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42 Main Features
34 pre-owned PV
Zeke Yewdall & Orion
Thornton
If you’re considering buying
a home or property with an
existing PV system, here’s what
to check before you make an
offer.
42 platinum PV
Kelly Davidson
A Colorado home incorporates
passive solar design, energy-
efficiency measures, and a PV
system to meet its energy needs
and earn a LEED Platinum
On the Web certification.
Photos, clockwise from upper left: Kelly Davidson, Harry Martin, Courtesy William Sikora, Chuck Marken, Orion Thornton, Jeff Tobe
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On the Cover 54 site evaluation
Jeff Tobe
subscription offers, promotional discounts, A 7.02 kW grid-tied PV system with
reader comments, editors’ notes, and battery backup was designed to provide Taking the right steps to
much more: facebook.com/homepower all of the electricity for Kitty Brigham’s complete a thorough solar site
ultramodern home in Longmont,
survey can save you installation
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Photo: Topher Donahue
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34
4 home power 158 • december 2013 & january 2014
december 2013 & january 2014
contents
Up Front More Features
6 from the crew 62 wind matters
Home Power crew Mick Sagrillo
Tower height to
Energy lessons What matters when it comes to hub includes
30 ft. rule, plus
siting and designing a reliable blade length
91 advertisers
index
92 back page
basics
Kelly Davidson
Window shopping
80
from offices in Phoenix, OR 97535. Periodicals postage
paid at Ashland, OR, and at additional mailing
offices. POSTMASTER: Send address corrections to
Home Power, PO Box 520, Ashland, OR 97520.
homepower.com 5
from the crew first words
back to his room to see which fixtures were the biggest energy
users. As he switched one light on, he called out to me so I
could report TED’s reading. He did this for all four bedroom
lights, hypothesizing that the little fan light was drawing the
most power (it was), but wondering why the closet light, Seeing was believing—and baby sister will also be learning
drawing the least amount of power, was the brightest (it’s a by watching what her big brother does.
tube fluorescent, unshielded). Yesterday, after he left for school, I opened his bedroom
These energy experiments were far more powerful in door and braced myself for the expected blaze of lights in his
convincing him than any conversation we could have had. room. Not a single bulb was burning.
—Claire Anderson, for the Home Power crew
Made in USA
Using the right mount for the job can make the difference between a happy customer and a
callback. Quick Mount PV, the leading supplier of solar roof mounting products, has mounts
for composition/asphalt shingle roofs to cover your every need.
AC Coupled
Managing Editor Claire Anderson
Art Director Ben Root
homepower.com
facebook.com/homepower twitter.com/homepowermag
Advertising
Submissions
warranty that For inquiries and information related to editorial
For inquiries and information related to advertising
in Home Power or on homepower.com:
submissions, write to us at:
covers the inverter submissions@homepower.com
Western States:
connie.said@homepower.com
homepower.com/writing 541-326-5773
and all Magnum Eastern States:
Website kim.bowker@homepower.com
accessories. homepower.com 541-858-1791
©2013–2014 Home Power Inc. All rights reserved. Contents may not be reprinted or otherwise reproduced without written permission.
While Home Power magazine strives to publish only safe and accurate content, we assume no responsibility or liability for the use of
this information.
www.magnumenergy.com Interior paper is made from 85%–100% recycled material, including 20%–30% postconsumer waste.
ACLD works with the Magnum Parallel stack up to four ACLDs No backfeeding - the grid-tie inverter
MS-PAE Series. One ACLD required UL1741 and CSA approved can remain connected (connected to
for each MS-PAE Inverter the loads, but not the grid)
Works with most string ad micro
Diverts up to 4000 Watts per unit grid-tie inverters
N
umber-nerds will rejoice in the graphs and data- 15,100 MJ per functional unit. The energy used to manufacture
crunching of an August 2012 U.S. Department of can be from four (CFs) to eight (LEDs) times as much as an
Energy (DOE) study—Life-Cycle Assessment of Energy incandescent.
and Environmental Impacts of LED Lighting Products—which By 2015, if LED lamps meet performance targets, their
assessed the results of 10 other studies and compared the life-cycle energy use is expected to decrease by approximately
total life-cycle impacts of LED, CF, and incandescent lamps. 50%, which will give them a big efficiency gain over both
The results weren’t surprising—spoiler alert! LEDs came out CF and incandescent lamps. Improvements to current
overall life-cycle energy impacts of these products
manufacturing methodsare notand
considered in this report
procedures are due to lack of
expected to
on top—but the slim margin between the top two efficiency
available manufacturing energy data. However, halogen lamp use-phase energy consumption
contenders was. reduce the manufacturing energy use, but the biggest gain
estimates are provided for comparison to other technologies.
The three-part study looked at the energy required for lamp will likely be due to an increase in LED lamp efficiency,
use, manufacturing, transport, and disposal.Figure
SinceES.1
the lumen resulting
indicates that the averagein fewer watts
life-cycle energyrequired
consumption to provide the same
of LED lamps amount
and CFLs
output and lifetime for each lamp type are notareequivalent,
similar, at approximately
the of lumens.
3,900 MJ per 20 million lumen-hours. This is about one quarter of
study measured each lamp’s energy use with the incandescent
a “functional lamp energy consumption
By 2030, the—DOE 15,100forecasts
MJ per functional
that LEDunit. By 2015,
lighting willifrepresent
LED
lamps meet their
unit” of 20 million lumen-hours—the estimated service life of performance 74% targets,
of their
lumen-hour life-cycle
sales energy
in the is expected
U.S. generalto decrease
illumination by market.
approximately
a single 12.5 W LED lamp (60 W incandescent replacement) one half. In addition,
From 2010based
to on this
2030, analysis,
the the
cumulative “use” phase
energy of incandescent,
savings is estimated
over its lifetime. An incandescent or CFcompact lamp fluorescent
provides and LED to belamps is the
2,700 most energy intensive
terawatt-hours, whichphase, on accounting
at 2010 energy pricesfor and
less lighting service than the functional approximately 90 percent of total life-cycle energy. This is followed by the manufacturing
continued onand
page 12
unit value, so in order to make an transport phases, respectively with transport representing less than one percent of life-cycle
Life-Cycle Energy of Incandescent, CF & LED Lamps
apples-to-apples comparison, life-cycle energy for all lamp types.
energy estimates are multiplied by the
16,000
number of lamps needed to reach this
(Million BTU/20 Million Lumen-Hours)
14
Transport
equivalence. 14,000
Bulk Material Manufacturing
According to the analysis, the “use”
(MJ/20 Million Lumen-Hours)
Number of Lamps to Supply 20 Million Lumen-Hours a 2017 LED, for example, are predicted
to be about 50% lower than the 2012 LED
and 70% lower than the CF.
Incandescent Lamp Compact Fluorescent LED Lamp
(IND) Lamp (CFL)
A variety of LED, CF, and
60 Watt 15 Watt 12.5 Watt incandescent lamps—a total of 22
900 Lumens 900 Lumens 800 Lumens samples, representing 11 different
1,000 lifetime hours 8,500 lifetime hours 25,000 lifetime hours models—were tested to determine
~ 22 Incandescent lamps ~ 3 CFL lamps ~1 LED lamp whether any of 17 elements were present
Courtesy U.S. DOE
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Sunnovations’ Ohm
SWH Production Meter
The ohm is a familiar unit for measuring electrical resistance
It’s also a new solar heating monitor from solar water
heating manufacturer Sunnovations (ohm.sunnovations.
com). The Ohm is a production meter for residential use that
eliminates the need and costs of an inline flow meter. The
Ohm uses a resistance temperature device to measure the
tank temperature and calculate the gain for each day. The
Ohm requires Internet access at your home and uses a third-
party website to access monitoring data. The company has
published on its website the results of independent testing of
<This product is still not ready. There is not even 2 weeks the unit’s accuracy.
of data on the web site yet, and what is there says “No data is —Chuck Marken
Courtesy Sunnovations
Morningstar’s TriStar
TS-MPPT 600 V Charge Controller
Morningstar (morningstarcorp.com) has introduced its TS-
MPPT-600V charge controller for PV array open-circuit
voltage (Voc) of up to 600 VDC; a nominal battery voltage
of 48 VDC; and a 60-amp maximum output current. High-
voltage input can yield many advantages, such as smaller-
diameter (less expensive) wire for long wire runs between the
array and controller. Since more PV modules can be wired in
series before reaching 600 VDC, the controller can eliminate
parallel wire runs and a combiner box. Additionally, adding
battery backup to a typical high-voltage grid-tied system can
be accomplished without having to rewire the array. The
TS-MPPT-600V has four-stage charging (MPPT, absorption,
Courtesy Morningstar
SolarWorld.
US Solar.
Winning Combination.
homepower.com 15
returns giving back with renewables
Solar Car-Charging
in Colorado
I
n anticipation of an electric vehicle purchase, this PV and engineered, the structure was built with hand-notched
charging station was constructed in 2009. Due to a lag in beetle-kill Colorado pine from a local family’s forestry
availability, the all-electric Mitsubishi i-MiEV arrived in operation. The cobblestone-style driveway was constructed
2012. with remnants from the slab driveway removed to make
The home was already equipped with a 2.88 kW batteryless way for the project, as well as construction debris from a
grid-tied system on its detached garage, which offset more than neighboring property.
100% of the household’s annual electricity use. However, with Sanyo Double-HIT modules were chosen for the batteryless
increased usage anticipated for charging an electric vehicle, a grid-tied array, both for their aesthetic and production benefits.
suitable location was needed for an additional array. The semi-transparent cells allow some light to pass through,
The carport was designed to provide covered parking and gently illuminating the carport during the day. The underside
the EV charging station. Because the carport is visible from of the modules collect reflected sunlight, boosting the array’s
the street, its appearance was a priority. Custom-designed production by about 5%. This increased productivity would
help make up for increased afternoon
shading from a large conifer on the west
side of the property that reduces annual
production by about 9%.
The car-charging system generates
about 2,750 kWh per year—providing
enough energy for 11,170 miles of
driving. In the past 18 months, the
vehicle has logged about 16,800 miles—
and the electricity it uses for recharging
is well-matched with the PV system’s
generation capacity.
Utilized for day-to-day business
travel along Colorado’s Front Range,
the electric vehicle is equipped with a
16 kWh battery. Although a full charge
is rarely required, the carport’s level 2
charger (240 VAC) can provide a full
charge in about five hours; a level 1
charger (120 VAC) performs this task
in about 16 hours. The same port is
used for either type of charge. Most EV
owners have level 2 chargers at home,
and some public charging stations are
level 2 as well. However, with the
same port, the level 1 charge can be
delivered from any standard outlet, as
well as some charging stations, which
Courtesy Buglet Solar Electric
ONtility
To learn more, please contact us toll-free at 1.877.858.7479 or visit us at www.ontility.com
Solar Training · Solar Products · Solar Design · Solar Consulting · Solar Logistics · Solar Marketing
methods renewable energy tips & tricks
Align the bottom edge of the compass Rotate the dial to align the black needle Adjust for declination (8°E), and read the
with the roof’s edge. with the north arrow. value at the arrow (152°).
Jeff Tobe (3)
Visit nabcep.org
mailbox letters from readers
Solar Hot-Tub Controls In 2011, you published my letter about the right climate, will warm up slowly during
In HP157, Karim Wingedheart asked how to widespread use of electric bicycles and the day, when the outside temperature is
keep his solar-powered hot tub water at a tricycles in China. Minisplits are another warmer than the interior temperature, and
constant 103°F. We had this same challenge example of technology that has been used will then radiate that heat in both directions
with our open-loop, solar-heated, 550-gallon in developing countries for a long time, but (inside and outside) at night, when the
cedar hot tub. We live in Arizona, and which are now being discovered and used in outdoor temperature is cooler than you’d
without regulation of such a heating system, developed countries. want inside.
the water would often be too hot for comfort.
Robert Boardman • via email In short, high-mass walls provide a
To regulate water temperature, we temperature-moderating effect. For an
purchased a differential temperature Solar Sisters exterior high-mass wall to work well, this
controller from Art-Tec Solar. The controller Many thanks to Home Power for providing means that the average outside temperature
compares the temperature set point to the the space and to Justine Sanchez for over the course of the day be close to an
water temperature of the hot tub and the writing “Support Solar Sisters” in HP157. acceptable indoor temperature—i.e., your
temperature in the solar collector, turning I thought I was alone in feeling disgusted climate must have a fairly wide temperature
the circulation pump on only if the water by “booth babes” at recent solar trade swing. In some parts of the United States,
temperature in the collector is higher than shows. People told me that it’s even worse such as the desert Southwest, this is fairly
the tub water’s temperature, and the hot tub at European shows, but that sure does not common.
water is lower than the temperature setpoint. make me feel better. Justine highlighted But if you’re talking about the humid
The controller remains the brains of our how disheartening it is as the mother of Southeast (like Florida), I don’t think the
solar-heating system. Without it, we were a young girl, and I wholeheartedly agree! nighttime temperature gets cold enough in
faced with the same challenges as Karim. She also noted that she avoids these booth the summer for the average temperature
We hope this helps. areas when attending a conference; I would to be acceptable. Similarly, in many parts
add that I refuse to do business with those of northern United States, the average
Dominick McCutcheon • vendors. wintertime temperature is far too cold to be
San Tan Valley, Arizona
I have been a successful business owner and acceptable. Even in those regions, though,
NABCEP-certified installer for seven years. you could be clever and put a high-mass wall
Minisplits in China It continues to amaze me how surprised inside a well-insulated building envelope.
I read about ductless minisplit heat pumps in That way they work together to naturally
people are that I—a woman—choose to
HP157. I was both surprised and intrigued to keep the indoor temperature acceptable.
engage in intelligent technical conversation.
see this heating system mentioned in Home High-mass walls are valuable, but please
The solar industry has enough entrenched
Power. I have been to China twice in the last don’t try to make them be something that
ideas to deal with as we offer options to
two years. These units are in service in many they’re not.
replace fossil fuel and old ways of doing
thousands—probably millions—of homes in
things. Let’s work together as an industry Lloyd Brown via homepower.com
China. In 2011, I used a minisplit unit to keep
to shine when it comes to such gender
my hotel room cool in July. This year, I used
stereotypes and bias. Support solar sisters!
a minisplit to heat and cool the apartment I Amnesty for Solar Guerrilla
lived in for five months. The writer says these Rebecca Lundberg • via email In 1999, I was Solar Guerrilla #0006 (see
units can be installed on exterior walls. In HP73). A few months ago, I got a call from
China, they are installed on whatever wall Compressed Earth a representative of my electric utility (it’s a
the installer chooses. One can hope the unit I read Josh Denney’s letter about public utility district; PUD) telling me that
is powerful enough to distribute hot or cold compressed earth buildings in HP155 with the new smart meter installed at my house
air throughout the home no matter where in interest. I think he’s confusing the high last summer detected “reverse energy.”
the home it is placed, but this is not always R-value wall structures (what the original When they asked if I knew of a reason for
the case. article was talking about), with high thermal- this—and asked if I have solar panels—I
mass wall structures. While there are benefits saw no point in trying to hide (plus, the PVs
Retrofit minisplits on apartments to both, the high-R-value wall has a much are mounted out in the yard). I said, “Yes,
in China. wider applicability. A wall with high levels of but my charge controller was supposed to
insulation is able to resist the temperature prevent that from happening.”
difference between inside and outside. This
The caller, who turned out to be the energy
is valuable for a high-performance home
services manager, asked if he could see
in nearly all climates, and is really just an
the installation the next afternoon and drop
extension of the well-understood design of
off a net-metering application. I agreed,
a modern home.
expecting that he’d turn around and get
On the other hand, a high-mass wall back in his car when he found out that
(masonry, concrete, water, etc.) is it wasn’t a county-permitted, licensed-
completely different. It has very little electrician-installed, AHJ-inspected system.
insulation value, which means that it can’t During his visit, he asked about the system
Courtesy Robert Boardman
homepower.com 27
ask the experts renewable energy Q&A
Potential-Induced Degradation
Reduction of a Solar-Electric
Module’s Efficiency Over Time
Frame
Glass Encapsulant
N
P
Back
Antireflective contact
Migrating
coating Backsheet electrons
A complete solution.
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Automatic Generator Start Module backup systems. It can also be paired with an
System Control Panel existing grid-tie inverter.
©2013 Schneider Electric. All Rights Reserved. Schneider Electric and Conext are trademarks owned by Schneider Electric Industries SAS or its affiliated companies.
All other trademarks are property of their respective owners. • www.schneider-electric.com • 998-1189631_US_Nexus
ask the experts renewable energy Q&A
This release from Enphase will undoubtedly change the method As with all grounding issues, this is not a slam dunk. There are
for grounding its new inverters, but will not change overall module- varying opinions on this subject, so check with your authority having
grounding requirements. jurisdiction to make sure they agree with the manufacturer and your
installation plans.
An inverter and module must be factory-supplied and listed as an AC
module to qualify for that distinction. Attaching an Enphase M250 Ryan Mayfield • PV Systems Technical Editor, SolarPro magazine
microinverter to a PV module doesn’t qualify. Code still considers
this setup two distinct pieces of equipment—and your installation will
need to reflect that.
PV Array AC Mains
Panel
Equipment
Grounding
Conductor
(EGC) Neutral
Neutral Bar
Ground Bond
Ground Jumper
Bonding Point Ground
Rack
Bar
Ground Electrode
Conductor
Microinverters
Microinverter with
WEEB Ground Jumpers
PV Array Equipment
Grounding AC Mains
Conductor Panel
WEEB (EGC)
Bond Neutral
Jumper Bar
Neutral
Ground Bond
Ground Jumper
Bonding Point Ground
Bar
Ground Electrode
Rack Conductor
Microinverters
Off-Grid Ranges
I am shopping for a new gas-fired range for my off-grid home. I
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sun-hours. If your family bakes a lot, such an oven would be a large, Finally, be sure you specify the type of gas you have when
year-round draw. purchasing your stove. Most off-gridders use propane, which
requires different burner orifices than natural gas. If you cannot find
For that reason, many off-gridders end up using ranges with pilot a propane range, and the appliance store can’t handle a conversion,
lights. But for folks who also want to minimize gas use, even that is you may be able to make the change yourself using instructions in
a problem. Most ranges allow users to turn off the pilot light just for the range documentation. Otherwise, make arrangements to stop
the cooktop, which can then be safely lit when needed with a simple, at a local propane dealer on your way home from the appliance
long-handled flint striker. You can turn off the pilot lights using the store—they can change the orifices and adjust all of the burners
adjustment for pilot flame height, often deep inside each burner’s for you.
knob shaft. (Check your range’s documentation for adjuster location
and how to do this.) Michael Welch • Home Power senior editor
But it is more difficult, often impossible, to turn off the oven’s pilot
light. Unlike the cooktop burners, the oven burner needs to cycle on
and off so it can regulate oven temperature—and needs to relight
each on-cycle (either via a pilot light or glow bar). On my last oven,
there was no way to turn off the pilot light completely.
DuraRack AT ™
>formerly the Seasonal Adjustable Rack
From 0º to 60º
in seconds.
Finally there’s an easy and affordable alternative to optimizing your array’s tilt to
compensate for the sun’s seasonal changes. Easily assembled, this innovative
adjustable-tilt rack system holds up to 16 standard PV panels and a single
cordless drill adjusts the manual gear box and rotating bearing assembly
from flat to 60º in moments, giving you maximum power year round.
June December
homepower.com 33
Purchasing
a PV-Powered Home
WHAT YOU NEED TO
KNOW BEFORE YOU BUY
Comment
Discuss
this article @
homepower.com/158.34
Is It Working?
Because the utility also provides energy to the home, it may not be evident when
a PV system stops working. Problems may show up on your energy bill, but if the
system only provides a small portion of the home’s total electricity usage, or if the
occupants (and load) of the house have recently changed, there may be no clear
indication of a problem on the latest energy bill. How do you know if the system is
operating properly and producing its full potential?
To check if it is producing power, look at the inverter during the daytime—at
the very least, it should have a green light (or something equivalent) indicating that
it is “online.” Most will show how many watts are being produced on the AC side.
Orion Thornton
data. This comparison can tell you if the system has produced
expected energy production since commissioning, but doesn’t
tell you if the array is producing expected power now.
Reading the inverter’s power and daily energy production can
An inspection by a qualified PV installer who has the
tell you a lot about how a system is performing.
proper tools and know-how to analyze the system’s electricity
output is a good idea. This requires special equipment that
can measure several parameters as well as accounting for
ambient temperature, irradiance, and system efficiencies. (monitors are often much lower quality compared to other
With the right tools and some math, a qualified PV technician PV components) or a vital component (like the monitor’s
can tell if the power output is too low, indicating a potential network gateway box) is unplugged. Make sure to get any
problem. (See “Grid-tied PV System Performance Factors” in Web-based monitoring addresses (and passwords) from the
HP156 for more information.) former homeowner(s) so you can access the data.
If system data collection includes historical data, it should How much of the house’s energy use is the system
be a lot easier to determine if the system is performing as it expected to provide? It would be great if every PV system
should. However, monitoring failures can be more common resulted in a net-zero energy home. But most PV systems are
than PV system failures. Sometimes the monitor just fails designed to provide only a portion of a home’s energy usage.
For example, a 3 kW array on an all-electric, 3,000-square-foot
house is unlikely to make a major dent in the electricity bill
The glass face on this center module is shattered and may
allow moisture to penetrate, leading to corrosion of the internal —production problems will be less noticeable, so it does make
electrical connections. Also note the nonflashed feet, which the need for monitoring slightly more important.
should be inspected to make sure the sealant around them has If it’s an older array that’s been installed for at least a
not deteriorated.
year, the previous owners should be able to tell you whether
or not the system has ever met the home’s monthly electricity
usage. If it is a new system, find out how much electricity
the array was designed to offset. It’s not uncommon to ask
for historical energy bills when purchasing a home, so don’t
be shy about requesting information about the PV array and
its subsequent energy production. A small array may just
be serving a battery backup system in the event of a power
outage, keeping critical loads running—its main value is in
the backup electricity rather than in utility bill reductions.
especially for systems that are more than a few years old—due
to changes in solar module construction and frame sizes. The
homepower.com 35
pre-owned PV
Trace Engineering
began making
these off-grid
inverters in the
1980s, and many
are still providing
electricity to
homes today.
This PV module’s
electrical traces
were burned from
a lightning strike,
but testing showed
that the module
still functioned.
homepower.com 37
pre-owned PV
But none of these checks really give you a full picture.
Ideally, perform a load test to see how much energy the
batteries hold compared to their original rating. Systems can
still be functioning with old batteries, but the batteries may
be operating at a significantly reduced capacity. That capacity
might be enough to power loads for a few hours without
additional PV input, but may not be enough to support loads
for an extended duration. Some off-grid houses are sold in
the summer, when even marginally operating batteries might
serve a few small loads through the night. It’s when shorter
days and cloudier weather come that you’ll realize that you
need new batteries. Also, because infrared cameras have been
declining in cost, more installers have this tool and may be
able to provide an IR inspection of the battery bank. This
can quickly show failed battery cells (because they will be a
different temperature) and bad connections.
System Inspection
Orion Thornton
Checklist
A professional who evaluates a system at a house will look
Dangling cables can be easily damaged through abrasion or
for the following: from chewing critters, and can be one indication of a poorly
q Is there any broken or damaged equipment? installed system. This system also has grounding daisy-
chained from module to module, which does not meet code
q Is all the wiring intact and conduit in good condition, with requirements.
no corroded, sun-damaged, or loose conduit, dangling
wiring, or unsecured electrical boxes?
q Is the system working? Off-Grid System Performance
q How does the measured power on a sunny day compare Another big factor to consider if you are buying a house
to expected output? with an off-grid PV system is that it can be in perfect
functional order, working well for the previous owner—but
q What’s the lifetime energy production of the system and
may not work well for you or your family. Off-grid system
what kind of energy production should you expect in the
coming years? performance is dependent on the system’s electrical loads—
both the power draw of the appliances and the user’s usage
q Is the system monitor (if present) working?
patterns. For example, the system may have been sized for
q Is there evidence of animal damage or infestation? Is only a few loads and miserly power consumption, with the
there sufficient protection for the array wiring? previous owner judiciously using only a few lights at night
q Are there any missing bolts, clips, or structural parts? and timing laundry loads to coincide with the sunniest hours
of the day.
q Is there mold, dirt, or vegetation buildup on or around the
array? If this is your first time living off-grid, it’s always best to
make sure a working backup generator is part of the system,
q Are there any remaining warranties on any of the system
as you will probably use more energy than you expect. Is there
components?
already a generator with the system? If so, what quality is it?
For battery backup and off-grid systems: If you are expecting to use the generator frequently (such as in
q What is the rating of the batteries? areas with very little winter sun), you’ll want to see a heavy-
duty water-cooled generator, usually propane- or diesel-
q What was the load-tested capacity of the batteries?
fueled, designed to run for several hours a day—for years. An
q What is the age of the batteries? air-cooled backup generator may be suitable for sunnier areas,
q What is the general condition of batteries? in which it’s only used a few times a year. Portable generators
are generally only good for the smallest cabin systems. If
in doubt, consult with an RE installer about what sort of
generator is appropriate for a particular system and climate.
Leased Systems,
Ownership,
and Warranties
Sometimes a system is leased rather than owned by the
seller—how will that transfer to you? Are you assuming the
lease, or is the seller buying out the lease when the home
sells, and you will own the system outright? There can be
benefits and drawbacks to either: If you own it outright, you
won’t have a separate (possibly escalating) lease payment,
and the cost will be part of your tax-deductible mortgage
payment instead. However, it may no longer be warranted,
Zeke Yewdall
common problem
with sloppy repaired, but usually at a great expense to remove and replace
installations. the array, and to repair the wires. Flush-mounted roof arrays
homepower.com 39
pre-owned PV
are the most prone to harboring critters, because they create
an inviting hiding place for squirrels and birds. Tilt-up or
ground-mounted arrays are less inviting, but can still be
damaged by animals. Bird or wasp nests blocking airflow on
inverter cooling fins are more easily removed.
Access
Zeke Yewdall is the chief PV engineer for Mile Hi Solar in Loveland,
Colorado, and has had the opportunity to inspect and upgrade many
of the first systems installed during Colorado’s rebate program, which
began in 2005. He has also upgraded many older off-grid systems. He
teaches PV design classes for Solar Energy International.
Squirrels have severely damaged this wiring, putting it at high Zeke Yewdall
risk for a ground fault. (The taut wire is due to lifting the module
for inspection.)
Grounding Bites!
Literally...
The IronRidge Integrated Grounding System bonds
solar modules directly to IronRidge Rails, eliminating
the need for separate module grounding parts and
procedures. Watch the video
It saves time, reduces costs, and improves safety. ironridge.com/ig
BATTERIES
HuP
®
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by Kelly Davidson
homepower.com 43
platinum PV
Performance First, Then Form finding an ideal site farther east in Longmont, literally in
Every architect’s dream, Brigham gave the design team few Sofield’s backyard.
constraints, with only one real demand: “Performance first, Brigham purchased two lots along the street that makes
then form.” Driving the design was her pursuit of LEED up the southern boundary of Prospect New Town, a new
Platinum certification, the highest ranking awarded by the urbanist housing community that transformed an 80-acre
U.S. Green Building Council. “I knew building to platinum tree farm into a walkable, multiuse neighborhood. With a
standards could be a costly venture, but I wanted to showcase horse pasture and farm fields to the south, the site—a little
what’s possible and hopefully inspire people to walk the less than 0.25 acres—offers views of Boulder’s Flatirons
talk,” Brigham says. rock formations and the foothills in the distance. And, with
From the start, Brigham envisioned the home as a space any luck, Brigham says, new building restrictions imposed
she would “share” with the nonprofits and committees by the city should keep the views intact for many years to
that she works with. SELF, for one, plans to use the space come.
to host retreats for its board members. “The central living Not only does Sofield live in Prospect with his family,
space had to be very open—a place where I could host he also wrote the architectural guidelines for the community
meetings,” says Brigham, who holds volunteer leadership and designed several of the homes and buildings there.
roles for several nonprofit organizations, including SELF, Prospect—which won a Governor’s Smart Growth Award in
Boulder County Audubon Society, and Oregon Shores 1996 for its innovative alternative to suburban sprawl—boasts
Conservation Coalition. “And I wanted a rooftop living a mix of businesses, detached homes, row houses, live/work
space,” she adds. lofts, and apartments, all in a broad range of traditional and
Rude scoured the foothill communities near Boulder modern architectural styles in a rich spectrum of colors. Even
looking for land in the mountains, but for one reason or with its strikingly angled and geometric form, Brigham’s
another, none of them worked. The design team ended up home fits right in.
Ample south-facing glazing admits direct solar gain, which is absorbed by the Overhangs provide some protection from the
concrete floor. This heat energy, stored in the floor, is released when interior summer sun, although heat-blocking shades are
temperatures drop below the floor’s temperature. also used.
A central mass wall forms the spine of the home and also
Meticulous Planning for High Performance serves as a passive solar collector, radiating heat when interior
Six years of planning, design, and construction led to a temperatures drop.
2,302-square-foot trilevel home that uses a fraction of the
energy that a conventionally constructed house in Colorado
might use. With energy-efficiency measures and a 7 kW solar-
electric system rooftop canopy, the all-electric home is on track
to produce as much energy as it uses each year and receive
LEED Platinum certification (see sidebar.)
Key to the home’s energy footprint is a passive solar
design that minimizes active heating and cooling needs.
The German Passivhaus standard served as a guiding force
during the design process.
The home’s structural, thermal, and aesthetic spine is an
exposed concrete mass wall, with all the floors and ceiling joists
attaching to it. The wall bisects the floor plan in such a way that
every room in the house, from top to bottom, benefits from the
passive conditioning. The thermal mass absorbs heat during
the day and releases it throughout the evening. Although the
wall appears continuous, it actually addresses three different
envelope conditions: interior only; interior/exterior; and exterior
only. The two 8-inch-thick concrete faces are separated by 4
inches of insulation only in the interior/exterior portion to
prevent thermal transmission. The contiguous face is also
thermally broken where the roof attaches to the wall.
Wall thickness was driven by the structural requirements
of the second condition (interior/exterior) more than any other
consideration. Based on the glazing areas, however, it was
calculated that 697 cubic feet of interior mass would be needed
to adequately absorb passive solar gain. This amount is attained
by the interior mass wall, and by the concrete and tile floors in
the office, bedroom, and living room that receive direct solar
gain.
The 9-inch-thick wood-framed walls and 12-inch roof
cavities, as well as the space beneath the on-grade floor slab,
contain polyisocyanurate spray-foam insulation—achieving
an average wall R-value of 40 and an average roof R-value
of 60. Fiberglass-framed, dual-paned Serious Materials 925
windows were selected to help maximize passive solar gain
homepower.com 45
platinum PV
To minimize heat gain during the
summer, reflective shades are installed
over the south and west windows.
Brigham keeps the shades drawn from
noon to sunset, if not longer, between
May and September.
Only electric appliances were
installed, including an induction
cooktop, convection oven, and two
on-demand tankless water heaters (see
sidebar.) Brigham opted for passive
alternatives to dishwashing and clothes
drying. After being hand-washed,
dishes air-dry in kitchen cabinet
racks, where they are also stored. In
the laundry room, a large floor-to-
ceiling cabinet hides drying racks for
clothing. A high-efficiency lighting
scheme utilizes a combination of LED
homepower.com 47
platinum PV
Tech Specs
Overview
System type: Grid-tied solar-electric with battery backup
System location: Longmont, Colorado
Kelly Davidson
Solar resource: 4.89 average daily peak sun-hours
Production: 750 AC kWh per month (estimated)
Utility electricity offset: 100% (estimated)
This rooftop canopy is enhanced by a unique building-
integrated PV array that also incorporates clear glass panels.
The Sanyo bifacial modules in the array harvest light energy Photovoltaics
from both sides, leading to increased energy production.
Modules: 36, Sanyo HIP-195DA3, 195 W STC (+ backside
irradiation contribution), 55.8 Vmp, 3.5 Imp, 68.7 Voc, 3.73
Isc
Array: 7,020 W STC. Six 6-module series strings (each
string: 334.8 Vmp, 3.5 Imp, 412.2 Voc, 3.73 Isc)
heating energy losses due to ventilation. A solar wall along
the southwest corner of the home was considered for heating Array combiner box: OutBack FLEXware PV combiner box
with 15 A fuses
ventilation air but ultimately ruled out. The findings showed
that the solar wall would have reduced the cost of the PV Array installation: Florian Greenhouse custom racking
array (by approximately $1,150), but the construction costs patio covers, facing south and east, 6° and 4° tilt
for the wall would have been significantly greater than the
PV cost savings. Energy Storage
Batteries: Four Fullriver sealed AGM, DC105-12 VDC
The PV System nominal,105 Ah at 20-hour rate
“We didn’t just want to tack solar modules on the house. We
Battery bank: 48 VDC nominal, 105 Ah total
wanted to integrate them into the design,” Rude says. The
team selected Sanyo’s HIT bifacial modules. The double-sided Battery/inverter disconnect: 175 A breaker
modules—which can harvest solar energy from both faces—
increase energy production within the fixed rooftop space. Balance of System
The design staggers HIT modules and clear glass panels in the Charge controllers: Two Schneider Electric XW MPPT 80
grid of a steel canopy. Enough light passes through to grow 600, 80 A, MPPT, 600 VDC nominal input voltage, 48 V
plants underneath, while providing adequate protection for nominal output voltage
shade-seekers. Plus, the light reflecting onto the back of the
Inverters: OutBack Power FLEXpower Two FP2-29 system
modules adds about 5% to the array’s annual output. consisting of two OutBack GVFX3648 inverters, 48 VDC
Rude designed the canopy for the 7.02-kilowatt system, nominal input, 120/240 VAC output,
which was sized to meet the home’s projected energy load
System performance metering: OutBack MATE2
of about 9,000 kWh annually. Florian, a Cincinnati, Ohio,
greenhouse company that also builds solar structures,
Combiner Box:
OutBack FWPV12
Ground
kWh
Meter: 100 KWH
Utility
AC Critical Charge
Loads Subpanel Controllers:
Two Schneider Electric
XW MPPT; 80 A, 600 V
Power Panel:
OutBack Power FLEXPower TWO;
two OutBack Power
GVFX3648 inverters
Ground
G
N
AC In DC
L1
L2
L1
AC Service Entrance:
To 120/240 VAC loads
L2 AC Out
N
G
homepower.com 49
platinum PV
Access
Home Power Associate Editor Kelly Davidson lives in Longmont,
A small battery backup system—four 105 Ah batteries— Colorado, where she and her husband are upgrading their 1970s
has enough energy to power critical loads (air circulation, trilevel home with new insulation, doors, and windows, in preparation
refrigerator, microwave, laptop, and some LED lights) for a for a PV system in the coming years. This season’s project—two new
limited time during a utility outage. windows—is being made possible by a low-interest loan through the
The PV was not commissioned until February 2013. local Energy Smart program.
Battery-based grid-tied PV systems can be complicated to
meter, since power is flowing to the battery bank (the critical
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PV Site
by Jeff Tobe Evaluation Jeff Tobe
P
erforming a comprehensive solar site analysis is are not constructed with solar in mind, roofs that face true
the first step toward ensuring a well-performing south are uncommon. Fortunately, most PV arrays within the
solar-electric system. New tools and technologies continental United States oriented within 30° of true south
are available for evaluating a site’s solar potential. But while still offer excellent potential energy harvest, often within just
these tools can bring us powerful information at the touch of a few percent of the maximum.
a button, nothing can take the place of conducting a thorough
assessment of the proposed array location. Solmetric’s Roof Azimuth Tool can determine orientation
from aerial photos. Google Earth has a similar tool that can
determine approximate roof area.
Orientation & Tilt
As a PV array’s orientation (azimuth, the direction it faces) or
tilt varies from “optimal,” potential energy harvest decreases.
The optimal combination of array tilt and azimuth will
depend on a few variables, including geographical location,
seasonal weather patterns and system application. Azimuth
and tilt are both required data for system design and energy
estimating programs such as the PV Watts calculator (see
Access).
A PV array’s orientation is often referenced to true south.
A compass doesn’t always point to true south, so magnetic
declination, the angle variation between magnetic north/
south and true north/south, must be taken into account, since
it varies by location. There are various resources available to
determine magnetic declination for most locations around
the globe (see Access). With the use of a compass and
local magnetic declination, a roof’s orientation is simple to
determine (see “Methods” in this issue). Since most buildings
pointing to the 30” course can be completed online, but receiving some
angle in degrees. hands-on training with specific safety equipment, such as
scaffolding erection and assembling fall-protection systems,
is recommended.
Developing a relationship with a local safety firm can also be
helpful in getting specialized training, as well as occasional
consulting assistance on challenging installations. A
comprehensive safety training program should include fall
protection, ladders and scaffolding, and the National Fire
An inexpensive Protection Association 70E arc flash compliance, for starters.
smartphone app And part of the site evaluation should include photos and
can measure
other documentation regarding possible anchor points for
the roof angles
fall protection, as well as notes regarding any additional
in degrees,
percentage, rise- safety concerns, such as skylights, overhead utility lines,
steep roof surfaces, and other site-specific hazards.
Ben Root
homepower.com 55
site evaluation
point in the graph with a color designation that reveals a
percentage value as compared to the ideal conditions, which
are listed at the top of the legend area. The annual insolation
value can be used to quantify the impacts of various tilt and
azimuth angles. The scale along the right provides color-
coordinated values expressed as a percentage of the ideal
conditions and the associated insolation value in kilowatt-
hours per square meter.
The SunEye 210 is Solmetric’s latest solar siting tool, which displays an annual sun-
Jeff Tobe
path view, showing annual and seasonal solar access values (left). The accompanying
software includes additional displays, such as the obstruction elevation (above).
The Solar Pathfinder uses a highly reflective dome to reveal obstructions, which can be outlined on a paper sun-path chart (above left).
It has a built-in level and compass, and the base can be adjusted for the site’s magnetic declination. Digital photos taken of the
Pathfinder reading can be used with the Assistant PV software to generate detailed summary reports (above right).
Deviating from
“Optimal”
Several factors may influence whether it is smart to forego
installing the PV array at its “optimal” orientation and tilt
for a given location.
Local utility policies may reward grid-tied system
orientations that would otherwise not be ideal. For
example, time-of-use (TOU) metering may place a
premium on energy consumed or produced during the
afternoon hours. In this case, a PV array that favors a
westerly orientation and produces more energy (and earns
credit at the higher rate during peak-load times) may be
beneficial.
Local climate characteristics, such as morning fog or To properly evaluate a proposed PV array location, capture
regular afternoon thunderstorms, may also influence readings from all four corners of the intended array area.
the ideal array tilt and orientation. Regular morning
fog in coastal areas may warrant arrays that favor a
more westerly orientation. Many locations in the Rocky
Mountains experience afternoon thunderstorms during the
summer months and often have winter storms followed
by very sunny mornings. The combination of these two
weather influences may favor arrays with a slight easterly
orientation. In snow country, steeper tilts may be required
to help prevent snow buildup and potential ice damming
around the modules.
Off-grid PV systems also have special considerations that
dictate their ideal orientation and/or tilt. Consider a fixed-
mounted off-grid PV array that serves a home with higher
energy consumption during the winter months. This home
will benefit from an array that’s more steeply tilted to more
effectively capture the low winter sun angle. A PV water-
pumping system that is used for summertime irrigation
and/or livestock watering will require a shallower tilt to
take advantage of the high-angled summer sun.
A solar siting tool can be used to determine a “shade-free”
distance from roof obstacles, such as this plumbing vent.
This should be recorded on the site evaluation form.
homepower.com 57
site evaluation
continued from page 56
Jeff Tobe
ratings. Wind-loading also must be considered for equipment orientation, and
placement and selection for many of the same reasons. Most angle.
rack and module products have wind load ratings that
Check the roof’s range between 90 mph and 120 mph. The perimeters of most
condition—repairs residential roofs are exposed to greater wind forces than
or reroofing should
happen before
interior portions of the roof and may not be usable in many
installing a PV locations with high wind loads. This can limit array placement
system. and size, as can required roof setbacks for firefighters (see
“PV Array Siting & Mounting Considerations” in HP155).
The local building department is a good place to glean
information on expected snow and wind loads.
Orion Thorton
homepower.com 59
site evaluation
RISE Certification
Solar installers may be interested in a new certification related
to the methods and best practices for integrating solar arrays
with various roofing materials. Formed by a coalition of roofing
Balance-of-system and solar industry professionals, Roof Integrated Solar Energy
components take (RISE) was created to ensure that appropriate measures are
up space, and taken by solar roofing professionals to preserve the roof
have Code and system’s performance and service life.
practical access
requirements. Map The RISE certification structure will be familiar to solar pros
Jeff Tobe
800-383-0195 www.solar-electric.com
ELECTRICITY FROM THE SUN SINCE 1979
www.splashmonitoring.com
www.homepower.com 61
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Wind
Matters
by Mick Sagrillo
system.
Swept Area
Matters
A wind turbine’s blades are fixed to a
hub. Together, they make up the rotor.
The rotor turns in the wind, converting
the kinetic energy in moving air (wind)
into rotational momentum to spin an
electrical generator. The rotor is the
collector for a wind turbine, harvesting
wind energy, which is then converted
into electricity by the generator.
Hundreds of different rotor designs
have been invented, tried, and discarded
over the past eight decades. Regardless,
there are still all sorts of claims about 1 × Diameter = 1.4 × Diameter = 2 × Diameter =
1 × Swept Area = 2 × Swept Area = 4 × Swept Area =
unprecedented efficiencies of various 1 × Power 2 × Power 4 × Power
new turbine designs. So how can you
sort out fact from fiction? Increasing swept area increases the captured wind energy proportionally.
Let’s use a simple analogy to explain
the concept of the rotor as a collector, using a solar hot water output the system will generate. The area of the wind that
collector. A 4- by 8-foot collector is capable of collecting a certain the rotor intercepts is called the swept area. Just as with solar
amount of sunlight and converting that sunshine into a certain collectors, increasing the swept area of the rotor increases
amount of hot water. If we double the size of the collector, it the amount of wind the turbine can intercept and convert
makes sense that the system would now be able to collect twice (to electricity). There is no circumventing this concept; it’s
the sunlight and generate twice as much hot water. just simple mathematics. Doubling the diameter of the
The bigger the renewable energy collector, the more rotor results in a four-fold increase in the swept area—and
energy it is exposed to that can be collected—and the more potentially four times the electricity for any given wind speed.
Fuel Matters
Wind is the fuel for the wind turbine. The more fuel the wind tur
bine has available to it, the more electricity it will generate. Wind 30,000
fuel has two components, both equally important. One is the
quantity of wind available. The other is the quality of the wind
passing through the rotor. Let’s look at these separately. 25,000
homepower.com 63
wind matters
Wind Quality Matters Wind Profile
You don’t necessarily need strong winds
to get useful energy production from
150
your wind-electric system. You might
only need marginally stronger winds.
So, how can you access those stronger
winds? Time for another analogy.
120
Imagine floating down a river in a
canoe, but rather than sitting back and
enjoying yourself, you pay very close
attention to what’s happening on the 90
Height (Ft.)
water. The first thing you notice when
you put your canoe in is that there is
slow flow near the bank. As you paddle
out into the river, however, flow picks 60
up somewhat. By the time you get to the
center of the river, the farthest you can
be from either bank, you notice that the
flow is fastest. 30
Near the bank of the river,
the flowing water is slowed by its 15
interaction with the riverbank’s friction.
Like water, air is a fluid. And just like 0
Wind Speed
Note how wind speed increases with the height above the ground.
α = 0.30
arrows mean higher speeds. As you
100
Level, uniform open move away from the surface of the
80 terrain with crops & earth and its ground cover, wind speed
occasional trees or
60 buildings increases. To access stronger winds,
40 you need to reduce friction by getting
α = 0.40
Mixed, wooded area your wind turbine rotor higher up in
20
& open fields; the wind profile.
0 tree line > 500 ft.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Different locations will have
Wind Speed (mph)
α = 0.50 different wind profiles depending on
Densely wooded
the amount of friction presented to
the air mass (see graph at left). The
The effect of four example wind shears (surface textures) based on a common 15 mph wind
friction that ground cover poses
speed at 160 feet and ground clutter averaging about 20 feet tall. Below this height, the
is known as ground drag. Different
speeds measured are erratic due to the interaction between the turbulent winds and the
ground clutter. As a result, the unreliable data for this wind is not plotted on the graph. The ground covers are akin to different
lower end of any given wind profile will vary with average height of the ground clutter. Taller grades of sandpaper. Smooth ground
ground clutter will result in the wind shear curves starting at a higher point on the graph. cover—such as a hay field—doesn’t
Note, for example, how at 80 feet, the alpha of 0.20 has about 25% greater wind speed present much drag to a moving air
than the alpha of 0.50—that’s almost double the power. Also notice that for an alpha of mass, whereas densely scattered trees
0.50, the wind speed at 160 feet is about 45% more than the alpha of 0.50 at 80 feet— and buildings present a lot of drag. The
more than three times the power. (The alphas used here were developed for Wisconsin’s rougher the ground cover, the greater
Focus on Energy program and are not the “textbook” alphas sometimes used.) the drag and the more the air mass is
slowed.
Turbulence is Trouble
Wind turbine blades are airfoils, similar to airplane wings. Both Turbulence changes laminar airflow into a chaotic,
operate on the same principle of lift— the force that allows tumbling, churning mess. This wreaks havoc on lift devices
planes to fly, and wind turbine blades to rotate to extract energy that depend on laminar winds. Remember the last time you
out of the wind. Airfoils need laminar airflow—constant and flew in an aircraft that hit a pocket of turbulence? The plane
smooth flowing winds—over them to maximize the lift they can was tossed about and lost altitude because of decreased
generate—which will maximize the kinetic energy they are able lift on the airfoils (wings). The same thing happens with a
to extract from the wind. wind turbine: It is buffeted by turbulence as is evidenced
Turbulence, which is caused when the wind tumbles over by the way it changes direction, trying to follow the chaotic
obstacles (trees and buildings, for example), is chaotic airflow. wind, and spins erratically without generating much
The greater the ground drag due to taller or more obstacles, electricity, since there is little usable energy in turbulent
the more turbulence that is created. Wind breaks, farmyard winds. Unfortunately, the “bubble” of turbulence around a
wind barriers, and snow fencing are often used to create house or on a farm can be of considerable distance, height,
turbulence to disrupt strong winds. and width.
Turbulence Zones
Wind Direction
Turbulence Zone
2H
2H 20H
An obstruction can create turbulence zones that are, above it, twice its height (2H); upwind, twice its height (2H) horizontally;
and downwind, 20 times its height (20H) horizontally.
Tower height to
Height Matters hub includes
The problem facing a prospective wind turbine site should 30 ft. rule, plus
blade length
now be obvious: You need to minimize turbulence and
take advantage of the power of incremental wind speed
by getting the turbine higher into the wind. The solution Bottom of turbine’s
is pretty obvious: Mount your turbine on a tall tower. IF swept area at least
30-Foot Rule
30 ft. higher than any
ground-dwellers afraid of heights don’t like to hear that obstruction within
message, they shouldn’t consider a wind turbine for their 500 ft.
electricity.
How tall does the tower need to be? The first rule used
Mature tree height;
in the small wind industry for determining minimum tower plan for future growth
height is that the entire rotor of the wind turbine must be at
least 30 feet higher than any obstacles within 500 feet of the
tower. This rule is based on several facts:
homepower.com 65
wind matters
So, we need to modify the 30-foot rule to take into
consideration tree growth over the life of the wind system.
It now states: The entire rotor of the wind turbine must be
at least 30 feet higher than any obstacles within 500 feet of
the tower, or the mature tree height or tree line in the area,
whichever is higher.
Keep in mind that the 30-foot rule with consideration for
mature tree height dictates the minimum tower height for your
site. Installing a taller tower reduces turbulence even further,
while getting your turbine higher into the wind profile. All of
this will result in more electricity production over the life of your
wind system. Don’t cut corners by scrimping and installing a
short tower—you’ll be sacrificing long-term performance.
This wind turbine was installed in 1982 using the 30-foot rule for
fixed obstacles—tree growth was not accounted for. In the last
three decades, the trees have grown tall enough to render the
wind turbine useless.
North
20%
Location Matters Wind Rose
NW NE
Most locations have winds that blow out of somewhat-specific 15%
directions over the bulk of the year. These are known as
prevailing winds and are plotted graphically in a wind rose. 10%
Using the wind rose for your site will help determine
the best location for your tower. Over the course of the
West East
year, the wind blows from all directions, so any location on
your property is going to be a compromise. However, you The wind rose
can minimize turbulence while optimizing your site’s wind for this site
profile by placing your tower as far upwind in the direction shows that
of the area’s prevailing winds as possible. the strongest
winds come
My Wisconsin homestead is typical—a house and a few predominately SW SE
buildings, all with electricity, fencerows for privacy and from a southwest
to block winter storm winds, and a few tall trees. At first and south- South
southwest
glance, one might opt to site the wind turbine close to the % of Total Energy % of Total Time
direction.
house for a shorter wire run, which is exactly what we did
with our first turbine. If you look at the wind rose for our site
(at right), however, you’ll notice that this places our tower downwind of almost all obstacles on our property relative
to the prevailing wind direction. While the turbine generates
The site for the first turbine (1) turned out to be highly adequately, it would actually generate more if it had been
compromised—downwind from almost all obstacles on the sited somewhere else. The locations of our two other wind
property relative to the prevailing wind direction. Subsequent
turbines were placed at sites 2 and 3. turbines are much less subject to turbulence most of the year.
The compromise I had to make, especially with the third
site, is a longer wire run. However, wire cost constitutes
a small percentage of the cost of an entire wind system
3 installation. More important was getting upwind of the major
1
sources of turbulence at our site—a strategy that will help
optimize energy generation and reduces wear and tear on the
equipment.
You should be able to access a wind rose for your
location from your state energy office or wind map, or local
agricultural office. The U.S. Department of Agriculture’s
Natural Resources Conservation Service has downloadable
wind roses from various climate stations (see Access). Other
2 good sources of prevailing wind directions include the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association or Weather
Underground, both of which keep local climatological data.
“Breakthrough” Technologies
ogies
& Other Whirligigs
Hardly a week goes by without at least one press release about
a new and improved wind turbine design hitting my email inbox.
These company press releases touting a breakthrough technology
are picked up and propagated by media outlets, which unfortunately
bestows credibility on the company. Even more unfortunately,
well-intentioned people who want to generate some of their own
electricity take the bait.
So, what’s wrong with all of this? And why does the small wind
industry take umbrage with these seemingly new designs? Nearly all
of the new “breakthrough” technologies share an amazing number
of similarities.
Reality: As above, it’s all about collector size and where the fuel is.
A whirligig with a small rotor will likely only ever generate enough
electricity to overcome the resistance losses in the wire run. Also,
note that spinning does not equate to generating electricity. For
kicks, calculate the units that go into the power equation in a much-
touted 2 mph startup wind speed. Then compare this number with
the units in a 10 or 15 mph wind. Do this using P ~ V3. Beware of turbine designs that are “outside of the box.”
The box has been built from decades of practical physics.
Promise: The designer claims “thinking outside the box” with an
innovative idea, bringing new insights to a stagnant technology. Reality: Let’s take just one example: bird-friendly. The intimation is
that two- and three-blade HAWTs kill birds. Unfortunately, large utility-
Reality: Wouldn’t it be good if the innovator knew what’s actually
scale wind turbines do kill some birds. Taken in perspective, however,
inside the box before beginning to think outside of it? In other
bird mortality with the largest of turbines is far lower than the impact
words, shouldn’t a designer understand why successful wind turbine
from conventional energy sources (none of which, it seems, are held to
designs—small ones, as well as the tens of thousands of utility-
the same environmental standards that are imposed on renewables).
and larger-scale wind farm turbines—all look like they do? They
The few surveys or studies on bird mortality done on small wind
should also understand why hundreds of unusual rotor designs
installations might suggest a possibility of a handful of bird deaths over
were abandoned decades ago and are not being implemented by
the entire life of the installation at sensitive locations—far less than one
established manufacturers.
summer’s bird mortality from many picture windows or domestic cats.
Bird mortality is hardly the concern with small wind turbines that these
Promise: Conceptual designs claiming unprecedented efficiencies.
claims make them out to be.
Reality: Show real performance data from multiple real-world
installations. Wind tunnel or lab test results and website calculations
Promise: All-too-frequent headline: “Revolutionary new design…”
are the equivalent of wild guesses as to what a generator will do in
the real world. Short-term and controlled tests of a prototype from Reality: Product sophistication and fine-tuning come from
one installation at an ideal site don’t reflect real-world performance. evolution—building on prior art—not revolution. Small wind turbines
For confidence, you need performance data from a production model have been around for nearly 85 years. We’ve had time to sort out
(not a prototype) from an independent third-party or owner. what works and what doesn’t based on the science of physics and
fluid dynamics, and with engineering and mathematics. Over the
Promise: They solve non-existent problems. These range from being history of wind turbines, the designs that have proven themselves to
bird-friendly to vibration-free, and everything between. work are two- or three-bladed HAWTs.
homepower.com 67
wind matters
Lessons That Matter Which Wind Turbine?
So, what can we take from all of this? The lessons are pretty If you are shopping for a wind turbine, where do you
straightforward: go for help? Three organizations host websites with
recommendations based on equipment that is certified to
• Swept area determines how much of the wind’s power
an American National Standards Institute standard, actual
your turbine can extract. There is no way around the
performance test results, and industry feedback.
mathematics of your collector size.
The Small Wind Certification Council (SWCC) is a
• Wind turbines exposed to laminar winds generate more certifying body that confirms that published turbine test
useful amounts of electricity. Wind turbines sited in results conform to the American Wind Energy Association’s
turbulent locations (on buildings, or at or below tree level) 9.1-2009 Small Wind Turbine Performance and Safety
cannot—and will not—generate much, if any, electricity. Standard. Turbines that are certified to have met the AWEA
There is no way around the physics of fluid dynamics. 9.1 criteria are listed at smallwindcertification.org. Make
sure you peruse the list of SWCC-certified turbines, not the
• The 30-foot tower height rule helps determine whether the
applicant turbine status.
wind turbine will be exposed to quality winds over the life
The Interstate Turbine Advisory Council (ITAC) is a
of the system.
consortium of state public-benefits programs that fund the
• Siting your wind turbine upwind in the direction of the installation of renewable energy systems. They publish the
prevailing wind will minimize turbulence. Unified List of Wind Turbines (at bit.ly/ITACturbines) that
participating state programs may be willing to fund.
The economic payback in a wind turbine is directly Intertek is another organization that certifies wind turbine
proportional to the electricity it generates over its life. If a wind test results to the AWEA 9.1-2009 standard. However, this
turbine is sited in turbulent winds, it simply will not generate website (bit.ly/IntertekDirectory) is a bit more confusing
much electricity, making it a questionable investment. In addition, since Intertek certifies components as well as entire wind
the turbulence will cause increased wear and tear on the turbine, turbines.
shortening its useful life. But a wind system includes more than If the wind generator you are considering is not on one
just the turbine—it includes a tower that’s properly sized for the of these three lists, move on. Or at least understand that you
site, foundation, wire run, balance-of-system components, all are making a risky purchase of an untested, unproven design,
labor and materials for installation, and various other costs. and be ready to accept the outcome of your speculative
People take care of investments when they make sense. investment.
Wind system owners invest maintenance and repair dollars
in things that work, like a properly sized and sited wind Access
turbine. Owners quickly abandon ideas that don’t work. Mick Sagrillo (msagrillo@wizunwired.net) consults, teaches, and writes
The history of small wind tells us that rooftop wind turbines about wind power. He and his wife have powered their house with wind
and wind turbines installed on towers too short for the site for 32 years, and Mick has flown dozens of models during that time.
are quickly abandoned and become derelict once they need
Downloadable wind roses • bit.ly/NRCSWindRose
repair. Simply put, they were bad investments. A $20,000
wind-electric system that only lasts for two years is a poor
investment compared to an $80,000 system that lasts 20 years.
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www.homepower.com 69
LOW THERMAL MASS
SUNSPACES
by Gary Reysa
Comment
The Little-Known Gem
of Solar Heating
Discuss
this article @
homepower.com/158.70
Sunspaces have long been appreciated as a way to provide some extra living space with sunny
appeal. They can also be used as supplementary heaters, collecting free solar energy that can
be channeled to warm interior rooms on sunny winter days.
Courtesy William Sikora
T Sunspace Characteristics
his article describes a low thermal mass sunspace (LTMS),
which can be thought of as just a big “walk-in” hot air
collector. This design is optimized to provide significant Roof:
heating for the house. May incorporate overhang for Air Circulation:
summertime shading By convection or fan
Characteristics
The features that characterize a LTMS are: House Interior:
Double Glazing: Gains heat from sunspace
Vertical or steep tilt for and returns cool air
• A large, south-facing glazed area that is steeply tilted winter sun angles to sunspace
or vertical for excellent winter sun collection. Double- Interior Surfaces:
Dark for absorption;
glazing should be used in cold climates to decrease heat low-mass; insulated Vents:
Manually operable
loss. Controls: or automatic
Manually operable
• Nonglazed surfaces (walls, roof, and floor) that are or thermostat
insulated and sealed to reduce heat loss.
homepower.com 71
low-mass sunspaces
Gary Reysa
Sunspaces” sidebar) uses a line-voltage cooling thermostat in
the sunspace and a line-voltage heating thermostat inside the
house to control a blower that distributes heated, filtered air
from the sunspace into the loft of the home. Inside the home,
ceiling fans help distribute the heat. When both thermostats
are closed, the 260 cfm blower starts. Cool air enters the
sunspace from the house through a one-way damper, which
prevents backflow when the blower is off.
The duct into the house must include a passive, spring-
return damper that opens only when the fan is on to prevent
cold air from flowing into the house at night. That said, some
of the spring vents do not seal very well—the ones I have
are just fair. Fabric dampers might work better. The poly-
film dampers I used on my shop thermosyphon collector
could work well inside a sheltered sunspace, with inlet
and outlet dampers facing opposite directions. Motorized
damper actuators (such as those made by Honeywell) also are
available that could provide a positive seal.
Keeping the ducts inside the sunspace, rather than
outside, is also helpful for mitigating heat loss. This shelters
them from the wind, and eliminates the need for insulating
them. The sunspace also reduces heat loss from the house to
the outdoors since it provides extra insulating and sheltering The west end of the sunspace shows the 10-inch Dayton fan
and R-21 fiberglass insulation (to be covered with Rboard). The
where it is attached. Rboard on the north wall is painted black for improved solar
energy absorbance.
How Much Heat?
The test 200-square-foot sunspace in southwestern Montana plywood laid over the trafficked areas. For the test, black
has 200 square feet of south-facing twin-wall polycarbonate weed barrier cloth, which makes a solar-absorbent surface,
glazing tilted at 60° for good winter solar collection. The was placed over the floor. The structure was sealed using
walls and roof are insulated to R-27 and the floor to R-8. The spray foam and caulking to reduce infiltration.
low-mass walls are Atlas Rboard rigid insulation painted You don’t have to be this particular in specifying surfaces
with black latex paint—they heat quickly and pass that heat that are dark in color and low in mass. For the walls, any
into the air. The Rboard has a fiber face sheet that takes paint dark-colored surface will work, and wall coverings like wood
well and is durable, but is not approved for direct exposure paneling or 1/4-inch plasterboard will not significantly sacrifice
to a living space for flammability reasons. The floor consists performance. For the floor, a surface like cork or carpet or even
of EPS rigid foam panels laid over compacted sand, with garden bark will work as long as it is insulated underneath.
System Temperatures
& Irradiance Sunspace Heat Output
200° 1,200
Inlet Temp. Outlet Temp. Temp. Rise Heat Output*
180° 1,100 Time (°F) (°F) (°F) (Btu/Hr.)
1,000 10 a.m. 19.8 61.0 41.2 23,668
Solar Irradiance (W/m2)
160°
900 11 a.m. 22.3 76.4 54.1 31,079
Temperature (°F)
140°
800 12 p.m. 26.6 90.0 63.4 36,422
120° 700 1 p.m. 27.4 99.5 72.1 41,420
100° 600 2 p.m. 28.3 99.5 71.2 40,903
500 3 p.m. 24.8 87.0 62.2 35,732
80°
400 4 p.m. 25.1 64.0 38.9 22,347
60°
Fans Off 300 Total Btu/Day 231,571
40°
200
20° 100
*Heat Output (Btu/hr.) = Air Velocity x Duct Area x Air Density x Temperature Rise x
0° 0 60 min./hr. x Specific Heat of Air (0.24 Btu/lbs.•°F)
10:00 11:00 12:00 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00
Measured: Air velocity = 600 fpm; Duct area = 1.09 ft.2; Air density = 0.061 lbs./ft.3
January 4, 2013 Notes: Air density is low due to the sunspace’s location at an elevation of 5,000 ft.;
peak irradiation was measured at 1,140 W/m2 due to reflected radiation from the snow
Outdoor Ambient / Input Interior (5 ft.) East Fan Output field in front of the glazing
Solar Irradiance West Fan Output
homepower.com 73
low-mass sunspaces
temperature in the peak of the sunspace quickly climbed to more
Gary Reysa
than 150°F. This is an indication of how fast an LTMS responds
when ventilation is stopped and how effective the insulation and
double-glazing are in reducing sunspace heat loss.
I wondered how sunspace output would be affected
by not following the design rules, so I tested it before
the insulation was added, and with a bare dirt floor. The
difference was dramatic. Under similar sun and ambient
temperature conditions, the heat output of the unfinished
sunspace was about 33% of the finished sunspace. Following
the design guidelines significantly improves the heat output.
The Ramifications of
a little after 1 p.m., the heat output of the collector is 42,200
Btu per hour, and the solar input is 69,900 Btu per hour—
which calculates to an efficiency of 60.3%. This is comparable
to high-quality commercial solar collectors operating under
the same conditions.
a Little More Mass
If the heat output is calculated for each hour, the total heat If 1/4-inch plasterboard is installed over an insulated wall, then
output for the day adds up to 232,000 Btu. These heat-output how long does it take the sunspace to get the plasterboard up
numbers are higher than typical because the test was done with to the sunspace’s operating temperature? How much does the
outside ambient inlet air (at 27°F) instead of room-temperature extra mass detract from the performance?
air (65°F, for this calculation). The cooler the inlet air, the more Quarter-inch plasterboard weighs 1.2 pounds per square foot
efficient the collector. The heat output adjusted for room- and has a specific heat of 0.26 Btu/lbs.•°F. It takes 20 Btu
temperature inlet air instead of 27°F inlet air would be about per square foot to warm the plasterboard from its overnight
19% lower, or about 188,000 Btu per day. This is equivalent temperature of 40°F to its solar-operating temperature of 100°F
to 2.9 gallons of propane burned in a 70% efficient furnace. [(1.2 lbs./ft.2)(0.26 Btu/lbs.•°F)(100°F – 40°F)]. If the sun is shining
on the plasterboard at more than 200 Btu per square foot per
So, even this modest-sized sunspace produced a lot of useful
hour, theoretically it will only take about six minutes to get the
heat—even on a day of the year that has close to the fewest plasterboard to 100°F. (In real-world situations, it takes a little
number of sun-hours. Near midday, the sunspace is producing longer because there is more total wall/back roof area than there
10,000 watts of heating power—and the only energy being is glazed area.) You would probably not lose more than half an
used to “produce” this is the two 27-watt fans. hour of collection time in the morning if thin plasterboard was
At about 2 p.m., the fans that push hot air out of the sunspace used in the sunspace.
were turned off. Without fans or vents to remove heat, the
INSPIRING SUNSPACES
A wide range of designs are possible. Here are some examples from across the country.
COLORADO
M
ike Pelletier’s Gunnison, Colorado,
sunspace was added to the south
face of the house and married to
the home’s original architectural style. The
221-square-foot sunspace (6.5 feet wide by
34 feet long) has 270 square feet of south-
facing vertical glazing. The cost of materials
to build the sunspace was about $4,500.
Pelletier and his family use the sunspace
for lots of activities: house-heating, clothes
drying, food drying, a climbing wall, the kids’
play loft, and sunny lounging. Future plans
include adding a hot air collector behind
the sunroom glazing and above the awning/
Courtesy Mike Pelletier (3)
reflector to help boost the air temperature
from the sunspace to the home’s interior.
To get the warmed air to the house, Pelletier
started with a thermosyphon system, but “We use the propane boiler only when it’s adding the sunspace last year, we burned a
found the circulation rate disappointing—so cloudy and when I’m away,” Pelletier says. bit less than two cords—and it was a cold
a fan designed for a long duct system was “Otherwise, we use a wood stove along with winter. The sunspace’s temperature doesn’t
added. It took some experimentation to get the sunspace. When we first moved here, seem much affected by the outside winter
the distribution and noise levels right, but it we burned six cords of wood during the temperature, but the amount of clouds does
works well now. first winter. After doing lots of insulating and affect its temperature—that’s no surprise.”
homepower.com 75
low-mass sunspaces
A
rchitect William Sikora designed both stories of this 80-square- An inline fan
foot LTMS in Minneapolis, Minnesota, to be accessible. The equipped with a
upper floor can be used for sunbathing, clothes drying, wood backdraft damper
drying, or for storing items not affected by heat. The first floor is used for and air filter
storing firewood and garden equipment. Twin-wall, 8 mm polycarbonate conveys heated,
filtered air to the
was used for exterior glazing.
home’s loft via
The sunspace has some thermal mass storage as evidenced by a wall-mounted
the gradual temperature drop after sunset (see “Sikora Sunspace grille.
Temperatures” table). Interior stagnation temperatures in the sunspace
reach 120°F with the blower off, but interior drywall and the concrete
floor provide enough thermal mass to prevent overheating in the
house. The blower will run as long as the home requires heat.
Heated, filtered air from the space is conveyed into the loft of the main
home via a blower fan and pushed down with ceiling fans. Simple
thermostats, one in the sunspace and one inside the home, control
the blower. One thermostat is located near the highest point in the
sunspace, and is set to close when the sunspace approaches a usable
temperature for space heating: for example, 90°F. The living space
Courtesy William Sikora (3)
thermostat is set to close when the temperature drops below room
temperature, at about 70°F. The two thermostats are wired in series
with the blower, so the blower only comes on when the temperature
in the sunspace is between 80°F and 90°F and the temperature in the
living space is below 70°F. When both thermostats are closed, the
PENNSYLVANIA
N
ick Pine is a solar designer and
innovator who has been a strong
proponent of LTMS systems. His
three-story sunspace provides most of the
heat for his otherwise difficult-to-heat 1820s
home in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
This 384-square-foot sunspace is 12 feet
deep by 32 feet long and 28 feet tall, and has
an 8-by-32-foot deck that sits 16 feet above
the ground. The south glazing is made from
two thin sheets of clear polycarbonate with
the space between filled with a low heat
conductivity gas—all fabricated on site.
This provides clear glazing that is efficient
for solar gain and reduces heat loss—at a
fraction of what double-glazed glass would
cost.
Another innovative feature is the use of a
mesh of two layers of 50% shade cloth
just inside of the glazing. Cooler return air
from the house is introduced to the space
between the mesh and the glazing and
spreads over the face of the mesh while
flowing into it. This cools the mesh and
reduces heat lost through the glazing.
homepower.com 77
low-mass sunspaces
continued from page 74
in the south glazing. My vent doors are in all three locations, duct to the peak of the sunspace. This simple sunspace can
with the south ones being below the glazing. Some LTMS have a payback of less than one heating season.
designs have entry doors from the outside that also serve as More permanent sunspaces will cost more, but will have
vents. better wintertime performance depending on air-sealing,
Other design features for summer temperature control: insulation, and glazing. General payback can be difficult
to figure, as sunspaces need to be customized to their
• At mid-latitudes, vertical glazing receives only about half
application. For example, Mike Pelletier’s 221-square-foot
as much solar radiation in midsummer as in midwinter, so
sunspace in Colorado (see “Inspiring Sunspaces” sidebar)
it’s an automatic way to reduce summer overheating.
cost $4,500. According to PVWatts version 2, about 4.7
• An overhang above the south glazing that is sized to kWh per square meter per day fall on a vertical collector in
shade all or part of the glazing in midsummer but admit Gunnison, Colorado, on an average winter day. Pelletier’s
full sun during the heating season will help summer sunspace, then, could theoretically produce 118 kWh per day
overheating (see the overhang design tool in Access). [(270 ft.2 ÷ 10.76 ft.2/m2)(4.7 kWh/m2)]. Even if only 40% of
that energy is harvested, that would be equivalent to about
• Shade cloth can be used over all or part of the glazing
47 kWh per day. If the heating season is 4.5 months, that
during the summer. Choose a shade cloth density that
translates to more than 6,300 kWh per year—a savings of $630
admits the amount of sun you want.
at $0.10 per kWh, for a 7.1-year payback ($4,500 ÷ $630), plus
Heating on a Budget all the other benefits of having the sunspace. Your savings
LTMS additions can be built on very low budgets. One of the will vary depending on the sunspace’s efficiency, local fuel
most inexpensive sunspace strategies is to erect a half hoop costs, heating requirements, and solar insolation.
house (often used for greenhouses) against the south wall
of the house. Glazing can be two layers of greenhouse poly Access
with a small blower (30 cfm for a modest-sized sunspace) Gary Reysa (gary@BuildItSolar.com) is a retired airplane engineer living
to inflate the space between the poly layers. This could be in southwestern Montana who spends way too much time on solar
accomplished with a small DC blower wired to a single PV projects.
module. The floor should be covered with an insulating
Build It Solar LTMS section • bit.ly/BldItSolarLTMS
material—perhaps mulch or garden bark. Vents will need to
Inflation blower kit for greenhouses • bit.ly/InflatFanKit
be cut into the side of the house, or windows or doors can be
Overhang sizing tool • susdesign.com/tools.php
used, as long as there’s an inlet duct going down and an outlet
305-696-2504 16. This statement of ownership will be printed in the December/January 2014 issue of this
publication.
975 NW 95 St. 17. I certify that the statements made by me above are true and complete. Scott M. Russell,
Things that Work!
www.hydrocapcorp.com Miami, FL 33150 Operations Director, 9/25/13.
THINK SUNEARTH The SunEye saves time, wins more sales, and
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8425 Almeria Avenue, Fontana, CA 92335 Shade Measurement Tool
(909) 434-3100, FAX (909) 434-3101 Fast. Accurate. Professional.
Distributor inquiries welcome.
www.solmetric.com
homepower.com 79
Comment
Discuss
Vaughan Woodruff
Part 2:
Controls, Sensors & Tanks
by Chuck Marken
S
econd only to valve problems,
differential controllers and their
sensors have the largest failure
rates of all solar water heating (SWH)
components. Voltage spikes from
nearby lightning strikes are blamed for
many of the failures, but this is difficult
to verify. Differential controls monitor
two sensors: one placed at the collector
outlet and one placed at the storage
tank. At often-adjustable set points, the
controllers turn on pumps, blowers, or
motorized valves. Of the three control
components, my experience is that the
differential controls fail most often, with
sensors next.
homepower.com 81
SWH troubleshooting
Chuck Marken
required. If you have an older SWH system that uses a
discontinued controller, you can send it away for repair by
Conifer Solar Consulting (conifer-solar-consulting.com).
The top sensor is a 10K•ohm sensor; the bottom two are 1
Troubleshooting Storage Tanks K•ohm sensors. The multimeter is set at K•ohms and reads
1.095 K•ohms when connected to the middle 1 K sensor—close
Steel water storage tanks usually have some type of lining
to the reading for 68°F (see table at upper left).
to inhibit corrosion. A relatively new storage tank uses
polybutylene, a high-temperature plastic, for a liner, but
these tanks have fairly limited history and there’s little data The most common solar storage tank is a modified electric
available on any failure problems associated with them. water heater. Most are constructed of steel and lined with
Stainless tanks are typically more expensive than steel-lined glass, which helps minimize corrosion and keep domestic hot
tanks and have longer warranties and expected lifespans. water clear. Even though the tank is lined with glass, hairline
fractures in the lining can lead to the tank’s eventual corrosion
as the water reacts with the steel. The longevity of glass-lined
tanks varies from 10 to 20 years depending on local water
conditions. I have a storage tank in my basement installed in
1984 that is still holding water. This isn’t the norm, though; in
most places, steel-lined tanks have a 10-year lifespan.
outlet—evidenced
by the pipe fitting it) with your little finger will allow inspection. A broken tube
on top. must be replaced (about $10).
homepower.com 83
SWH troubleshooting
Expansion Tanks
Fluids—whether water or propylene glycol used in SWH
systems—expand when heated, which can cause enough
Repair Tip
pressure to trigger relief valves, causing fluid loss. Expansion If a storage tank has an electric element and needs to be
tanks (used in antifreeze systems) prevent this by giving the drained for component replacement or maintenance,
water an air space into which it can expand—but they can remember to turn off the electrical breaker supplying the
fail, too. power to the elements. If the element inside the tank is
In an expansion tank, a rubber bladder separates the fluid exposed to air and energized, it will burn out and need
from the air. The bladder assists in resisting corrosion of the replacement.
expansion tank if the fluid contains oxygenated water, such as in
a hydronic heating system. Antifreeze-based SWH systems are
closed loops that contain little or no oxygenated fluid once the
air has been expelled by an air relief valve, making them much
less likely to corrode. But they still require an expansion tank.
Manufacturers recommend that the expansion tank air
be charged to the same pressure as the liquid system. Many Drainback Tank Care
experienced installers charge the air side slightly less (2 to 3
psi) than the liquid, thinking that always having a little liquid Although drainback tanks aren’t typically lined, they also
in the tank will decrease the wear on the bladder touching the aren’t subjected to the corrosion-causing daily exchange
inside of the pipe fitting. As the liquid in the system gets hot, of oxygenated water that water heaters and storage tanks
endure. An important service check with drainback tanks is
it fills more of the expansion tank, pushing the bladder up. A
ensuring the water level is sufficient to cover the exchanger
tank that’s too small or severely undercharged relative to the coils. As with many specifications for SWH systems, a
liquid pressure upon it will show much higher readings on difference of opinion exists on what to use for the heat-
the pressure gauge when the liquid gets hot. transfer fluid (HTF) in a drainback system. My company
always used tap water, but some installers use distilled water.
homepower.com 85
code corner renewable energy and the national electrical code
A Peek at the
2014 NEC—Part 1
by Brian Mehalic
Code-Wide Changes
The definition for “Photovoltaic (PV) System” has been
moved out of Article 690 and now resides in Article 100,
“Definitions.” Perhaps the move indicates that PV is now
fully mainstream, and while the definition hasn’t changed, Three-phase string inverters ranging from 8 kW to 30 kW with a
it still has big implications when it comes to disconnects or maximum input voltage of 1,000 VDC are becoming common in
conductors sharing a raceway or junction box. commercial applications.
A more significant Code-wide change is 110.21(B), “Field-
Applied Hazard Markings.” PV systems have lots of labeling for one-and two family dwellings to 600 VDC, and although
requirements (see “Code Corner” in HP154), and now the 1,000 VDC systems were never prohibited on commercial
NEC mandates that Code-required labels effectively convey buildings, those applications are now specifically excluded
the hazard, be permanently affixed, and be suitable for the from the category of high-voltage systems, which will make
environment in which they are installed. Two Informational Code-compliant installation more straightforward. Expect
Notes reference ANSI Z535.4-2011 standards for guidance to see more 1,000 VDC systems in commercial applications
on effective words, colors, and symbols to use based as equipment manufacturers introduce more modules,
on the level of hazard, as well as location requirements inverters, and balance-of-system (BOS) components rated
and durability standards. While Informational Notes are for this voltage. Note that workspace clearances have not
recommendations, not enforceable requirements, following changed and are still different for systems greater than 600
the ANSI standards as a best practice will ensure that V [Table 110.34(A)] and systems less than or equal to 600 V
hazards are clearly identified, ideally with labeling that will [Table 110.26(A)(1)].
last for the system’s life.
Another Code-wide change is the reclassification of high Article 690: Solar Photovoltaic (PV)
voltage, as defined in Article 490, to “equipment operating Systems
at more than 1,000 volts.” This is reflected throughout In many cases, throughout Article 690, “photovoltaic” has
numerous other Articles, such as 690, Part IX, “Systems been abbreviated to “PV,” which helps to shorten the text.
over 1,000 Volts.” Section 690.7(C) still limits PV systems New definitions include:
DC-to-DC Converter: A device on a DC PV circuit that protection requirement to all systems with any DC circuits that
can manipulate voltage and current, such as products from have a maximum system voltage greater than or equal to 80 VDC.
SolarEdge, Tigo, and others. A major shift in rooftop system design comes with the new
Section 690.12, which requires the ability for rapid shutdown
Direct-Current (DC) Combiner: The Code says that basically of PV systems on or in buildings. Due to firefighter concerns
any devices where two or more DC inputs are paralleled about energized PV system conductors inside buildings or
to form one DC output fall into this category (including running across rooftops, this section now requires equipment
combiner boxes, and sub- or recombiners). that will limit voltage between any conductors (including
ground) to no more than 30 V and 240 volt-amperes within
Multimode Inverter: An inverter that can operate in both 10 seconds of initiating shutdown. This section applies to
utility-interactive and stand-alone modes, such as in grid-tied conductors that extend more than 5 feet inside a building,
with battery backup systems or SMA America’s Secure Power or extend more than 10 feet past the perimeter of the PV
Supply inverters. array. Systems with microinverters, AC modules, or DC-to-
DC converters already comply, as the AC interconnection
Section 690.4 was broadly titled “Installation,” and now is breaker provides this functionality, disabling the module-
more appropriately named “General Requirements.” Specific level electronics (MLEs) and isolating energized conductors
sections that dealt with installation, such as “Identification to those between the module and the MLEs.
and Grouping” and “Module Connection Arrangement” have While 30 V is less than the open-circuit voltage of many
been moved to “Part IV: Wiring Methods.” Others, such as modules, isolating energized PV conductors to within 10 feet
“Circuit Routing,” have been moved and modified—changed of the array—even if series connections are made prior to
to 690.31(G)(1), “Embedded in Building Surfaces,” which no that point—provides a compliant method for string-inverter-
longer addresses routing inside of a building. based systems. This strategy will require additional rooftop
switching (240 volt-amperes is the equivalent of 24 V at 10 A,
Protection: Ground-Fault, Arc-Fault, which could be used for a contactor control circuit for rapid
Overcurrent & Rapid Shutdown shutdown of rooftop combiner boxes). Section 690.56(C)
New requirements for ground-fault protection (GFP) mandate specifies the labeling requirement for rapid shutdown
detecting faults on intentionally grounded conductors, which systems; note that the equipment used must be listed and
some types of GFP devices cannot detect (the so-called “blind identified [690.12(5)], though the Code does not state that the
spot” in traditional GFP)—expect changes in manufacturer’s equipment must be explicitly listed for the purpose of rapid
inverter-integrated GFPs. New text also allows the GFP to shutdown of PV systems.
open (disconnect) the grounded conductor for the purposes of
measurement—a common startup procedure for some types of Disconnects
inverters and retrofit GFP systems. The grounded conductor Section 690.15(C) now requires load-break-rated disconnects
is automatically ungrounded and then insulation resistance on the DC output of combiner boxes mounted on roofs.
between positive and ground, and negative and ground, is These disconnects can either be integrated into the combiner
verified each day before the inverter begins operation. box or be an external switch not more than 6 feet away
Section 690.9(A) clarifies that when properly sized circuit from the combiner box. The disconnecting means can be
conductors are connected to current-limited sources, such remote-controlled (such as a contactor, which could also
as a PV module, PV source circuit, or a utility-interactive help meet rapid shutdown requirements), but must also
inverter, the potential for overcurrent comes from other be manually operable at the combiner box location. Along
sources of “significantly higher current.” The intention is with rapid shutdown requirements, this will make it less
that overcurrent protection devices (OCPDs) should be likely for installers to run multiple PV source circuits from
placed at the source of the potential fault current. Thus, a roof-mounted array to a string inverter at ground level. A
series fusing is located where multiple PV source circuits combiner box, which will provide means to quickly isolate
are connected in parallel in a combiner box, and the output the array, along with disconnecting means, will become
of a utility-interactive inverter is back-fed through a circuit the standard for roof-mounted systems, most likely with a
breaker or fused disconnect where it connects to the utility contactor that can be operated either from the ground or
grid. Note that 690.9(D) now requires “listed PV overcurrent locally on the roof.
devices in PV source and output circuits” and that 690.9(E)
clarifies that overcurrent protection is required on both the Access
positive and negative DC conductors in ungrounded PV Brian Mehalic (brian@solarenergy.org) is a NABCEP-certified PV
systems. professional and ISPQ-certified PV instructor. He has experience designing,
The requirements in section 690.11 for DC circuit arc-fault installing, servicing, and inspecting all types and sizes of PV systems. He is
protection have been expanded by removal of the phrase “on a curriculum developer and instructor for Solar Energy International.
or penetrating a building.” This, in effect, extends the arc-fault
homepower.com 87
home&heart tales of off-grid living
Pig +
Women +
Knives
by Kathleen Jarschke-Schultze
It’s not as easy as it looks. Peter showed Mary how to cut We learned how to tie a roast by practicing on a
a small slit—about two finger-widths—in the top edge of the porchetta—a pork loin and belly roulade seasoned with
hide. By hooking in your fingers there, you can get a good garlic, lemon, fennel, and rosemary. Again, this is a skill that
grip on the fat-covered piece. When my turn came, I held is harder to master than it looks. We figured that they retied
the hide up and tried to wield my very sharp knife smoothly the roasts as soon as we left.
along the line of fat to be rendered into lard. Obviously, this is After washing up, we were ushered to some picnic tables
a skill that benefits from repetition and technique. outside the shop where our lunch had been set up. The food
I wryly thought to myself, “Geez, I’m butchering this job!” was scrumptious. We talked and exchanged e-mail addresses
Then I thought, “If I was really butchering this job, I would so we could share our photos from the day.
be doing it right!” I have a deep and newfound respect for Upon re-entering the Fatted Calf, we each found a bag
butchers. with our name on it waiting for us at the counter. Our
Mary and I were cutting some very big loin chops while large, seasoned chop was in there, along with a couple of
Tamra was removing a kneecap at another table. Tamra the crépinettes and some seasoned, skewered pork we also
looked up at Peter and said, “This kneecap is kind of creepy.” made.
Peter agreed, “Yes, it is.”
After each of us had cut a chop, we placed them on a large A Taste of Salt
tray and seasoned the meat with an array of seasonings— The next step for me will be the salumi (salted meats) class
rosemary, lemon zest, and fennel pollen. at the Fatted Calf. I yearn to be able to produce the kind of
preserved meats I was eating off that tray. Meat curing is a
Charcuterie skill—and an art.
A counter—with a pitcher of ice water, glasses, and a tray of I am fascinated with the concept of preserving food
Fatted Calf charcuterie to tempt us—bridged the shop front without relying on electricity. It’s no wonder—living beyond
and the classroom. With a basket of sliced rustic bread from the grasp of the power lines makes Bob-O and me very
Model Bakery next door and a small bowl of cabbage pickle, conscious of every bit of energy we use. Plus, people have
our nosh was complete. Salami, mortadella, and prosciutto been preserving food without using electricity for centuries.
were the meats I could identify. As we finished one type of We have worked out some hygienic kinks along the way,
preserved meat, another variety would magically appear on making some techniques safer. But for the most part, this is
the tray. Next to the counter was a hand-washing station, so a well-traveled road. And I’m looking forward to the meal
it was easy to clean up, take a swig of water, and sample the stops along the way.
thinly sliced meaty goodness.
Once we were done with the sharp knives, they brought Access
out the wine. We sipped and learned how to use the cuts we Kathleen Jarschke-Schultze (kathleen.jarschke-schultze@homepower.com)
had mastered. We made spicy pork crépinettes—little herbed is finishing up the grand dried bean experiment at her off-grid home in
sausage patties wrapped in the lacy caul fat that surrounds northernmost California.
pig organs. The caul fat was really pretty. We joked about
using it as a pattern for crocheting a caul shawl.
SunDanzer
of the Year - 2011 DC Powered Refrigeration
homepower.com 89
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homepower.com 91
back page basics renewable energy 101
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(Zones 7 & 8)
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web extra
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to help find energy-efficient windows for your home.
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