Principles of Fire Protection

Engineering

Module 3: Construction and

Structural Features
 Compartmentation
‰Basic Concept
ƒ Contain fire using physical barriers with fire
resistance ≥ fire.

‰Construction of Compartment Boundaries

ƒ Fire Resistance Specifications
ƒ Material Composition

‰Protection of Openings in Compartment

Boundaries

3-2
 Principal Structural Defects Influencing Fire
Spread in Building Fires with Property Damage
of $250,000 or More (NFPA)
Factor Incidents Percent
Stairway or other open shafts 47 7.5
Vertical Spread
Non-fire-stopped walls 31 5.0
Non-fire-stopped areas including
floors & concealed spaces 240 38.4
Horizontal above/below floors & ceilings.
Spread
Interior wall openings, unprotected 31 5.0
Exterior Finish 29 4.7
Combustible Structure or framing 224 36.0
Framing/Finish Ceiling, walls, floors 21 3.4

3-3
Fire Wall?

3-4
Basic Structural Terms

‰Tension
ƒ stress caused by pulling at either
end of a specimen
‰Compression
ƒ stress caused by pushing at
either end of a specimen
‰Shear
ƒ stress caused by tearing-type of
forces

3-5
 Wood/Timber

‰ Char layer insulates inner,

load-bearing core. Effect of
strength reduction
minimized
‰ Combustible; coatings
used to inhibit ignition

3-6
 Wood

‰ Glue - laminated beams have

strength equivalent to that of
solid section

3-7
 Wood

‰ Fire resistance determined by time to burn a critical

amount of wood, remaining wood unable to sustain load.

Heavy
Timber

3-8
 Wood

‰ Fire resistance determined by time to burn a critical

amount of wood, remaining wood unable to sustain load.

Heavy
Timber

3-9
Wood

3-10
Wood: Connections

3-11
Wood: Connections

3-12
Steel Construction

3-13
 Steel
‰ Decrease in strength and ability to resist deformation
decreases with elevated temperature.

3-14
Steel

3-15
Steel Properties vs. Temperature

3-16
 Steel
‰ Fire resistance strategies consist of
keeping steel “cool”.

3-17
 Steel
‰ Insulate with materials having following characteristics:
ƒ Noncombustible and non-smoke or toxic gas generating
ƒ Sufficient insulator
ƒ Consistent performance characteristics
ƒ Easily applied to meet required uniformity and tolerance.
ƒ Good adherence to steel
ƒ Durable during construction and normal operations
ƒ Resistant to weather and environmental effects
ƒ Aesthetically acceptable

3-18
 Steel: Insulation

‰ Typical materials:
ƒ Gypsum wallboard
ƒ Plaster
ƒ Concrete
ƒ Brick and Masonry
ƒ Spray-applied
materials
ƒ Intumescent
coatings

3-19
Post-fire Condition?

WTC 5,
9/11/01

3-20
 Types of Encasements

a.) Concrete b.) Metal lath and plaster

encasement

3-21
 Membrane Protection

‰Gypsum
‰Suspended ceiling?

3-22
 Steel: Protection Methods
‰ Provide distance between steel and fire to decrease
heat transfer to steel.
‰ Use flame shields to prevent direct flame impingement
on steel.

3-23
Steel: Water Cool

3-24
 Concrete

‰ Definition: a mixture of
cement, water and
aggregate.
ƒ Aggregate is major factor in
determining properties in
concrete.

3-25
Concrete Construction

3-26
Concrete Construction

3-27
Construction Site Fires

3-28
Reinforcing Bars

3-29
 Concrete

• 2-way reinforcement

3-30
Precast Concrete

3-31
Hollow-Core Slab

3-32
Concrete Beam and Slab

3-33
Positive & Negative Reinforcement

T T
C
C C
T

3-34
Damaged Concrete

3-35
Prestressed Concrete

3-36
 Concrete
‰ Concrete acts to
absorb heat.
‰ Spalling may occur if
water vapor cannot
escape through pores
of heated concrete.

3-37
Concrete Strength vs. Temperature

3-38
 Strength vs.Temp. for Structural,
Reinforcing and Prestressing Steels

3-39
 High Strength Concrete

‰Definition: Strength >10,000 psi

‰Behavior
ƒ Spalling susceptibility
ƒ Strength reduction

3-40
Harmathy’s 10 Rules of Fire Resistance

1. Thermal fire resistance of multiple parallel

layers exceeds sum of fire resistance of
individual layers.
ƒ Example - double the thickness of a single layer,
obtain more than double the thermal resistance

Fire resistance = x Fire resistance ≥ 2x

3-41
Harmathy’s 10 Rules of Fire Resistance

2. Corollary to rule #1- fire endurance does

not decrease with additional layers
ƒ Condition - layer must not cause thermal or
structural stress in other layers

3-42
Harmathy’s 10 Rules of Fire Resistance

3. Fire endurance of construction containing

continuous air gaps or cavities is > than the fire
endurance of similar construction of the same
weight, but containing no air gaps or cavities
ƒ no combustibles in the gap
ƒ air has thermal resistance

3-43
Harmathy’s 10 Rules of Fire Resistance

5. Fire endurance cannot be increased by

increasing the thickness of a completely
enclosed air layer
ƒ i.e. is a function of radiation, which is not dependent
on thickness

3-44
Harmathy’s 10 Rules of Fire Resistance

7. Fire endurance of asymmetrical construction

depends on the direction of heat flow

3-45
Harmathy’s 10 Rules of Fire Resistance

4. The farther an air gap is located from the

exposed side, the greater is the fire endurance
ƒ heat transfer in the gap is principally radiative -
proportional to T4

better

3-46
Harmathy’s 10 Rules of Fire Resistance

6. Layers of materials of low thermal conductivity

are better utilized on the side of the construction
on which fire is more likely to happen

low high high low

better

3-47
Harmathy’s 10 Rules of Fire Resistance

8. The presence of moisture, if it does not result

in explosive spalling, increases the fire
endurance

3-48
Harmathy’s 10 Rules of Fire Resistance

9. Load supporting elements yield higher fire

endurance when tested as part of an assembly
than if tested separately
– Load sharing, thermal heat sink effects

3-49
Harmathy’s 10 Rules of Fire Resistance

10. Load supporting elements in an assembly can be

replaced by other elements with equal or greater
fire resistance and not negatively influence the fire
resistance.

3-50
 Filling Air Cavities
• Filling air cavities with a noncombustible structural
material is beneficial for structural fire resistance of
columns and walls (extension of Harmathy’s Rule 3)

3-51
 Effect of Load on Fire Resistance
• Fire res. increases with decrease in applied load
– 12” square reinforced concrete column:

% of max. Fire Resistance

360
design load (min)
300

240 150 68
180 100 124
120
75 198
60
50 248

Fire Resistance (min)

0
0 50 100 150 30 358
% Max. Allow. Load

3-52
3-53
Effect of Restraint

3-54
UL Fire Resistance Directory

3-55
 “Details” of Listing

ƒ 4. Steel Column – Min size of column, a W10X49, with

outside dimensions of 10 x 10 in. with a flange thickness of
9/16 in., a web thickness of 5/16 in., and a cross-sectional area
of 14.4 sq. in.

10” L

3-56
 Mass

ƒ The greater the mass, the less is the increase in

temperature for a fixed (i.e. standard) amount of incident
heat.

Thickness of Spray-Applied
Structural Shape
Cementitious Material
W10X49 1-3/8”
W14X233 5/8”

3-57
 Interface Area
ƒ The greater the heated perimeter (i.e. the more contact
area) the more heat transfer to the steel.

Thickness of Spray-Applied
Structural Shape Cementitious Material

W10X49
1-3/8”
(contour profile)
W10X49
1-1/8”
(box profile)

3-58
 W/D Ratio

‰If an increase in mass (W) increases the fire

resistance, and an increase in heated perimeter
(D) decreases the fire resistance of steel
members, then an increase in the W/D ratio
must yield an increase in the fire resistance of
steel members.
ƒ The W/D ratio can be increased either by increasing
W (mass) or by decreasing D (heated perimeter).

3-59
 Example: UL Designs X526 and X528
Thickness of Gypsum Wallboard (in.)
Fire Resistance Rating
Structural Shape W/D 1 hour 2 hour 3 hour
W4X13 0.79 1 1-½ 2-¼
W6X15.5 0.63 1 1-½ 2-¼
W10X49 1.23 ½ 1-⅛ 1-⅞
TS4X4X.188 0.59 1 1- ⅝ 2-¼
TS8X8X.250 0.81 ⅝ - -

3-60
Structural Shapes

3-61
 Substitution of Alternate Steel
Column or Beam
‰An alternate steel member can be substituted for
a steel member specified in a listed design if:

W/D ≥ W/D
Alternate Tested
Member Member
ƒ Note: All other features of the design must remain
unchanged.

3-62
 Substitution of Alternate Steel
Column or Beam
‰ UL Design X517 references a W10X49 structural shape
(W/D = 1.23) as the minimum steel column size.
ƒ Can the following 3 steel column shapes be substituted for the
W10X49 shape?

Alternate Is Substitution
W/D
Structural Shape Permitted?
W12X106 2.11 Yes (2.11 > 1.23)
W8X48 1.44 Yes (1.44 > 1.23)
W12X45 1.12 No (1.12 < 1.23)

3-63
Gypsum Protection of Steel Columns

3-64
Correlation for Fireproofing Thickness

3-65
Bar Joist

3-66
Space Frame

3-67
Application of Spray-Applied
Materials

3-68
Missing Protection?

3-69
 Guidelines for Concrete

‰ Fire endurance
increases with
increasing “cover”
(thickness of concrete
between steel and
exterior of section).

3-70
 Concrete Cover for Concrete
Floor and Roof Slabs
Aggregate 1, 1-½ hr 2 hr 3 hr 4 hr
Siliceous ¾” 1” 1- ¼” 1-⅝”
Carbonate ¾” ¾” 1- ¼” 1- ¼”
Sand- ¾” ¾” 1- ¼” 1- ¼”
lightweight
Lightweight ¾” ¾” 1- ¼” 1- ¼”

3-71
 Guidelines for Concrete

ƒ Fire endurance
increases with
increasing cross-
sectional area of steel.

3-72
Guidelines for Concrete

3-73
Guidelines for
Concrete

3-74
 Fire Endurance of Concrete Slabs

• Based on heat
transmission
(250oF temp. rise)

3-75
Temperature within solid or hollow-core
concrete slabs : Carbonate Aggregate

3-76
Masonry Construction

3-77
Brick & Block Construction?

3-78
 Factors Influencing the Fire
Endurance of Masonry Walls

‰ Aggregate
‰ Equivalent thickness

3-79
 Calculating Estimated Fire
Resistance: Example
ƒ An 8’ hollow masonry wall is
constructed of expanded slag
units reported to be 55% solid.
ƒ What is the estimated fire
resistance of the wall?
¾ Equiv. Thick. = 0.55 x 7.625 in. =
4.19 in.

3-80
Estimated Fire Resistance

3-81
 Factors Influencing the Fire
Endurance of Wood Members
‰ Increasing density delays heat transfer
through wood, thus increases fire
resistance.
‰ Component additive method:
ƒ The fire endurance of assemblies including
wood can be estimated by adding the time
associated with each component.

3-82
Component Additive Method
Finish Time (min.)
3/ -in. Douglas fir plywood, phenolic bonded 5
8

½-in. Douglas fir plywood, phenolic bonded 10

5/ -in. Douglas fir plywood, phenolic bonded 15
8
3/ -in. gypsum board 10
8

½-in. gypsum board 15

5/ -in. gypsum board 20
8

½-in. type X gypsum board 25

5/ -in. type X gypsum board 40
8

Double 3/8-in. gypsum board 25

½-in. + 3/8-in. gypsum board 35
Double ½-in. gypsum board 40
3-83
 Time Assigned for
Contribution of Wood Frame

3-84
Component Additive Method

‰Maximum estimated fire endurance is 60 min.

‰Example:
ƒ Determine the fire resistance of a wood stud wall
(2-in. x 4-in. studs, 16 in. on center) with 5/8-in.
Douglas fir, phenolic-bonded plywood over 1/2-in.
type X gypsum wallboard on the side exposed to
fire

3-85
Component Additive Method:
Example

ƒ From Table 3-8.1:

⅝-in. Douglas fir plywood, phenolic
bonded 15 min
½-in. type X gypsum wallboard 25 min
ƒ From Table 3-8.2:
ƒ Wood stud framing 20 min

ƒ Total 60 min

3-86