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SINCE

1987 LET THE SUN IN! ATTACHED SUNSPACES THAT CURB HEATING COSTS

Fresh Perspective
Bold Design, Energy-Neutral

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contents december 2013 & january 2014

42 Main Features
34 pre-owned PV
Zeke Yewdall & Orion
Thornton
If you’re considering buying
a home or property with an
existing PV system, here’s what
to check before you make an
offer.

42 platinum PV
Kelly Davidson
A Colorado home incorporates
passive solar design, energy-
efficiency measures, and a PV
system to meet its energy needs
and earn a LEED Platinum
On the Web certification.

Photos, clockwise from upper left: Kelly Davidson, Harry Martin, Courtesy William Sikora, Chuck Marken, Orion Thornton, Jeff Tobe
Like us on Facebook!
Easily browse and share our content with
your Facebook friends. Enjoy special
On the Cover 54 site evaluation
Jeff Tobe
subscription offers, promotional discounts, A 7.02 kW grid-tied PV system with
reader comments, editors’ notes, and battery backup was designed to provide Taking the right steps to
much more: facebook.com/homepower all of the electricity for Kitty Brigham’s complete a thorough solar site
ultramodern home in Longmont,
survey can save you installation
Follow us on Twitter!   Colorado.
Photo: Topher Donahue
time and headaches later on.
Watch for bite-size article teasers,
renewable energy event information, sneak
peeks at upcoming coverage, subscription
specials, and topical retweets:
twitter.com/homepowermag

Share us
54
everywhere!
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Facebook, Twitter, Digg, StumbleUpon,
and many other services: 
homepower.com/articles

Events & Training 


Search, browse, or post an RE event or
training in your area.
homepower.com/events

Contractors Directory
Search more than 1,000 local service
providers to help with your project.
homepower.com/contractors

Back Issues 
Many print-edition back issues are
still available for purchase. To check
availability, contact us by phone or email.
A three-year subscription to Home Power
includes download access to the complete
back issue archive—150+ back issues in
PDF. homepower.com/subscribe

34
4 home power 158 • december 2013 & january 2014
december 2013 & january 2014
contents
Up Front More Features
6 from the crew 62 wind matters
Home Power crew Mick Sagrillo
Tower height to
Energy lessons What matters when it comes to hub includes
30 ft. rule, plus
siting and designing a reliable blade length

10 news & notes and well-performing wind-


Kelly Davidson electric system. Bottom of turbine’s
swept area at least
Efficient lighting 30 ft. higher than any
obstruction within

70 low-mass 500 ft.

14 gear sunspaces Mature tree height;


Sunnovations plan for future growth
Gary Reysa
The Ohm solar water
heating monitor Tap into the sun’s free heat with a
low thermal mass sunspace.
Morningstar
TriStar MPPT 600 V
charge controller 80 SWH troubleshooting
Chuck Marken
16 returns Part two of this three-part
Kelly Davidson series examines how to address
Black Rock Solar problems with solar water
heating controls, sensors, and
20 solutions tanks.
Whitney Painter
Solar car-charging
in Colorado
62
24 methods
Jeff Tobe
70
Measuring roof azimuth
In Back
26 mailbox 86 code corner
Home Power readers
Brian Mehalic
2014 Code changes
28 ask the
experts 88 home & heart
RE industry pros Kathleen Jarschke-
Renewable energy Q & A Schultze
Pig + Women + Knives

91 advertisers
index

92 back page
basics
Kelly Davidson
Window shopping

Home Power (ISSN 1050-2416) is published bimonthly

80
from offices in Phoenix, OR 97535. Periodicals postage
paid at Ashland, OR, and at additional mailing
offices. POSTMASTER: Send address corrections to
Home Power, PO Box 520, Ashland, OR 97520.

homepower.com 5
from the crew first words

Energy Lessons in Action


I
’ll admit it—I’m a data geek. So when we installed our
TED (The Energy Detective) 5000 whole-house electricity
meter, I found myself checking the numbers several times
a day—both our electricity consumption (yikes: dishwasher,
water heater, and drying diapers!) and PV production (yea:
sunny, cool days!).
Although my energy-miser habits are ingrained, there’s
something about watching a live report of your usage that’s
even more validating—or eye-opening. Invisible electricity
becomes visible when you have a real-time monitoring
system reporting on your habits.
I say that we’re a household of energy-savers, but that
comes with a caveat: My husband and I are, but my young
son is in training (and his baby sister will be, too, as soon
as she can reach a light switch). Like most frenetic 8-year-
olds, flitting from activity to activity, he tends to leave a
trail of lights behind him wherever he goes. No matter our
remonstrations and reminders, we can trace his path through
the house based on the lights that remain blazing, and are
forever retracing that trail, flipping off switches as we go.
One evening, though, as the washing machine’s cycle
ended and I was watching the watts drop on the display, it
dawned on me—my son might also be a number-nerd, and
watts might speak to him more powerfully than words.
For the umpteenth time, I informed him that the guest
bathroom’s light and his four bedroom lights were on. But
this time, before he darted down the hall to address his
conservation responsibilities, I had him check out the energy
monitor’s reading: 784 W.
After he shut off all of the lights, I had him take another
reading—and do the math. One hundred watts might seem
like small potatoes to us adults, but to an 8-year-old, 100
anythings are a staggering sum. His eyes widened, and he ran
Claire Anderson

back to his room to see which fixtures were the biggest energy
users. As he switched one light on, he called out to me so I
could report TED’s reading. He did this for all four bedroom
lights, hypothesizing that the little fan light was drawing the
most power (it was), but wondering why the closet light, Seeing was believing—and baby sister will also be learning
drawing the least amount of power, was the brightest (it’s a by watching what her big brother does.
tube fluorescent, unshielded). Yesterday, after he left for school, I opened his bedroom
These energy experiments were far more powerful in door and braced myself for the expected blaze of lights in his
convincing him than any conversation we could have had. room. Not a single bulb was burning.
—Claire Anderson, for the Home Power crew

Think About It...


“The vision must be followed by the venture. It is not enough to stare up the steps—we must step up the stairs.”
—Vance Havner

6 home power 158 • december 2013 & january 2014


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contact us Home Power—independently published since 1987

Make your Publishers Richard & Karen Perez


Executive Editor & CEO Joe Schwartz

AC Coupled

Managing Editor Claire Anderson
Art Director Ben Root

System Less Senior Editors Michael Welch, Ian Woofenden


Senior Technical Editor Justine Sanchez
Complex Technical Editor Erika Weliczko
Associate Editor Kelly Davidson
Graphic Artist Dave Emrich
Building Technology Editor Rachel Connor
Solar Thermal Editor Chuck Marken
Transportation Editor Bradley Berman
Columnists Kathleen Jarschke-Schultze
Ryan Mayfield, Brian Mehalic

Advertising Directors Kim Bowker, Connie Said


Operations Director Scott Russell
Data Manager Doug Puffer
Customer Service & Fulfillment Jacie Gray, Shannon Ryan

Home Power magazine


PO Box 520 • Ashland, Oregon 97520 • USA

homepower.com

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While Home Power magazine strives to publish only safe and accurate content, we assume no responsibility or liability for the use of
this information.

www.magnumenergy.com Interior paper is made from 85%–100% recycled material, including 20%–30% postconsumer waste.

home power 158 • december 2013 & january 2014


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news & notes renewable energy in the spotlight

LED vs. CF vs. Incandescent


Which light source has the smallest total life-cycle impact?
die fabrication, and the LED assembly). Low estimates
indicate that the LED package contributes to 0.10% of life-
cycle energy use, while high estimates show it could be
as much as 27%. The average indicates that LED package
manufacturing is likely at about 6.6% of total life-cycle energy
use.
The analysis concluded that LED replacements and CF
lamps are similar in their life-cycle energy consumption,
with the difference largely determined by the manufacturing
aspect. During their lifetime, LEDs and CF lamps consume
3,890 and 3,950 megajoules (MJ) per 20 million lumen-hours,
compared to an incandescent lamp’s energy consumption at

N
umber-nerds will rejoice in the graphs and data- 15,100 MJ per functional unit. The energy used to manufacture
crunching of an August 2012 U.S. Department of can be from four (CFs) to eight (LEDs) times as much as an
Energy (DOE) study—Life-Cycle Assessment of Energy incandescent.
and Environmental Impacts of LED Lighting Products—which By 2015, if LED lamps meet performance targets, their
assessed the results of 10 other studies and compared the life-cycle energy use is expected to decrease by approximately
total life-cycle impacts of LED, CF, and incandescent lamps. 50%, which will give them a big efficiency gain over both
The results weren’t surprising—spoiler alert! LEDs came out CF and incandescent lamps. Improvements to current
overall life-cycle energy impacts of these products
manufacturing methodsare notand
considered in this report
procedures are due to lack of
expected to
on top—but the slim margin between the top two efficiency
available manufacturing energy data. However, halogen lamp use-phase energy consumption
contenders was. reduce the manufacturing energy use, but the biggest gain
estimates are provided for comparison to other technologies.
The three-part study looked at the energy required for lamp will likely be due to an increase in LED lamp efficiency,
use, manufacturing, transport, and disposal.Figure
SinceES.1
the lumen resulting
indicates that the averagein fewer watts
life-cycle energyrequired
consumption to provide the same
of LED lamps amount
and CFLs
output and lifetime for each lamp type are notareequivalent,
similar, at approximately
the of lumens.
3,900 MJ per 20 million lumen-hours. This is about one quarter of
study measured each lamp’s energy use with the incandescent
a “functional lamp energy consumption
By 2030, the—DOE 15,100forecasts
MJ per functional
that LEDunit. By 2015,
lighting willifrepresent
LED
lamps meet their
unit” of 20 million lumen-hours—the estimated service life of performance 74% targets,
of their
lumen-hour life-cycle
sales energy
in the is expected
U.S. generalto decrease
illumination by market.
approximately
a single 12.5 W LED lamp (60 W incandescent replacement) one half. In addition,
From 2010based
to on this
2030, analysis,
the the
cumulative “use” phase
energy of incandescent,
savings is estimated
over its lifetime. An incandescent or CFcompact lamp fluorescent
provides and LED to belamps is the
2,700 most energy intensive
terawatt-hours, whichphase, on accounting
at 2010 energy pricesfor and
less lighting service than the functional approximately 90 percent of total life-cycle energy. This is followed by the manufacturing
continued onand
page 12
unit value, so in order to make an transport phases, respectively with transport representing less than one percent of life-cycle
Life-Cycle Energy of Incandescent, CF & LED Lamps
apples-to-apples comparison, life-cycle energy for all lamp types.
energy estimates are multiplied by the
16,000
number of lamps needed to reach this
(Million BTU/20 Million Lumen-Hours)

14
Transport
equivalence. 14,000
Bulk Material Manufacturing
According to the analysis, the “use”
(MJ/20 Million Lumen-Hours)

LED Package Manufacturing 12


12,000
Energy Consumption

phase of incandescent, CF, and LED Use


Energy Consumption

lamps is the most energy-intensive 10


10,000
portion, accounting for approximately
8
90% of a lamp’s total life-cycle energy. 8,000
The manufacturing and transport phases 6
6,000
follow, respectively—with energy use
due to transportation representing 4,000 4
less than 1% of life-cycle energy for
2,000 2
all lamp types. The uncertainty with
Courtesy U.S. DOE

LED life-cycle assessment centers on 0 0


the manufacturing of the LED package Incandescent Halogen (use only) CFL LED (2011) LED (2015)
~ 22 lamps ~ 27 lamps ~ 3 lamps ~ 1 lamp ~ 0.6 lamps
(including substrate production, LED
Figure ES. 1 Life-Cycle Energy of Incandescent Lamps, CFLs, and LED Lamps
10 home power 158 • december 2013 & january 2014
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news & notes renewable energy in the spotlight
continued from page 10

Number of Lamps to Supply 20 Million Lumen-Hours a 2017 LED, for example, are predicted
to be about 50% lower than the 2012 LED
and 70% lower than the CF.
Incandescent Lamp Compact Fluorescent LED Lamp
(IND) Lamp (CFL)
A variety of LED, CF, and
60 Watt 15 Watt 12.5 Watt incandescent lamps—a total of 22
900 Lumens 900 Lumens 800 Lumens samples, representing 11 different
1,000 lifetime hours 8,500 lifetime hours 25,000 lifetime hours models—were tested to determine
~ 22 Incandescent lamps ~ 3 CFL lamps ~1 LED lamp whether any of 17 elements were present
Courtesy U.S. DOE

at levels exceeding California or federal


regulatory thresholds for hazardous
waste. Most of the lamps were found to
Figure 4.1 Number of Lamps Needed to Supply 20 Million Lumen-Hours 6 be well above the California threshold
for copper, regardless of technology,
As shown in Figure 4.1, sinceconditions
electricity-generation-mix the incandescent lamp has
represents a lumen output of 900and
approximately lumens and an
some approached or exceeded the threshold for nickel.
operating lifetime of 1,000 hours one would need twenty-two lamps to provide 20 million
$250 billion in savings and a greenhouse-gas emission reduction The selected models were generally found to be below
lumen-hours of lighting service. Similarly for a CFL with an output of 900 lumens and an
of roughly 1,800 million metric tons of carbon dioxide. thresholds for federal regulation. The study noted that the
operating lifetime of 8,500 hours one would need three lamps. All energy consumptions values
The environmental
presented within this report impact of ofthe
are in terms incandescent
the energy needed to lamp’s
supply 20 milliongreatest sources of hazardous waste were the metal screw
lumen-hours
energy useservice.
of lighting were markedly more significant than for CF and bases, drivers, ballasts, and wires or filaments—the diodes
LED lamps because of its low efficiency. The CF lamp is slightly themselves generally did not cause LED lamps to exceed
more Manufacturing
4.2 harmful than thePhase
2012 LED lamp against all but one thresholds
In this report
criterion: the manufacturing
hazardous waste sent phase
to encompasses
the landfill.three
Theof the fiveand
energy life-cycle phases: primary —Compiled by Kelly Davidson
resource acquisition, raw material processing, as well as manufacturing and assembly. The
environmental impact of the manufacturing of the aluminum
manufacturing phase is presented as a lump sum due to variations in how the studies presented
heat sink used in LEDs causes the impacts to be slightly greater
the LEDand than for the CF. The study notes that heat sinks
manufacturing.
web extra
data for these different phases and the difficultly in determining the boundaries between material
forprocessing
should diminish in size for succeeding generations of LED Read the full report at bit.ly/LampTech.
4.2.1 asMethod
lamps efficiency gains are made. Environmental impacts of
In order to characterize the manufacturing energy use of incandescent, CFL and LED lighting
technologies, the first step was to assemble all pertinent data from the ten life-cycle reports into a
database. The data recorded included lamp type, performance characteristics, component
masses, functional unit, and energy consumption. Each study provided differing levels of
disaggregation for their manufacturing analysis. Many provided direct estimates of
manufacturing phase energy use reporting either in terms of primary or secondary energy.
However, not all studies focused on life-cycle energy impacts. Several investigated other
Trust is good – control is better.
environmental impacts such as global warming potential, water quality, toxicity and air
pollution. It was determined that secondary and primary energy, global warming potential
(measured in carbon dioxide equivalents or CO 2 -eq), and lamp component masses estimates
provided within the previous studies can all be converted into a standardized
Monitorform your
for energy
system quickly and effectively any time
comparison within this report. All estimates are converted to megajoules of(MJ)
dayoforprimary
nightenergy
through a maintenance contract with
your installer or portal operator. It provides both with
6
The lifetime hours listed in Figure 4.1 refers to the useful life of the lighting productaccess toinclude
and does not WEB "Commercial Edition" -
our any
Solar-Log
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gear cutting-edge equipment & tools

Sunnovations’ Ohm
SWH Production Meter
The ohm is a familiar unit for measuring electrical resistance
It’s also a new solar heating monitor from solar water
heating manufacturer Sunnovations (ohm.sunnovations.
com). The Ohm is a production meter for residential use that
eliminates the need and costs of an inline flow meter. The
Ohm uses a resistance temperature device to measure the
tank temperature and calculate the gain for each day. The
Ohm requires Internet access at your home and uses a third-
party website to access monitoring data. The company has
published on its website the results of independent testing of
<This product is still not ready. There is not even 2 weeks the unit’s accuracy.
of data on the web site yet, and what is there says “No data is —Chuck Marken
Courtesy Sunnovations

available for display” in nearly all instances. Also, it is really


weird that the verification process only tested usage, and not
solar input.>

14 home power 158 • december 2013 & january 2014


cutting-edge equipment & tools
gear

Morningstar’s TriStar
TS-MPPT 600 V Charge Controller
Morningstar (morningstarcorp.com) has introduced its TS-
MPPT-600V charge controller for PV array open-circuit
voltage (Voc) of up to 600 VDC; a nominal battery voltage
of 48 VDC; and a 60-amp maximum output current. High-
voltage input can yield many advantages, such as smaller-
diameter (less expensive) wire for long wire runs between the
array and controller. Since more PV modules can be wired in
series before reaching 600 VDC, the controller can eliminate
parallel wire runs and a combiner box. Additionally, adding
battery backup to a typical high-voltage grid-tied system can
be accomplished without having to rewire the array. The
TS-MPPT-600V has four-stage charging (MPPT, absorption,
Courtesy Morningstar

float, and equalize), utilizes open communications protocols,


and has several options for communication ports (Ethernet,
EIA-485, RS-232, and MeterBus).
—Justine Sanchez

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homepower.com 15
returns giving back with renewables

Black Rock Solar Shines


I
n 2007, when the Nevada state legislature established the
SolarGenerations rebate program for customers of NV
Energy, the state’s largest utility, entrepreneurs Tom Price The “Burning” Backstory
and Richard Scott saw an opportunity. SolarGenerations The idea that sparked Black Rock Solar came at the 2007
provided upfront rebates for installations on public buildings, Burning Man festival, an eight-day counterculture arts festival
including nonprofits, churches, schools, and tribal offices. held annually in Nevada’s Black Rock desert. The festival—
The duo devised a plan to provide free or low-cost PV themed “The Green Man” that year—attracted a company looking
to promote their green and clean-tech wares. Renewables
systems through the rebates and other public funding. They
Ventures, a San Francisco renewable energy company, donated
founded the Reno-based nonprofit Black Rock Solar (BRS, a 30 kW PV system to help power lights for the festival. A crew
blackrocksolar.org), assembled a crew of volunteers, and from Burning Man’s Department of Public Works installed the
began knocking on doors and cold-calling prospective clients. array, in the shape of the Zuni sun, on the desert floor.
Six years later, BRS’s 25-person crew has installed more than
After the festival, the Burning Man crew—which included
3 megawatts of PV throughout the state—including 201 kW employees Tom Price and Richard Scott—moved the donated
at Western Nevada College in Carson City; 45 kW at the array to an elementary school in the neighboring town of Gerlach.
Children’s Cabinet Youth Center in Reno; and 91 kW for With state rebates, the original array was expanded to 90 kW,
buildings operated by the Fallon Paiute Shoshone Tribe. providing the school with 30% of its electricity needs and saving
“Many schools, nonprofits, and tribes don’t consider the town government more than $15,000 per year. The success
of the Gerlach school project led Price and Scott to develop
solar because they think they cannot afford the upfront costs.
another 30 kW project at Pershing General Hospital in the town
We help them take advantage of all the available incentives
of Lovelock.
and raise additional funds through donations,” says Patrick
McCully, BRS executive director. “In the end, our clients At the end of 2007, the two established Black Rock Solar. In
those early days, Burning Man and its board provided key
pay very little, if anything, for the installation, and they save
advice, technical assistance, and financial support to help BRS
hundreds, even thousands, in electricity costs each year. get off the ground. The festival continues to show its support for
That’s money they can use to support their missions.” BRS—customers who buy Burning Man tickets online can also
donate funds to BRS. Additionally, Burning Man allows BRS to
use space in its San Francisco office rent-free.
True to its roots, BRS returns to Burning Man every year. In 2014,
look for them in the Everywhere Pavilion, where the Burning Man
Pyramid Lake School in Nixon, Nevada, is partially powered by a outreach groups gather and host events.
solar array installed by Black Rock Solar.

Once funding is in place, BRS’s crew installs the system.


In return, clients sign over all or a portion of the rebates they
receive. This amount is typically equal to one to three years
of the estimated electricity savings from the system output,
says McCully.
In the past, the majority of BRS’s funding to pay its
staff and support its administrative operations came from
Courtesy Black Rock Solar & Candice Nyando

the SolarGenerations rebates collected from clients. Funded


through a small surcharge on NV Energy’s customers, the
rebates paid as much as $5 per watt at one point for PV
systems installed on public buildings. Since government
agencies, nonprofits, and schools are tax-exempt and unable
to take the federal tax credit, the NV Energy rebates have been
especially important for promoting Nevada’s solar growth in
this sector, McCully says.
continued on page 18

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But as the price of PV has dropped,


so have the rebates. In 2013, the state’s
public utility commission approved
NV Energy’s proposal to reduce the
solar rebates for public buildings to $1
per watt, down from $2.80 per watt
during the previous phase. Now, NV
Energy is proposing that rebates be
cut even more, down to $0.1724 per
watt for public buildings. The utility
had plans to reopen the program for Courtesy Black Rock Solar
applications starting November 1, 2013.
Though this release is scheduled to
be the utility’s last round of upfront
incentives, McCully doubts that such
low-level incentives will be enough to
make the initial costs of a new solar Students from Hunter Lake Elementary School in Reno visit the Pyramid Lake Paiute
project affordable for nonprofits Tribal Museum and Cultural Center. Students learn about renewable energy and Paiute
culture at the museum, which is partially powered by a Black Rock Solar array.
and schools already facing budget
challenges.

With the proposed cuts, BRS’s time in Nevada may


BRS Project Snapshots be coming to an end. The nonprofit is exploring several
options, including moving its operations across state lines to
The Shade Tree • theshadetree.org On any given day, roughly California, where incentives are still available. However, the
350 women and children may reside at The Shade Tree shelter group remains hopeful that this summer’s acquisition of NV
in Las Vegas. The shelter provides beds, meals, and support
Energy by Warren Buffett’s MidAmerican Energy may be a
services for women, children, and their pets who are escaping
domestic violence and other difficulties. For the donation- game-changer in the long run, given that MidAmerican is a
reliant shelter, every dollar counts. Last year, BRS installed a major owner and developer of solar projects.
31.1 kW PV array atop a carport built on the shelter’s campus, In the meantime, BRS is wrapping up what may be its
helping the shelter save more than $5,000 annually. “BRS was last SolarGenerations rebate-funded installation—a 31 kW
so compassionate about our mission that they performed the rooftop PV system for Friends In Service Helping (FISH), one
installation at night so all the workers were off-site during the of northern Nevada’s biggest charities, which serves more
day, when our victims are awake and moving about the campus.
than 200,000 free meals a year. Rebates covered most of the
This approach allowed the project to be completed without even
one client feeling fearful that her identity may be discovered,” system cost, and BRS partnered with the Las Vegas-based
says Marlene Richter, The Shade Tree executive director. charity Green Our Planet to raise $12,000 via an online crowd-
funding campaign. The system, due to be operational by early
Boys & Girls Club of Truckee Meadows • bgctm.org In May
2011, BRS completed a 75 kW PV array on the club’s roof,
2014, will be installed on the roof of FISH’s thrift store in
saving about $12,500 annually. “The [savings are] put into our downtown Carson City.
programs and services for Reno kids,” says Rick Stevens, For now, BRS is sustaining its operations by relying more
director of operations for the club. “Perhaps most importantly, it heavily on donations and grants for its education work, which
shows our members and the kids that clean energy is something includes a field-trip program where grade-school students
that can be practical.” learn about renewable energy and energy conservation while
Yerington Paiute Tribe • ypt-nsn.gov BRS installed three PV visiting BRS project sites. Funding from clients, as well as
arrays for the Yerington tribe in 2011, melding technology and in-kind and subsidized donations of solar goods from the
artistry. One 30 kW ground-mounted array at the tribe’s medical industry, has grown in importance as the incentives have
clinic resembles a stylized sun. Another 30 kW ground-mounted declined.
array at the tribe’s administrative building takes the shape of a
—Kelly Davidson
gavel, the tribe’s emblem. A 15 kW ground-mounted array at
the tribe’s commodities building is in a basket-weave pattern,
representing an important element of the Tribe’s culture. But the
arrays are much more than static sculptures. All told, these three
arrays save the Tribe an estimated $14,300 every year—more than
$350,000 over the next 25 years of their estimated service life.

18 home power 158 • december 2013 & january 2014


solutions ingenuity in renewable energy

Solar Car-Charging
in Colorado
I
n anticipation of an electric vehicle purchase, this PV and engineered, the structure was built with hand-notched
charging station was constructed in 2009. Due to a lag in beetle-kill Colorado pine from a local family’s forestry
availability, the all-electric Mitsubishi i-MiEV arrived in operation. The cobblestone-style driveway was constructed
2012. with remnants from the slab driveway removed to make
The home was already equipped with a 2.88 kW batteryless way for the project, as well as construction debris from a
grid-tied system on its detached garage, which offset more than neighboring property.
100% of the household’s annual electricity use. However, with Sanyo Double-HIT modules were chosen for the batteryless
increased usage anticipated for charging an electric vehicle, a grid-tied array, both for their aesthetic and production benefits.
suitable location was needed for an additional array. The semi-transparent cells allow some light to pass through,
The carport was designed to provide covered parking and gently illuminating the carport during the day. The underside
the EV charging station. Because the carport is visible from of the modules collect reflected sunlight, boosting the array’s
the street, its appearance was a priority. Custom-designed production by about 5%. This increased productivity would
help make up for increased afternoon
shading from a large conifer on the west
side of the property that reduces annual
production by about 9%.
The car-charging system generates
about 2,750 kWh per year—providing
enough energy for 11,170 miles of
driving. In the past 18 months, the
vehicle has logged about 16,800 miles—
and the electricity it uses for recharging
is well-matched with the PV system’s
generation capacity.
Utilized for day-to-day business
travel along Colorado’s Front Range,
the electric vehicle is equipped with a
16 kWh battery. Although a full charge
is rarely required, the carport’s level 2
charger (240 VAC) can provide a full
charge in about five hours; a level 1
charger (120 VAC) performs this task
in about 16 hours. The same port is
used for either type of charge. Most EV
owners have level 2 chargers at home,
and some public charging stations are
level 2 as well. However, with the
same port, the level 1 charge can be
delivered from any standard outlet, as
well as some charging stations, which
Courtesy Buglet Solar Electric

increases options and flexibility for the


EV driver.
Vehicle range is variable,
depending on seasonal temperatures
and terrain traveled. A mountainous
continued on page 22

20 home power 158 • december 2013 & january 2014


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solutions ingenuity in renewable energy
continued from page 20

60-mile summertime one-way trip from Golden (elevation


5,675 feet) over the Continental Divide at Berthoud Pass
(elevation 11,306 feet) and into Winter Park (elevation 10,578 Overview
feet) is not unusual, but during colder months the battery’s
System type: Batteryless grid-tied PV
decreased capacity makes such a trip impossible.
Experience indicates an average battery bank range of Owners/installer: Whitney Painter & Bart Sheldrake /
Buglet Solar Electric
about 85 miles during warmer months to about 50 miles in
the coldest months, depending upon terrain. Regenerative Date commissioned: August 2009
braking noticeably increases battery capacity—and vehicle Location: Golden, Colorado
range—in downhill driving or stop-and-go traffic, compared
Latitude: 40°
to highway travel. Familiarity with the vehicle’s performance
in various conditions grows with time—similar in many ways Average daily peak sun-hours: 5
to the experience of a household adjusting to an off-grid PV System capacity: 2.3 kW STC
system. You learn to adjust energy consumption habits as
Average annual production: 2,750 kWh AC
energy production allows.
The household couples the EV with a biodiesel-powered Average annual utility bill offset: 100%
Volkswagen Jetta TDI wagon for longer travel. “Most Equipment Specifications
households have two cars, and it makes sense that one of the
Modules: 12 Sanyo Double-HIT HIP190DA
vehicles is mostly for trips closer to home,” says homeowner
Bart Sheldrake. “It’s really convenient to charge our car Module rating: 190 W STC
at home, and we’re glad to know that we’re fueling our Inverter: Fronius IG2000
transportation with solar energy.” Since adding the electric Inverter rated output: 2 kW
vehicle in 2012, the household continues to accrue credit on its
Array installation: Custom carport
bidirectional meter despite recharging the car daily.
—Whitney Painter Array azimuth & tilt: 154°, 12°

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methods renewable energy tips & tricks

Measuring Roof Azimuth


K
nowing what direction a roof faces (its azimuth) is
important to accurately estimate a roof-mounted Online Siting
PV array’s generation potential. With the use of a Solmetric provides a free online tool that can determine your
compass and magnetic declination, a roof’s orientation can be roof’s azimuth. Just enter your address and use a screen cursor
determined using these few simple steps. to point to the edge of your roof (see bit.ly/SolmTools). To use
the tool, you will need to register on Solmetric’s website.
1. Align the base of the compass with the edge of the roof.
Select “Roof Azimuth Tool” from the drop-down menu under
Most compasses will have an indicating arrow that will be
the “Support” tab at the top of Solmetric’s home page. Log in
perpendicular to the roof edge. with your username and password, and a map of the United
2. Rotate the compass dial so the needle is aligned to the States will appear with a text box at the top to enter the
property address. Once the address has been entered, an
magnetic north-and-south axis.
overhead image of the property will appear for viewing. Next,
3. Adjust the compass dial to compensate for the local click on the “Azimuth Tool” button located at the top of the
magnetic declination. You can find your magnetic satellite image just to the right of the address text box. A
crosshair will appear for you to move and establish a reference
declination at bit.ly/CalcDeclination.
point for measuring the roof azimuth. Use the crosshair to click
a. For eastern declinations, the dial is rotated on two points at either end of the roof edge. Once the two
counterclockwise, subtracting the declination value points have been established, the tool automatically draws a
line along this roof edge indicating the orientation to true south,
from the current compass reading.
which is also shown in the “Azimuth (true)” text box. (See “PV
-or- Site Evaluation” on page 54 for an example.)
b. For western declinations, the dial is rotated clockwise,
adding the declination value to the current compass
reading. Smartphone Siting
4. The compass bearing that aligns with the indicating arrow If you have location services enabled, the compass app on
your smartphone likely corrects for magnetic declination
is the roof’s azimuth. The photos demonstrate finding roof
automatically. Just align the phone with the roof edge and
orientation with an eastern declination of 8°. read the value. However, be aware that interference can create
—Jeff Tobe inaccurate readings.

Align the bottom edge of the compass Rotate the dial to align the black needle Adjust for declination (8°E), and read the
with the roof’s edge. with the north arrow. value at the arrow (152°).
Jeff Tobe (3)

24 home power 158 • december 2013 & january 2014


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mailbox letters from readers

Solar Hot-Tub Controls In 2011, you published my letter about the right climate, will warm up slowly during
In HP157, Karim Wingedheart asked how to widespread use of electric bicycles and the day, when the outside temperature is
keep his solar-powered hot tub water at a tricycles in China. Minisplits are another warmer than the interior temperature, and
constant 103°F. We had this same challenge example of technology that has been used will then radiate that heat in both directions
with our open-loop, solar-heated, 550-gallon in developing countries for a long time, but (inside and outside) at night, when the
cedar hot tub. We live in Arizona, and which are now being discovered and used in outdoor temperature is cooler than you’d
without regulation of such a heating system, developed countries. want inside.
the water would often be too hot for comfort.
Robert Boardman • via email In short, high-mass walls provide a
To regulate water temperature, we temperature-moderating effect. For an
purchased a differential temperature Solar Sisters exterior high-mass wall to work well, this
controller from Art-Tec Solar. The controller Many thanks to Home Power for providing means that the average outside temperature
compares the temperature set point to the the space and to Justine Sanchez for over the course of the day be close to an
water temperature of the hot tub and the writing “Support Solar Sisters” in HP157. acceptable indoor temperature—i.e., your
temperature in the solar collector, turning I thought I was alone in feeling disgusted climate must have a fairly wide temperature
the circulation pump on only if the water by “booth babes” at recent solar trade swing. In some parts of the United States,
temperature in the collector is higher than shows. People told me that it’s even worse such as the desert Southwest, this is fairly
the tub water’s temperature, and the hot tub at European shows, but that sure does not common.
water is lower than the temperature setpoint. make me feel better. Justine highlighted But if you’re talking about the humid
The controller remains the brains of our how disheartening it is as the mother of Southeast (like Florida), I don’t think the
solar-heating system. Without it, we were a young girl, and I wholeheartedly agree! nighttime temperature gets cold enough in
faced with the same challenges as Karim. She also noted that she avoids these booth the summer for the average temperature
We hope this helps. areas when attending a conference; I would to be acceptable. Similarly, in many parts
add that I refuse to do business with those of northern United States, the average
Dominick McCutcheon • vendors. wintertime temperature is far too cold to be
San Tan Valley, Arizona
I have been a successful business owner and acceptable. Even in those regions, though,
NABCEP-certified installer for seven years. you could be clever and put a high-mass wall
Minisplits in China It continues to amaze me how surprised inside a well-insulated building envelope.
I read about ductless minisplit heat pumps in That way they work together to naturally
people are that I—a woman—choose to
HP157. I was both surprised and intrigued to keep the indoor temperature acceptable.
engage in intelligent technical conversation.
see this heating system mentioned in Home High-mass walls are valuable, but please
The solar industry has enough entrenched
Power. I have been to China twice in the last don’t try to make them be something that
ideas to deal with as we offer options to
two years. These units are in service in many they’re not.
replace fossil fuel and old ways of doing
thousands—probably millions—of homes in
things. Let’s work together as an industry Lloyd Brown via homepower.com
China. In 2011, I used a minisplit unit to keep
to shine when it comes to such gender
my hotel room cool in July. This year, I used
stereotypes and bias. Support solar sisters!
a minisplit to heat and cool the apartment I Amnesty for Solar Guerrilla
lived in for five months. The writer says these Rebecca Lundberg • via email In 1999, I was Solar Guerrilla #0006 (see
units can be installed on exterior walls. In HP73). A few months ago, I got a call from
China, they are installed on whatever wall Compressed Earth a representative of my electric utility (it’s a
the installer chooses. One can hope the unit I read Josh Denney’s letter about public utility district; PUD) telling me that
is powerful enough to distribute hot or cold compressed earth buildings in HP155 with the new smart meter installed at my house
air throughout the home no matter where in interest. I think he’s confusing the high last summer detected “reverse energy.”
the home it is placed, but this is not always R-value wall structures (what the original When they asked if I knew of a reason for
the case. article was talking about), with high thermal- this—and asked if I have solar panels—I
mass wall structures. While there are benefits saw no point in trying to hide (plus, the PVs
Retrofit minisplits on apartments to both, the high-R-value wall has a much are mounted out in the yard). I said, “Yes,
in China. wider applicability. A wall with high levels of but my charge controller was supposed to
insulation is able to resist the temperature prevent that from happening.”
difference between inside and outside. This
The caller, who turned out to be the energy
is valuable for a high-performance home
services manager, asked if he could see
in nearly all climates, and is really just an
the installation the next afternoon and drop
extension of the well-understood design of
off a net-metering application. I agreed,
a modern home.
expecting that he’d turn around and get
On the other hand, a high-mass wall back in his car when he found out that
(masonry, concrete, water, etc.) is it wasn’t a county-permitted, licensed-
completely different. It has very little electrician-installed, AHJ-inspected system.
insulation value, which means that it can’t During his visit, he asked about the system
Courtesy Robert Boardman

support a temperature differential across it generation capacity and anti-islanding


for very long. What it can do, though, is protections, and dropped off the six-page
absorb a lot of energy, very slowly, with a application, all the while talking like it was a
fairly small temperature change. A properly done deal—just fill out the forms and send
built and designed high-mass wall, in the them in and he’d rubber-stamp them.

26 home power 158 • december 2013 & january 2014


letters from readers
mailbox
I filled out the application, including a one- Monetizing Sunshine

Courtesy Joe Marshall


line system diagram and a layout drawing I enjoyed Andy Kerr’s “Monetizing Sunshine”
showing the spatial relationship of the in HP154.
ground-mounted array, house, utility meter,
There is one very major factor that is not
and service drop, and sent it in via email the
considered with solar as an “investment.”
day after his visit. The next afternoon, I got
If you have money to invest in solar, you
an email from him telling me the application
then subtract utility costs from other
was approved. The email also included a
investment returns you are considering.
copy of the signed contract.
In other words, if you choose to invest in
It’s done—my system is legit with the utility! a mutual fund instead of solar electricity,
All I can figure is that the last 14 years wore you subtract your utility cost from your
them down. I ran out the clock, and now mutual fund returns. If a solar-electric
that they have all these darned smart meters array costs $15,000 out of pocket and
that are ringing bells and flashing red lights returns $80,000 in savings—that’s good.
down at the administration building, they are The same $15,000 invested in a mutual
bringing everyone they can into the fold so fund may return $100,000, but you’ve still
that they can concentrate on more important paid the $80,000 in utility costs.
stuff. Amazing! No permits, no inspections,
Now consider what you do with the savings. A DIY-installed grid-tied array in Hawaii.
no electricians, and most mind-blowing, no
If you pay off your array in five years, and
lockable disconnect!
then invest the savings in an individual
Exactly one week from the initial phone retirement account—well, now you’re
contact, a crew of two workers from the talking. Because—work with me now—to Using my average electricity bill for the
utility’s meter shop installed a newer smart pay a $100 electric bill, you have to earn past 12 months, my system will be paid
meter that can recognize reverse energy as almost $150 in order to also cover taxes. for in about 1.5 years. My first month of
net production. Afterward, I turned off my Which means you can now save roughly production was a touch over 1 MWh. When I
Frankenstein dump load controller and just 150% of your utility cost, tax-deferred. tell people I installed the system myself, the
let their meter sort it all out. I was catching Your out-of-pocket is the same, but you response is always: “Really?” Yes, really.
99% of the PV surplus before, so I didn’t are paying yourself $150 instead of $100 to This was not that difficult. It did take some
expect to see a big advantage. Now, I’m utility and $50 to Uncle Sam. planning and learning. There are tons of
entering the fourth month of net metering free online videos to help with the learning
R. Schorert via homepower.com
with a 38 kWh surplus. curve. My equipment supplier had answers
to any question I asked. I tell people, “If you
Of course, I’ve also spent a fair bit of time DIY PV System can hang a picture and insert a plug into an
since fiddling with my newly installed hydro Living in Hawaii means great year-round outlet, you should be able to do this. The
project. If I’m going to get paid for stuffing weather, but one of the downsides is that I only difference is that you’re doing it on a
electrons back into the grid, I’m going to get like my air-conditioning, and the cost I pay roof.”
good at doing it. (They pay wholesale rate to keep my house at a comfortable 80°F is
for any production over parity at the year- high. With a good solar insolation rate here Thanks Home Power magazine for your
end even-up time.) on Oahu, and specifically in Ewa Beach, great articles that encourage DIYers to take
I started pricing solar-electric systems so on projects such as this. My next project is to
So, back in 1999, I was Solar Guerrilla
I could save on my electricity bill. Prices convert an early Mustang to full electric—a
#0006, and in 2013, I’m Owner-Generator
ranged from $30,000 to $60,000, installed. perfect island solution to our high gasoline
#19 for the local PUD.
Leases tied me to a contract for 20 years. prices. Thanks again.
Solar Guerrilla #0006 • via email Frustrated, I asked the question that many Joe Marshall • Ewa Beach, Hawaii
DIYers ask—is there a cheaper way to do it,
The old guerrilla and are there others who have tackled this
PV array and new themselves?
legit net meter.
After some Internet research, I found
Home Power magazine (which I promptly
subscribed to) and links to solar suppliers.
My research began in February 2013, and
my system started producing energy on July
27, 2013. I have 26, 250-watt polycrystalline write to:
modules with Enphase M-215 microinverters.
mailbox@homepower.com
The system cost—including shipping from
California to Hawaii—was about $15,000. or Mailbox, c/o Home Power
Courtesy Solar Guerrilla #0006

Additional costs (drawings, electrician, PO Box 520, Ashland, OR 97520


permit, parts) amounted to $2,500. After my
Published letters are edited for content
tax credits, the total cost should be around and length. Due to mail volume, we
$6,000. That’s a big difference from the regret that unpublished letters may not
low-end $30,000 quote I got for a turnkey receive a reply.
installed system.

homepower.com 27
ask the experts renewable energy Q&A

Potential-Induced Degradation
Reduction of a Solar-Electric
Module’s Efficiency Over Time

Frame

Glass Encapsulant

N
P

Back
Antireflective contact
Migrating
coating Backsheet electrons

Transformerless Inverters & PV Degradation


I read that potential-induced degradation (PID), the reduction Another factor is the antireflective coating—some types, while
of a solar-electric module’s efficiency over its lifetime, is sped improving efficiency, also make modules more prone to PID. How
up by the use of transformerless grid-tied inverters, which allow the silicon’s cells are layered (for example, back-contact cells in
the modules to cycle electrons at the grid’s AC frequency. which the P and N layers are flipped) also affect the module’s PID
Module manufacturers are advertising PID-free modules, which propensity.
supposedly counteract this problem.
The third major factor affecting PID is the array’s polarization and
Transformer-based inverters don’t cycle and have a constant flow voltage. Most negatively grounded arrays are not affected by PID.
of electrons. So would using one allow my modules to last longer? Historically, however, negatively grounded SunPower arrays could
Does anyone have real experience in this area, or is it all theoretical suffer PID. PID is generally only seen on high-voltage (100+ volts)
at this point? arrays as well. Whether modules are PID-prone is largely dependent
on the antireflective coating and encapsulant.
Zachary Strassman • via email
The good news is that, in crystalline silicon modules, PID is mostly
PID is the result of PV modules being held at a high potential reversible. By properly grounding the array, the extra electrons that
(voltage), which causes them to temporarily decrease power output. have leaked to places they shouldn’t are sent back, restoring the
With high-voltage arrays, ungrounded inverters, and increasing module to its normal state. By holding the cells at the proper high
module efficiency with antireflective coatings; PID is showing up in voltage for a few days (48 to 96 hours) with an external source of
the field—not just the lab. voltage, PID can be almost completely reversed. Properly grounding
the array so it gets a few hours of the proper voltage every day will
PID is due to leakage of electrons out of the silicon cells. These also reverse the effects of PID.
migrating electrons accumulate on the surface of the silicon cell,
where they affect the ability of the P-N junction in the cell to convert Electrical standards organizations are developing tests and
sunlight. This power reduction can occur over days or weeks. It is standards to rate whether a particular module is susceptible to
seen at higher array voltages, higher temperatures, and, especially, PID. Look for these certifications on modules in the future. If you do
under higher humidity conditions. Estimates of power losses due not have PID-prone modules, the type of inverter you use may not
to PID range from 10% to 60%, although the most I’ve seen (on a matter. But if you do have PID-prone modules, use an inverter that
negatively grounded SunPower array) is about 25%. grounds the modules in the proper direction to avoid PID for those
particular modules.
The type of encapsulant and backsheet used on the modules are
factors that can influence PID. Some compounds are more prone to Zeke Yewdall • Mile Hi Solar
leaking current than others, and some are more affected by moisture
than others.

28 home power 158 • december 2013 & january 2014


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ask the experts renewable energy Q&A

Enphase Microinverters & Grounding


I read with interest Ryan Mayfield’s “Code Corner” article in However, the new Enphase microinverter eliminates the need for
HP157 about AC modules, and their unique treatment in the NEC. a GEC between microinverters. The array and inverters still need
Enphase has just released its M250 microinverter, which has built- proper bonding via an equipment-grounding conductor (EGC) but
in, isolated DC grounding. Enphase claims this eliminates the per Enphase instructions, a GEC is not required. The sizing and
requirement for a grounding electrode conductor (GEC). installation requirements surrounding an EGC are not as stringent
as they are for the GEC, so this will likely result in installation-labor
Does this development signal a departure for future grounding savings. The availability of an EGC in the cable system will play a big
requirements? Can this technology allow “any” module to be role in the installation. For example, Enphase microinverters contain
retrofit and then treated as a “factory” AC module? an EGC in their cabling system, so bonding modules and inverters to
the rack establishes the required bond. The cable system can carry
Jody Herperger • Regina, Saskatchewan that from the roof.

This release from Enphase will undoubtedly change the method As with all grounding issues, this is not a slam dunk. There are
for grounding its new inverters, but will not change overall module- varying opinions on this subject, so check with your authority having
grounding requirements. jurisdiction to make sure they agree with the manufacturer and your
installation plans.
An inverter and module must be factory-supplied and listed as an AC
module to qualify for that distinction. Attaching an Enphase M250 Ryan Mayfield • PV Systems Technical Editor, SolarPro magazine
microinverter to a PV module doesn’t qualify. Code still considers
this setup two distinct pieces of equipment—and your installation will
need to reflect that.

Microinverter-Integrated Ground with


EGC-Connecting PV Frames & Rack

PV Array AC Mains
Panel
Equipment
Grounding
Conductor
(EGC) Neutral
Neutral Bar

Ground Bond
Ground Jumper
Bonding Point Ground
Rack
Bar
Ground Electrode
Conductor

AC EGC Ground Electrode

Microinverters

Microinverter with
WEEB Ground Jumpers

PV Array Equipment
Grounding AC Mains
Conductor Panel
WEEB (EGC)
Bond Neutral
Jumper Bar
Neutral
Ground Bond
Ground Jumper
Bonding Point Ground
Bar
Ground Electrode
Rack Conductor

AC EGC Ground Electrode

Microinverters

30 home power 158 • december 2013 & january 2014


ask the experts renewable energy Q&A

For off-grid homes, the most efficient natural gas or propane


ranges use an electric spark to light the gas flame.

Off-Grid Ranges
I am shopping for a new gas-fired range for my off-grid home. I
Courtesy Peerless-Premier Appliance Co.

know that I need one without an energy-wasting “glow bar” in the


oven. Any suggestions?

David S. Martin • via email

Most gas ovens use either a pilot light—a continuously burning


flame—or an electric element (aka glow bar) for lighting the gas
flame. The downside of a standing pilot light is that, since it is always
on, it uses a small amount of a fuel continuously, which can add up.

For an off-grid system, the electrical draw of a glow bar—which is


about 500 watts—can eat up far more of your renewable energy than
you’d want. Cooking a holiday dinner during the winter, for example,
could easily consume 3 to 5 kilowatt-hours. For a 24-volt system,
that’s up to 200 amp-hours or more for cooking alone—and that’s
a lot of electricity to make up for during winter’s limited number of

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32 home power 158 • december 2013 & january 2014


ask the experts
renewable energy Q&A

sun-hours. If your family bakes a lot, such an oven would be a large, Finally, be sure you specify the type of gas you have when
year-round draw. purchasing your stove. Most off-gridders use propane, which
requires different burner orifices than natural gas. If you cannot find
For that reason, many off-gridders end up using ranges with pilot a propane range, and the appliance store can’t handle a conversion,
lights. But for folks who also want to minimize gas use, even that is you may be able to make the change yourself using instructions in
a problem. Most ranges allow users to turn off the pilot light just for the range documentation. Otherwise, make arrangements to stop
the cooktop, which can then be safely lit when needed with a simple, at a local propane dealer on your way home from the appliance
long-handled flint striker. You can turn off the pilot lights using the store—they can change the orifices and adjust all of the burners
adjustment for pilot flame height, often deep inside each burner’s for you.
knob shaft. (Check your range’s documentation for adjuster location
and how to do this.) Michael Welch • Home Power senior editor

But it is more difficult, often impossible, to turn off the oven’s pilot
light. Unlike the cooktop burners, the oven burner needs to cycle on
and off so it can regulate oven temperature—and needs to relight
each on-cycle (either via a pilot light or glow bar). On my last oven,
there was no way to turn off the pilot light completely.

The other alternative is to find a range, like a Peerless Premier, that


uses an electric spark to light its pilot light when the oven is turned
on, and turns the pilot off again when the oven is turned off. Some
of these ranges also have an AA-battery-powered spark igniter, for
completely cordless operation. For on-gridders, that means the oven
can even be lit during utility outages.
write to:
If you go with a Premier or other spark-based range, see if you can asktheexperts@homepower.com
get one from a local appliance dealer or your propane dealer. They
Published letters are edited for content and length. Due to mail
are not as commonly available as many stove brands, but having a
volume, we regret that unpublished letters may not receive a reply.
local source can be helpful when parts or service are needed.

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homepower.com 33
Purchasing
a PV-Powered Home
WHAT YOU NEED TO
KNOW BEFORE YOU BUY
Comment
Discuss
this article @
homepower.com/158.34

Orion Thornton (2)


Dealing with the climbing foliage is an easy fix, but be sure the shade on the modules is
not masking any other production problems.

by Zeke Yewdall & Orion Thornton


More and more, it is common for houses on the market to include grid-tied PV This paint on this 2001 model inverter has
oxidized from being in the weather, but
systems. Depending on the design and condition of the PV system, it may or may not
the inverter is still functioning fine.
be a selling point. Here’s how to evaluate an existing PV system and how to make
sure it adds value instead of liability.

Is It Working?
Because the utility also provides energy to the home, it may not be evident when
a PV system stops working. Problems may show up on your energy bill, but if the
system only provides a small portion of the home’s total electricity usage, or if the
occupants (and load) of the house have recently changed, there may be no clear
indication of a problem on the latest energy bill. How do you know if the system is
operating properly and producing its full potential?
To check if it is producing power, look at the inverter during the daytime—at
the very least, it should have a green light (or something equivalent) indicating that
it is “online.” Most will show how many watts are being produced on the AC side.

34 home power 158 • december 2013 & january 2014


pre-owned PV
Red lights that say “ground fault” or “off-line” indicate the
system is not working—no power from the system is feeding
the home (or the grid).
Even if the system is operational, is it producing as
much power and energy as it should? Many older systems
may be operational, but producing low power for various
reasons—fuses blown, foliage grown in front of the array, or
perhaps a poor design that’s been stifling system production
from the beginning. If the inverter has a cumulative kWh
meter, you can compare its overall energy production with
PVWatts estimates based on module specs. (This may require
disconnecting and removing a module from the rack to see
its label.) You will also need to know when the inverter was
commissioned to make an accurate comparison to PVWatts

Orion Thornton
data. This comparison can tell you if the system has produced
expected energy production since commissioning, but doesn’t
tell you if the array is producing expected power now.
Reading the inverter’s power and daily energy production can
An inspection by a qualified PV installer who has the
tell you a lot about how a system is performing.
proper tools and know-how to analyze the system’s electricity
output is a good idea. This requires special equipment that
can measure several parameters as well as accounting for
ambient temperature, irradiance, and system efficiencies. (monitors are often much lower quality compared to other
With the right tools and some math, a qualified PV technician PV components) or a vital component (like the monitor’s
can tell if the power output is too low, indicating a potential network gateway box) is unplugged. Make sure to get any
problem. (See “Grid-tied PV System Performance Factors” in Web-based monitoring addresses (and passwords) from the
HP156 for more information.) former homeowner(s) so you can access the data.
If system data collection includes historical data, it should How much of the house’s energy use is the system
be a lot easier to determine if the system is performing as it expected to provide? It would be great if every PV system
should. However, monitoring failures can be more common resulted in a net-zero energy home. But most PV systems are
than PV system failures. Sometimes the monitor just fails designed to provide only a portion of a home’s energy usage.
For example, a 3 kW array on an all-electric, 3,000-square-foot
house is unlikely to make a major dent in the electricity bill
The glass face on this center module is shattered and may
allow moisture to penetrate, leading to corrosion of the internal —production problems will be less noticeable, so it does make
electrical connections. Also note the nonflashed feet, which the need for monitoring slightly more important.
should be inspected to make sure the sealant around them has If it’s an older array that’s been installed for at least a
not deteriorated.
year, the previous owners should be able to tell you whether
or not the system has ever met the home’s monthly electricity
usage. If it is a new system, find out how much electricity
the array was designed to offset. It’s not uncommon to ask
for historical energy bills when purchasing a home, so don’t
be shy about requesting information about the PV array and
its subsequent energy production. A small array may just
be serving a battery backup system in the event of a power
outage, keeping critical loads running—its main value is in
the backup electricity rather than in utility bill reductions.

Check System Components


Are there obvious signs of damaged components? Modules
with broken glass are not common, but can occur. Hail
damage is rare, unless you get hailstones larger than two
inches. A module with shattered glass may keep functioning
for some time, but eventually, water will infiltrate and
corrode internal electrical connections, causing shorts or
ground faults.
You will eventually have to replace the broken module,
and finding an identical replacement can be quite difficult—
Zeke Yewdall

especially for systems that are more than a few years old—due
to changes in solar module construction and frame sizes. The

homepower.com 35
pre-owned PV
Trace Engineering
began making
these off-grid
inverters in the
1980s, and many
are still providing
electricity to
homes today.

Zeke Yewdall (4)


five to 10 years. A qualified solar contractor can tell you the
expected lifespan, warranty coverage, and reputation of your
inverter. A quick call to the manufacturer, providing the serial
number of the inverter, can also determine whether it is still
under warranty and whether there are any recalls or service
Module failures are relatively rare, but they do happen. Although bulletins on it.
there are “snail trails”—perhaps due to a reaction with the Were there any recent upgrades to the system? The
encapsulant—this module still functions. Test modules that are modules may be 15 years old, but the inverter (or if the system
different in appearance to assess their performance. is battery-based, the charge controller or batteries) may have
been replaced recently. It is helpful to know if there’s a mix
of newer and older equipment since some parts (such as
modules) generally function longer than others.
longer you wait to replace modules, the more difficult it will If it’s a roof-mounted system, what is the roof’s condition?
be to find the same model. If the exact replacement module The PV system may be in perfect condition, but if the roof
is not available, it may be possible to integrate another make is worn out, you’ll need to replace it. To avoid a big budget
and model, but it will need to have very similar physical and surprise, get a cost estimate to have the array removed and
electrical characteristics to integrate into the solar array, and then reinstalled on the new roof. If penetrations do not have
may affect the overall array aesthetics. flashings (as may be the case with some older installations),
Depending on the inverter’s operating voltage range,
it may be possible to simply remove the damaged module
and rewire the array at a reduced system capacity. This will The cupped and deteriorated shingles underneath this array
result in lower energy production, but will avoid the problem are a cause for concern, as replacing the roofing material
necessitates removing, and then reinstalling, the entire array—a
of having mismatched modules. In the case of multiple pricey proposition.
damaged modules, a full replacement may be required. Any
undamaged modules could be used in another project or sold
to offset some of the costs of the new modules.
What is the inverter’s make and model? Inverters typically
last between five and 20 years, depending on the make, model,
and production date. But it’s safe to assume that you will need
to either make a warranty claim or replace the inverter within

This PV module’s
electrical traces
were burned from
a lightning strike,
but testing showed
that the module
still functioned.

36 home power 158 • december 2013 & january 2014


pre-owned PV
Older arrays
may not have
flashed roofed
attachments, and
rely only on sealant
to keep water from
penetrating the
roof.

the extra cost of adding flashing will need to be considered


when reinstalling (see “Evolving Installation Methods”

Zeke Yewdall (3)


sidebar).

Considerations for Battery Systems


Battery backup and off-grid systems are more complex, so The rubber boot around this flashed conduit has disintegrated,
there’s more to check. The system’s overall operation can be creating a route for water to easily enter the home. This is an
more obvious than with a batteryless grid-tied system—if it’s old solar thermal installation, but the same rubber boots are
often used on PV installations.
not working, there will be no electricity. But just because you
flip the switch and the lights come on during your daytime
walk-through doesn’t mean that the batteries will have
enough storage to keep the house’s appliances running after
the sun goes down, let alone through a three-day snowstorm.
Batteries are crucial components in any off-grid system,
and costly to replace, so be aware of any upcoming battery Evolving Installation
replacement needs before you purchase the home. Batteries
should be visually inspected for corrosion, age (check if they
Methods
have manufacture date tags), and electrolyte level. Methods and equipment that were once commonplace may
now be unacceptable within the industry, or may not meet
National Electrical Code (NEC) or International Building Code
(IBC) requirements. The flashing of all roof penetrations is now
Besides being old and poorly maintained, these batteries are required by the current IBC. Many older rack systems may
an inappropriate type for use with residential RE systems and not have flashing. While leaks are not common, they occur
housed in a non-Code-compliant box. more often with unflashed systems because the rack feet rely
only on sealant to keep the water out—not gravity, as with a
flashed foot. If you have a system without flashed feet, it will
probably cost a few thousand dollars to upgrade, since the
entire array has to be removed along with the old feet.
Another issue is safety and NEC compliance. Most grid-
tied systems received building permits and were inspected
to allow connection to the grid. But if you are buying an
older off-grid system, it is possible that it never received a
permit or was inspected. Does it meet Code requirements
for wiring, conduit, disconnects, and enclosures? If not, did
the installer use best practices for the time, thus making it
safe? For the safest operation, systems should be upgraded
to meet the Code—so account for this cost when making
an offer to the seller. In some jurisdictions it’s not only a
good idea, but the law; your system will be required to
meet the current Code when the property changes hands.
Septic systems and smoke detectors are common items
affected by laws requiring upgrades when selling property,
but electrical equipment may also be included depending on
your local jurisdiction.

homepower.com 37
pre-owned PV
But none of these checks really give you a full picture.
Ideally, perform a load test to see how much energy the
batteries hold compared to their original rating. Systems can
still be functioning with old batteries, but the batteries may
be operating at a significantly reduced capacity. That capacity
might be enough to power loads for a few hours without
additional PV input, but may not be enough to support loads
for an extended duration. Some off-grid houses are sold in
the summer, when even marginally operating batteries might
serve a few small loads through the night. It’s when shorter
days and cloudier weather come that you’ll realize that you
need new batteries. Also, because infrared cameras have been
declining in cost, more installers have this tool and may be
able to provide an IR inspection of the battery bank. This
can quickly show failed battery cells (because they will be a
different temperature) and bad connections.

System Inspection
Orion Thornton

Checklist
A professional who evaluates a system at a house will look
Dangling cables can be easily damaged through abrasion or
for the following: from chewing critters, and can be one indication of a poorly
q Is there any broken or damaged equipment? installed system. This system also has grounding daisy-
chained from module to module, which does not meet code
q Is all the wiring intact and conduit in good condition, with requirements.
no corroded, sun-damaged, or loose conduit, dangling
wiring, or unsecured electrical boxes?
q Is the system working? Off-Grid System Performance
q How does the measured power on a sunny day compare Another big factor to consider if you are buying a house
to expected output? with an off-grid PV system is that it can be in perfect
functional order, working well for the previous owner—but
q What’s the lifetime energy production of the system and
may not work well for you or your family. Off-grid system
what kind of energy production should you expect in the
coming years? performance is dependent on the system’s electrical loads—
both the power draw of the appliances and the user’s usage
q Is the system monitor (if present) working?
patterns. For example, the system may have been sized for
q Is there evidence of animal damage or infestation? Is only a few loads and miserly power consumption, with the
there sufficient protection for the array wiring? previous owner judiciously using only a few lights at night
q Are there any missing bolts, clips, or structural parts? and timing laundry loads to coincide with the sunniest hours
of the day.
q Is there mold, dirt, or vegetation buildup on or around the
array? If this is your first time living off-grid, it’s always best to
make sure a working backup generator is part of the system,
q Are there any remaining warranties on any of the system
as you will probably use more energy than you expect. Is there
components?
already a generator with the system? If so, what quality is it?
For battery backup and off-grid systems: If you are expecting to use the generator frequently (such as in
q What is the rating of the batteries? areas with very little winter sun), you’ll want to see a heavy-
duty water-cooled generator, usually propane- or diesel-
q What was the load-tested capacity of the batteries?
fueled, designed to run for several hours a day—for years. An
q What is the age of the batteries? air-cooled backup generator may be suitable for sunnier areas,
q What is the general condition of batteries? in which it’s only used a few times a year. Portable generators
are generally only good for the smallest cabin systems. If
in doubt, consult with an RE installer about what sort of
generator is appropriate for a particular system and climate.

38 home power 158 • december 2013 & january 2014


pre-owned PV

Leased Systems,
Ownership,
and Warranties
Sometimes a system is leased rather than owned by the
seller—how will that transfer to you? Are you assuming the
lease, or is the seller buying out the lease when the home
sells, and you will own the system outright? There can be
benefits and drawbacks to either: If you own it outright, you
won’t have a separate (possibly escalating) lease payment,
and the cost will be part of your tax-deductible mortgage
payment instead. However, it may no longer be warranted,
Zeke Yewdall

serviced, and insured by the leasing company.

Although they have more than a decade of service behind them,


these off-grid inverters are still functioning fine.

And make sure you get a tutorial on operating the Warranties


system. Smaller off-grid systems can be quirky, and being If you are buying a used PV system, inquire about its
privy to the system’s idiosyncrasies—such as “never start warranty. If something does go awry, it might be possible
the table saw unless you turn the well pump off first, or it’ll to get it fixed—without having to pay full price. There are
overpower the inverter, tripping it offline”—is important. If usually several separate warranties: a manufacturer warranty
the system was professionally installed, consider contacting on the equipment—this can range from two years (some
the installer to explain the operation of the system, discover charge controllers and off-grid inverters) to 10 years (grid-
what issues it has had over the years, and what upgrades they tied inverters to 25 years (PV modules); and an installation
recommend. You might learn more about the system than you warranty, which will vary in length and terms. Many grid-
will from the previous owner, plus it is valuable to develop a tied systems require at least a five-year installation warranty
relationship with the company that can service it. You might to qualify for rebates.
also find out that the previous owner bought the highest- If the system still has the installation warranty in effect,
quality components available and oversized the system, or make sure to give your name and information to the installer
the worst possibility—that they cut corners wherever they to take advantage of remainder of the warranty. During this
could, and did not properly care for the batteries. If you are period, they may service system problems for you without
planning a much different load profile than the system was charge. However, once their warranty has expired, they may
originally designed for, this also gives you a chance to discuss charge a fee for labor to service a manufacturer warranty.
what upgrades will be required so the system can meet its (Note that, in some circumstances, manufacturers may cover
new requirements. the installer’s service calls.)
If the original installer is no longer available, you may have
to find a new installer to service the system. Unfortunately, it
Inspection of sometimes happens that installers leave the business or stop
an under‑
producing
working in some geographical areas. This may mean that
array you have no installation warranty at all, or you may need to
revealed a contact an out-of-state office of the installation company.
loose MC
connector
between two Animal Attack
modules. Examine the PV system for evidence of chewed insulation
on cables and for debris that may clog the inverter’s cooling
Orion Thornton

fins. Insulation-hungry squirrels, for example, can turn a PV


array into junk in a matter of weeks, and critter damage is a
serious threat to PV array longevity. Rats, raccoons, pigeons,
This wire was
and wasps also can damage PV arrays. Ideally, a rooftop
pinched between
a module and the array, mounted parallel to the roof, should be completely
rack, and eventually screened around the edges with wire mesh. If an array has
caused a ground been disabled due to chewed wires, the inverter will most
fault. This can be a
likely indicate a ground fault. This damage can usually be
Zeke Yewdall

common problem
with sloppy repaired, but usually at a great expense to remove and replace
installations. the array, and to repair the wires. Flush-mounted roof arrays

homepower.com 39
pre-owned PV
are the most prone to harboring critters, because they create
an inviting hiding place for squirrels and birds. Tilt-up or
ground-mounted arrays are less inviting, but can still be
damaged by animals. Bird or wasp nests blocking airflow on
inverter cooling fins are more easily removed.

Access
Zeke Yewdall is the chief PV engineer for Mile Hi Solar in Loveland,
Colorado, and has had the opportunity to inspect and upgrade many
of the first systems installed during Colorado’s rebate program, which
began in 2005. He has also upgraded many older off-grid systems. He
teaches PV design classes for Solar Energy International.

The owner/manager of Bozeman, Montana-based Onsite Energy, Orion


Thornton has focused his recent efforts on contracted inspection work
for first-generation grid-tied PV systems installed prior to 2005. He also
works as a PV instructor for Solar Energy International.

Squirrels have severely damaged this wiring, putting it at high Zeke Yewdall

risk for a ground fault. (The taut wire is due to lifting the module
for inspection.)

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the need for separate module grounding parts and
procedures. Watch the video
It saves time, reduces costs, and improves safety. ironridge.com/ig

40 home power 158 • december 2013 & january 2014


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Kelly Davidson (4)

by Kelly Davidson

42 home power 158 • december 2013 & january 2014


platinum PV

The process began with


a chance meeting at the
2006 Solar Decathlon in
Washington, D.C., an inter­
national competition that
challenges collegiate teams to
build solar-powered homes.
Architecture student Adam
Rude, who helped design the
University of Colorado (CU-
Boulder) house, ended up
giving the last tour of the day
to Robert Freling, executive
director of the D.C.-based
nonprofit Solar Electric Light
Fund. Freling was taken right The home’s south face was designed to capture direct solar gain in the winter,
away with Rude’s design reducing the need for supplemental space heating. A 7.02 kW awning-mounted PV
system is anticipated to offset all of the home’s electricity use.
philosophy, and by the end
of the tour told him, ”I have The home includes a ground-level office that doubles as
a guest bedroom when the sliding doors are closed.
a friend in Colorado who is
looking for an architect. I think
you two should meet.”

Finish materials used in the home were carefully selected to


satisfy LEED point requirements and preserve indoor air quality.
Forest Stewardship Council-certified white ash paneling is used
for the walls of the first level, as well as on the stair treads and
veneered interior doors.

Weeks later, back in Boulder, Rude sat down for his


first meeting with Freling’s friend, Kitty Brigham, a retired
nonprofit administrator who wanted to build a net-zero
energy home. “I liked him instantly. I just took the leap and
said, ‘Why don’t you design a house for me?’” Brigham
recalls. “I told him that I liked angles and trilevels, and he
took it from there.”
Rude, who graduated shortly after that initial meeting,
didn’t have the resources to take on the project on his own,
so he turned to his mentor and design advisor from the Solar
Decathlon—Mark Sofield, a local architect who ran his own
shop. The two partnered on the project, with Rude taking
the lead on the schematic design, under Sofield’s direction
as architect of record. Two additional members of the CU-
Boulder Decathlon team—engineer Chad Corbin and lighting
designer Todd Gibson—signed on for the project as well.

homepower.com 43
platinum PV

Kelly Davidson (4)


A deck on the third story affords sweeping views of the Flatiron Mountains. The solar-
electric canopy provides electricity for the house, as well as some protection from the
rain and sun.

Performance First, Then Form finding an ideal site farther east in Longmont, literally in
Every architect’s dream, Brigham gave the design team few Sofield’s backyard.
constraints, with only one real demand: “Performance first, Brigham purchased two lots along the street that makes
then form.” Driving the design was her pursuit of LEED up the southern boundary of Prospect New Town, a new
Platinum certification, the highest ranking awarded by the urbanist housing community that transformed an 80-acre
U.S. Green Building Council. “I knew building to platinum tree farm into a walkable, multiuse neighborhood. With a
standards could be a costly venture, but I wanted to showcase horse pasture and farm fields to the south, the site—a little
what’s possible and hopefully inspire people to walk the less than 0.25 acres—offers views of Boulder’s Flatirons
talk,” Brigham says. rock formations and the foothills in the distance. And, with
From the start, Brigham envisioned the home as a space any luck, Brigham says, new building restrictions imposed
she would “share” with the nonprofits and committees by the city should keep the views intact for many years to
that she works with. SELF, for one, plans to use the space come.
to host retreats for its board members. “The central living Not only does Sofield live in Prospect with his family,
space had to be very open—a place where I could host he also wrote the architectural guidelines for the community
meetings,” says Brigham, who holds volunteer leadership and designed several of the homes and buildings there.
roles for several nonprofit organizations, including SELF, Prospect—which won a Governor’s Smart Growth Award in
Boulder County Audubon Society, and Oregon Shores 1996 for its innovative alternative to suburban sprawl—boasts
Conservation Coalition. “And I wanted a rooftop living a mix of businesses, detached homes, row houses, live/work
space,” she adds. lofts, and apartments, all in a broad range of traditional and
Rude scoured the foothill communities near Boulder modern architectural styles in a rich spectrum of colors. Even
looking for land in the mountains, but for one reason or with its strikingly angled and geometric form, Brigham’s
another, none of them worked. The design team ended up home fits right in.

44 home power 158 • december 2013 & january 2014


platinum PV

Ample south-facing glazing admits direct solar gain, which is absorbed by the Overhangs provide some protection from the
concrete floor. This heat energy, stored in the floor, is released when interior summer sun, although heat-blocking shades are
temperatures drop below the floor’s temperature. also used.

A central mass wall forms the spine of the home and also
Meticulous Planning for High Performance serves as a passive solar collector, radiating heat when interior
Six years of planning, design, and construction led to a temperatures drop.
2,302-square-foot trilevel home that uses a fraction of the
energy that a conventionally constructed house in Colorado
might use. With energy-efficiency measures and a 7 kW solar-
electric system rooftop canopy, the all-electric home is on track
to produce as much energy as it uses each year and receive
LEED Platinum certification (see sidebar.)
Key to the home’s energy footprint is a passive solar
design that minimizes active heating and cooling needs.
The German Passivhaus standard served as a guiding force
during the design process.
The home’s structural, thermal, and aesthetic spine is an
exposed concrete mass wall, with all the floors and ceiling joists
attaching to it. The wall bisects the floor plan in such a way that
every room in the house, from top to bottom, benefits from the
passive conditioning. The thermal mass absorbs heat during
the day and releases it throughout the evening. Although the
wall appears continuous, it actually addresses three different
envelope conditions: interior only; interior/exterior; and exterior
only. The two 8-inch-thick concrete faces are separated by 4
inches of insulation only in the interior/exterior portion to
prevent thermal transmission. The contiguous face is also
thermally broken where the roof attaches to the wall.
Wall thickness was driven by the structural requirements
of the second condition (interior/exterior) more than any other
consideration. Based on the glazing areas, however, it was
calculated that 697 cubic feet of interior mass would be needed
to adequately absorb passive solar gain. This amount is attained
by the interior mass wall, and by the concrete and tile floors in
the office, bedroom, and living room that receive direct solar
gain.
The 9-inch-thick wood-framed walls and 12-inch roof
cavities, as well as the space beneath the on-grade floor slab,
contain polyisocyanurate spray-foam insulation—achieving
an average wall R-value of 40 and an average roof R-value
of 60. Fiberglass-framed, dual-paned Serious Materials 925
windows were selected to help maximize passive solar gain

homepower.com 45
platinum PV
To minimize heat gain during the
summer, reflective shades are installed
over the south and west windows.
Brigham keeps the shades drawn from
noon to sunset, if not longer, between
May and September.
Only electric appliances were
installed, including an induction
cooktop, convection oven, and two
on-demand tankless water heaters (see
sidebar.) Brigham opted for passive
alternatives to dishwashing and clothes
drying. After being hand-washed,
dishes air-dry in kitchen cabinet
racks, where they are also stored. In
the laundry room, a large floor-to-
ceiling cabinet hides drying racks for
clothing. A high-efficiency lighting
scheme utilizes a combination of LED

Kelly Davidson (3)


and fluorescents to help minimize
energy consumption and meet LEED
requirements.

A clever open-air drying rack, incorporated into this cabinet,


eliminates the energy used to heat-dry dishes in a dishwasher.
The countertops are made of Durat, a material that contains
post-consumer industrial plastic. An exterior door from
the shower opens
into a private outdoor
vestibule, allowing an
on the south side, with solar heat gain coefficients ranging indoor/outdoor shower
from 0.35 to 0.45. The south-facing master bedroom window experience.
and southwest-facing windows and doors on the first and
second floors admit solar gain, which is absorbed by the
floor slab and radiated when the house’s air temperature
is lower than the slab’s temperature. Though also partially
shaded by an architectural overhang, the southwest windows
require sun-blocking shades to minimize solar gain during
the summer. The first floor’s south wall is slightly angled (at
80°), creating a sculptural angle and a tapering overhang that
provides more shade as the sun gets higher in the sky.

Passive & Active Considerations


As project engineer, Corbin developed multiple energy
models and analyses to determine the home’s passive
solar design and optimal mechanical makeup, taking into
account the local climate and the area’s abundance of sun
(66% of all daylight hours are sunny and clear). An initial
analysis determined that the home, as originally designed,
would require supplemental cooling 11% of the year and
supplemental heating 77% of the year. This ratio was a factor
in several design decisions, including the glazing ratio.
As a result of the energy models, the glazing area was
increased to approximately 28% of the floor area, mainly on the
south side of the home—a decision that reduced the building’s
heating load at the expense of increased summer cooling demand.
“There’s always a trade-off when you design a home for
passive heating and cooling,” Corbin says. “The large glazing
area contributes to heating the building, but during the summer,
it works against you. The key is finding the right balance.”

46 home power 158 • december 2013 & january 2014


platinum PV
the cost of an air-source heat pump, the
primary alternative considered.
The floor between the first and
second levels houses the supply-air
ductwork that provides conditioned
air to all spaces. Return-air circulation
occurs naturally through gaps beneath
the doors into the bath and laundry
rooms, and louvered doors into the
first-floor office. With slotted-sheet
steel risers, the staircase acts as a giant
vertical return, feeding the return air
grille on the ground level.
Cooling is accomplished with
an earth tube (or ground-loop heat
exchanger)—a 12-inch-diameter PVC
pipe buried 3.5 feet deep beneath the
home that runs along the perimeter
of the foundation. Return air from the

Kelly Davidson (2)


home circulated in the tubes is cooled by
the ground temperature and delivered
back to the house via the air-handler.
Based on average earth temperature
With slotted steel risers, the home’s central staircase acts as a giant vertical return, data from the National Renewable
feeding the return air grille on the ground level.
Energy Laboratory, the earth tube can
provide air cooled to 78°F—even during
the hottest months of July and August.
Domestic hot water loads were modeled at 25 gallons Ideally, the earth tube, Corbin says, would have been trenched
per day per person, within the range of typical residential deeper into the ground to provide even cooler air, but digging
loads suggested by ASHRAE. This load represented cooking, deeper was cost-prohibitive.
cleaning, bathing, and waste water usage, but did not include Rounding out the HVAC system is a heat-recovery
the additional water required for a large soaking tub originally ventilation (HRV) system, which is required to meet
designed into the master bathroom. “It was one of the few LEED Platinum indoor air-quality standards. The system
things the homeowner really wanted,” Sofield says. “But she simultaneously exhausts stale, humid indoor air to the
opted not to build it after she saw the numbers.” Each bath outside and introduces fresh, outside air to interior spaces.
would have used 11.75 kWh and at least 100 gallons of water— Heat between the two air streams is exchanged, reducing
more resources than Brigham felt comfortable consuming for
what she considered to be a luxury item.
Throughout the home, fixtures and fittings satisfy the
LEED requirements for water-use efficiency, meeting the
set limits for average flow rates—less than 1.5 gallons per
minute for the faucets and outdoor spigots, less than 1.75
gpm for the showerhead, and less than 1.1 gallons per flush
for each of the two toilets. A small-capacity Energy Star
clothes washer handles Brigham’s weekly washing needs.
Additionally, the home claimed the maximum LEED credits
allowable for managing roof runoff. In Colorado, where water
laws dating to the 19th century still grant usage rights to roof
runoff to downstream users, rain retention is prohibited.
Sofield enlisted a civil engineer to size the infiltration ponds
appropriately to return water to the aquifer.
A heat-recovery
ventilator admits
Heating & Cooling a continuous
The home’s heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning source of
system relies on a high-efficiency Carrier electric air handler tempered fresh
air to interior
capable of delivering 1,050 cfm in cooling mode and 945
rooms, helping
cfm in heating mode. Modeling showed that the cost of the maintain good
additional PV needed to operate the air handler was less than indoor air quality.

homepower.com 47
platinum PV

Tech Specs
Overview
System type: Grid-tied solar-electric with battery backup
System location: Longmont, Colorado

Kelly Davidson
Solar resource: 4.89 average daily peak sun-hours
Production: 750 AC kWh per month (estimated)
Utility electricity offset: 100% (estimated)
This rooftop canopy is enhanced by a unique building-
integrated PV array that also incorporates clear glass panels.
The Sanyo bifacial modules in the array harvest light energy Photovoltaics
from both sides, leading to increased energy production.
Modules: 36, Sanyo HIP-195DA3, 195 W STC (+ backside
irradiation contribution), 55.8 Vmp, 3.5 Imp, 68.7 Voc, 3.73
Isc
Array: 7,020 W STC. Six 6-module series strings (each
string: 334.8 Vmp, 3.5 Imp, 412.2 Voc, 3.73 Isc)
heating energy losses due to ventilation. A solar wall along
the southwest corner of the home was considered for heating Array combiner box: OutBack FLEXware PV combiner box
with 15 A fuses
ventilation air but ultimately ruled out. The findings showed
that the solar wall would have reduced the cost of the PV Array installation: Florian Greenhouse custom racking
array (by approximately $1,150), but the construction costs patio covers, facing south and east, 6° and 4° tilt
for the wall would have been significantly greater than the
PV cost savings. Energy Storage
Batteries: Four Fullriver sealed AGM, DC105-12 VDC
The PV System nominal,105 Ah at 20-hour rate
“We didn’t just want to tack solar modules on the house. We
Battery bank: 48 VDC nominal, 105 Ah total
wanted to integrate them into the design,” Rude says. The
team selected Sanyo’s HIT bifacial modules. The double-sided Battery/inverter disconnect: 175 A breaker
modules—which can harvest solar energy from both faces—
increase energy production within the fixed rooftop space. Balance of System
The design staggers HIT modules and clear glass panels in the Charge controllers: Two Schneider Electric XW MPPT 80
grid of a steel canopy. Enough light passes through to grow 600, 80 A, MPPT, 600 VDC nominal input voltage, 48 V
plants underneath, while providing adequate protection for nominal output voltage
shade-seekers. Plus, the light reflecting onto the back of the
Inverters: OutBack Power FLEXpower Two FP2-29 system
modules adds about 5% to the array’s annual output. consisting of two OutBack GVFX3648 inverters, 48 VDC
Rude designed the canopy for the 7.02-kilowatt system, nominal input, 120/240 VAC output,
which was sized to meet the home’s projected energy load
System performance metering: OutBack MATE2
of about 9,000 kWh annually. Florian, a Cincinnati, Ohio,
greenhouse company that also builds solar structures,

48 home power 158 • december 2013 & january 2014


platinum PV

BRIGHAM GRID-TIED PV SYSTEM


WITH BATTERY BACKUP

Combiner Box:
OutBack FWPV12

Ground

Photovoltaic Array: 36 Sanyo HIT modules,


195 W each at 55.8 Vmp; wired in six series
To/From Utility strings of six modules each for 7,020 W ST
total at 334.8 Vmp

kWh
Meter: 100 KWH
Utility
AC Critical Charge
Loads Subpanel Controllers:
Two Schneider Electric
XW MPPT; 80 A, 600 V

Power Panel:
OutBack Power FLEXPower TWO;
two OutBack Power
GVFX3648 inverters
Ground
G
N
AC In DC
L1
L2

L1
AC Service Entrance:
To 120/240 VAC loads
L2 AC Out
N
G

Note: All numbers are rated,


manufacturers’ specifications,
or nominal unless otherwise specified.

Batteries: Four Full River, sealed AGM,


12 VDC, wired for 48 VDC at 105 Ah

homepower.com 49
platinum PV

Positioned for Platinum


For architect Mark Sofield, the Brigham residence marks a career “[LEED certification] is a complicated process and unbelievably
first. While he has long focused on green building and energy time-consuming,” Sofield says. “I appreciate the idea behind
efficient design, he had never pursued LEED certification through the criteria and it pushed me to learn new methods, but in
the U.S. Green Building Council. some cases, I found the rating system to be an impediment to
achieving our energy and sustainability goals. We ran into several
“We weren’t entirely convinced of its value at first. It is an expensive frustrating junctures where we ended up spending more money
and extremely time-consuming process, and ultimately Kitty decided and consuming more resources just for the sake of points.”
it was something she wanted to do. She wanted to put the home on
the map and showcase what can be done,” Sofield says. A second hot water heater in the laundry room, for example, was
added to satisfy a LEED requirement. “This was one of the cases
Though the application is on hold until hardscaping and irrigation when I questioned the LEED process,” Sofield says. “We had to
systems are complete, Sofield is confident the home will earn all the add a second small water heater to serve the washing machine and
points necessary for Platinum status once the list is complete. utility sink in the laundry room because the run from the primary
heater was 5 feet too long to earn one LEED credit. It didn’t seem
The LEED for Homes Rating System measures the overall to make practical sense in terms of the heat lost through the run
performance of the home by eight categories: compared to the life-cycle footprint of an additional unit, but that’s
what we had to do [to get the points needed].”
1. Innovation and Design Process
2. Location and Linkages Sofield credits the rating system for introducing him to new
techniques in exterior water management strategies and
3. Sustainable Sites
hardscaping—key points that fall under the Sustainable Sites
4. Water Efficiency category. Surface water management strategies include
permanent erosion-control planting, permeable lot surfaces, and
5. Energy and Atmosphere
vegetative catch-basins and swales that direct all roof runoff to
6. Materials and Resources two infiltration ponds in the rear of the property.
7. Indoor Environmental Air Quality
To earn the one point for mitigating heat-island effects, light-
8. Awareness and Education colored, reflective paving stones were installed around the
home’s exterior. But when the stones and concrete did not meet
Every decision, large and small, plays into the point system. The the high-albedo requirements (a solar reflective index of at least
slab-on-grade construction eliminated the materials necessary for 29), the team decided to satisfy the requirement by shading the
an additional subfloor and finish flooring, meeting the requirements hardscaped areas with trees and trellises. Completely shaded
for material-efficient framing. hardscaped areas earn an additional innovation credit.

fabricated the custom aluminum frame that holds the 36 PV


modules and clear glass panels in place. The finished canopy
faces south and east and is tilted at 6° and 4°. Ideally, Rude
says, the canopy’s southern tilt would have been tilted at
10° or greater, but neighborhood covenants restricted the
canopy’s height. “At a 40° tilt [the location’s latitude], the
system would have been rather obnoxious, and not well
integrated into the design,” Rude says.
The frame for the canopy was assembled on site by a local
welder and hoisted into place by a crane. An installation crew
from Boulder-based Namaste Solar mounted the modules and
ran the wiring down to the ground-floor mechanical room.

This OutBack Power FLEXPowerTWO


is a fully prewired and factory-tested
dual-inverter system. It comes
complete with the required DC and AC
Kelly Davidson

wiring boxes and breakers, inverter


input/output bypass assembly, and
MATE monitoring system.

50 home power 158 • december 2013 & january 2014


platinum PV
Two Schneider load center) and to the other household loads, with any
Electric charge surplus going to the grid. However, what has been recorded
controllers
protect the by reading the utility bidirectional meter indicates that from
battery bank February to late September 2013, the PV system has exported
from overcharge to the grid 2,453 kWh in excess of what the home has used
and can accept (3,550 kWh). Brigham records the incoming and outgoing
the high DC
voltage (412.2 energy every day, straight from the utility meter. The exercise
Voc) from each has become part of her daily routine, like drawing the shades
subarray. on the southeast windows. While a full year’s worth of data
hasn’t yet been collected, Brigham is optimistic that the PV
system will offset her household consumption. So far, over
the late spring and summer months, she has only paid the
monthly service charge of $21.50 to the City of Longmont.
“I’d be happy with net-zero, but I’m aiming for net-plus,”
Brigham says.
Kelly Davidson

Access
Home Power Associate Editor Kelly Davidson lives in Longmont,
A small battery backup system—four 105 Ah batteries— Colorado, where she and her husband are upgrading their 1970s
has enough energy to power critical loads (air circulation, trilevel home with new insulation, doors, and windows, in preparation
refrigerator, microwave, laptop, and some LED lights) for a for a PV system in the coming years. This season’s project—two new
limited time during a utility outage. windows—is being made possible by a low-interest loan through the
The PV was not commissioned until February 2013. local Energy Smart program.
Battery-based grid-tied PV systems can be complicated to
meter, since power is flowing to the battery bank (the critical

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52 home power 158 • december 2013 & january 2014


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Discuss
this article @
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PV Site
by Jeff Tobe Evaluation Jeff Tobe

P
erforming a comprehensive solar site analysis is are not constructed with solar in mind, roofs that face true
the first step toward ensuring a well-performing south are uncommon. Fortunately, most PV arrays within the
solar-electric system. New tools and technologies continental United States oriented within 30° of true south
are available for evaluating a site’s solar potential. But while still offer excellent potential energy harvest, often within just
these tools can bring us powerful information at the touch of a few percent of the maximum.
a button, nothing can take the place of conducting a thorough
assessment of the proposed array location. Solmetric’s Roof Azimuth Tool can determine orientation
from aerial photos. Google Earth has a similar tool that can
determine approximate roof area.
Orientation & Tilt
As a PV array’s orientation (azimuth, the direction it faces) or
tilt varies from “optimal,” potential energy harvest decreases.
The optimal combination of array tilt and azimuth will
depend on a few variables, including geographical location,
seasonal weather patterns and system application. Azimuth
and tilt are both required data for system design and energy
estimating programs such as the PV Watts calculator (see
Access).
A PV array’s orientation is often referenced to true south.
A compass doesn’t always point to true south, so magnetic
declination, the angle variation between magnetic north/
south and true north/south, must be taken into account, since
it varies by location. There are various resources available to
determine magnetic declination for most locations around
the globe (see Access). With the use of a compass and
local magnetic declination, a roof’s orientation is simple to
determine (see “Methods” in this issue). Since most buildings

54 home power 158 • december 2013 & january 2014


site evaluation

Before the Survey


Plan for safety. A thorough site evaluation may include
working with ladders and scaffolding, on slippery or
An inclinometer steep roof surfaces, and in adverse weather conditions
is an inexpensive
and confined spaces. If you are considering solar as a
tool for quickly
profession, it’s a good idea to complete at least an
determining the a
surface’s slope. Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA) 30-hour
The needle is class for “construction” or “general industry.” An “OSHA
Jeff Tobe

pointing to the 30” course can be completed online, but receiving some
angle in degrees. hands-on training with specific safety equipment, such as
scaffolding erection and assembling fall-protection systems,
is recommended.
Developing a relationship with a local safety firm can also be
helpful in getting specialized training, as well as occasional
consulting assistance on challenging installations. A
comprehensive safety training program should include fall
protection, ladders and scaffolding, and the National Fire
An inexpensive Protection Association 70E arc flash compliance, for starters.
smartphone app And part of the site evaluation should include photos and
can measure
other documentation regarding possible anchor points for
the roof angles
fall protection, as well as notes regarding any additional
in degrees,
percentage, rise- safety concerns, such as skylights, overhead utility lines,
steep roof surfaces, and other site-specific hazards.
Ben Root

to-run ratio, and


even radians. Use a checklist. Make sure all details are covered, using
site-evaluation forms and checklists. This includes details
like the location of inverter equipment and conduit routing.
Tool up. Even a simple site survey requires basic hand tools
for routine tasks, such as inspecting electrical enclosures.
Due to wind-loading and aesthetic concerns, most rooftop
A tape measure and roofing chalk will come in handy for
arrays are mounted parallel to the roof plane—so the roof’s marking and capturing the effective shade area around roof
pitch determines the array tilt. For grid-tied systems here in obstacles like chimneys and plumbing vents. An appropriate
the United States, “optimal” roof angles—which maximize ladder is essential for roof access and capturing “the solar
an array’s production—range between 25° and 35°. The roof window” for PV arrays elevated above the ground. Be sure
pitch can be measured with an inexpensive inclinometer or a to have a reliable light and dust mask or respirator for
smartphone, which uses an app that takes advantage of the inspecting the attic and crawlspace. A contractor’s clipboard
will keep all of your documents organized. And of course,
phone’s internal sensors to measure angles.
don’t forget your solar siting tool, inclinometer, compass,
As roof pitch decreases, the roof’s orientation to true south and digital camera.
becomes less influential on a grid-tied system’s performance.
At a steeper tilt, the array will capture less energy during
early mornings and late afternoons due to the sun’s oblique
angle. As the array’s tilt approaches 0° (horizontal), the
web extra
For an interactive PV site evaluation spreadsheet,
array is able to capture more of the early morning and late see homepower.com/PVsitespreadsheet.

Orientation & Tilt Reference


Location: Grand Junction, Colorado; 39.13°N Latitude
Roof Tilt, in Degrees & Pitch
afternoon sun, which can increase overall energy production
0° 18° 30° 45° 60° 90°
Orientation Flat 4:12 7:12 12:12 21:12 Vertical (see the “Orientation & Tilt Reference” table that shows the
90° East 0.84 0.84 0.82 0.77 0.70 0.53 effects of decreasing the tilt angle with respect to azimuth).
112° ESE 0.84 0.89 0.90 0.87 0.81 0.61 Since the goal for most grid-tied PV systems is to maximize
135° SE 0.84 0.94 0.96 0.94 0.89 0.66 the annual energy yield, winter production can often be
157° SSE 0.84 0.96 0.99 0.99 0.93 0.67 “sacrificed” to maximize production in the summer, when the
180° South 0.84 0.96 1.00 0.99 0.93 0.65 available peak sun-hours increase.
203° SSW 0.84 0.95 0.98 0.96 0.90 0.64 With your preferred solar design tool, such as Solmetric’s
225° SW 0.84 0.92 0.93 0.90 0.84 0.62 Annual Insolation Tool, you can create a chart for quickly
248° WSW 0.84 0.87 0.86 0.82 0.75 0.56 evaluating potential energy production as it varies with array
270° West 0.84 0.81 0.77 0.71 0.64 0.48 tilt and orientation (see “Free Tools for Estimating PV Output”

homepower.com 55
site evaluation
point in the graph with a color designation that reveals a
percentage value as compared to the ideal conditions, which
are listed at the top of the legend area. The annual insolation
value can be used to quantify the impacts of various tilt and
azimuth angles. The scale along the right provides color-
coordinated values expressed as a percentage of the ideal
conditions and the associated insolation value in kilowatt-
hours per square meter.

The Solar Window


The most common professional siting tools—the Solar
Pathfinder and Solmetric SunEye—can help determine a
particular site’s solar access or solar “window”—the average
amount of sun that falls on a particular site, usually between 9
a.m. and 3 p.m. Maintaining shade-free access during this time
is necessary to maximize system production while sunlight
is at its peak. Solar siting tools allow quick comparisons
between multiple locations on a property to determine the
Solmetric offers a free online tool for determining annual optimal location for system production, reliability, and overall
insolation based on various combinations of azimuth and tilt.
This example roof is within 5% of the ideal tilt and orientation. aesthetics. Note that there are also some smartphone apps
available, such as Solmetric’s IPV (for iPhone), Comoving
Magnetics’ Solar Shading (for Android), and Onyx Solar
Energy’s app (iPhone & Android).
in HP147). The results will reveal the ideal array orientation Both of the pro tools, however, have optional software for
and tilt for an unshaded array in that particular location. This analyzing the data and creating a detailed report. Standard
chart can be used to compare different mounting scenarios, software features include the ability to overlay multiple
such as multiple roof planes, as well as pole- or ground-mount points of data, like a “four corners” evaluation to determine
options (for more information, see “Methods” in HP155). the overall solar access for the area. The data can generally be
To use Solmetric’s online tool, select your state from a presented several ways, graphical or numerical. The software
drop-down menu and then select the location that best matches also allows users to digitally remove obstacles, such as trees or
your local weather patterns. In our example, Grand Junction, chimney vents, from the captured image and will recalculate
Colorado, has very similar weather to the site’s location. the solar window and estimated energy production.
Selecting the location generates an “annual insolation” graph Evaluating a site’s solar access requires capturing data points
that can be customized with specific orientation and tilt for the four corners of the proposed PV array. You can either
angles. To interpret the chart, find your tilt angle or roof pitch use a tripod or a beanbag to create a level surface for the siting
along the vertical axis and then match that up to the azimuth tool. Obstacles and trees adjacent to the building may require
along the horizontal axis. This will lead to an intersecting additional readings along the perimeter of the proposed array
continued on page 58

The SunEye 210 is Solmetric’s latest solar siting tool, which displays an annual sun-
Jeff Tobe

path view, showing annual and seasonal solar access values (left). The accompanying
software includes additional displays, such as the obstruction elevation (above).

56 home power 158 • december 2013 & january 2014


site evaluation
Jeff Tobe (3)

The Solar Pathfinder uses a highly reflective dome to reveal obstructions, which can be outlined on a paper sun-path chart (above left).
It has a built-in level and compass, and the base can be adjusted for the site’s magnetic declination. Digital photos taken of the
Pathfinder reading can be used with the Assistant PV software to generate detailed summary reports (above right).

Deviating from
“Optimal”
Several factors may influence whether it is smart to forego
installing the PV array at its “optimal” orientation and tilt
for a given location.
Local utility policies may reward grid-tied system
orientations that would otherwise not be ideal. For
example, time-of-use (TOU) metering may place a
premium on energy consumed or produced during the
afternoon hours. In this case, a PV array that favors a
westerly orientation and produces more energy (and earns
credit at the higher rate during peak-load times) may be
beneficial.
Local climate characteristics, such as morning fog or To properly evaluate a proposed PV array location, capture
regular afternoon thunderstorms, may also influence readings from all four corners of the intended array area.
the ideal array tilt and orientation. Regular morning
fog in coastal areas may warrant arrays that favor a
more westerly orientation. Many locations in the Rocky
Mountains experience afternoon thunderstorms during the
summer months and often have winter storms followed
by very sunny mornings. The combination of these two
weather influences may favor arrays with a slight easterly
orientation. In snow country, steeper tilts may be required
to help prevent snow buildup and potential ice damming
around the modules.
Off-grid PV systems also have special considerations that
dictate their ideal orientation and/or tilt. Consider a fixed-
mounted off-grid PV array that serves a home with higher
energy consumption during the winter months. This home
will benefit from an array that’s more steeply tilted to more
effectively capture the low winter sun angle. A PV water-
pumping system that is used for summertime irrigation
and/or livestock watering will require a shallower tilt to
take advantage of the high-angled summer sun.
A solar siting tool can be used to determine a “shade-free”
distance from roof obstacles, such as this plumbing vent.
This should be recorded on the site evaluation form.

homepower.com 57
site evaluation
continued from page 56

location. Protrusions, such as chimneys and vents, on the roof


can be quickly evaluated using the siting tool to determine
a “shade-free” distance from the obstacle. Using a piece of Pole & Ground Mounts
roof chalk, the shade-affected area can be marked around the
Ground- or pole-mounted arrays may offer some advantages
protrusion. The resulting shaded area can then be recorded on compared to roof-mounted systems, such as the ability
the roof layout part of the site survey. Mapping roof obstacles to choose the best solar window, if the roof is shaded,
beforehand can minimize or eliminate having to make expensive and use the ideal orientation and tilt to maximize annual
redesign decisions during the system’s installation. energy harvest—and the payout from available incentives.
Production-based incentives (such as feed-in tariff programs),
which pay a premium rate above retail for solar-produced
Assess the Roof
energy, may influence your decision to go with a pole- or
While on the roof, analyze the condition of the roof surface
ground-mounted system, since increasing production by 5%
and structural integrity of the rack attachment area. A to 10% over a 10- or 20-year power contract can add up to
roof’s estimated age and thickness should be documented. a significant payout. Pole-mounted arrays offer the additional
Identifying signs of deterioration and damage varies advantage of easy seasonal tilt adjustment.
depending on the roofing material. Having an experienced But these mounting options also present their own
roofing contractor evaluate the roof can be money well-spent. challenges, including expensive excavation and concrete.
Noticeable waviness or spongy spots in the roof warrant Trenches for conductor routing may require figuring out how
further evaluation of the structure. Installing PV arrays to deal with existing structures, landscaping, concrete pads,
on older roofs can later result in expensive removal and underground sprinkler system locations, and buried utilities.
reinstallation of the array. Failure to recognize potential (See “Ground Mounts for PV Arrays” in HP139, “Interrow
Shading” in HP151, and “PV Array Siting & Mounting
issues, such as compromised structural elements, can pose
Considerations” in HP155).
significant hazards if attachment points are stressed during
large windstorms and other weather-related events. When
attic access is available, inspecting and mapping the rafters is
recommended.
Local weather considerations can also influence design
choices and should be recorded during the evaluation process.
In heavy snow areas, knowing the expected snow loads on Pole and
the roof is necessary to select an appropriate racking product ground mounts
rated for the conditions, as well as determining the rail span can take
advantage
distance between attachment points. Snow loads can also
of optimal
dictate module selection, since modules have specific static placement,

Jeff Tobe
ratings. Wind-loading also must be considered for equipment orientation, and
placement and selection for many of the same reasons. Most angle.
rack and module products have wind load ratings that

Check the roof’s range between 90 mph and 120 mph. The perimeters of most
condition—repairs residential roofs are exposed to greater wind forces than
or reroofing should
happen before
interior portions of the roof and may not be usable in many
installing a PV locations with high wind loads. This can limit array placement
system. and size, as can required roof setbacks for firefighters (see
“PV Array Siting & Mounting Considerations” in HP155).
The local building department is a good place to glean
information on expected snow and wind loads.
Orion Thorton

The Rest of the System


After completing the solar window analysis, you still need to
Inspecting the plan for routing conduit, grounding conductors, and placing
attic is another
the balance-of-system components (inverters, disconnects,
way to assess the
roof’s structural and combiner boxes). A thorough inspection of the existing
condition, check electrical panel includes documenting the enclosure make
for leaks, and map and model, as well as verifying additional breaker space,
rafters for future
array mounting.
and checking the main breaker size and bus bar ratings. The
service equipment ratings will be used in system design
calculations to determine allowable PV backfeed capacity and
Jeff Tobe

58 home power 158 • december 2013 & january 2014


site evaluation

Service amperage rating


may dictate maximum PV
system size or require a
the associated breakers needed for interconnection. Ensuring more complicated supply-
adequate breaker space avoids expensive surprises later, like side connection.
needing to upgrade the service panel.
Planning for Code-compliant conduit routing requires
considering equipment placement, the mechanical integrity
of equipment mounting and conductor runs, aesthetics, local Main breaker size
regulations, and climate. Part IV: Wiring Methods, Article may limit back-
feed capacity.
690.31 of the 2011 National Electrical Code (NEC) dictates the
type, placement, routing, and marking of conduit. Because
of the higher temperatures commonly encountered on roofs,
the details of conduit routing can affect system design due to
required derating of conductor ampacity.
Identifying grounding components of the existing AC
electrical system is another important step of the site survey.
The location of the existing grounding electrode conductor
(GEC) and grounding electrode (often a ground rod) will
inform decisions for routing the PV system grounding
conductor(s) to interconnect the two systems. In some cases,
the inverter will have a GEC that must be connected to the
building’s existing grounding electrode or GEC. Depending
on the system, the PV array may also have a GEC that must
be connected to the grounding system. Planning these routes
will help ensure Code-compliant installation.

PV input will require


space for additional
breakers. Panel make
Plan for wire and and model will
conduit runs in dictate the type
of breakers to
advance. The path
purchase.
between array and
balance-of-system
components needs
to meet the Code
as well as logistical
requirements.
This junction box Generally, a new grid-tied system will connect to the existing
makes a transition electrical infrastructure at the AC service entrance. Besides
between PVC checking equipment condition, look for service amperage
conduit coming rating, main breaker rating, busbar ratings, and adequate
from the pole- breaker space. Incompatibility with any of these things may
mounted array dictate upgrading the panel.
to EMT conduit
running through
the building interior
to the inverter.

Inverter and disconnect placement involves satisfying


Code regulations that apply to the working space around
Jeff Tobe (3)

the equipment, weather considerations, and aesthetics.


Disconnect locations must be accessible and installed within
height limitations. In cold climates, some inverter models
need to be installed indoors to keep them within their
Check for operating temperature range. Inverters placed outdoors
obstacles—a
propane tank in should avoid south or west orientations as the intense sun
the yard indicates may cause the inverter to derate its power output to protect
underground pipe internal components from excessive heat damage. Direct solar
runs that should
exposure can also burn out the LCD screen, which includes
be avoided when
trenching for wire state of operation information, energy production values, and
runs. potential error messages.

homepower.com 59
site evaluation

RISE Certification
Solar installers may be interested in a new certification related
to the methods and best practices for integrating solar arrays
with various roofing materials. Formed by a coalition of roofing
Balance-of-system and solar industry professionals, Roof Integrated Solar Energy
components take (RISE) was created to ensure that appropriate measures are
up space, and taken by solar roofing professionals to preserve the roof
have Code and system’s performance and service life.
practical access
requirements. Map The RISE certification structure will be familiar to solar pros
Jeff Tobe

their placement in who have completed North American Board of Certified


advance. Energy Practitioners (NABCEP) certification. To become a
certified solar roofing professional (CSRP), candidates need
to satisfy basic prerequisites (see riseprofessional.org).
Additional Considerations
Analyzing the building’s loads—and researching measures for
improving the overall efficiency—is another important part
of SEI’s state-of-the-art PV lab training facility in Paonia, Colorado,
of the site evaluation. Shrinking a building’s loads can often
and spearheads renewable projects for indigenous communities
result in a smaller PV system, resulting in PV system savings
in the United States. He is an ISPQ-certified PV Instructor, has a
that are greater than the efficiency investments. Lighting
NABCEP certification in Technical Sales, and is a NABCEP-certified PV
and refrigeration are two of the easier places to start with
Installation Professional.
efficiency upgrades—incandescent bulbs and old refrigerators
are prime candidates for replacement. Insulation and other Magnetic declination finder • bit.ly/CalcDeclination
weatherization measures can also make a significant impact on PV-ready home checklist • bit.ly/PVHomeChecklist
electricity usage in homes with electricity-based space heating. PV system production estimator (PVWatts) • bit.ly/PVWattsV1
Solmetric roof azimuth tool • bit.ly/SolmTools
Access Solar Site Evaluation Training & Certification:
Jeff Tobe is a PV curriculum developer and instructor at Solar Energy Solmetric • bit.ly/SolmTraining
International (SEI). He has been instrumental in the development MREA • midwestrenew.org

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www.homepower.com 61
Comment
Discuss
this article @
homepower.com/158.62

The number and variety of


wind turbine designs available
has never been greater. With so
many choices, it seems like we
should be seeing all manner of
wind turbines busily spinning
and generating electricity. Yet too
many sit idle—generating little, if
any, electricity.

Wind
Matters
by Mick Sagrillo

That’s because a wind-electric


system must encompass much
more than just the turbine.
Besides a turbine (aka wind
generator), you’ll need an
adequate wind resource, a
properly sized tower, a suitable
site, and the wherewithal to
maintain and watch over the illustrations by

system.

62 home power 158 • december 2013 & january 2014


wind matters

Swept Area
Matters
A wind turbine’s blades are fixed to a
hub. Together, they make up the rotor.
The rotor turns in the wind, converting
the kinetic energy in moving air (wind)
into rotational momentum to spin an
electrical generator. The rotor is the
collector for a wind turbine, harvesting
wind energy, which is then converted
into electricity by the generator.
Hundreds of different rotor designs
have been invented, tried, and discarded
over the past eight decades. Regardless,
there are still all sorts of claims about 1 × Diameter = 1.4 × Diameter = 2 × Diameter =
1 × Swept Area = 2 × Swept Area = 4 × Swept Area =
unprecedented efficiencies of various 1 × Power 2 × Power 4 × Power
new turbine designs. So how can you
sort out fact from fiction? Increasing swept area increases the captured wind energy proportionally.
Let’s use a simple analogy to explain
the concept of the rotor as a collector, using a solar hot water output the system will generate. The area of the wind that
collector. A 4- by 8-foot collector is capable of collecting a certain the rotor intercepts is called the swept area. Just as with solar
amount of sunlight and converting that sunshine into a certain collectors, increasing the swept area of the rotor increases
amount of hot water. If we double the size of the collector, it the amount of wind the turbine can intercept and convert
makes sense that the system would now be able to collect twice (to electricity). There is no circumventing this concept; it’s
the sunlight and generate twice as much hot water. just simple mathematics. Doubling the diameter of the
The bigger the renewable energy collector, the more rotor results in a four-fold increase in the swept area—and
energy it is exposed to that can be collected—and the more potentially four times the electricity for any given wind speed.

Fuel Matters
Wind is the fuel for the wind turbine. The more fuel the wind tur­
bine has available to it, the more electricity it will generate. Wind 30,000
fuel has two components, both equally important. One is the
quantity of wind available. The other is the qua­lity of the wind
passing through the rotor. Let’s look at these separately. 25,000

Wind Quantity Matters.


The equation that defines how much power is available to any 20,000
wind turbine rotor is P = 1/2dAV3, where P is the power in
y = x3
Power (V3)

the wind, d is the density of the air (affected by both elevation


above sea level and air temperature), A is the swept area of 15,000
the rotor, and V is the wind velocity (speed). For a given wind
turbine and site, swept area and density are constants. As
such, the power available in the wind is approximately the 10,000
cube of the wind speed.
8,000
So, the power that is in the wind (P) is proportional to the
cube of the wind speed, or V3. The interesting thing about 5,000
this relationship is the effect of increasing wind speed. For
example, a 2.5 mph difference in wind speed—say, from 10 to 2,000
1,000
12.5 mph, is an increase of only 25% in wind speed. However,
0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
since P ~ V3 (not just V), the numerical increase in the power
equation attributable to wind speed is nearly 100%: 10 × 10 Wind Speed (V)
× 10 = 1,000, while 12.5 × 12.5 × 12.5 = 1,953. So even small 1X Wind Speed 1.25X Wind Speed 2X Wind Speed
increases in wind speed result in very large increases in power = 1X Power = 2X Power = 8X Power
available in the wind that can be converted to electricity. The power in the wind is a function of the cube of its velocity.

homepower.com 63
wind matters
Wind Quality Matters Wind Profile
You don’t necessarily need strong winds
to get useful energy production from
150
your wind-electric system. You might
only need marginally stronger winds.
So, how can you access those stronger
winds? Time for another analogy.
120
Imagine floating down a river in a
canoe, but rather than sitting back and
enjoying yourself, you pay very close
attention to what’s happening on the 90

Height (Ft.)
water. The first thing you notice when
you put your canoe in is that there is
slow flow near the bank. As you paddle
out into the river, however, flow picks 60
up somewhat. By the time you get to the
center of the river, the farthest you can
be from either bank, you notice that the
flow is fastest. 30
Near the bank of the river,
the flowing water is slowed by its 15
interaction with the riverbank’s friction.
Like water, air is a fluid. And just like 0

Wind Speed

Note how wind speed increases with the height above the ground.

water, its flow is inhibited by its contact


with what’s on the ground: vegetation,
Effects of Wind Shear land forms, and buildings. The farther
on Wind Speed from these sources of friction, the faster
the wind.
160 The illustration above shows a
α = 0.20
140 Smooth, hard ground
wind profile, the length of the arrows
or a body of water representing wind speed—longer
120
Height (Ft.)

α = 0.30
arrows mean higher speeds. As you
100
Level, uniform open move away from the surface of the
80 terrain with crops & earth and its ground cover, wind speed
occasional trees or
60 buildings increases. To access stronger winds,
40 you need to reduce friction by getting
α = 0.40
Mixed, wooded area your wind turbine rotor higher up in
20
& open fields; the wind profile.
0 tree line > 500 ft.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Different locations will have
Wind Speed (mph)
α = 0.50 different wind profiles depending on
Densely wooded
the amount of friction presented to
the air mass (see graph at left). The
The effect of four example wind shears (surface textures) based on a common 15 mph wind
friction that ground cover poses
speed at 160 feet and ground clutter averaging about 20 feet tall. Below this height, the
is known as ground drag. Different
speeds measured are erratic due to the interaction between the turbulent winds and the
ground clutter. As a result, the unreliable data for this wind is not plotted on the graph. The ground covers are akin to different
lower end of any given wind profile will vary with average height of the ground clutter. Taller grades of sandpaper. Smooth ground
ground clutter will result in the wind shear curves starting at a higher point on the graph. cover—such as a hay field—doesn’t
Note, for example, how at 80 feet, the alpha of 0.20 has about 25% greater wind speed present much drag to a moving air
than the alpha of 0.50—that’s almost double the power. Also notice that for an alpha of mass, whereas densely scattered trees
0.50, the wind speed at 160 feet is about 45% more than the alpha of 0.50 at 80 feet— and buildings present a lot of drag. The
more than three times the power. (The alphas used here were developed for Wisconsin’s rougher the ground cover, the greater
Focus on Energy program and are not the “textbook” alphas sometimes used.) the drag and the more the air mass is
slowed.

64 home power 158 • december 2013 & january 2014


wind matters

Turbulence is Trouble
Wind turbine blades are airfoils, similar to airplane wings. Both Turbulence changes laminar airflow into a chaotic,
operate on the same principle of lift— the force that allows tumbling, churning mess. This wreaks havoc on lift devices
planes to fly, and wind turbine blades to rotate to extract energy that depend on laminar winds. Remember the last time you
out of the wind. Airfoils need laminar airflow­—constant and flew in an aircraft that hit a pocket of turbulence? The plane
smooth flowing winds—over them to maximize the lift they can was tossed about and lost altitude because of decreased
generate—which will maximize the kinetic energy they are able lift on the airfoils (wings). The same thing happens with a
to extract from the wind. wind turbine: It is buffeted by turbulence as is evidenced
Turbulence, which is caused when the wind tumbles over by the way it changes direction, trying to follow the chaotic
obstacles (trees and buildings, for example), is chaotic airflow. wind, and spins erratically without generating much
The greater the ground drag due to taller or more obstacles, electricity, since there is little usable energy in turbulent
the more turbulence that is created. Wind breaks, farmyard winds. Unfortunately, the “bubble” of turbulence around a
wind barriers, and snow fencing are often used to create house or on a farm can be of considerable distance, height,
turbulence to disrupt strong winds. and width.

Turbulence Zones
Wind Direction

Turbulence Zone
2H

2H 20H
An obstruction can create turbulence zones that are, above it, twice its height (2H); upwind, twice its height (2H) horizontally;
and downwind, 20 times its height (20H) horizontally.

Tower height to
Height Matters hub includes
The problem facing a prospective wind turbine site should 30 ft. rule, plus
blade length
now be obvious: You need to minimize turbulence and
take advantage of the power of incremental wind speed
by getting the turbine higher into the wind. The solution Bottom of turbine’s
is pretty obvious: Mount your turbine on a tall tower. IF swept area at least
30-Foot Rule
30 ft. higher than any
ground-dwellers afraid of heights don’t like to hear that obstruction within
message, they shouldn’t consider a wind turbine for their 500 ft.
electricity.
How tall does the tower need to be? The first rule used
Mature tree height;
in the small wind industry for determining minimum tower plan for future growth
height is that the entire rotor of the wind turbine must be at
least 30 feet higher than any obstacles within 500 feet of the
tower. This rule is based on several facts:

• Wind speed increases with height above the ground.

• Turbulent winds have little extractable energy.

• Increased vertical separation between ground clutter


(trees and buildings) and the wind turbine rotor means
that the rotor is moved out of chaotic turbulent winds
and into clean laminar wind flow with more extractable
energy.

Wind turbines are presumably installed for two to three


decades of service, during which time the trees in the area
will probably grow taller. As such, we also need to consider
the mature tree height, not the current tree height, when
determining tower height.

homepower.com 65
wind matters
So, we need to modify the 30-foot rule to take into
consideration tree growth over the life of the wind system.
It now states: The entire rotor of the wind turbine must be
at least 30 feet higher than any obstacles within 500 feet of
the tower, or the mature tree height or tree line in the area,
whichever is higher.
Keep in mind that the 30-foot rule with consideration for
mature tree height dictates the minimum tower height for your
site. Installing a taller tower reduces turbulence even further,
while getting your turbine higher into the wind profile. All of
this will result in more electricity production over the life of your
wind system. Don’t cut corners by scrimping and installing a
short tower—you’ll be sacrificing long-term performance.

This wind turbine was installed in 1982 using the 30-foot rule for
fixed obstacles—tree growth was not accounted for. In the last
three decades, the trees have grown tall enough to render the
wind turbine useless.

North
20%
Location Matters Wind Rose
NW NE
Most locations have winds that blow out of somewhat-specific 15%
directions over the bulk of the year. These are known as
prevailing winds and are plotted graphically in a wind rose. 10%

Using the wind rose for your site will help determine
the best location for your tower. Over the course of the
West East
year, the wind blows from all directions, so any location on
your property is going to be a compromise. However, you The wind rose
can minimize turbulence while optimizing your site’s wind for this site
profile by placing your tower as far upwind in the direction shows that
of the area’s prevailing winds as possible. the strongest
winds come
My Wisconsin homestead is typical—a house and a few predominately SW SE
buildings, all with electricity, fencerows for privacy and from a southwest
to block winter storm winds, and a few tall trees. At first and south- South
southwest
glance, one might opt to site the wind turbine close to the % of Total Energy % of Total Time
direction.
house for a shorter wire run, which is exactly what we did
with our first turbine. If you look at the wind rose for our site
(at right), however, you’ll notice that this places our tower downwind of almost all obstacles on our property relative
to the prevailing wind direction. While the turbine generates
The site for the first turbine (1) turned out to be highly adequately, it would actually generate more if it had been
compromised—downwind from almost all obstacles on the sited somewhere else. The locations of our two other wind
property relative to the prevailing wind direction. Subsequent
turbines were placed at sites 2 and 3. turbines are much less subject to turbulence most of the year.
The compromise I had to make, especially with the third
site, is a longer wire run. However, wire cost constitutes
a small percentage of the cost of an entire wind system
3 installation. More important was getting upwind of the major
1
sources of turbulence at our site—a strategy that will help
optimize energy generation and reduces wear and tear on the
equipment.
You should be able to access a wind rose for your
location from your state energy office or wind map, or local
agricultural office. The U.S. Department of Agriculture’s
Natural Resources Conservation Service has downloadable
wind roses from various climate stations (see Access). Other
2 good sources of prevailing wind directions include the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association or Weather
Underground, both of which keep local climatological data.

66 home power 158 • december 2013 & january 2014


wind matters

“Breakthrough” Technologies
ogies
& Other Whirligigs
Hardly a week goes by without at least one press release about
a new and improved wind turbine design hitting my email inbox.
These company press releases touting a breakthrough technology
are picked up and propagated by media outlets, which unfortunately
bestows credibility on the company. Even more unfortunately,
well-intentioned people who want to generate some of their own
electricity take the bait.

So, what’s wrong with all of this? And why does the small wind
industry take umbrage with these seemingly new designs? Nearly all
of the new “breakthrough” technologies share an amazing number
of similarities.

Promise: An unusual design, other than the typical two- or three-


bladed horizontal axis wind turbine (HAWT). Some are vertical axis
or squirrel cages, shrouded or funnels, or some other unusual rotor
configuration.

Reality: The designs are simply a regurgitation of something unusual-


looking. Although they are eye-catching, they never worked, which is
why the designs were abandoned decades ago.

Promise: Rooftop units with small rotors or ground-mounted,


designed to generate (“spin”) at lower wind speeds to avoid the
added expense of the tower.

Reality: As above, it’s all about collector size and where the fuel is.
A whirligig with a small rotor will likely only ever generate enough
electricity to overcome the resistance losses in the wire run. Also,
note that spinning does not equate to generating electricity. For
kicks, calculate the units that go into the power equation in a much-
touted 2 mph startup wind speed. Then compare this number with
the units in a 10 or 15 mph wind. Do this using P ~ V3. Beware of turbine designs that are “outside of the box.”
The box has been built from decades of practical physics.
Promise: The designer claims “thinking outside the box” with an
innovative idea, bringing new insights to a stagnant technology. Reality: Let’s take just one example: bird-friendly. The intimation is
that two- and three-blade HAWTs kill birds. Unfortunately, large utility-
Reality: Wouldn’t it be good if the innovator knew what’s actually
scale wind turbines do kill some birds. Taken in perspective, however,
inside the box before beginning to think outside of it? In other
bird mortality with the largest of turbines is far lower than the impact
words, shouldn’t a designer understand why successful wind turbine
from conventional energy sources (none of which, it seems, are held to
designs—small ones, as well as the tens of thousands of utility-
the same environmental standards that are imposed on renewables).
and larger-scale wind farm turbines—all look like they do? They
The few surveys or studies on bird mortality done on small wind
should also understand why hundreds of unusual rotor designs
installations might suggest a possibility of a handful of bird deaths over
were abandoned decades ago and are not being implemented by
the entire life of the installation at sensitive locations—far less than one
established manufacturers.
summer’s bird mortality from many picture windows or domestic cats.
Bird mortality is hardly the concern with small wind turbines that these
Promise: Conceptual designs claiming unprecedented efficiencies.
claims make them out to be.
Reality: Show real performance data from multiple real-world
installations. Wind tunnel or lab test results and website calculations
Promise: All-too-frequent headline: “Revolutionary new design…”
are the equivalent of wild guesses as to what a generator will do in
the real world. Short-term and controlled tests of a prototype from Reality: Product sophistication and fine-tuning come from
one installation at an ideal site don’t reflect real-world performance. evolution—building on prior art—not revolution. Small wind turbines
For confidence, you need performance data from a production model have been around for nearly 85 years. We’ve had time to sort out
(not a prototype) from an independent third-party or owner. what works and what doesn’t based on the science of physics and
fluid dynamics, and with engineering and mathematics. Over the
Promise: They solve non-existent problems. These range from being history of wind turbines, the designs that have proven themselves to
bird-friendly to vibration-free, and everything between. work are two- or three-bladed HAWTs.

homepower.com 67
wind matters
Lessons That Matter Which Wind Turbine?
So, what can we take from all of this? The lessons are pretty If you are shopping for a wind turbine, where do you
straightforward: go for help? Three organizations host websites with
recommendations based on equipment that is certified to
• Swept area determines how much of the wind’s power
an American National Standards Institute standard, actual
your turbine can extract. There is no way around the
performance test results, and industry feedback.
mathematics of your collector size.
The Small Wind Certification Council (SWCC) is a
• Wind turbines exposed to laminar winds generate more certifying body that confirms that published turbine test
useful amounts of electricity. Wind turbines sited in results conform to the American Wind Energy Association’s
turbulent locations (on buildings, or at or below tree level) 9.1-2009 Small Wind Turbine Performance and Safety
cannot—and will not—generate much, if any, electricity. Standard. Turbines that are certified to have met the AWEA
There is no way around the physics of fluid dynamics. 9.1 criteria are listed at smallwindcertification.org. Make
sure you peruse the list of SWCC-certified turbines, not the
• The 30-foot tower height rule helps determine whether the
applicant turbine status.
wind turbine will be exposed to quality winds over the life
The Interstate Turbine Advisory Council (ITAC) is a
of the system.
consortium of state public-benefits programs that fund the
• Siting your wind turbine upwind in the direction of the installation of renewable energy systems. They publish the
prevailing wind will minimize turbulence. Unified List of Wind Turbines (at bit.ly/ITACturbines) that
participating state programs may be willing to fund.
The economic payback in a wind turbine is directly Intertek is another organization that certifies wind turbine
proportional to the electricity it generates over its life. If a wind test results to the AWEA 9.1-2009 standard. However, this
turbine is sited in turbulent winds, it simply will not generate website (bit.ly/IntertekDirectory) is a bit more confusing
much electricity, making it a questionable investment. In addition, since Intertek certifies components as well as entire wind
the turbulence will cause increased wear and tear on the turbine, turbines.
shortening its useful life. But a wind system includes more than If the wind generator you are considering is not on one
just the turbine—it includes a tower that’s properly sized for the of these three lists, move on. Or at least understand that you
site, foundation, wire run, balance-of-system components, all are making a risky purchase of an untested, unproven design,
labor and materials for installation, and various other costs. and be ready to accept the outcome of your speculative
People take care of investments when they make sense. investment.
Wind system owners invest maintenance and repair dollars
in things that work, like a properly sized and sited wind Access
turbine. Owners quickly abandon ideas that don’t work. Mick Sagrillo (msagrillo@wizunwired.net) consults, teaches, and writes
The history of small wind tells us that rooftop wind turbines about wind power. He and his wife have powered their house with wind
and wind turbines installed on towers too short for the site for 32 years, and Mick has flown dozens of models during that time.
are quickly abandoned and become derelict once they need
Downloadable wind roses • bit.ly/NRCSWindRose
repair. Simply put, they were bad investments. A $20,000
wind-electric system that only lasts for two years is a poor
investment compared to an $80,000 system that lasts 20 years.

68 home power 158 • december 2013 & january 2014


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www.homepower.com 69
LOW THERMAL MASS
SUNSPACES
by Gary Reysa

Comment
The Little-Known Gem
of Solar Heating
Discuss
this article @
homepower.com/158.70

Sunspaces have long been appreciated as a way to provide some extra living space with sunny
appeal. They can also be used as supplementary heaters, collecting free solar energy that can
be channeled to warm interior rooms on sunny winter days.
Courtesy William Sikora

70 home power 158 • december 2013 & january 2014


low-mass sunspaces

T Sunspace Characteristics
his article describes a low thermal mass sunspace (LTMS),
which can be thought of as just a big “walk-in” hot air
collector. This design is optimized to provide significant Roof:
heating for the house. May incorporate overhang for Air Circulation:
summertime shading By convection or fan

Characteristics
The features that characterize a LTMS are: House Interior:
Double Glazing: Gains heat from sunspace
Vertical or steep tilt for and returns cool air
• A large, south-facing glazed area that is steeply tilted winter sun angles to sunspace
or vertical for excellent winter sun collection. Double- Interior Surfaces:
Dark for absorption;
glazing should be used in cold climates to decrease heat low-mass; insulated Vents:
Manually operable
loss. Controls: or automatic
Manually operable
• Nonglazed surfaces (walls, roof, and floor) that are or thermostat
insulated and sealed to reduce heat loss.

• Sunlit surfaces that are dark in color for good heat


In contrast to a high-mass sunspace, the LTMS does not
absorption, and are low in mass so the solar radiation
provide any storage for the heat it produces. This is usually
rapidly heats these surfaces, and the surfaces transfer that
not a problem since the house’s heating demands plus the
heat to the air. (This is in contrast to high-mass sunspaces,
ability of the house’s thermal mass to store heat are enough
in which the solar energy goes primarily into heating the
to absorb the heat that the sunspace can produce. Solar gain
sunspace mass.)
glazing (including sunspaces) can be up to about 10% of the
• A high-capacity fan and duct system that transfer heated floor area of the house without requiring storage.
air in the peak of the sunspace into the house, and a return If the house has low heat loss and/or the sunspace has
air system that returns cool house air near the floor of the a large amount of glazing compared to the house size, then
sunspace. sunspace heat can be stored. For example, one strategy in the
past, which has fallen somewhat out of favor, was to duct the
• A high-capacity vent system allows excess heat to be
heat to rock-bin heat storage; an air-to-water heat exchanger
vented outside when space heating is not needed.
also can extract and store some of the heat in a water tank. It
• These sunspaces are normally attached to or integrated is best not to store heat in thermal mass inside the sunspace
with the home’s south face. since most of that stored heat will be lost through the
sunspace glazing after sunset.
A sunspace designed to these
parameters will be quite efficient as a The author’s “low-mass” sunspace is actually a high-mass greenhouse that was tested
space heater for the attached house. for thermal performance—before the mass and plants were moved in.
It will also be comfortable during
the day for other activities, since
the excess heat that would make the
sunspace uncomfortably warm is
being distributed to the main house. A
sunspace can start providing heated air
to the house as soon as the morning sun
shines on it, since the low thermal mass
allows it to heat quickly and little heat
is stored in the space itself.
The big advantage for the LTMS
is that it provides space heating
equivalent to what active solar thermal
collectors provide while allowing the
space to be used for many activities,
including lounging, four-season
clothes drying, wood drying, or a well-
lit shop. A downside of the LTMS is
that once the sun sets, the space will
cool to outside temperatures quickly—
it is not a good space to hang out on
cold evenings. In cold climates, it is
Gary Reysa

also not suitable for growing plants


through the winter.

homepower.com 71
low-mass sunspaces

The greenhouse used for sunspace


testing. The long ducting here was used
to measure airflow. Make sure to size
the fan to deliver 3 cfm per square foot
of glazing with the duct system that you
have chosen.

Moving the Heated Air My test sunspace, a stand-alone structure that


A thermosyphon system with large vents distributed across eventually was converted into a high-mass greenhouse,
the width of the back (house) wall of the sunspace—high for uses a Ranco ETC controller—a simple heating controller
the hot air vents and low for the return vents—might be able that switches a fan on when the temperature exceeds a
to provide the required airflow, but a fan-forced system will setpoint temperature. (A snap-disk switch would have
be the right choice for most situations. served the same function.) This controller activates two
The LTMS should be equipped with a fan or blower Dayton 10-inch-diameter fans (27 W each), one mounted at
to move the heat to the house as quickly as it is produced. the peak of the west wall and the other at the peak of the
The testing suggests that an actual fan flow rate of about 3 east wall. While the fans have free air delivery of 600 cfm
cubic feet per minute per square foot of sunspace glazing each, with duct losses, they actually produce 325 cfm each.
is sufficient to remove the heat under sunny conditions. A This setup was close to the specification of 3 cfm per square
variable-speed fan or multiple fans that can be turned on one foot of glazing and worked well. This could easily be made
at a time would allow the flow rate to be adjusted for less- into a two-stage system by hooking up each fan to its own
sunny or early- or late-day conditions. Select the right fan controller and setting one controller to a lower temperature
capacity, but also be sure to consider fan type and placement so that the first one comes on at 80°F, and the second one
to avoid annoying noise. comes on at 90°F.

Left: The glazing


used in the test LTMS
is 10 mm double-
wall polycarbonate
with an R-value of
1.8. At about $2 per
square foot, it is less
expensive and easier
to work with than
two panes of glass,
although its lifespan is
shorter.

Right: The Ranco ETC


thermostat turns the
fans on and off based
on the sunspace’s
temperature. This is a
temporary installation
Gary Reysa (3)

for testing; permanent


installation would be
made more cleanly.

72 home power 158 • december 2013 & january 2014


low-mass sunspaces
The Sikora sunspace control scheme (see “Inspiring

Gary Reysa
Sunspaces” sidebar) uses a line-voltage cooling thermostat in
the sunspace and a line-voltage heating thermostat inside the
house to control a blower that distributes heated, filtered air
from the sunspace into the loft of the home. Inside the home,
ceiling fans help distribute the heat. When both thermostats
are closed, the 260 cfm blower starts. Cool air enters the
sunspace from the house through a one-way damper, which
prevents backflow when the blower is off.
The duct into the house must include a passive, spring-
return damper that opens only when the fan is on to prevent
cold air from flowing into the house at night. That said, some
of the spring vents do not seal very well—the ones I have
are just fair. Fabric dampers might work better. The poly-
film dampers I used on my shop thermosyphon collector
could work well inside a sheltered sunspace, with inlet
and outlet dampers facing opposite directions. Motorized
damper actuators (such as those made by Honeywell) also are
available that could provide a positive seal.
Keeping the ducts inside the sunspace, rather than
outside, is also helpful for mitigating heat loss. This shelters
them from the wind, and eliminates the need for insulating
them. The sunspace also reduces heat loss from the house to
the outdoors since it provides extra insulating and sheltering The west end of the sunspace shows the 10-inch Dayton fan
and R-21 fiberglass insulation (to be covered with Rboard). The
where it is attached. Rboard on the north wall is painted black for improved solar
energy absorbance.
How Much Heat?
The test 200-square-foot sunspace in southwestern Montana plywood laid over the trafficked areas. For the test, black
has 200 square feet of south-facing twin-wall polycarbonate weed barrier cloth, which makes a solar-absorbent surface,
glazing tilted at 60° for good winter solar collection. The was placed over the floor. The structure was sealed using
walls and roof are insulated to R-27 and the floor to R-8. The spray foam and caulking to reduce infiltration.
low-mass walls are Atlas Rboard rigid insulation painted You don’t have to be this particular in specifying surfaces
with black latex paint—they heat quickly and pass that heat that are dark in color and low in mass. For the walls, any
into the air. The Rboard has a fiber face sheet that takes paint dark-colored surface will work, and wall coverings like wood
well and is durable, but is not approved for direct exposure paneling or 1/4-inch plasterboard will not significantly sacrifice
to a living space for flammability reasons. The floor consists performance. For the floor, a surface like cork or carpet or even
of EPS rigid foam panels laid over compacted sand, with garden bark will work as long as it is insulated underneath.

System Temperatures
& Irradiance Sunspace Heat Output
200° 1,200
Inlet Temp. Outlet Temp. Temp. Rise Heat Output*
180° 1,100 Time (°F) (°F) (°F) (Btu/Hr.)
1,000 10 a.m. 19.8 61.0 41.2 23,668
Solar Irradiance (W/m2)

160°
900 11 a.m. 22.3 76.4 54.1 31,079
Temperature (°F)

140°
800 12 p.m. 26.6 90.0 63.4 36,422
120° 700 1 p.m. 27.4 99.5 72.1 41,420
100° 600 2 p.m. 28.3 99.5 71.2 40,903
500 3 p.m. 24.8 87.0 62.2 35,732
80°
400 4 p.m. 25.1 64.0 38.9 22,347
60°
Fans Off 300 Total Btu/Day 231,571
40°
200
20° 100
*Heat Output (Btu/hr.) = Air Velocity x Duct Area x Air Density x Temperature Rise x
0° 0 60 min./hr. x Specific Heat of Air (0.24 Btu/lbs.•°F)
10:00 11:00 12:00 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00
Measured: Air velocity = 600 fpm; Duct area = 1.09 ft.2; Air density = 0.061 lbs./ft.3
January 4, 2013 Notes: Air density is low due to the sunspace’s location at an elevation of 5,000 ft.;
peak irradiation was measured at 1,140 W/m2 due to reflected radiation from the snow
Outdoor Ambient / Input Interior (5 ft.) East Fan Output field in front of the glazing
Solar Irradiance West Fan Output

homepower.com 73
low-mass sunspaces
temperature in the peak of the sunspace quickly climbed to more

Gary Reysa
than 150°F. This is an indication of how fast an LTMS responds
when ventilation is stopped and how effective the insulation and
double-glazing are in reducing sunspace heat loss.
I wondered how sunspace output would be affected
by not following the design rules, so I tested it before
the insulation was added, and with a bare dirt floor. The
difference was dramatic. Under similar sun and ambient
temperature conditions, the heat output of the unfinished
sunspace was about 33% of the finished sunspace. Following
the design guidelines significantly improves the heat output.

Preventing & Dealing with Overheating


For the summer season, some method will be required for
positively venting the sunspace on sunny days. Having
at least two inlet vents (located low) and two outlet vents
(located high) is recommended. To ensure comfortable
temperatures during the midday, exhaust fans will probably
be needed in the outlet vents. One good choice would
be thermostatically controlled greenhouse ventilation fans.
Left: The east-end ducting and blower fan—a Dayton 10-inch, Another option would be solar-powered fans, perhaps the
which provides 665 cfm of free air delivery. The shade cloth was type of solar fans sold for attic ventilation. The solar fans
an experiment at preventing overheating in the space. would provide more airflow as the solar intensity increases,
and would probably not require a separate control.
I have converted the test LTMS sunspace into a solar
The solar radiation was measured using an Apogee greenhouse, and for the summer ventilation I’m using a solar-
pyranometer mounted in the plane of the glazing. The heat powered attic vent fan in the east peak and one of the 10-inch
output to the house was calculated from the temperature rise fans in the west peak. The solar-powered fan varies its speed
from inlets at the lower southeast and southwest corners to with sun intensity, and is quiet—even in full sun. Alone,
the fan outlet ducts and the flow rate out of the two 10-inch however, it does not provide enough ventilation. The Dayton
ducts. To measure airflow, a flow velocity survey was taken fan is set to come on when the peak temperature in the
in the long, straight section using a calibrated Kestrel-turbine- sunspaces is 90°F. Two solar-powered fans would probably
style anemometer. The inlet air is ambient air that averaged serve the space’s ventilation needs.
27°F. Summer vent inlets could be located low on the east and
The “System Temperatures” graph shows the inlet, outlet, west walls, or below the south glazing, or opening windows
and ambient temperatures and solar radiation for a sunny- continued on page 78
day test on January 4, 2013. Under steady collector conditions

The Ramifications of
a little after 1 p.m., the heat output of the collector is 42,200
Btu per hour, and the solar input is 69,900 Btu per hour—
which calculates to an efficiency of 60.3%. This is comparable
to high-quality commercial solar collectors operating under
the same conditions.
a Little More Mass
If the heat output is calculated for each hour, the total heat If 1/4-inch plasterboard is installed over an insulated wall, then
output for the day adds up to 232,000 Btu. These heat-output how long does it take the sunspace to get the plasterboard up
numbers are higher than typical because the test was done with to the sunspace’s operating temperature? How much does the
outside ambient inlet air (at 27°F) instead of room-temperature extra mass detract from the performance?
air (65°F, for this calculation). The cooler the inlet air, the more Quarter-inch plasterboard weighs 1.2 pounds per square foot
efficient the collector. The heat output adjusted for room- and has a specific heat of 0.26 Btu/lbs.•°F. It takes 20 Btu
temperature inlet air instead of 27°F inlet air would be about per square foot to warm the plasterboard from its overnight
19% lower, or about 188,000 Btu per day. This is equivalent temperature of 40°F to its solar-operating temperature of 100°F
to 2.9 gallons of propane burned in a 70% efficient furnace. [(1.2 lbs./ft.2)(0.26 Btu/lbs.•°F)(100°F – 40°F)]. If the sun is shining
on the plasterboard at more than 200 Btu per square foot per
So, even this modest-sized sunspace produced a lot of useful
hour, theoretically it will only take about six minutes to get the
heat—even on a day of the year that has close to the fewest plasterboard to 100°F. (In real-world situations, it takes a little
number of sun-hours. Near midday, the sunspace is producing longer because there is more total wall/back roof area than there
10,000 watts of heating power—and the only energy being is glazed area.) You would probably not lose more than half an
used to “produce” this is the two 27-watt fans. hour of collection time in the morning if thin plasterboard was
At about 2 p.m., the fans that push hot air out of the sunspace used in the sunspace.
were turned off. Without fans or vents to remove heat, the

74 home power 158 • december 2013 & january 2014


low-mass sunspaces

INSPIRING SUNSPACES
A wide range of designs are possible. Here are some examples from across the country.

COLORADO

M
ike Pelletier’s Gunnison, Colorado,
sunspace was added to the south
face of the house and married to
the home’s original architectural style. The
221-square-foot sunspace (6.5 feet wide by
34 feet long) has 270 square feet of south-
facing vertical glazing. The cost of materials
to build the sunspace was about $4,500.
Pelletier and his family use the sunspace
for lots of activities: house-heating, clothes
drying, food drying, a climbing wall, the kids’
play loft, and sunny lounging. Future plans
include adding a hot air collector behind
the sunroom glazing and above the awning/
Courtesy Mike Pelletier (3)
reflector to help boost the air temperature
from the sunspace to the home’s interior.
To get the warmed air to the house, Pelletier
started with a thermosyphon system, but “We use the propane boiler only when it’s adding the sunspace last year, we burned a
found the circulation rate disappointing—so cloudy and when I’m away,” Pelletier says. bit less than two cords—and it was a cold
a fan designed for a long duct system was “Otherwise, we use a wood stove along with winter. The sunspace’s temperature doesn’t
added. It took some experimentation to get the sunspace. When we first moved here, seem much affected by the outside winter
the distribution and noise levels right, but it we burned six cords of wood during the temperature, but the amount of clouds does
works well now. first winter. After doing lots of insulating and affect its temperature—that’s no surprise.”

Left: The sunspace


serves multiple
functions beyond
space heating,
including clothes
drying and a kids’ play
space.

Right: The add-on


sunspace integrates
well with the home’s
design.

homepower.com 75
low-mass sunspaces

MINNESOTA 260 cfm blower starts. (The small amount


of thermal mass in the sunspace allows for
use of a smaller-than-normal blower.) In the
spring and fall, the air temperature delivered
to the house can exceed 100°F. During the
cold Minnesota winters when the sun is
out, the air temperature from the sunspace
averages about 80°F. “The fan kicks in every
day when the sun is out, no matter what the
temperature is outside,” says Sikora.
Cool air enters the sunspace from the
house through a one-way damper. Summer
overheating is reduced by opening the upper
and lower access doors in the sunspace.
Sikora says that their entire heating bill for
2011–2012, which includes water heating,
was $350—very low considering their
climate’s 7,981 heating degree days.

A
rchitect William Sikora designed both stories of this 80-square- An inline fan
foot LTMS in Minneapolis, Minnesota, to be accessible. The equipped with a
upper floor can be used for sunbathing, clothes drying, wood backdraft damper
drying, or for storing items not affected by heat. The first floor is used for and air filter
storing firewood and garden equipment. Twin-wall, 8 mm polycarbonate conveys heated,
filtered air to the
was used for exterior glazing.
home’s loft via
The sunspace has some thermal mass storage as evidenced by a wall-mounted
the gradual temperature drop after sunset (see “Sikora Sunspace grille.
Temperatures” table). Interior stagnation temperatures in the sunspace
reach 120°F with the blower off, but interior drywall and the concrete
floor provide enough thermal mass to prevent overheating in the
house. The blower will run as long as the home requires heat.
Heated, filtered air from the space is conveyed into the loft of the main
home via a blower fan and pushed down with ceiling fans. Simple
thermostats, one in the sunspace and one inside the home, control
the blower. One thermostat is located near the highest point in the
sunspace, and is set to close when the sunspace approaches a usable
temperature for space heating: for example, 90°F. The living space
Courtesy William Sikora (3)
thermostat is set to close when the temperature drops below room
temperature, at about 70°F. The two thermostats are wired in series
with the blower, so the blower only comes on when the temperature
in the sunspace is between 80°F and 90°F and the temperature in the
living space is below 70°F. When both thermostats are closed, the

Sikora Sunspace Temperatures: Dec. 1, 2012


House Temp. Sunspace Temp. Ambient Temp.
Time (°F)* (°F) (°F)
8 a.m. 68.4 15.0 10.0
9 a.m. 68.4 42.0 10.0
10 a.m. 68.0 54.0 12.0
11 a.m. 68.2 79.0 15.0
12 p.m. 68.9 88.3) 19.0
On the lower level, one duct
1 p.m. 69.4 89.6 21.0 serves as the supply for the
2 p.m. 69.4 87.8 22.0 air-to-air heat exchanger.
3 p.m. 68.9 75.0 21.0 The sunspace helps to
preheat the air going into
4 p.m. 67.8 70.5 21.0
ductwork that serves as the
5 p.m. 67.1 59.4 19.0 supply for the air-to-air heat
6 p.m. 66.7 50.7 18.0 exchanger. The other duct is
the dryer vent, which gives
Blower Off Blower On
up some of its heat into the
*The home’s heating system was not in use during the time these readings were taken. sunspace.

76 home power 158 • december 2013 & january 2014


low-mass sunspaces

PENNSYLVANIA

N
ick Pine is a solar designer and
innovator who has been a strong
proponent of LTMS systems. His
three-story sunspace provides most of the
heat for his otherwise difficult-to-heat 1820s
home in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
This 384-square-foot sunspace is 12 feet
deep by 32 feet long and 28 feet tall, and has
an 8-by-32-foot deck that sits 16 feet above
the ground. The south glazing is made from
two thin sheets of clear polycarbonate with
the space between filled with a low heat
conductivity gas—all fabricated on site.
This provides clear glazing that is efficient
for solar gain and reduces heat loss—at a
fraction of what double-glazed glass would
cost.
Another innovative feature is the use of a
mesh of two layers of 50% shade cloth
just inside of the glazing. Cooler return air
from the house is introduced to the space
between the mesh and the glazing and
spreads over the face of the mesh while
flowing into it. This cools the mesh and
reduces heat lost through the glazing.

Courtesy Nick Pine (3)

Left: Two layers of 50% shade


cloth act as solar absorbers, with
heated air channeled through them
via convection.

Right: The sunspace roof


is two layers of corrugated
polycarbonate, with the
corrugations running in
opposite directions. The upper
level is used for lounging,
and connects to the house
via a set of doors.

homepower.com 77
low-mass sunspaces
continued from page 74

in the south glazing. My vent doors are in all three locations, duct to the peak of the sunspace. This simple sunspace can
with the south ones being below the glazing. Some LTMS have a payback of less than one heating season.
designs have entry doors from the outside that also serve as More permanent sunspaces will cost more, but will have
vents. better wintertime performance depending on air-sealing,
Other design features for summer temperature control: insulation, and glazing. General payback can be difficult
to figure, as sunspaces need to be customized to their
• At mid-latitudes, vertical glazing receives only about half
application. For example, Mike Pelletier’s 221-square-foot
as much solar radiation in midsummer as in midwinter, so
sunspace in Colorado (see “Inspiring Sunspaces” sidebar)
it’s an automatic way to reduce summer overheating.
cost $4,500. According to PVWatts version 2, about 4.7
• An overhang above the south glazing that is sized to kWh per square meter per day fall on a vertical collector in
shade all or part of the glazing in midsummer but admit Gunnison, Colorado, on an average winter day. Pelletier’s
full sun during the heating season will help summer sunspace, then, could theoretically produce 118 kWh per day
overheating (see the overhang design tool in Access). [(270 ft.2 ÷ 10.76 ft.2/m2)(4.7 kWh/m2)]. Even if only 40% of
that energy is harvested, that would be equivalent to about
• Shade cloth can be used over all or part of the glazing
47 kWh per day. If the heating season is 4.5 months, that
during the summer. Choose a shade cloth density that
translates to more than 6,300 kWh per year—a savings of $630
admits the amount of sun you want.
at $0.10 per kWh, for a 7.1-year payback ($4,500 ÷ $630), plus
Heating on a Budget all the other benefits of having the sunspace. Your savings
LTMS additions can be built on very low budgets. One of the will vary depending on the sunspace’s efficiency, local fuel
most inexpensive sunspace strategies is to erect a half hoop costs, heating requirements, and solar insolation.
house (often used for greenhouses) against the south wall
of the house. Glazing can be two layers of greenhouse poly Access
with a small blower (30 cfm for a modest-sized sunspace) Gary Reysa (gary@BuildItSolar.com) is a retired airplane engineer living
to inflate the space between the poly layers. This could be in southwestern Montana who spends way too much time on solar
accomplished with a small DC blower wired to a single PV projects.
module. The floor should be covered with an insulating
Build It Solar LTMS section • bit.ly/BldItSolarLTMS
material—perhaps mulch or garden bark. Vents will need to
Inflation blower kit for greenhouses • bit.ly/InflatFanKit
be cut into the side of the house, or windows or doors can be
Overhang sizing tool • susdesign.com/tools.php
used, as long as there’s an inlet duct going down and an outlet

Statement of Ownership, Management, and Circulation. 1. Publication Title: HOME


POWER 2. Publication #008-699. 3. Filing Date: 9/25/13. 4. Issue Frequency: Bimonthly. 5.
AUTOMAGIC BATTERY WATERING No. of issues published annually: 6. 6. Annual Subscription Price: $14.95. 7. Mailing address
of known office of publication: 312 N Main St, Phoenix OR 97535. 8. Mailing Address of
Headquarters or General Business Office of Publisher: 312 N Main St, Phoenix OR 97535. 9.
Names and addresses of Publisher, Editor, and Managing Editor: Publisher, Richard A. Perez
& Karen L. Perez, PO Box 520, Ashland OR 97520; Editor, Joe Schwartz, PO Box 520, Ashland
OR 97520; Managing Editor, Claire Anderson, PO Box 520, Ashland OR 97520. 10. Owner:
Home Power Inc, Ashland OR 97520; Richard & Karen Perez, Ashland OR 97520; Joe Schwartz,
Phoenix OR 97535; Dale & Marilyn Hodges, Medford OR 97501, Scott & Stephanie Sayles,
McMinnville OR 97128. 11. Known bondholders, mortgagees, and other security holders
owning or holding 1% or more of total amount of bonds, mortgages, or other securities: None.
12. Tax Status: Has not changed during preceding 12 months. 13. Publication Title: HOME
POWER. 14. Issue date for circulation data: 9/1/13.
15. Extent and Nature of Circulation: Avg no. of copies of No. of copies of
each issue during single issue published
preceding 12 months nearest to filing date

a. Total No. of Copies ..............................................................................41,770 .......................39,682


b. Paid Circulation
1) Mailed Outside-County Paid Subscriptions ......................................20,641 .......................20,092
2) Mailed In-County Paid Subscriptions .................................................... 0 ................................ 0
3) Paid Distribution Outside the Mail Including Sales Through
Dealers and Carriers, Street Vendors, Counter Sales, and Other
WE MAKE WATER FROM YOUR GAS Non-USPS Paid Distribution ...............................................................14,212 .......................13,531
4) Paid Distribution by Other Classes of Mail Through the USPS ............ 0 ................................ 0
Hydrogen and oxygen battery gas catalytically recombined into pure c. Total Paid Distribution ...........................................................................34,853 .......................33,623
water and returned to each battery cell. Keeps battery topped off for d. Free or Nominal Rate Distribution
1) Outside-County..................................................................................... 180 ............................ 180
extended periods of time and reduces maintenance costs. Explosive 2) In-County ................................................................................................ 0 ................................ 0
hydrogen gas is virtually eliminated from the battery area. Corrosive 3) Other Classes Mailed Through the USPS.............................................. 0 ................................ 0
spray and fumes are contained and washed back into each battery cell. 4) Distribution Outside the Mail .............................................................1,678 .........................1,785
e. Total Free or Nominal Rate Distribution ................................................1,858 .........................1,965
Electrolyte kept strong longer, extending the useful power and life of the f. Total Distribution ...................................................................................36,711 .......................35,588
battery. HYDROCAP Vents simply replace the battery’s caps. Battery g. Copies Not Distributed ...........................................................................5,059 .........................4,094
h. Total .......................................................................................................41,770 .......................39,682
maintenance is greatly reduced. Write or call for more information.
i. Percent Paid ...........................................................................................94.94%...................... 94.48%

305-696-2504 16. This statement of ownership will be printed in the December/January 2014 issue of this
publication.
975 NW 95 St. 17. I certify that the statements made by me above are true and complete. Scott M. Russell,
Things that Work!
www.hydrocapcorp.com Miami, FL 33150 Operations Director, 9/25/13.

78 home power 158 • december 2013 & january 2014


Solar Financing Companies
Require SunEye® Measurements
Because...
Shade significantly reduces energy and
Quality Solar Energy Products revenue production (even with microinverters
or power optimizers).

THINK THERMAL- The SunEye is the most accurate way to


measure shade.

THINK SUNEARTH The SunEye saves time, wins more sales, and
reduces change-orders.

The Empire Series Liquid Flat Plate Collector

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SunEarth, Inc. Solmetricc SunEye-210
8425 Almeria Avenue, Fontana, CA 92335 Shade Measurement Tool
(909) 434-3100, FAX (909) 434-3101 Fast. Accurate. Professional.
Distributor inquiries welcome.
www.solmetric.com

homepower.com 79
Comment
Discuss

Solar Water Heating System


this article @
homepower.com/158.80

Troubleshooting & Repair

Vaughan Woodruff

Part 2:
Controls, Sensors & Tanks
by Chuck Marken

Above: A solar technician adjusts the settings on a solar controller.


At left: A basic 10K controller (left) has been in service for more
Chuck Marken

than 30 years. LED lights show when it is powered up and when


the pump(s) should be operating. A modern 1K controller (right)
has digital readouts and a graphic interface.

80 home power 158 • december 2013 & january 2014


SWH troubleshooting

S
econd only to valve problems,
differential controllers and their
sensors have the largest failure
rates of all solar water heating (SWH)
components. Voltage spikes from
nearby lightning strikes are blamed for
many of the failures, but this is difficult
to verify. Differential controls monitor
two sensors: one placed at the collector
outlet and one placed at the storage
tank. At often-adjustable set points, the
controllers turn on pumps, blowers, or
motorized valves. Of the three control
components, my experience is that the
differential controls fail most often, with
sensors next.

Controls & Sensors


U.S.-made differential controls use
“10K” sensors, an industry alias for a
thermistor, which vary their resistance as
temperature changes. Thermistors used
Chuck Marken

in the solar industry have an inverse


function: the resistance decreases as the
temperature rises. Ten-K sensors have
Testing a 10K sensor to see if it will operate the controller.
an electrical resistance of 10 K•ohms
(10,000 ohms) at 77°F.
Newer to the U.S. market are European controls that use Some controls have built-in diagnostics to detect sensor
sensors known as resistance thermal devices (aka resistance malfunctions and report them on the display. A display
temperature detector; RTD). Most use a model PT1000 sensor. of sensor temperatures is also valuable for evaluating
RTD sensors used in solar controls are proportional devices operation and flow problems. Controls that don’t have digital
where the resistance increases with temperature. They have diagnostics require a multimeter to discover which control
a resistance of 1,000 ohms at 32°F. European controls have component has a problem.
captured some of the market share in the United States in
the last few years because they incorporate features that are Troubleshooting. A control failure is evidenced most often
popular with many consumers: digital displays; multiple by equipment (pumps, etc.) not turning on when expected.
inputs and outputs; and other functions, such as a vacation For example, a pump is expected to be energized when the
mode to help prevent overheating. Ten-K sensors will not collectors are exposed to bright sunshine and the tank contains
function correctly in European controls and vice versa. cold water. A more unusual circumstance that indicates a
control failure is equipment running when it is expected to be
off. An example is a collector loop pump running at night.
At room temperature (72°F), a 10K sensor should give a
A variety of 10K sensors (left to right): A basic strap-on sensor reading of a little more than 10,000 ohms on a multimeter’s
with a hole for mounting on a lug; two sizes of immersion resistance setting; a PT1000 will read about 1,100 ohms. A
sensors; and a plastic swimming-pool control sensor. Note the heat source is needed for testing sensors. Wrapping your hand
O-ring on the pool sensor—it is designed to be placed in a hole
drilled in the PVC piping and serve as an immersion sensor around the sensor will work and give a slow rise in temperature.
when clamped to the pipe. Solar technicians sometimes use a propane lighter or torch for
quicker temperature changes. An ice cube can also be applied
to the sensor to test that the sensor isn’t stuck at a temperature.
Increasing temperature will cause the resistance to drop with a
10K sensor and rise with a PT1000. A sensor that gives a reading of
either zero or infinite resistance on the meter needs to be replaced.
A temperature difference of about 16°F between the
collector and storage sensors usually triggers the SWH
pump, blower, and/or valve to activate the system (the “on”
Chuck Marken

differential). Many controls have field-adjustable differentials


(although, in some cases, only the “on” setting is adjustable).
Some controls have no differential adjustment.

homepower.com 81
SWH troubleshooting

Typical Resistance (Ohms)


Sensor Type -22°F 32°F 68°F 140°F 212°F 248°F
10K 177,000 85,000 12,401 2,489 680 390
PT1000 882 1,000 1,078 1,232 1,385 1,461

A control can be tested with two good sensors connected


to the sensor terminals. If both sensors start at room
temperature, the ON differential can be reached using body
temperature to heat the collector sensor. An ice cube on the
storage sensor will accomplish the same thing. If the control
doesn’t turn on when the differential is reached, the control
is probably defective. Most controls have an ON-AUTO-OFF
switch and it must be in the AUTO position for the control to
function on sensor differentials.
Most solar service technicians just replace defective
differential controls—they don’t repair them, since a strong
electronics background and difficult-to-source parts are

Chuck Marken
required. If you have an older SWH system that uses a
discontinued controller, you can send it away for repair by
Conifer Solar Consulting (conifer-solar-consulting.com).
The top sensor is a 10K•ohm sensor; the bottom two are 1
Troubleshooting Storage Tanks K•ohm sensors. The multimeter is set at K•ohms and reads
1.095 K•ohms when connected to the middle 1 K sensor—close
Steel water storage tanks usually have some type of lining
to the reading for 68°F (see table at upper left).
to inhibit corrosion. A relatively new storage tank uses
polybutylene, a high-temperature plastic, for a liner, but
these tanks have fairly limited history and there’s little data The most common solar storage tank is a modified electric
available on any failure problems associated with them. water heater. Most are constructed of steel and lined with
Stainless tanks are typically more expensive than steel-lined glass, which helps minimize corrosion and keep domestic hot
tanks and have longer warranties and expected lifespans. water clear. Even though the tank is lined with glass, hairline
fractures in the lining can lead to the tank’s eventual corrosion
as the water reacts with the steel. The longevity of glass-lined
tanks varies from 10 to 20 years depending on local water
conditions. I have a storage tank in my basement installed in
1984 that is still holding water. This isn’t the norm, though; in
most places, steel-lined tanks have a 10-year lifespan.

A cutaway view of a Stiebel Eltron glass-lined tank with a


submerged, glass-lined heat exchanger.

Courtesy Stiebel Eltron


Tank Inner
Sacrificial Wall:
This Rheem Glass-lined
Anode
Marathon tank steel
has a seamless,
blow-molded,
polybutylene Insulation:
liner and has a 3 inches of high-
limited lifetime density urethane
foam
tank warranty and
a six-year parts
warranty. Heat Exchanger:
Glass-lined steel
Courtesy Rheem

82 home power 158 • december 2013 & january 2014


SWH troubleshooting
Slowing corrosion. Water with high A Typical Electric Water Heater
levels of total dissolved solids, high
acidity or alkalinity, high oxygen and
dissolved carbon dioxide, high levels To Hot Cold
Water Taps Supply In
of salts or sulfates, or corrosion-related
T&P Release
bacteria and electrochemical corrosion Valve
will more aggressively corrode a
tank’s anode rod, which serves as
a sacrificial metal, corroding faster
than the steel in the tank. Anode rods
made of magnesium or aluminum
help protect water heaters and lined Anode Rod:
steel tanks against corrosion. It usually Needs to be replaced
periodically
takes five to 10 years for an anode rod
to sacrifice itself completely, but after
it is gone, the steel tank will corrode
next. Installing a new anode rod ($30)
periodically can extend a steel tank’s
life almost indefinitely. Dip Tube:
Often breaks
Replacement anodes are available at top
that hang under the tank’s hot water
connection and also flexible ones are Upper Heating
Element:
available that can be inserted into the For backup only in many
tank in clearance-limited spaces. Make solar applications
sure you buy the correct rod type for
your local water conditions. Magnesium
anode rods are used in most of the
United States, but aluminum rods may Lower Heating
Element:
installed where magnesium is a problem. Valve: Disconnected for many
A symptom of using a magnesium anode Drain solar applications
in areas where the water reacts negatively
with this metal can be a sulfurous rotten
egg smell and taste in the hot water.
Premium-priced tanks made with
type 316 stainless steel have few problems with corrosion. Broken dip tube. The fine print on many water heater and
They don’t need anode rods for corrosion protection and are storage tank warranties has a disclaimer for using more
compatible with copper and steel piping and components. than 180°F water in the tank, since most tanks have some
Tanks made with the more common 304 stainless steel can plastic components inside that may be affected by higher
encounter problems. water temperatures. Newer water heaters have plastic
Near the end of their lives, all steel tanks start leaking at “flappers” in the inlet and outlet pipe nipples that inhibit
welds in the ports or seams. The leaks are small to start and are heat loss through thermosyphoning. Another common
first noticeable as a wet spot on the floor that never dries. These plastic part is the dip tube that carries incoming cold
leaks worsen over time, and the only solution is replacement. water to the tank bottom from the cold pipe connection on
the tank top, where the thermostat and heating element
or gas burner are located. This dip tube, when aged and
subjected to high water temperatures, can become brittle
and break off.
When a dip tube breaks, cold water can migrate directly
The sacrificial
anode rod (left) has to the hot water output since the two connections are only a
served its function few inches apart. The symptom alerting you to a broken tube
and is corroded. is water delivered at the tap that is hot for only a few seconds
The new anode rod and then turns increasingly tepid, or even cold. Dip tubes are
(right) will replace
it. This type of most likely to break in backup water heaters that have been
anode is located subjected to years of very hot water entering the dip tube from
under the water the preheat storage tank. Removing the cold water nipple on
heater’s hot water
the tank’s top and pulling up the dip tube (or what’s left of
Chuck Marken

outlet—evidenced
by the pipe fitting it) with your little finger will allow inspection. A broken tube
on top. must be replaced (about $10).

homepower.com 83
SWH troubleshooting
Expansion Tanks
Fluids—whether water or propylene glycol used in SWH
systems—expand when heated, which can cause enough
Repair Tip
pressure to trigger relief valves, causing fluid loss. Expansion If a storage tank has an electric element and needs to be
tanks (used in antifreeze systems) prevent this by giving the drained for component replacement or maintenance,
water an air space into which it can expand­—but they can remember to turn off the electrical breaker supplying the
fail, too. power to the elements. If the element inside the tank is
In an expansion tank, a rubber bladder separates the fluid exposed to air and energized, it will burn out and need
from the air. The bladder assists in resisting corrosion of the replacement.
expansion tank if the fluid contains oxygenated water, such as in
a hydronic heating system. Antifreeze-based SWH systems are
closed loops that contain little or no oxygenated fluid once the
air has been expelled by an air relief valve, making them much
less likely to corrode. But they still require an expansion tank.
Manufacturers recommend that the expansion tank air
be charged to the same pressure as the liquid system. Many Drainback Tank Care
experienced installers charge the air side slightly less (2 to 3
psi) than the liquid, thinking that always having a little liquid Although drainback tanks aren’t typically lined, they also
in the tank will decrease the wear on the bladder touching the aren’t subjected to the corrosion-causing daily exchange
inside of the pipe fitting. As the liquid in the system gets hot, of oxygenated water that water heaters and storage tanks
endure. An important service check with drainback tanks is
it fills more of the expansion tank, pushing the bladder up. A
ensuring the water level is sufficient to cover the exchanger
tank that’s too small or severely undercharged relative to the coils. As with many specifications for SWH systems, a
liquid pressure upon it will show much higher readings on difference of opinion exists on what to use for the heat-
the pressure gauge when the liquid gets hot. transfer fluid (HTF) in a drainback system. My company
always used tap water, but some installers use distilled water.

A drainback tank requires no maintenance.

A typical SWH expansion tank is properly installed with its


bladder end up.

Chuck Marken (2)

84 home power 158 • december 2013 & january 2014


SWH troubleshooting
Bladder expansion tanks have a pipe fitting at one end liquid pressure at 15 to 25 psi. An expansion tank with 12
and a Schrader valve at the other for charging with air. psi of air is good for a SWH system charged to 15 psi if you
An expansion tank is best installed with the bladder up desire a slight undercharge. Expansion tanks charged with
and the inlet down, so if the bladder leaks the air will not 40 psi are typically set up for use on potable water systems
be introduced into the SWH system, which can stop fluid with backflow preventers. The preventers are a double check-
circulation and cause a pressure-relief valve to actuate, valve vented to the atmosphere that protect municipal water
resulting in a loss of collector-loop fluid. This can require systems from contamination from branch lines to homes and
recharging the system. buildings. If you’re changing out an expansion tank, have a
In expansion tanks that are installed pipe-fitting up five-gallon bucket handy, since the old tank might be full of
or sideways, failed bladders are detected by bleeding the fluid.
Schrader valve with a thumbnail or small screwdriver; any
liquid coming out indicates a failed bladder. A failure in an Coming Soon
expansion tank may not be noticeable if the tank is installed Watch for part three of this SWH troubleshooting series in an
with the pipe fitting on the bottom of the tank, since air is still upcoming issue.
present in the space above the water. A tank installed in this
orientation is a good reason to slightly undercharge the air Access
side of the tank. Chuck Marken is a Home Power contributing editor and a licensed
New expansion tanks have the factory charge pressure electrician, plumber/gas-fitter, and HVAC contractor who has been
listed on the box, typically 12 to 40 psi. Don’t trust this listing installing, repairing, and servicing SWH and pool systems since 1979.
when installing or replacing a tank—check the pressure with He has taught SWH classes and workshops throughout the United
a tire gauge. A severely undercharged or undersized tank is States for Sandia National Laboratories, Solar Energy International, and
essentially the same thing—not enough room for the system many other schools and nonprofit organizations.
pressure changes. Installers usually charge the antifreeze

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homepower.com 85
code corner renewable energy and the national electrical code

A Peek at the
2014 NEC—Part 1
by Brian Mehalic

The 53rd edition of the National Electrical Code (NEC) is

Courtesy Hannah Solar / SolarMax


available from the National Fire Protection Association
(nfpa.org). It has numerous additions and edits, and some
sections have been deleted and some have been reorganized.
Technological changes in the industry resulted in particular
attention being given to Articles 690 and 705. Plus, there
were several Code-wide changes. While adoption dates will
vary by state and local authorities having jurisdiction (AHJs),
these changes will drive new equipment availability, as well
as design and installation best practices. This article provides
a broad overview of just some of the changes—other changes
will be subjects of future “Code Corners.”

Code-Wide Changes
The definition for “Photovoltaic (PV) System” has been
moved out of Article 690 and now resides in Article 100,
“Definitions.” Perhaps the move indicates that PV is now
fully mainstream, and while the definition hasn’t changed, Three-phase string inverters ranging from 8 kW to 30 kW with a
it still has big implications when it comes to disconnects or maximum input voltage of 1,000 VDC are becoming common in
conductors sharing a raceway or junction box. commercial applications.
A more significant Code-wide change is 110.21(B), “Field-
Applied Hazard Markings.” PV systems have lots of labeling for one-and two family dwellings to 600 VDC, and although
requirements (see “Code Corner” in HP154), and now the 1,000 VDC systems were never prohibited on commercial
NEC mandates that Code-required labels effectively convey buildings, those applications are now specifically excluded
the hazard, be permanently affixed, and be suitable for the from the category of high-voltage systems, which will make
environment in which they are installed. Two Informational Code-compliant installation more straightforward. Expect
Notes reference ANSI Z535.4-2011 standards for guidance to see more 1,000 VDC systems in commercial applications
on effective words, colors, and symbols to use based as equipment manufacturers introduce more modules,
on the level of hazard, as well as location requirements inverters, and balance-of-system (BOS) components rated
and durability standards. While Informational Notes are for this voltage. Note that workspace clearances have not
recommendations, not enforceable requirements, following changed and are still different for systems greater than 600
the ANSI standards as a best practice will ensure that V [Table 110.34(A)] and systems less than or equal to 600 V
hazards are clearly identified, ideally with labeling that will [Table 110.26(A)(1)].
last for the system’s life.
Another Code-wide change is the reclassification of high Article 690: Solar Photovoltaic (PV)
voltage, as defined in Article 490, to “equipment operating Systems
at more than 1,000 volts.” This is reflected throughout In many cases, throughout Article 690, “photovoltaic” has
numerous other Articles, such as 690, Part IX, “Systems been abbreviated to “PV,” which helps to shorten the text.
over 1,000 Volts.” Section 690.7(C) still limits PV systems New definitions include:

86 home power 158 • december 2013 & january 2014


code corner
renewable energy and the national electrical code

DC-to-DC Converter: A device on a DC PV circuit that protection requirement to all systems with any DC circuits that
can manipulate voltage and current, such as products from have a maximum system voltage greater than or equal to 80 VDC.
SolarEdge, Tigo, and others. A major shift in rooftop system design comes with the new
Section 690.12, which requires the ability for rapid shutdown
Direct-Current (DC) Combiner: The Code says that basically of PV systems on or in buildings. Due to firefighter concerns
any devices where two or more DC inputs are paralleled about energized PV system conductors inside buildings or
to form one DC output fall into this category (including running across rooftops, this section now requires equipment
combiner boxes, and sub- or recombiners). that will limit voltage between any conductors (including
ground) to no more than 30 V and 240 volt-amperes within
Multimode Inverter: An inverter that can operate in both 10 seconds of initiating shutdown. This section applies to
utility-interactive and stand-alone modes, such as in grid-tied conductors that extend more than 5 feet inside a building,
with battery backup systems or SMA America’s Secure Power or extend more than 10 feet past the perimeter of the PV
Supply inverters. array. Systems with microinverters, AC modules, or DC-to-
DC converters already comply, as the AC interconnection
Section 690.4 was broadly titled “Installation,” and now is breaker provides this functionality, disabling the module-
more appropriately named “General Requirements.” Specific level electronics (MLEs) and isolating energized conductors
sections that dealt with installation, such as “Identification to those between the module and the MLEs.
and Grouping” and “Module Connection Arrangement” have While 30 V is less than the open-circuit voltage of many
been moved to “Part IV: Wiring Methods.” Others, such as modules, isolating energized PV conductors to within 10 feet
“Circuit Routing,” have been moved and modified—changed of the array—even if series connections are made prior to
to 690.31(G)(1), “Embedded in Building Surfaces,” which no that point—provides a compliant method for string-inverter-
longer addresses routing inside of a building. based systems. This strategy will require additional rooftop
switching (240 volt-amperes is the equivalent of 24 V at 10 A,
Protection: Ground-Fault, Arc-Fault, which could be used for a contactor control circuit for rapid
Overcurrent & Rapid Shutdown shutdown of rooftop combiner boxes). Section 690.56(C)
New requirements for ground-fault protection (GFP) mandate specifies the labeling requirement for rapid shutdown
detecting faults on intentionally grounded conductors, which systems; note that the equipment used must be listed and
some types of GFP devices cannot detect (the so-called “blind identified [690.12(5)], though the Code does not state that the
spot” in traditional GFP)—expect changes in manufacturer’s equipment must be explicitly listed for the purpose of rapid
inverter-integrated GFPs. New text also allows the GFP to shutdown of PV systems.
open (disconnect) the grounded conductor for the purposes of
measurement—a common startup procedure for some types of Disconnects
inverters and retrofit GFP systems. The grounded conductor Section 690.15(C) now requires load-break-rated disconnects
is automatically ungrounded and then insulation resistance on the DC output of combiner boxes mounted on roofs.
between positive and ground, and negative and ground, is These disconnects can either be integrated into the combiner
verified each day before the inverter begins operation. box or be an external switch not more than 6 feet away
Section 690.9(A) clarifies that when properly sized circuit from the combiner box. The disconnecting means can be
conductors are connected to current-limited sources, such remote-controlled (such as a contactor, which could also
as a PV module, PV source circuit, or a utility-interactive help meet rapid shutdown requirements), but must also
inverter, the potential for overcurrent comes from other be manually operable at the combiner box location. Along
sources of “significantly higher current.” The intention is with rapid shutdown requirements, this will make it less
that overcurrent protection devices (OCPDs) should be likely for installers to run multiple PV source circuits from
placed at the source of the potential fault current. Thus, a roof-mounted array to a string inverter at ground level. A
series fusing is located where multiple PV source circuits combiner box, which will provide means to quickly isolate
are connected in parallel in a combiner box, and the output the array, along with disconnecting means, will become
of a utility-interactive inverter is back-fed through a circuit the standard for roof-mounted systems, most likely with a
breaker or fused disconnect where it connects to the utility contactor that can be operated either from the ground or
grid. Note that 690.9(D) now requires “listed PV overcurrent locally on the roof.
devices in PV source and output circuits” and that 690.9(E)
clarifies that overcurrent protection is required on both the Access
positive and negative DC conductors in ungrounded PV Brian Mehalic (brian@solarenergy.org) is a NABCEP-certified PV
systems. professional and ISPQ-certified PV instructor. He has experience designing,
The requirements in section 690.11 for DC circuit arc-fault installing, servicing, and inspecting all types and sizes of PV systems. He is
protection have been expanded by removal of the phrase “on a curriculum developer and instructor for Solar Energy International.
or penetrating a building.” This, in effect, extends the arc-fault

homepower.com 87
home&heart tales of off-grid living

Pig +
Women +
Knives

by Kathleen Jarschke-Schultze

O ne morning last May, my sister Mary called, very


excited. “We have to take this class,” she insisted.
“It’ll be fun.” She was talking about a class at the
Fatted Calf butchery in Napa, California, offered by women
and for women, on carving up a pig carcass. And that is how
our pastured pigs, we will be doing all of the butchering
ourselves. The more I know, the better.
It was a small class, there were only six of us. One
woman was already a chef at a Bay Area restaurant, another
was a homesteader, and one was, like us, looking forward
I found myself with my sisters Mary and Tamra in Bay Area to future pigs. We gathered around an intact carcass at the
charcuterie and meat expert Heather Bailie’s class, “Pig + first table.
Woman + Knife.” Bailie, our teacher/butcher, faced us over the hog. She
gave us a quick rundown on knife safety and then launched
Primal Cuts into carcass deconstruction instructions. As she carved, she
We prepped our wardrobe for the class weeks in advance. discussed the seven primal cuts: the butt or Boston butt,
Mary sewed some white cotton canvas aprons, and I designed picnic ham, loin, ribs, belly (bacon!), hocks, and trotters. We
an image to decorate the front: a picture of a hog, divided were all enthralled at the grace and efficiency of the cuts.
into the primal cuts; the word “woman” underneath that, Right then, I wanted to be a butcher.
in a nice font; and beneath that, a butcher knife illustration. After the different cuts were separated and identified,
I researched and found the United States Department of and all of our questions answered, Bailie placed all the cuts
Agriculture stamp for hog carcasses, so I added that in a back into their original position. Once again, we could see the
lavender color, along with our names. We were ready. whole side of the hog, but now we knew the cuts and could
I saw this class as a steppingstone to my goal of raising see where they came from.
and butchering pastured pork, since it would teach us basic
butchering techniques. With this knowledge, my sisters could Subprimal
help me butcher my hogs when that time came. We divided into two groups of three and took a hog side. We
We gathered and drove to Napa, our hometown. each took turns making the various primal cuts. It did not
Arriving at the Fatted Calf, we were led into the back where, take long for us to break down the two hog sides.
on several stainless steel worktables, lay three halves of We also worked on several subprimal cuts. Not all of us
pasture-raised pigs. did the same thing. We each were given a task, and when
I was kind of disappointed that the heads were not we finished that we could try something else. From Peter,
included. One of my father’s childhood memories is helping Bailie’s teaching assistant, Mary learned how to trim the fat
my grandfather make headcheese on their homestead in from the skin. I wanted to try trimming the fat, so I got a
Manitoba, Canada. When my husband Bob-O and I raise turn at that, too.

88 home power 158 • december 2013 & january 2014


home& heart
tales of off-grid living

It’s not as easy as it looks. Peter showed Mary how to cut We learned how to tie a roast by practicing on a
a small slit—about two finger-widths—in the top edge of the porchetta—a pork loin and belly roulade seasoned with
hide. By hooking in your fingers there, you can get a good garlic, lemon, fennel, and rosemary. Again, this is a skill that
grip on the fat-covered piece. When my turn came, I held is harder to master than it looks. We figured that they retied
the hide up and tried to wield my very sharp knife smoothly the roasts as soon as we left.
along the line of fat to be rendered into lard. Obviously, this is After washing up, we were ushered to some picnic tables
a skill that benefits from repetition and technique. outside the shop where our lunch had been set up. The food
I wryly thought to myself, “Geez, I’m butchering this job!” was scrumptious. We talked and exchanged e-mail addresses
Then I thought, “If I was really butchering this job, I would so we could share our photos from the day.
be doing it right!” I have a deep and newfound respect for Upon re-entering the Fatted Calf, we each found a bag
butchers. with our name on it waiting for us at the counter. Our
Mary and I were cutting some very big loin chops while large, seasoned chop was in there, along with a couple of
Tamra was removing a kneecap at another table. Tamra the crépinettes and some seasoned, skewered pork we also
looked up at Peter and said, “This kneecap is kind of creepy.” made.
Peter agreed, “Yes, it is.”
After each of us had cut a chop, we placed them on a large A Taste of Salt
tray and seasoned the meat with an array of seasonings— The next step for me will be the salumi (salted meats) class
rosemary, lemon zest, and fennel pollen. at the Fatted Calf. I yearn to be able to produce the kind of
preserved meats I was eating off that tray. Meat curing is a
Charcuterie skill—and an art.
A counter—with a pitcher of ice water, glasses, and a tray of I am fascinated with the concept of preserving food
Fatted Calf charcuterie to tempt us—bridged the shop front without relying on electricity. It’s no wonder—living beyond
and the classroom. With a basket of sliced rustic bread from the grasp of the power lines makes Bob-O and me very
Model Bakery next door and a small bowl of cabbage pickle, conscious of every bit of energy we use. Plus, people have
our nosh was complete. Salami, mortadella, and prosciutto been preserving food without using electricity for centuries.
were the meats I could identify. As we finished one type of We have worked out some hygienic kinks along the way,
preserved meat, another variety would magically appear on making some techniques safer. But for the most part, this is
the tray. Next to the counter was a hand-washing station, so a well-traveled road. And I’m looking forward to the meal
it was easy to clean up, take a swig of water, and sample the stops along the way.
thinly sliced meaty goodness.
Once we were done with the sharp knives, they brought Access
out the wine. We sipped and learned how to use the cuts we Kathleen Jarschke-Schultze (kathleen.jarschke-schultze@homepower.com)
had mastered. We made spicy pork crépinettes—little herbed is finishing up the grand dried bean experiment at her off-grid home in
sausage patties wrapped in the lacy caul fat that surrounds northernmost California.
pig organs. The caul fat was really pretty. We joked about
using it as a pattern for crocheting a caul shawl.

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homepower.com 91
back page basics renewable energy 101

Prescriptions for Efficient Windows


I
f you’re shopping for windows, look to the National Energy Star Qualification Criteria
Fenestration Rating Council’s (NFRC) label, which appears for Residential Windows
on all Energy Star window products. Much like the miles-
Climate Zone U-Factor* SHGC**
per-gallon sticker on a new car, the label gives information on
≤ 0.30 Any Prescriptive
how well a window will perform.
The NFRC tests the full window—glass, frame, spacers, Northern = 0.31 ≤ 0.35 Equivalent
Energy
and any other component that is a permanent part of the = 0.32 ≤ 0.40 Performance
product—providing an accurate reflection of how the product
North central ≤ 0.32 ≤ 0.40
will perform. But the NFRC label can help only if you
South central ≤ 0.35 ≤ 0.30
understand the ratings.
Southern ≤ 0.60 ≤ 0.27
*Btu/hr.-ft.2-°F; **Fraction of incident solar radiation
U-factor denotes the rate of heat transfer through the window
unit. U-factor values generally range from 0.25 to 1.25, and
the lower the number, the better the window resists heat
transfer. For northern climates (see map and table), Energy “Energy Star Qualification Criteria for Residential Windows”
Star recommends a U-factor of 0.30 or below for most table”). In most climates, west-facing windows need to have
window orientations and a maximum of 0.60 for windows in the lowest SHGCs to prevent heat from the summer sun from
southern climates. Passive House Institute US (PHIUS) has entering the home. PHIUS calls for SHGCs of 0.50 or greater
more stringent recommendations to help reach overall energy for south-facing glass in climate zones 3 through 8.
savings of 60% to 70% and space-heating savings of 90%,
compared to a conventionally energy-code-compliant, 2-by-4 Visible transmittance (VT) is the measure of how much light
stud-framed home. For example, PHIUS recommendations comes through a door or window. A number between 0 and
for northern climates (ASHRAE zones 4 through 8) range 1, the higher the VT, the more light is transmitted. Multiple
from a U-factor of 0.11 or less (zone 8) to 0.15 or less (zone 4). coatings on glass and suspended films between panes will
enhance the unit’s efficiency, but can affect a window’s VT.
Solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC)—A window’s SHGC Windows with a high VT appear relatively clear and provide
signifies how much heat from the sun is blocked. SHGC sufficient daylight and unaltered views; however, they can
values typically range from 0.25 to 0.80; the lower the SHGC, create glare. For daylighting, choose a VT between 0.5 and 0.7
the more the product blocks solar heat gain. South-facing for good glare control, especially with larger windows.
windows in passive solar homes should have the highest
SHGC possible, while still having an acceptable U-factor (see Air leakage (AL) indicates the rate at which air passes through
joints in the window unit. AL rates typically fall between 0.1
and 0.3 cubic feet of air per 1 square foot of window per
Energy Star Climate Zone* Map
minute. The lower the AL value, the more airtight a product
is. Most industry standards and building codes specify an AL
of 0.3 cfm per square foot or less. Providing the AL rating is
optional for manufacturers.

Condensation resistance (CR) is how well the window


resists water buildup. CR is scored on a scale from 0 to 100.
The higher the CR factor, the better a product is able to resist
condensation. CR is another NFRC-optional rating.
—Compiled by Kelly Davidson

Alaska
(Zones 7 & 8)
Hawaii (Zone 1)
web extra
Use the Window Selection Tool at efficientwindows.org
Northern North-Central South-Central Southern
to help find energy-efficient windows for your home.
(Zones 4–8) (Zone 4) (Zone 3) (Zones 1 & 2)
*ASHRAE/PHIUS climate zones listed in parentheses

92 home power 158 • december 2013 & january 2014


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