Frequency Bands and Applications

The textbook definition of a frequency band is an interval in the frequency domain, delimited by a
lower frequency and upper frequency. The International Telecommunication Union has assigned
designations to these intervals.
 
Beginning with the lowest and ending with the highest, we will enumerate the ITU-designated
frequency bands and provide examples of their corresponding applications.
 
Firstly, the Extremely Low Frequency (ELF) band is ideal for underwater communication.
Transmitters in the 22 Hz range of this band are useful in pigging, also known as pipeline
transportation. The Super Low Frequency (SLF) band is also suitable for submarine
communication.
 
The waves within Ultra Low Frequency (ULF) band are able to penetrate through dirt and rock.
Through-the-earth signal transmission is especially useful in secure communications, making it
suitable for military applications. TTE is also used in mining. Similarly, the Very Low
Frequency (VLF) band can also penetrate dirt and rock for some distance. Thus, geophysicists use
VLF-electromagnetic receivers to measure conductivity in the near surface of the earth. VLF
frequencies benefit from their long range and stable phase characteristics, allowing them to be quite
versatile. Like ELF and SLF, VLF can also penetrate seawater to some extent; the military can use
VLF to communicate with submarines near the surface of the water. Historically, VLF has been used
for navigation beacons.
 
 
The Low Frequency (LF) band is mostly used for AM broadcasting in Europe as well as in areas of
Northern Africa and Asia. Similar to VLF, LF can also be used for navigational radio beacons. It can
also be used for maritime ship-to-shore communication, as well as transoceanic air traffic control.
Like the LF band, the Medium Frequency (MF) band is also mostly used for AM radio broadcasting.
 
The High Frequency (HF) band is most useful in shortwave radio applications, as well as aviation
air-to-ground communications. Dipole antennas, such as the Yagi, quad, and log-periodic antennas,
operate within the higher frequencies of the HF band. Because its wavelengths range from one to
ten decametres (10 to 100 meters), the HF band is also known as the decametre band. The Very
High Frequency band is suitable for similar applications as the HF band. Additionally, whereas AM
radio operates within the LF and MF bands, FM radio operates within the VHF band. 
 
The Ultra High Frequency (UHF) band is perhaps most closely integrated into modern civilian life.
In addition to military applications, the UHF band is used in satellite television, mobile phones, Wi-Fi,
walkie-talkies, and GPS.
 
Falling within the microwave band, the Super High Frequency (SHF) band is also optimized for
wireless communications. Because the relatively smaller wavelengths of microwaves allow them to
be directed in narrow beams, the SHF band is optimal for point-to-point communication
using parabolic dishes and horn antennas, for example. Patch antennas typically operate within the
SHF band as well. Aside from microwave heating, the SHF band is optimal for satellite links and
radar transmitters. The SHF band is also known as the centimetre band because its wavelengths
range from one to ten centimeres.
 
Lastly, the Extremely High Frequency (EHF) band is the highest band on our list. It is also known
as the millimetre band, because its wavelengths measure between one to ten millimetres. Because
its radio waves are able to be absorbed by the gases in the atmosphere, they only have a short
range and can only be used for terrestrial communication over about a kilometer. While certain
frequency ranges near the bottom of the band are currently used in 5G cellphone networks, the EHF
band is most commonly used in astronomy and remote sensing.
 
Frequency Band Name Acrony Frequency Range Wavelengthλ , (Meters)
m V 3∗10 8
λ= =
F F
Extremely Low Frequency ELF 3 to 30 Hz 10,000 to 100,000 km
Super Low Frequency SLF 30 to 300 Hz 1,000 to  10,000 km
Ultra-Low Frequency ULF 300 to 3000 Hz 100 to 1,000 km
Very Low Frequency VLF 3 to 30 kHz 10 to 100 km
Low Frequency LF 30 to 300 kHz 1 to 10 km
Medium Frequency MF 300 to 3000 kHz 100  to 1,000 m
High Frequency HF 3 to 30 MHz 10 to 100 m
Very High Frequency VHF 30 to 300 MHz 1 to 10 m
Ultra-High Frequency UHF 300 to 3000 MHz 10 to 100 cm
Super High Frequency SHF 3 to 30 GHz 1 to 10 cm
Extremely High Frequency EHF 30 to 300 GHz 1 to 10 mm
From 3KHz to 300GHz is called RF frequency.
A prescaler is an electronic counting circuit used to reduce a high frequency electrical signal to a
lower frequency by integer division. The prescaler takes the basic timer clock frequency (which may
be the CPU clock frequency or may be some higher or lower frequency) and divides it by some
value before feeding it to the timer, according to how the prescaler register(s) are configured. The
prescaler values, referred to as prescales, that may be configured might be limited to a few fixed
values (powers of 2), or they may be any integer value from 1 to 2^P, where P is the number of
prescaler bits.
The purpose of the prescaler is to allow the timer to be clocked at the rate a user desires. For
shorter (8 and 16-bit) timers, there will often be a tradeoff between resolution (high resolution
requires a high clock rate) and range (high clock rates cause the timer to overflow more quickly). For
example, one cannot (without some tricks) achieve 1 µs resolution and a 1 sec maximum period
using a 16-bit timer. In this example using 1 µs resolution would limit the period to about 65ms
maximum. However the prescaler allows tweaking the ratio between resolution and maximum period
to achieve a desired effect.
A prescaler is nothing more than a scaling operation that occurs before the
primary operation.

For instance, if you have a clock running at 64MHz and you want an output
clock running at 1MHz, you can bring the clock into a circuit and then use
the circuit to divide it down by a factor of 64. Or, you can use a
divide-by-16 circuit on the clock itself and clock the entire circuit at
4MHz and now the circuit only has to divide by 4. The divide-by-16 circuit
acting on the clock is a prescaler.

The advantage of a prescaler like this is that you can implement it easily
in hardware which makes the software cleaner and tighter and you can get
significant power savings by having the bulk of the circuitry clocked at a
lower frequency.

Prescalers do not have to be clock dividers (though that is the most common
context with which I am familiar although prescalers that multiply and/or
divide values by powers of two by shifting bits left or right are fairly
common as well) or even digital in nature - although when they are used in
the analog world they are more commonly called preamplifiers.

Basic difference between PLL lock range and

capture range
This page describes basic difference between PLL lock range and capture
range. PLL is widely used in communication circuits to select the desired
frequency channel. PLL is the short form of Phase Locked Loop. It is also
referred as frequency synthesizer. As shown in the fig-1 below, PLL consists of
phase detector, VCO and LPF elements.
As shown in the fig-1, PLL is used to convert FM modulated signal into original
modulating signal. The phase detector produces phase error signal between the
two inputs. This phase error signal is passed to LPF which produces DC voltage.
This DC voltage is given to VCO which generates frequency based on DC
voltage applied. VCO is the short form of Voltage Controlled Oscillator.
PLL free running frequency
To understand the operation of PLL circuit, initially no input signal is applied.
Under this condition, phase detector and Low pass filter outputs will be zero. At
this time, VCO operates at free running frequency. This is normal operating
frequency of VCO. This PLL free running frequency is determined by its
internal frequency determining components.

As explained in fig.1 when frequency changes, phase detector and LPF will
produce new DC voltage. This voltage force VCO frequency to change and adopt
to the new input frequency. Hence PLL is said to be tracking the input. Any input
frequency variation will be matched by the change in the VCO frequency. Hence
PLL circuit remains locked.

PLL Lock range

The range of frequencies over which PLL will track the input frequency signal and
remains locked is referred as PLL Lock range. The lock range is usually band of
frequencies above and below the PLL free running frequency as described
earlier.
Fig.1 PLL Lock Range
If the frequency of the input signal is outside the PLL lock range than PLL will not
be able to lock. Under this condition, VCO frequency jumps to its fundamental
free running frequency.

PLL Capture range

As described earlier when the frequency within PLL lock range is applied to the
circuit. The circuit will adjust and will remain in locked condition. Any deviation
thereafter will be adjusted due to Phase detector, LPF and VCO functionalities.
Once input signal is captured, PLL will remain in locked state and will track the
changes in the input signal till it remains within lock range.

The range of input frequencies over which PLL will capture the input signal is
referred as PLL capture range. As shown in the fig-2, it is much narrower
compare to the PLL lock range.
Both PLL lock range and PLL capture range are centered around the VCO free
running frequency.

PLL acts as a Band Pass Filter which is effective in eliminating the noise as well
as interference from the input signal if present.
FILTERS (PASSIVE LOW PASSS FILTERS)
Passive filter is preferable than active filter for PLL because,
 Passive filters only contribute thermal noise from its components. In an active filter, input referred
thermal noise and 1/f noise from transistors is increased by the gain of the circuit. This translates
into more noise on the oscillator's voltage control pin which randomly frequency modulates the
output signal, resulting in more phase noise.
Active filters are typically used when the oscillator's(VCO/VCXO/TCXO) control voltage range is
outside the range of the charge pump supply

What is Cutoff Frequency?

Cutoff frequency (also known as corner frequency, or break frequency) is
defined as a boundary in a system’s frequency response at which energy
flowing through the system begins to be attenuated (reflected or reduced)
rather than passing through.