are suffering in this country
Pun: is a play on words. E.g: she sells sea shells at the sea shore
Simile: this is an indirect comparison of two different people or things using as or like. E.g: Bimbo is as black as
charcoal
Litotes: this is the opposite of hyberbole and so it is an understatement. E.g: I am not unfaithful to you
Methaphor: it is the opposite of simile and so it compares directly using is. E.g: Our rector is an electric pole