Elements of Engineering Practices Lab Manual & Observation Book

ELECTRICAL
ENGINEERING

Dept. of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, R.V. College of Engineering, Bengaluru 1

 Elements of Engineering Practices Lab Manual & Observation Book

Dept. of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, R.V. College of Engineering, Bengaluru 2

 Elements of Engineering Practices Lab Manual & Observation Book

EXPERIMENT NO: 1
THEORY:
ONE-WAY SWITCH
A one way switch is a basic electrical device used to operate any household electrical or electronic
equipment. It works on the principle of make or break. One way switches are regular switches widely
used for commercial purpose. The light switch in your room is a one way switch, i.e. the light can be
switched on or off from that particular switch only. The different views of one way switch are as
shown in Fig 1.1

Fig;1.1

TWO-WAY SWITCH
Two way switch can connect one point to the electrical circuit and disconnect the other at the same
time. Assume two points A and B in a circuit. When A is connected, B is disconnected and vice versa.
Two-way light control is mostly used in the staircase light application. Two switches are placed near
to stairs at two ends, when we turn ON/OFF the switch at any end the light present state changes to
the opposite state, if light presents in ON condition then it becomes OFF, if light present in OFF
condition then it becomes ON. The different views of two way switch are as shown in Fig 1.2

Fig;1.2

INTERMEDIATE SWITCH
An intermediate switch is a three way light switch. It is used when you have three or more switches
controlling one light, the middle switch needs to be an intermediate light switch . The different views
of intermediate switch are as shown in Fig 1.3

Fig 1.3

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 Elements of Engineering Practices Lab Manual & Observation Book

In an intermediate switch, there are four terminals by which it changes the flowing of electric current
from one circuit to another and also known as three way switch. It has the ability to ON and OFF the
electric supply by two ways. The four terminals of intermediate switch construction and its operation
are shown in fig below where the 4 contact points may be known as 1,2, 3 & 4. When the switch knob
is up, the terminal contacts of intermediate switch
connect terminal 1 with terminal 3 and terminal 2 with terminal 4. On the other hand when knob is
down, terminal 1 is connected to terminal 2 and 3 to 4 .

ONE-WAY, TWO WAY AND THREE WAY CONTROL OF INCANDESCENT LAMP

AIM: To control the given lamp from one, two and three different positions.
APPARATUS: Switch Board, Connecting Wires
ONE-WAY CONTROL

Fig.1.4: One-Way Control

SWITCHING TABLE NO : 1

Sl. Switch S Lamp Condition

No.
1. Closed ON
2. Open OFF

PROCEDURE:

1. Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram of Fig1.4.

2. Switch ON the AC supply mains and close the SPST switch S. Observe the lamp glow
condition(as shown in table no.1
3. Open the SPST switch S and observe the lamp glow condition.
4. Switch off the AC supply mains.

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 Elements of Engineering Practices Lab Manual & Observation Book

TWO-WAY CONTROL
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig.1.5: Two-Way Control

SWITCHING TABLE NO : 2

Sl. Switch 1(S1) Position Switch 2(S2) Position Lamp Condition

No.
1. A B1 OFF
2. A B ON
3. A1 B OFF
4. A1 B1 ON

PROCEDURE:

1. Connections are made as shown in the Fig. 1.5.

2. Switch ON the AC supply mains and close the SPDT switch.
3. Verify the state of the lamp(as shown in table no.2) for the different combinations of the switch
positions.
4. Switch off the AC supply mains.

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THREE –WAY CONTROL CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

a) CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Fig.1.6

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 Elements of Engineering Practices Lab Manual & Observation Book

SWITCHING TABLE NO: 3

Sl. Switch 1(S1) Switch 2(S2) Intermediate Lamp

No. position position Switch condition
Position
1. A B1 OFF
2. A B Straight ON
Connection
3. A1 B OFF
(S)
4. A1 B1 ON
5. A B1 ON
6. A B Cross Connection OFF
7. A1 B (C) ON
8. A1 B1 OFF

PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as shown in the Fig.1.6.
2. Keep the intermediate switch in Straight – connection(S) mode.
3. Switch ON the AC supply mains.
4. Verify the switching table for straight connection(as shown in table no.3).
5. Change the position of intermediate switch to Cross –connection(C) mode.
6. Verify the switching table for Cross- connection(as shown in table no.3).
7. Switch OFF of the main supply and remove the connection.

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 Elements of Engineering Practices Lab Manual & Observation Book

a) OBSERVATION OF THE EXPERIMENT :

b) TABLE OF EVALUATION :

PARTICULARS MAX.MARKS MARKS OBTAINED

Date Sheet 03

Viva 03

Result 04

Total 10

Signature of the faculty:

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 Elements of Engineering Practices Lab Manual & Observation Book

EXPERIMENT NO: 02
THEORY:
FLUORESCENT LAMP:
Fluorescent lamps are cylindrical glass tubes that are coated on the inside with phosphors. They
contain a small amount of mercury and are filled with a small quantity of argon, a combination of
argon and neon, or krypton gases. During operation, an electrical current passes through the lamp and
the mercury is vaporized, producing ultraviolet light. The phosphor coating absorbs the ultraviolet
light and re-radiates it as visible light. Fluorescent lamps require ballasts to provide the starting
voltage and limit the electrical current during lamp operation. There are two types of ballasts
commonly available for residential lighting: the energy-efficient magnetic ballast and the electronic
ballast. The majority of ballasts sold today are energy-efficient magnetic types. Electronic ballasts are
attractive because they are more energy-efficient than magnetic ballasts. They offer the advantages of
lighter weight, quieter operation, and reduction of flicker, but they cost more than magnetic ballasts.
Although fluorescent lamps all have tubular-shaped glass bulbs, the tubes can be bent into several
shapes. The names for various shapes, and for shapes combined with ballasts and accessories, often
are manufacturer-specific. The constructional view, choke and schematic are as shown in Fig
2.1

Fig. 2.1
INCANDESCENT LAMP:
The electrical light source which works on the principle of the incandescent phenomenon is called
Incandescent Lamp. In other words, the lamp working due to glowing of the filament caused by
electric current through it is called an incandescent lamp. The filament of incandescent lamps is air-
tightly evacuated with a glass bulb of suitable shape and size. This glass bulb is used to isolate the
filament from surrounding air to prevent oxidation of filament and to minimize convention current
surrounding the filament hence to keep the temperature of the filament high. The glass bulb is either
kept vacuum or filled with inert gases like argon with a small percentage of nitrogen at low pressure.
Inert gases are used to minimize the evaporation of filament during service of the lamps. But due to
the convection flow of inert gas inside the bulb, there will be greater chances of losing the heat of
filament during operation. Again vacuum is a great insulation of heat, but it accelerates the
evaporation of filament during operation. In the case of gas-filled incandescent lamps, 85% of argon
mixed with 15% nitrogen is used. Occasionally krypton can be used to reduce filament evaporation
because the molecular weight of krypton gas is quite higher. But it costs greater. At about 80% of

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atmospheric pressure, the gasses are filled into the bulb. Gas is filled in the bulb with the rating more
than 40 W. But for less than 40 W bulb; there is no gas used.
The most widely used filament material now a day is tungsten because of its high luminous efficacy.
It can give 18 lumens per watt when it operates at 2000 oC. This efficacy can be up to 30 lumens per
watt when it operates at 2500oC. The high melting point is a major criterion for filament material as it
has to work at very high temperature without being evaporated. Although tungsten has the little bit
poorer melting point than that of carbon still tungsten is more preferable as filament material. This is
because of high operating temperatures which makes tungsten much luminous efficient. The
mechanical strength of tungsten filament is quite high to withstand mechanical vibrations. The
constructional view of incandescent lamp is as shown in Fig 2.2

Fig. 2.2

COMPACT FLUORESCENT LAMPS (CFL):

A compact fluorescent lamp (CFL), also known as a compact fluorescent light or energy saving
light, is a type of fluorescent lamp. Most CFLs are designed to replace incandescent lamps and fit
into most existing light fixtures. Compared to general service incandescent lamps giving the same
amount of visible light, CFLs use less power and have a longer rated life. Downside is they have a
higher purchase price. Like all fluorescent lamps, CFLs contain mercury, which complicates their
disposal.
CFLs radiate a different light spectrum compared to incandescent lamps. New phosphor compositions
have improved the colour of the light emitted by CFLs in such a way that the best warm white
CFLs are nearly similar in colour to standard incandescent lamps. Its view is shown in Fig. 2.3

Fig .2.3

LIGHT EMITTING DIODE(LED)

LEDs ( Light Emitting Diodes) normally consist of a single p-n junction diode. A diode is the basic
building block of solid state electronics and is the simplest possible semiconductor device. The
fundamental electrical property of a semiconductor diode is that it only allows electric current to flow
in one direction, but how does it do that? Most semiconductors are made of a poor conductor such as
silicon and germanium that has had atoms of another material deliberately added to it. This process of

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adding these impurities is often called doping. The original pure material is electrically neutral and
has exactly the right number of electrons associated with each atom, meaning there are neither too
many nor too few electrons and so there are no free electrons available to carry electric current.
However the doping process of adding extra atoms moves some of the electrons in the material and
can leave a material with either more free electrons than it needs in some parts or with too few, thus
leaving positively charged holes where electrons can fit. Both these changes make the material more
able to conduct an electric current. In normal terminology the material with extra electrons is called
N-type, since those extra electrons are negatively charged particles, and the material with a deficit of
electrons (or surfeit of holes) is called P-type. Because of the electrostatic attraction between positive
and negative particles free electrons are attracted towards the positively charged holes. The working
principle and image are as shown in Fig.2.4

Fig.
2.4
2a). POWER FACTOR MEASUREMENT OF FLUORESCENT LAMP WITH AND
WITHOUT CAPACITOR
AIM: To measure power factor of Fluorescent lamp with and without the capacitor.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: One (0-1A) AC ammeter, one (0-300V) AC voltmeter, one (1/2A,
250V, LPF wattmeter), one Capacitor 2µF and connecting wires.

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 Elements of Engineering Practices Lab Manual & Observation Book

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig .2.5: Measurement of power and power factor of fluorescent lamp

PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram of Fig 2.5 (including the capacitor).
2. The main supply switch is closed and readings of all meters are noted down.
3. Switch OFF the supply and remove the capacitor connection from the circuit.
4. The main supply switch is closed again and readings of all meters are noted down.
5. Switch OFF the AC supply mains and remove the connections.

TABULAR COLUMN:

Sl. Condition Voltmeter Ammeter Wattmeter Power Power

No reading reading reading (P) Factor
(V) volts (A) amps (W * Constant) (PF)
watts
1. With
Capacitor
2. Without
Capacitor

CALCULATIONS:

1. Wattmeter Constant :

Voltage selected on the wattmeter∗Current selected onthe wattmeter∗cosΦ

Full scale reading of the wattmeter
W
2. Power Factor=
V ∗I
3. Power Consumed = V x I x cosΦ

RESULTS:
1. Power factor with capacitor = _____________.

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2. Power factor without capacitor = ____________.

2.b) POWER AND POWER FACTOR MEASUREMENT OF LED , COMPACT

FLUORESCENT AND INCANDESCENT LAMPS
AIM: To measure power factor of LED, Compact Fluorescent and Incandescent Lamps.
APPARATUS REQUIRED: One (0-1A) AC ammeter, one (0-300V) AC voltmeter, one (1/2A,
250V, LPF wattmeter), and connecting wires.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig .2.6: Measurement of power of CFL, LED and Incandescent lamps

PROCEDURE:

Sl. Lamp Voltmeter Ammeter Wattmeter Power Power

No reading reading reading (P) Factor
(V) volts (A) amps (W * Constant) (PF)
watts
1. LED

2. CFL

3. Incandescent
Lamp
1. Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram of Fig .2.6. Connect the LED lamp.
2. The Main supply switch is closed and readings of all meters are noted down.
3. Switch OFF the supply and replace the LED lamp with a Compact Fluorescent Lamp (CFL).
4. Again the switch ON supply and note down the readings of all meters.
5. Switch OFF the supply and replace the CFL with an incandescent Lamp.
6. Again the switch ON supply and note down the readings of all meters.
7. Switch off the AC supply mains and remove the connections.

TABULAR COLUMN:

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 Elements of Engineering Practices Lab Manual & Observation Book

CALCULATIONS:

1. Wattmeter Constant :
Voltage selected on the wattmeter∗Current selected onthe wattmeter∗cosΦ
Full scale reading of the wattmeter

W
2. Power Factor= V ∗I

3. Power Absorbed(P) = V x I x CosΦ

RESULTS:
Power absorbed by incandescent lamp and its power factor: _________.
Power absorbed by CFL and its power factor: __________.
Power absorbed by LED and its power factor: __________.

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 Elements of Engineering Practices Lab Manual & Observation Book

a) OBSERVATION OF THE EXPERIMENT :

b) TABLE OF EVALUATION :

PARTICULARS MAX.MARKS MARKS OBTAINED

Date Sheet 03

Viva 03

Result 04

Total 10

Signature of the faculty:

Dept. of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, R.V. College of Engineering, Bengaluru 15

 Elements of Engineering Practices Lab Manual & Observation Book

EXPERIMENT NO: 03
THEORY :
WATTMETER:
The wattmeter is an instrument for measuring the electric power which is real power (or the supply
rate of electrical energy ) in watts of any given circuit. The device consists of a pair of fixed coils,
known as current coils, and a movable coil known as the potential coil. The schematic and image of
wattmeter are as shown in Fig 3.1. The current coils are connected in series with the circuit, while the
potential coil is connected in parallel. Also, on analog wattmeters, the potential coil carries a needle
that moves over a scale to indicate the measurement. A current flowing through the current coil
generates an electromagnetic field around the coil. The strength of this field is proportional to the line
current and in phase with it. The potential coil has, as a general rule, a high-value resistor connected
in series with it to reduce the current that flows through it. There are two types of wattmeters:
i) Low Power Factor wattmeter(LPF) ii) Unity Power Factor wattmeter(UPF)
Low Power Factor wattmeter(LPF)
LPF(Low Power Factor) wattmeter is used to measure power in inductive circuits.
Unity Power Factor wattmeter(UPF)
UPF (Unity Power Factor) meter measures the PF more accurately when
connected to a
load which is having a high PF. 

UPF Wattmeter LPF Wattmeter

Fig .3.1

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 Elements of Engineering Practices Lab Manual & Observation Book

POWER MEASUREMENT OF BALANCED STAR AND DELTA CONNECTED LOADS

AIM: To measure the power consumed by a 3-phase balanced star & delta connected load.
APPARATUS REQUIRED: One (0-2A) AC ammeter, one (0-600V) AC voltmeter, three (0-1/2A,
250/300V, UPF wattmeter), one three-phase auto transformer, One resistive load and connecting
wires.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
a) Two-Wattmeter method for star connected load

Fig . 3.2 : Two-Wattmeter method for star connected balanced load

b) Two-Wattmeter method for delta connected load

Fig. 3.3 Two-Wattmeter method for delta connected balanced load.

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PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram of Fig 3.2.
2. Ensure that the autotransformer is in the minimum and load switch(resistive load) in OFF
position.

3. Switch ON the supply. Slowly vary the autotransformer until the voltmeter reads 230V.
4. Apply the load (resistive load) of 1A and and The reading of all the meters are noted.
5. Multiply the readings of wattmeter with the corresponding wattmeter constant and tabulate
the values.
6. Switch OFF the supply and remove the connections.
7. Calculate the Total Power and Power factor.
8. Repeat steps 1 to 7 for the circuits shown in Fig 3.3.

TABULAR COLUMN:

Sl. Load Line Line Wattmeter Wattmeter Power

No Condition Voltage VL Current IL reading reading ( W1 +W2)
(volts) (amperes) (W1 * wattmeter (W2 * wattmeter
Constant) watts Constant) watts
1.

2.

CALCULATIONS:

1. Wattmeter constant :
Voltage selected on the wattmeter∗Current selected onthe wattmeter∗cosΦ
Full scale reading of the wattmeter

2. Power Factor: cos ∅=cos tan

−1

[ ( √ 3 ( W 1−W 2 )
( W 1 +W 2 ) )]
RESULT:
1. Power measured in star connected load using two-wattmeter method: __________.
2. Power measured in delta connected load using two-wattmeter method: __________.

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 Elements of Engineering Practices Lab Manual & Observation Book

a) OBSERVATION OF THE EXPERIMENT :

b) TABLE OF EVALUATION :

PARTICULARS MAX.MARKS MARKS OBTAINED

Date Sheet 03

Viva 03

Result 04

Total 10

Signature of the faculty:

Dept. of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, R.V. College of Engineering, Bengaluru 19

 Elements of Engineering Practices Lab Manual & Observation Book

EXPERIMENT NO: 04
DEMONSTRATION OF DOMESTIC WIRING

AIM: To demonstrate a domestic electrical wiring.

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 Elements of Engineering Practices Lab Manual & Observation Book

a) OBSERVATION OF THE EXPERIMENT :

b) TABLE OF EVALUATION :

PARTICULARS MAX.MARKS MARKS OBTAINED

Date Sheet 03

Viva 03

Result 04

Total 10

Signature of the faculty:

Dept. of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, R.V. College of Engineering, Bengaluru 21

 Elements of Engineering Practices Lab Manual & Observation Book

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 Elements of Engineering Practices Lab Manual & Observation Book

ELECTRONICS
ENGINEERING

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 Elements of Engineering Practices Lab Manual & Observation Book

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 Elements of Engineering Practices Lab Manual & Observation Book

EXPERIMENT- 01

THEORY:

SOLDERING PRACTICE
Soldering is the process of joining two or more electronic parts together by melting solder around the
connection. Solder is a metal alloy and when it cools it creates a strong electrical bond between the
parts. Even though soldering can create a permanent connection, it can also be reversed using a de-
soldering tool.

Introduction to Soldering Tools

SOLDERING IRON
A soldering iron is a hand tool that plugs into a standard 230v AC outlet and heats up in order to melt
solder around electrical connections. This is one of the most important tools used in soldering and it
can come in a few variations such as pen or gun form. It is pen style soldering iron in the 15W to 30W
range. Most soldering irons have interchangeable tips that can be used for different soldering
applications.

SOLDERING STATION
A soldering station is a more advanced version of the basic standalone soldering pen. The main
benefit of a soldering station is the ability to precisely adjust the temperature of the soldering iron
which is great for a range of projects. These stations can also create a safer workspace as some
include advanced temperature sensors, alert settings and even password protection for safety.

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 Elements of Engineering Practices Lab Manual & Observation Book

SOLDERING IRON TIPS

At the end of most soldering irons is an interchangeable part known as a soldering tip. There are many
variations of this tip and they come in a wide variety of shapes and sizes. Each tip is used for a
specific purpose and offers a distinct advantage over another. The most common tips you will use in
electronics projects are the conical tip and the chisel tip .

CONVENTIONAL SPONGE
Using a sponge will help to keep the soldering iron tip clean by removing the oxidation that forms.
Tips with oxidation will tend to turn black and not accept solder as it did when it was new.

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 Elements of Engineering Practices Lab Manual & Observation Book

SOLDERING IRON STAND

A soldering iron stand is very basic but very useful and handy to have. This stand helps prevent the
hot iron tip from coming in contact with flammable materials or causing accidental injury to your
hand. Most soldering stations come with this built in and also include a sponge or brass sponge for
cleaning the tip.

SOLDER
Solder is a metal alloy material that is melted to create a permanent bond between electrical parts. It
comes in both lead and lead-free variations with diameters of .032″ and .062″ being the most
common. Inside the solder core is a material known as flux which helps improve electrical contact and
its mechanical strength.
For electronics soldering, the most commonly used type is lead-free rosin core solder. This type of
solder is usually made up of a Tin/Copper alloy, make sure there is proper ventilation and wash your
hands after use.

When
buying
solder,
make
sure
NOT to use
acid
core
solder as
this
will
damage
circuits and

components. Acid core solder is sold at home improvement stores and is mainly used for plumbing
and metal working.
As mentioned earlier, solder does come in a few different diameters. The thicker diameter solder
(.062″) is good for soldering larger joints more quickly but it can make soldering smaller joints
difficult.

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 Elements of Engineering Practices Lab Manual & Observation Book

HELPING HAND (THIRD HAND)

A helping hand is a device that has 2 or more alligator clips and sometimes a magnifying glass/light
attached. This clips will assist by holding the items which are trying to solder while using the
soldering iron and solder.

Soldering Safety
Safety First- when soldering please observe safety precautions.
Soldering irons can reach temperatures of 800′ F. It is always recommend to use a soldering iron stand
to help prevent accidental burns or damage.

Make sure soldering is done in a well ventilated area.

It’s always a good idea to wear protective eye wear in case of accidental splashes of hot solder.
Lastly, make sure to wash your hands when done soldering especially if using lead solder.
Tinning the tip
Prepare your soldering iron by tinning the tip with solder. This process will help improve the heat
transfer from the iron to the item you’re soldering. Tinning will also help to protect the tip and reduce
wear.
Step 1: Begin by making sure the tip is attached to the iron and screwed tightly in place.
Step 2: Turn on your soldering iron and let it heat up. If you have a soldering station with an
adjustable temp control, set it to 400′ C/ 752′ F.

Step 3: Wipe the tip of the soldering iron on a damp wet sponge to clean it. Wait a few seconds to let
the tip heat up again before proceeding to step 4.

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Step 4: Hold the soldering iron in one hand and solder in the other. Touch the solder to the tip of the
iron and make sure the solder flows evenly around the tip.

You should tin the tip of your iron before and after each soldering session to extend its life.
Eventually, every tip will wear out and will need replacing when it becomes rough or pitted.

How To Solder
To better explain how to solder, here is an example to solder a Resistor to a circuit board.
Step 1: Mount the Component– Begin by inserting the leads of the Resistor into the holes of the
circuit board. Flip the board over and bend the leads outward at a 45′ angle. This will help the
component make a better connection with the copper pad and prevent it from falling out while
soldering.

Step 2: Heat The Joint– Turn your soldering iron on and if it has an adjustable heat control,
set it to 400’C. At this point, touch the tip of the iron to the copper pad and the resistor lead at
the same time. Hold the soldering iron in place for 3-4 seconds in order to heat the pad and
the lead.

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Step 3: Apply Solder To Joint– Continue holding the soldering iron on the copper pad and the lead
and touch your solder to the joint. IMPORTANT – Don’t touch the solder directly to the tip of the
iron. The joint to be hot enough to melt the solder when it’s touched. If the joint is too cold, it will
form a bad connection.

Step 4: Snip The Leads– Remove the soldering iron and let the solder cool down naturally. Don’t
blow on the solder as this will cause a bad joint. Once it is cool, snip the extra wire from leads. A
proper solder joint is smooth, shiny and looks like a volcano or cone shape. There should be enough
solder to cover the entire joint but not too much so it becomes a ball or spills to a nearby lead or joint.

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RESISTOR COLOR CODE CHART

SOLDERING OF ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS

AIM: Soldering of simple electronic circuits using Passive Devices and Measurements of
Voltage
and Current
COMPONENTS: Unregulated DC power supply (0-30v), 220 ohms resistors (2 no.s),
Multimeter, Protoboard(PCB),Soldering apparatus, wires.

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: A voltage divider involves applying a voltage source across a series
of two resistors. The voltage divider is a circuit used to create a voltage less than or equal to
the input voltage.

Fig 1:Voltage divider circuit

The two-resistor voltage divider is one of the most common and useful circuits used by
engineers. The primary purpose of this circuit is to scale down the input voltage to a lower
value based on the ratio of the two resistors. This calculator helps determine the output
voltage of the divider circuit given the input (or source) voltage and the resistor values.
Take note that the output voltage in actual circuits might be different, since resistor
tolerance and load resistance (where the output voltage is connected) become factors. The
output voltage is calculated using the following equation.
Vout =I∗R 2
w h ere ,
Vin
I=
R 1+ R 2
Vin∗R 2
Vout =
R 1+ R 2
Applications:
 Voltage dividers are used to adjust the signal’s level, for voltage measurement and
bias of active devices in amplifiers.
 A multimeter and Wheatstone bridge includes voltage dividers.
 Voltage dividers can be used to measure the resistance of the sensor. 
PROCEDURE:
Solder the circuit as shown in fig. 1. Solder ‘D’ side of the R2 resistor (220 ohm) with a
hookup wire in to the PCB and connect other side of the wire to the ground terminal of DC
power supply. Connect the ‘A’ side of the R1 resistor (220 ohm) with a hookup wire in to the
PCB and other side of the wire to the positive terminal of DC power supply.
The resistors form a voltage divider, which divides Vin by a ratio determined by the two
resistances. When the two resistances are equal, the output voltage will be 50% of Vin. When
the value of the resistance change, the voltage will increase or decrease as per the voltage
divider formula mentioned above.
Set DC power supply to 5v (Vin = 5v), measure the voltage across R2 resistor.

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Results and outcome:

Resistance (R2) Output Output

Voltage(Theoretical) Voltage(Practical)

220 ohm

470 ohm

1k ohm

a) OBSERVATION OF THE EXPERIMENT :

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b) TABLE OF EVALUATION :

PARTICULARS MAX.MARKS MARKS OBTAINED

Date Sheet 03

Viva 03

Result 04

Total 10

Signature of the faculty:

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EXPERIMENT- 02

SOLDERING AND WIRING OF HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

AIM: Soldering of Half Wave Rectifier and Measurements of Voltages

COMPONENTS: Transformer, Diodes(1N4007), Ammeter(0-1A), capacitors and resistors as
indicated in the circuit diagrams.
THEORY :

Since AC is more easily generated, transmitted over long distances and distributed widely,
AC electrical supply is available everywhere at all utility points. But, most of the electronic
devices and circuits need DC voltages for their operation. For portable devices and electronic
systems consuming very low power, batteries are used as the power source. The most
convenient way to convert AC to DC is by means of a rectifier, and this process is known as
rectification. The DC power supplies are realized with the help of a rectifier, filter circuit and
a voltage regulator circuit.
Silicon diodes are generally used for power supply rectification. The non-linear characteristic
of a diode is used to convert alternating current into unidirectional current. A rectifying diode
can be considered as an ideal switch having zero resistance when forward biased, and infinite
resistance when reverse biased. All rectifying devices provide a one way path for electric
current. This is called unidirectional conduction characteristic. Rectifier circuits employ
either one (half wave) or two (full wave) or four (full wave) diodes to provide various
degrees of effective rectification.
Half wave bridge rectifier

Fig.2 Half wave rectifier circuit .

PROCEDURE:

1. Solder the circuit as shown in the fig.2

2. Apply an ac signal from mains at the input, and observe the rectified voltage on the CRO.
3. Measure the values of Vdc and Vrms using the Digital Multi Meter (DMM).
4. Note down the Vdc and Vrms of the output, first by keeping RL at maximum (voltage on

no load) and then by keeping RL at minimum (voltage on full load).

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RESULTS AND OUTCOME:

Voltages RL max RL min

Vdc

Vrms

a) OBSERVATION OF THE EXPERIMENT :

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b) TABLE OF EVALUATION :

PARTICULARS MAX.MARKS MARKS OBTAINED

Date Sheet 03

Viva 03

Result 04

Total 10

Signature of the faculty:

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EXPERIMENT-03

TRUTH TABLE VERIFICATION OF SIMPLE LOGIC GATES

AIM: 1. Truth Table Verification of Logic Gates.

2. Realization of XOR gates using NAND gates and
3. Realization of Half Adder.
COMPONENTS REQUIRED: ICs -7400, 7402, 7404, 7408, 7410, 7432, 7486, Digital trainer
kit, patch chords.
Note: Data Sheet should be referred for pin details.

1) Truth Table verification of basic, universal and XOR gate.

Gate Symbol Input A Input B Output Y

BASIC GATES

0 NA 1
NOT Gate

(IC-7404)
1 NA 0
Y=A'

0 0 0

AND Gate 0 1 0
A
Y
(IC-7408) B 1 0 0

Y=A.B 1 1 1

0 0 0

OR Gate 0 1 1

(IC-7432) 1 0 1

Y=A+B 1 1 1

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Gate Symbol Input A Input B Output Y

UNIVERSAL GATES
0 0 1

NAND Gate 0 1 1
A
Y
(IC-7400) B 1 0 1

Y=(A.B)' 1 1 0

0 0 1

NOR Gate 0 1 0

(IC-7402) 1 0 0

Y=(A+B)' 1 1 0

DERIVED GATES
XOR Gate 0 0 0

(IC-7486) 0 1 1
A
Y=A⊕B
Y 1 0 1
B
1 1 0

XOR Gate 0 0 1
(IC-74266) 0 1 0
A
Y=(A⊕B)' Y 1 0 0
B

Note: Use
XOR gate 1 1 1
followed by
NOT gate

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OBSERVATIONS:

2) To implement an XOR gate using NAND gates only.

Design:
Y= AB'+A'B

= ((A'+B).( A+B'))'

= ((A'+AB).( B'+ AB))'

Logic Diagram:

OBSERVATIONS:

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3) Realization of Half Adder using basic gates.

Design:
Truth Table:
A B Sum Carry
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1

Simplified design equations for the outputs Sum and Carry are in Eq. 1

∑ ¿ Ʃ m ( 1, 2 )= A B+ A B= A ⊕ B andCarry= Ʃ m ( 3 )= A . B ……..Eq.1
Implementation:

OBSERVATIONS:

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PROCEDURE:

1. In the IC-trainer Kit, place the IC’s and connect the circuits as shown in the diagrams (as per the
designs ) by referring to the IC data sheet using patch cords.
2. Connect VCC and Gnd of every IC used in the design by referring to the IC data sheet.
3. Apply the inputs and verify the outputs according to the Truth Tables.
4. The above procedure is applied to all the circuits.
5. Write the conclusions/inferences derived from the conducted experiments in observation.

a) OBSERVATION OF THE EXPERIMENT :

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b) TABLE OF EVALUATION :

PARTICULARS MAX.MARKS MARKS OBTAINED

Date Sheet 03

Viva 03

Result 04

Total 10

Signature of the faculty:

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EXPERIMENT-04

STUDY OF SENSOR CHARACTERISTICS

AIM: To observe output voltage/current variation with respect to variation in the sensing parameters.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED: Flex sensor, temperature sensor, LDR, resistors, connecting

wires, multimeter, unregulated DC power supply(0-30V)
THEORY:

A voltage divider is a simple circuit which turns a large voltage into a smaller one. Using just
two series resistors and an input voltage, can create an output voltage that is a fraction of the
input. Voltage dividers are one of the most fundamental circuits in electronics.
A voltage divider involves applying a voltage source across a series of two resistors. The
voltage divider is a circuit used to create a voltage less than or equal to the input voltage.

Fig 4.1: Voltage divider circuit

The two-resistor voltage divider is one of the most common and useful circuits used by engineers.
The primary purpose of this circuit is to scale down the input voltage to a lower value based on the
ratio of the two resistors. This calculator helps determine the output voltage of the divider circuit
given the input (or source) voltage and the resistor values. Take note that the output voltage in
actual circuits might be different, since resistor tolerance and load resistance (where the output
voltage is connected) become factors.  The output voltage is calculated using the following
equation:

Vout =I∗R 2
where ,
Vin
I=
R 1+ R 2

Vin∗R 2
Vout =
R 1+ R 2

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Using Temperature Sensor (thermistor)

A thermistor is an electronic temperature-sensing device, which exhibits a change in resistance with a
relative change in temperature. The name derives from two other words, "thermal resistor". For
temperature measurement and control applications, Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) devices
are generally used. The "-t°" in the circuit symbol usually denotes an NTC device. These are very
useful for interfacing projects with microcontrollers. To use this device properly to measure
temperature, a voltage divider network is often the ideal circuit arrangement.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

As temperature increases, Vout decreases

Fig4.2 : Voltage divider circuit using temperature sensor

To find Vout with Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) "-t°"

Vin∗RT
Vout=
RT + Rs

Temperature sensor Characteristics:

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LDR characteristics:

Flex Sensor Characteristics:

Fig 4.3: Flex Variable resistance versus bending

Fig 4.4: Flex Variable resistance versus bending characteristics

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PROCEDURE:

1. Wire the circuit as shown in fig 4.1 and find the output voltage.
2. Replace the variable resistor R2 by temperature sensor
3. Adjust sensing parameters to minimum, note down the output.
4. Adjust sensing parameters to medium, note down the output.
5. Set the sensing parameter to high value and note down the output.
6. Plot the graph and compare the temperature sensor characteristics as shown.
7. Replace temperature sensor by LDR(Light Dependent Resistor).
8. To determine the Output voltage for extreme dark and bright conditions for the given LDR
resistances. Typical component will exhibit a 1 MΩ resistance in total darkness and
approximately 5.4 kΩ in extreme bright light. These parameters are useful when designing
circuits and allows to calculate the range of voltages expected from a voltage divider circuit.
9. Plot the graph and compare the characteristics for LDR as shown.
10. Replace LDR by Flex sensor.
11. The resistor and the flex sensor form a voltage divider, which divides Vcc by a ratio
determined by the two resistances. When the sensor is straight, the 10K resistor and the 30K
flex sensor will cause the output voltage to be about 75% of Vcc. When the sensor is bent, the
voltage will increase to about 83% of Vcc . If Vcc is 5V, check for 3.75V when the sensor is
straight, and about 4.17V when the sensor is bent by 90º. These numbers will vary for
individual sensors.
12. Plot the graph and compare the characteristics for Flex sensor as shown.
RESULTS AND OUTCOME:

Parameter Output Voltage

Flex sensor circuit

Temp Sensor Circuit

LDR circuit

a) OBSERVATION OF THE EXPERIMENT :

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b) TABLE OF EVALUATION :

PARTICULARS MAX.MARKS MARKS OBTAINED

Date Sheet 03

Viva 03

Result 04

Total 10

Signature of the faculty:

Dept. of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, R.V. College of Engineering, Bengaluru 48

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MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING

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EXPERIMENT- 01
THEORY
INTERNAL THREADING

Types of of threads
Fastening screw threads: metric threads (V-shaped threads)
Whitworth threads (V-shaped threads)
Power-transmission screw threads: knuckle threads, acme threads, saw-tooth threads

Fig 1.1- Kinds of threads

1 - Vee thread
2 - Knuckle thread
3 - Acme thread
4 - Saw-tooth thread
Sealing threads: tapered threads (metric and Whitworth)
Pipe threads: Whitworth pipe threads

By manual thread cutting, only fastening screw threads and partially pipe threads are made.
These kinds of threads are made as left-hand or right-hand threads as well as coarse screw
threads and fine screw threads.

Tools for internal threading (tapping)

Internal threads are cut by serial taps or by nut taps.

Serial taps:

They consist of two or three tools the distinguishing feature being the design of the cutting
part.

The entering tap (1st pass) has a long chamfer and trapeziform cutting edges; it does
approximately 60 % of the cutting work.

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Fig 1.2 Serial taps

1 - Entering tap
2 - Plug tap
3 - Third tap

The plug tap (2nd pass) has a short chamfer and trapeziform cutting edges which are deeper;
it does approximately 30 % of the cutting work.

The (finishing) third tap (3rd pass) has a short chamfer and cutting edges which create the
final sharp form of the thread groove; it cuts the thread to nominal size and finishes the thread
flanks.

The individual tools are additionally distinguished by marks in the form of engraved rings at
the shank below the square. Modern versions of serial taps consist of entering tap and
finishing tap only.

Nut taps:

The nut tap (also called single-pass hand tap) in its cutting part unites the cutting parts of the
three serial taps. Consequently, it has a long chamfer representing about 70 % of the total
length of the cutting part; the cutting edges are initially trapeziform and become sharp only
towards the end. The cutting part is not essentially longer than that of the serial tap.

Yet this cutting part has to do all the cutting operation. The shank with the square is relatively
long.

Application of the tools

Serial taps divide the cutting operation into several passes and thus enable easy but time-
consuming threading; the third tap - due to its short chamfer - is able to almost completely cut
out blind holes.

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.
Fig 1.3 Technology of internal thread cutting (tapping)
1 - Drilling
2 - Countersinking
3 - Rough-cutting by entering tap
4 - Finish-cutting by plug tap
5 - Finish-cutting by third tap
6 - Checking

Nut taps enable quick threading which, however, involves a great cutting power (tearing of
the thread may occur). Due to its long chamfer, this tool cannot be used for blind holes.

External Threading

Tools for external threading

External threads are made with the help of a threading die or die-stock.

Fig 1.4 Threading die

1 - Threading die
2 - Die holder

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Threading die:

It consists of a cutting body (similar to a nut with milled-in chip grooves) with a chamfer on
either side so that it can be applied both-way. The threading die is put into a die holder
which is equipped with two handles.

Fig 1.5 Die-stock

1 - Fixed die
2 - Movable die
3 - Pressure piece
4 - Locking screw

Die-stock:

It consists of a handle-equipped holder in which two threading dies are placed. One of them
is fixed, the other one can be moved by means of a pressure piece via a locking screw. Three
to five pairs of exchangeable threading dies for various sizes of threads belong to a die-stock.

Application of the tools

Threading dies cut the thread in one operation; they are used with bolt diameters up to 12
mm. Bolt diameters between 12 mm and 30 mm can be cut by threading die or die-stock as
well.

Die-stocks are mainly used with bolt diameters over 30 mm; they are drawn over the bolt in
several operations. Readjustment before every new operation is necessary. In the course of
the last operation, the thread is accurately cut to size by a threading die,

Hints for starting the cutting operation

- The threading die is set in exactly horizontal position on the bevel of the bolt and turned
clockwise slowly and with slight pressure from above (with right-hand thread). Only when
the starting end of the thread is cut and the threading die guides itself, the breaking of chips
can begin.

- The die-stock is opened as much as is necessary to shove it over the bolt - a small piece of
the bolt must project above. The die-stock is adjusted to horizontal position and the movable
threading die is tightened. Then, the die-stock is turned up to the bevel so that it is still

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guided. The movable threading die is further tightened. Then, the thread can be cut by turning
the die-stock up and down adjusting the threading die simultaneously.

Fig 1.6 Application of the die-stock

1 - Putting-on and turning-up

2 - Turning-down

Operation of thread cutting

Thread taps take off material from the periphery of the bore hole. This is done by
permanently turning them forwards and backwards alternately with the help of a tap wrench.

In doing so, lubricating and cooling agents must be fed in.

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Fig 1.7 Thread cutting

The forward turn should amount to half a rotation approximately, the backward turn to a
quarter-turn. The material is squeezed and removed within the thread groove the total
quantity of chips sticking in the thread grooves.

The backward rotation causes the crushing of the chips, so that they can fall out of the chip
grooves of the thread tap.

Note:

The backward turn up to the crushing of the chips, with medium hard and hard materials, is
marked by a clearly noticeable jerk. Only then one can be sure that the chip is really broken.
If one fails to crush the chips continuously, the thread grooves and chip grooves become
stuffed up. The thread tap becomes jammed and breaks. It can no more be screwed out of the
bore hole. The same applies to the cutting of external threads.

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c) OBSERVATION OF THE EXPERIMENT :

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d) TABLE OF EVALUATION :

PARTICULARS MAX.MARKS MARKS OBTAINED

Date Sheet 03

Viva 03

Result 04

Total 10

Signature of the faculty:

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EXPERIMENT - 02
SHEET METAL DEVELOPMENT

1. Sheet metal Work

To make a sheet metal object first the sheet has cut to a particular shape. Which is formed by
laying its entire lateral surfaces one adjacent to the other on it and then after bending,
forming, folding appropriately is finally joined by soldering, welding or riveting.

Sheet Metal Process:

1. Study of drawing
2. Developments
3. Patterns/ Template
4. Operation of sheet metals
5. Joining

Practical Applications
Many industries like automobile, aircraft, ship building, packing, air conditioning, ventilating
system, fabrication of funnels, hoppers, bins, paint tins, trays, oil tins, buckets, storage tank,
chimney boilers, involves sheet metal fabrication.

Development
The complete surface of an object is opened to one plane is drawn on paper provided with
suitable allowances for seam and hem is called Development.

Methods of Developments:
1. Parallel line method of development: The surfaces of right prisms, cylinders, cubes,
Rectangular Trays & Similar objects.
2. Radial line method of development: The lateral surfaces of right pyramids and cones
may be developed by this method.
3. Triangulation method of development: The surfaces are made of a No of Triangular
strips laid out in their true size. Ex. Square to round Rectangular to square etc.
4. Approximate Method of development: This method is used to draw the development of a
sphere etc.

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Pattern or Template
It is a metal sheet obtained by laying all the outer surfaces of the object together provided
with suitable allowances for seam and hem is called Pattern or Template.
Metal used in sheet metal work
A large variety of metals are used in the form of sheet & plate. The specifications of metal
sheets are given in terms of their gauge numbers and length & width. The gauge number
correspond to thickness of sheet is measured by using standard wire gauge. The higher the
gauge no, the smaller the thickness and vice versa.
Common metal sheets used in sheet metal Work are:
1. B.P or H R Sheet (Black plain sheet or Hot rolled sheet)
2. C R sheet plain sheet (cold rolled sheet) – 0.1-0.3 % of Carbon
3. Galvanized plain sheet (Galvanizing Zinc)
4. Aluminum sheet
5. Copper sheet
6. Tin Sheet
7. Stainless steel sheet – (Alloy steel) contains 18%, Chromium 8%, Nickel less than 1%
carbon rest is iron
8. Brass sheets
Sheet Metal Hand Tools
a. Measuring and Marking Tools:
1. Steel scale
2. Wire gauge, Micrometer, Vernier Caliper
3. Steel square
4. Scriber
5. Divider
6. Trammel point and
b. Cutting Tools
1. Hand snips or Tin Cutters,
(i) Straight snip (ii) Bend snip (iii) Combination blade hand snip and
(iv)Circular snip

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c. Punches:
(i) Prick Punch (ii) Solid Punch (iii) Centre punch and (iv) Hallow Punch
d. Chisels. (Flat, cross cut, diamond point, circular shape)
e. Stakes of different shapes.
f. Hammer, Mallets.
g. Files
h. Pliers
i. Soldering Iron
Sheet metal Operations
1. Measuring & Marking
2. Laying out
3. Cutting & shearing
4. Hand forming
5. M/c Shearing
6. Nibbing
7. Circle Cutting
8. Piercing and blanking
9. Edge forming Or wiring
10. Joint making Or seaming
11. Bending
12. Notching
13. Soldering
14.Planising.
1. Marking
Place the development on given sheet (G P sheet 28G) mark the boundary line and punch the
line of bending and draw all bending lines with scriber.
2. Cutting & Shearing
Cutting is normally used when the sheet metal is cut by mean of chisel.The term shearing
stand for cutting sheet metal manually by using hand snip or tin cutter or by means of
shearing machines is called shearing.

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3. Circle Cutting
It is an operation of cutting circular blank or curved contours by curvedchisel/bent tin
cutter/hand snip/with circle cutting m/c.
4. Hand forming
The process of shaping or bending a sheet metal in three dimensions to give it to the desire
shape and size of the final product is termed as metal forming.
5. Hemming, Edge Stiffening and Wiring
The edge of sheet is folded to ensure safety on hand stiffness of the product & it gives good
appearance.
6. Joint Making / Seaming:
The method used joining the sheet metal parts by means of folded joints or self securing joint.
7. Bending
Sheet metal can be bent by hammering / over a stake by hand or by means of bending or
rolling m/c.
8. Notching
The opening left at the corners of seam and edges are known as notches in order to prevent
bulging at such a place, the operation is called Notching
Straight Notch
Square Notch
‘V’ Notch etc.
9. Drawing
The drawing operation is carried out with the help of a die and a punch on a suitable press.
10. Hallowing
In this process of beating the sheet metal into a particular shape such as sauce pan lid or
bowl. It is usually done on the hallowing block, which is a worker block with hallow cuts on
it. The hallowing process many also be done on a sand bag. There is no indentation on the
top.
11. Sinking
Sinking is a process used to sink the bottom for forming a tray with a flat rim.
12. Rising
It is the process of dinting/ blows the metal down to shape over a tool with a raising hammer
or mallet.

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13. Planishing
It is a process which is applied to sheet with the main object of shaping the metal with an
improved surface the process brings the article to it final shape & surface finish.
14. Soldering
It is a very common method of joining sheet metal parts. It involves spreading of a low
melting point alloy known a solder in molten condition between the surfaces or edges to be
joined and allow it to solidity there.
AIM: To prepare a sheet metal Cylinder.

Equipment & material: Mallet, hand shear, bench shear, grooving and, metal sheet, soldering
equipment.

To develop the blank flat length for a cylinder rolled from sheet or plate is quite simple:

Essentially, you should calculate the center line arc:

Length of Plate Required = 2 r 2r

Width of plate required = l

Fig 2.1 Cylinder

Note:  Additional plate may be required depending on the material thickness and the
machinery used.

 Draw the Top & Front view of the cylinder to the given dimensions.
 Draw the rectangle length of 2 r and height of l
 Add 5mm extra adjacent to for seam joint.
Note: (i) Stretch out line is drawn in line with the base in the front view to complete the
development quickly.
 Cut the development to shape on lines by using paper cutting scissor.
 Place and fix the development on gives G.P sheet by using sticker.
 Punch two points on each bending lines.
 Mark the boundary line by using marking pen .
 Remove the paper development join the two point by scriber or marking pen.

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 Shear the boundary lines by hand snip.

 Flatter the sheet by using mallet on flatter.
 Always bend the seaming line first and then the remaining lines to get desired shape.
 Finish the surface keeping on stake to shape.
 Solder the joint.
 Finish the surface finishing and complete the job.

AIM: To prepare a sheet metal hexagonal Prism.

Fig 2.2 Hexagonal prism

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Sequence of operation or procedure for preparing Hexagonal prism

1 Draw the top and front view of the prism of the given dimensions
2 Equal to six sides of the prism 25 X 6 =150 mm
3 Draw a stretch out line AA and mark off the sides of the base along this line i.e AB,
BC, CD & DE, EF and FA.
4 Erect perpendiculars through these points and mark the edges AA' B B' CC' DD' FF'
and AA' height of the prism 50mm.
5 Add 5mm extra adjacent to AA for seam joint.

Note:
1) Stretch out line is drawn in line with the base in the front view to complete the
development quickly.
2) Generally the lateral surfaces of the solid are developed and the bases are omitted.
3) All the lines on the development should be present the true length.
4) Cut the development to shape on lines by using paper cutting scissor.
5) Place and fix the development on gives G.P sheet by using sticker.
6) Punch two points on each bending lines.
7) Mark the boundary line by using marking pen .
8) Remove the paper development join the two point by scriber or marking pen.
9) Shear the boundary lines by hand snip.
10) Flatter the sheet by using mallet on flatter.
11) Always bend the seaming line first and then the remaining lines to get desired shape.
12) Finish the surface keeping on stake to shape.
13) Solder the joint.
14) Finish the surface finishing and complete the job.

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a) OBSERVATION OF THE EXPERIMENT :

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b) TABLE OF EVALUATION :

PARTICULARS MAX.MARKS MARKS OBTAINED

Date Sheet 03

Viva 03

Result 04

Total 10

Signature of the faculty:

Dept. of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, R.V. College of Engineering, Bengaluru 67

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EXPERIMENT-03

AIM: Demonstration of IC Engine.

Fig 3.1 Cut section of I C Engine

A machine which uses heat energy obtained from combustion of fuel and converts it into
mechanical energy is known as an Heat Engine. They are classified as External and Internal
Combustion Engine. In an External Combustion Engine, combustion takes place outside the
cylinder and the heat generated from the combustion of the fuel is transferred to the working
fluid which is then expanded to develop the power. An Internal Combustion Engine is one
where combustion of the fuel takes place inside the cylinder and converts heat energy into
mechanical energy. IC engines may be classified based on the working cycle, thermodynamic
cycle, speed, fuel, cooling, method of ignition, mounting of engine cylinder and application.

The test rig consists of a 4-Stroke diesel engine of KIRLOSKAR make with suitably
sectioned at different positions to visualize the parts and operation of valves.

DEMONSTRATION CAPABALITIES:

 To study and understand the performance characteristics of the multi cylinder engine.

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Water Turbine

Fig 3.2 Pelton Wheel Turbine

Pelton Wheel Turbine is an impulse water turbine named in honour of Sir L. A. Pelton (1829-
1908) of California, USA. It is a tangential flow impulse turbine. The water strikes the
buckets along the tangent of the runner. The energy  available  at  the  inlet  of  the  turbine 
is  only  kinetic energy. The pressure at the inlet and outlet of the turbine is atmospheric. This
turbine is used for high heads.

The present set-up consists of a runner. The buckets are mounted on the runner. The water is
fed to the turbine, through SS nozzle with a SS spear, by means of Centrifugal Pump,
tangentially to the runner. Flow of water into turbine is regulated by adjusting the spear
position with the help of a given hand wheel. The runner is directly mounted on one end of a
central SS shaft and other end is connected to a brake arrangement. The circular window of
the turbine casing is provided with a transparent acrylic sheet for observation of flow on to
the buckets. This runner assembly is supported  by  rigid  MS  structure.  Load  is  applied  to 
the  turbine  with  the  help  of  this  brake dynamometer so that the efficiency of the turbine
can be calculated. Pressure gauge is fitted at the inlet of the turbine to measure the total
supply head to the turbine.

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 Elements of Engineering Practices Lab Manual & Observation Book

Electric Arc Welding

Fig 3.3 Arc Welding

Arc welding is one of several fusion processes for joining metals. By applying intense heat,
metal at the joint between two parts is melted and caused to intermix - directly, or more
commonly, with an intermediate molten filler metal. Upon cooling and solidification, a
metallurgical bond is created. Since the joining is an intermixture of metals, the final
weldment potentially has the same strength properties as the metal of the parts. This is in
sharp contrast to non-fusion processes of joining (i.e. soldering, brazing etc.) in which the
mechanical and physical properties of the base materials cannot be duplicated at the joint.

In arc welding, the intense heat needed to melt metal is produced by an electric arc. The arc is
formed between the actual work and an electrode (stick or wire) that is manually or
mechanically guided along the joint. The electrode can either be a rod with the purpose of
simply carrying the current between the tip and the work. Or, it may be a specially prepared
rod or wire that not only conducts the current but also melts and supplies filler metal to the
joint. Most welding in the manufacture of steel products uses the second type of electrode.

Dept. of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, R.V. College of Engineering, Bengaluru 70

 Elements of Engineering Practices Lab Manual & Observation Book

PIPE FITTING (PLUMBING)

Plumbing pipe is made from various materials, copper, galvanized steel and iron,
polyvinylchloride (PVC), chlorinated polyvinylchloride (CPVC), cross-linked high density
polyethylene (PEX), and polybutylene. Fittings are made from brass, plastic, copper, or
malleable iron.

 Copper. This is widely used and can withstand very high temperatures. It is
exclusively used for the final connections made to central heating boilers/furnaces
where temperatures may exceed 100 C (212 F). The disadvantage of copper pipe (or
"tube" as it is known in the plumbing industry) is that it is rigid and either must be
bent into shape using special tools, or alternatively by using discrete lengths of pipe
and 45 or 90 joints.
 Stainless Steel. In the 70s, stainless steel plumbing was popular when there was a
copper shortage. It is even more rigid than copper so slight alteration by bending can
be difficult. Stainless steel is supposed to be more corrosion resistant than copper and
is sometimes used for aesthetic reasons where plumbing must be exposed.
 PVC and CPVC. Piping made from these polymers (plastic) has several advantages
over copper. Plastic pipe is ductile and can be easily bent, lessening the need for
bends. If a really tight bend is required, 90 degree elbow joints can be used. It can also
be easily routed through floor and wall spaces. Plastic is a better insulator than metal,
so heat loss is reduced. Usually plastic piping has more "give" and will stretch more
than copper when water freezes and expands inside the pipe, reducing the danger of
bursting in sub-zero temperatures.
PVC or poly vinyl chloride is the most basic type of plastic pipe used for both
drinking water plumbing and waste pipe. Chlorinated PVC or CPVC has the same
characteristics as standard PVC but has better corrosion resistance at higher water
temperatures and is also significantly more ductile.

 PEX. Plumbing tubing is also made from cross-linked high-density polyethylene or

PEX. This is a tough ductile material which can survive temperatures as low as -20 C
(-4 F) without bursting. PEX is also less than half the price of copper and doesn't
corrode when used in areas where the water supply is acidic. Just like PVC, PEX is
flexible and can be bent over a tight radius and easily routed to fittings. It does expand
more than copper, so shouldn't be stretched to reach fittings and allowed to drop
slightly between fixings to allow for contraction. On long runs, a loop of tubing can
be included in a line to allow for a lot of contraction. When running tubing through
holes in walls, make the holes sufficiently large so that tube can slide freely as it
expands and contracts. PEX is susceptible to UV and if used outdoors, it needs to be
shielded using insulation or otherwise to prevent degradation.

 Ductile (Malleable) iron. Used for water, gas, compressed air, and as a rigid metal
conduit (RMC) for housing cables in industrial and commercial applications. It is
much stronger than copper or plastic pipe but not so common in domestic
installations. Ductile iron or cast iron was often used for larger diameter water mains
before the advent of plastic.
 Lead. No longer used for plumbing in new installations because of concerns over
toxicity of the metal, lead piping was phased out after WWII when copper became
popular.

Dept. of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, R.V. College of Engineering, Bengaluru 71

 Elements of Engineering Practices Lab Manual & Observation Book

Care needs to be taken when working near plastic piping or fittings to avoid heat damage
from blow torches or other heat producing tools. Piping should also be routed during
installation so that it isn't subjected to high temperatures from heat sources such as flues.

a) OBSERVATION OF THE EXPERIMENT :

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b) TABLE OF EVALUATION :

PARTICULARS MAX.MARKS MARKS OBTAINED

Date Sheet 03

Viva 03

Result 04

Total 10

Signature of the faculty:

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Dept. of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, R.V. College of Engineering, Bengaluru 74