Electrical Materials and Technology.

UNIT V

DIELECTRIC MATERIALS
A dielectric is an electrical insulator that can be polarized by an applied electric field. When a
dielectric is placed in an electric field, electric charges do not flow through the material as they do in
a conductor, but only slightly shift from their average equilibrium positions causing dielectric polarization.
Because of dielectric polarization, positive charges are displaced toward the field and negative charges shift
in the opposite direction.
Example: Glass, porcelain (Ceramic), Mica, plastics and oxides of metals
Electric Dipole:
Two opposite charges of equal magnitude separated by a finite distance constitutes an electric dipole
Dipole Moment:
Dipole moment is equal to the product of one of the charges and the distance between the two
charges.
Dipole moment is given by µ = q x l
Units is Coulomb – meter (C –m)
Permittivity:
The Permittivity represents the easily polarisable nature of the dielectric or medium denoted by ‘Є’
and the permittivity of free space or air is denoted by Є0
Its unit is Farad / Meter
Є0 = 8.854 x10-12 F/m
Dielectric Constant (Єr) or Relative Permittivity:
The dielectric characteristics of a material are determined by the dielectric constant.
Dielectric constant is the ratio between the permittivity of material to the permittivity of free space
or air.
ε
εr =
εo No units
Polarization Vector (P):
The dipole moment per unit volume of the dielectric material is called polarization vector P .if μ is
the average dipole moment per molecule and N is the number of molecules per unit volume then
polarization vector
P=Nμ
The dipole moment per unit volume of the solid is the sum of all the individual dipole moments within that
volume and is called the polarization of the solid.
Dielectric Polaraisablity (α):
The ability of a dielectric to allow its charges to get separated in the presence of an electric field is
known as polaraisablity.
The net dipole moment ‘µ’ is proportional to the applied electric field ‘E’
μαE

Proportionality constant α is called dielectric polarisability

Units are F m2.

1
Electrical Materials and Technology. UNIT V

Electric flux density or Electric displacement (D):

The total number of electric lines of force passing through the dielectric is known as electric flux
density ‘D’.
D = εr ε0 E ------------- (1) where
E is electric field strength
εr is relative permittivity of material
ε0 is permittivity of free space
As polarization measures additional flux density arising from the presence of the material as
compared to free space, it has same units as D.
Hence D = ε0E + P ----------- (2)
Since D = ε0εr E
ε0εrE = ε0E + P
P = ε0εrE - ε0E
P = Eε0(εr - 1 ).
Dielectric Susceptibility ( χ ):
It measures the amount of polarization in a given electrical field produced in a dielectric.
Polarization is proportional to the product of Є0 and applied electric field E

⇒ P=χ ε o E
P
⇒ χ=
εo E
χ is known as dielectric susceptibility
It has no units
The local field or Internal field:
In dielectric solids, the atoms or molecules experience not only the external applied electric field but
also the electric field produced by the dipoles. The resultant electric field acting on the atoms or molecules
of dielectric substance is called the Local Field or Internal Field.
The local field is calculated by using the Lorentz method
P
E I =E+
3εO

Clausius Mosotti Equation:

The relation between the dielectric constant and the polarization of polarized dielectric is known as
Clausius – Mosotti equation.
Let consider a polarized dielectric in which Ei is the local field then induced dipole moment is proportional
to Ei
µ α Ei
µ = α Ei --------- (1)
α is the polaraisablity of dielectric.
If N is the number of atoms per unit volume of a dielectric then the polarization is given by P = Nµ
P = N α Ei -------------- (2)

2
Electrical Materials and Technology. UNIT V

P
E I =E+
But 3εO --------- (3)
P
P=Nα E+
[ 3 εO ]
NαP
P=N αE +
3εo
Nα
[
P 1−
3 εO ]
=N αE

NαE
P=
Nα
[ 1−
3 εO ] --------- (4)
But P = E ε
o ( ε r – 1) --------- (5)
From (4) and (5) equations
NαE
Eε r ( ε r −1 ) =
Nα
1−
3 εo
Nα NαE
1− =
3 ε O ε O E ( εr−1 )
NαE Nα
1= +
ε O ( εr−1 ) 3 ε O
Nα 3
1=
3 ε O ( εr−1 ) [
+1
]
Nα 1 Nα εr−1
= ⇒ =
3 εo 3 3 ε O ε r+ 2
εr−1 ( +1 )
The above equation relating α and ε r is known as the Clausius – Mosotti relation.
Electrical Polarization mechanisms:
The polarization in dielectrics takes place through four different mechanisms. They are
1. Electronic polarization,
2. Ionic polarization,
3. Orientation polarization and
4. Space charge polarization.
1) Electronic polarization:
This occurs throughout the dielectric material and is due to the separation of effective centers of
positive charges from the effective center of negative charges in atoms or molecules of dielectric material
due to applied electric field. Hence dipoles are induced within the material. This leads to the development of
net dipole moment in the material and is the vector sum of dipole moments of individual dipoles.

3
Electrical Materials and Technology. UNIT V

R = Radius of the atom

εo = Permittivity of free space
For electronic polarization
Pe = Nµe
Where µe = induced dipole moment
N = number of atoms
Pe = N αe E (µe = αeE)
But Pe = εoE (εr – 1)
Comparing the above two relations, we have
ε oE ( ε r-1) = NαeE
Nα e
εr −1=
εO
Nα e
ε r= +1
εO
The above relation represents dielectric constant due to electronic polarization.
ε ( εr −1 )
α e= O
N
Electronic polarization is independent of temperature. It takes place in a time period of 10 -14 to the 10-15
second.
Ionic polarization:
This occurs in ionic solids such as sodium chloride etc. In the absence of electric field the +ve and –
ve ions have an angular periodic arrangement in an ionic dielectric. The dipole moments of any ion with
reference to the neighboring ions are equal and cancel each other as a result net dipole moment is zero.
In the presence of electric field E, the +ve and -ve ions are displaced in the direction of E and –ve
ions are displaced in opposite direction of E due to the atom of electrical force as a result, we get a net
dipole moment.
The polarization due to the displacement of +ve and –ve ions in the presence of an electric field is
known as ionic polarization.

4
Electrical Materials and Technology. UNIT V

The induced ionic dipole moment µi is proportional to the applied field E and is expressed as
µi = αiE ---------------- (1)
Where αi= ionic Polaraisablity
If M is the mass of +ve ion, ‘m’ is the mass of the –ve ion and ‘e’ is the charge of electron, then
induced ionic dipole moment is given by
2
e E 1 1
μi = 2 +
ωo M m [ ] ---------------- (2)
Where ωo = angular velocity of ion,
Comparing (1) and (2) equations.
e2 1 1
α i= 2
ωo [ M
+
m ]
Ionic polarizations is given by Pi = NαiE
2
Ne E 1 1
P i=
ω 2O [ M
+
M ]
Ionic polarization is independent of temperature.
It takes places in a time period of 10-11 to 10-14 second
Orientation or Dipolar Polarization:
Certain molecules will have structure such that it acts as dipole with permanent dipole moment. Such
molecules are known as polar molecules.
In the absence of an electric field, the orientation polar molecules are at random due to which no net
dipole moment exists and it is not polarized. In the presence of an electric field, the molecules dipoles rotate
about their axis of symmetry aligned with the applied field

The average induced orientation dipole moment is given by

5
Electrical Materials and Technology. UNIT V

μ0 =α 0 E
Where
α 0= orientation Polaraisablity
2
μ
α 0= 3 kB T
Where μ = Permanent dipole moment of a dipole
KB= Boltzmann constant
T = Absolute temperature of the die electric
If N is the number of dipoles per unit volume then the orientation polarization is given by

P0 = N
α0 E
2
Nμ E
P0 = 3 k B T
Orientation polarization is inversely proportional to the temperature and is proportional to the square
of permanent dipole moment.
Space charge polarization:
This occurs in materials in which only a few charge carriers are capable of moving through small
distances. When the external electric field is applied these charge carriers move. During their motion they
get trapped or pile up against lattice defects. These are called localized charges. These localized charges
induce their image charge on the surface of the dielectric material. This leads to the development of net
dipole moment across the material. Since this is very small it can be neglected. It is denoted by Ps.
Frequency dependence of polaraisablity:
On application of an electric field, polarization process occurs as a function of time. The polarization
P(t) as a function of time. The polarization P(t) as a function of time t is given by
P(t) = P[ 1- exp (-t/ tr )]
Where P – maximum polarization attained and tr - relaxation time for particular polarization process.
The relaxation time tr is a measure of the time scale of polarization process. It is the time taken for a
polarization process to reach 0.63 of the maximum value.
Electronic polarization is extremely rapid. Even when the frequency of the applied voltage is very
high in the optical range (≈1015 Hz), electronic polarization occurs during every cycle of the applied
voltage.
Ionic polarization is due to displacement of ions over a small distance due to the applied
field. Since ions are heavier than electron cloud, the time taken for displacement is larger. The frequency
with which ions are displaced is of the same order as the lattice vibration frequency (≈1013Hz). Hence, at
optical frequencies, there is no ionic polarization. If the frequency of the applied voltage is less than 1013
Hz, the ions respond.
Orientation polarization is even slower than ionic polarization. The relaxation time for orientation
polarization in a liquid is less than that in a solid. Orientation polarization occurs, when the frequency of
applied voltage is in audio range (1010 Hz).
Space charge polarization is the slowest process, as it involves the diffusion of ions over
several interatomic distances. The relaxation time for this process is related to frequency of ions under the
influence of applied field. Space charge polarization occurs at power frequencies (50-60 Hz).

6
Electrical Materials and Technology. UNIT V

Dielectric breakdown:
It is the most important property of real dielectrics. For any material there is a maximum field
intensity beyond which damage occurs that results in conduction, sparking and other breakdown. At
relatively high fields, the electrons in the dielectric gain enough energy to knock other charged particles and
make them available for conduction. This multiplying process occurs along certain paths in the material.
Along this paths, local heating also occurs and a permanent damage results. Thus for any dielectric material
there is a maximum electric field that a material can withstand without breaking down and losing its
insulating quality. This field is called dielectric strength of the material.
When a dielectric material loses its resistivity and permits very large current to flow through
it, then the phenomenon is called dielectric breakdown.
There are many factors for dielectric breakdown which are (1) Intrinsic breakdown (2) Thermal
breakdown (3) Discharge breakdown (4) Electro Chemical breakdown (5) Defect breakdown.
Intrinsic breakdown:
The dielectric strength is defined as the breakdown voltage per unit thickness of the material. When
the applied electric field is large, some of the electrons in the valence band cross over to the conduction
band across the large forbidden energy gap giving rise to large conduction currents. The liberation or
movement of electrons from valence band is called field emission of electrons and the breakdown is called
the intrinsic breakdown.
Thermal breakdown:
It occurs in a dielectric when the rate of heat generation is greater than the rate of dissipation. Energy
due to the dielectric loss appears as heat. If the rate of generation of heat is larger than the heat dissipated to
the surrounding, the temperature of the dielectric increases which eventually results in local melting .once
melting starts, that particular region becomes highly conductive, enormous current flows through the
material and dielectric breakdown occurs. Thus thermal breakdown occurs at very high temperatures.
Discharge breakdown:

7
Electrical Materials and Technology. UNIT V

Discharge breakdown is classified as external or internal. External breakdown is generally caused by

a glow or corona discharge .Such discharges are normally observed at sharp edges of electrodes. It causes
deterioration of the adjacent dielectric medium. It is accompanied by the formation of carbon so that the
damaged areas become conducting leading to power arc and complete failure of the dielectric. Dust or
moisture on the surface of the dielectric may also cause external discharge breakdown. Internal breakdown
occurs when the insulator contains blocked gas bubbles .If large number of gas bubbles is present, this can
occur even at low voltages.
Electro Chemical breakdown:
Chemical and electro chemical breakdown are related to thermal breakdown. When temperature
rises, mobility of ions increases and hence electrochemical reaction takes place. When ionic mobility
increases leakage current also increases and this may lead to dielectric breakdown. Field induced chemical
reaction gradually decreases the insulation resistance and finally results in breakdown.
Defect breakdown:
If the surface of the dielectric material has defects such as cracks and porosity, then impurities such
as dust or moisture collect at these discontinuities leading to breakdown. Also if it has defect in the form of
strain in the material, that region will also break on application of electric field.
Piezo – Electricity:
Some materials have the property of becoming electrically polarized when mechanical stress is
applied. This property is known as Piezo – electric effect has an inverse. According to inverse piezo electric
effect, when an electric stress or voltage is applied, the material becomes strained. The strain is directly
proportional to the applied field E. When piezo electric crystals are subjected to compression or tension,
opposite kinds of charges are developed at the opposite faces perpendicular to the direction of applied force.
The charges produced are proportional to the applied force.
Example:
Rochelle salt and Piezoelectric semiconductors (ZnO)
Ferro electricity:
Certain dielectrics exhibit polarization (or) dipole moment even in the absence of electric field. This
is called as Spontaneous polarization (Ps). This phenomenon is known as ferro electricity and the dielectrics
are known as ferroelectrics.
Example:
Potassium dihydrogen phosphate (K H2Po4) and Barium titanate (BaTiO3)
Pyroelectricity:
It is the change in spontaneous polarization when the temperature of specimen is changed.
Example:
Gallium Nitride (GaN) and Caesium Nitrate (CsNO3)
Applications:
 Mainly used as insulating materials.
 Used in Dielectric wireless receiver.
 Used in capacitors to increase the capacitance.
 Used in dielectric resonator which is used to produce a narrow range of frequencies mainly in
microwave range.
 Used in mobile phones as piezoelectric receivers and speakers and
 Used in filters.