Principles of Atatürk and History of Turkish Revolution I

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Principles of Atatürk and History of Turkish Revolution I
INTRODUCTION Sultanate was abolished in 1922 leaving behind an

Modern Turkey or with its official name, the important Ottoman legacy both for Turkey and for
Republic of Turkey, was founded on October the nations that the empire once ruled.
29, 1923 in Anatolia, a peninsula located in the This chapter is designed to provide information
continent of Asia. The name Anatolia comes from on the historical roots of Modern Turkey
a Greek word Anadolis meaning “the place of the concentrating on the periods from the foundation
rising sun that is the East” used both both during of the Ottoman Empire to the end of the eighteenth
the Antiquity -Ancient times, especially the times century in four headings. The first section will
preceding the middle Ages- and the Byzantine examine the origins of the Ottoman Empire and its
Period (330-1453). The Anatolian peninsula expansion from the thirteenth to the mid sixteenth
was called Asia Minor, small Asia, as well while century. The second section will discuss the end of
European Latin writers began to refer to Anatolia Ottoman expansion and the territorial losses in the
as Turchia, the land of Turks, from the end of the late seventeenth century. The next section will cover
twelfth century onwards (Findley, 2005, p.57). information on the Ottoman society, culture and
The Turks were originally people of the steppes of their livelihood. The last section will discuss basics
the inner and the Central Asia and their original of Ottoman diplomacy and the cultural impact of
homeland was the Altaic region, far away from Europe on the Ottoman Empire. The events and
Anatolia. So how was the name of the Turks, a developments after the seventeenth century will be
nation of Central Asia origin, given Anatolia? discussed in the following chapters of this book.
The answer of this question covers the historical
roots of Modern Turkey, which is directly related THE BIRTH AND RISE OF THE
to the Ottoman past since Turkey was established
OTTOMAN EMPIRE
on the territories left from the Ottoman Empire in
Anatolia. The Ottoman Empire was founded by a
nomadic Turkish tribe named Kayı from Oghuz
The Ottoman Empire was established by a
(Oğuz) descent who came from the steppes of the
nomadic Turkish tribe named Kayı that came to
inner and the Central Asia led by Ertuğrul Ghazi
Anatolia in the service of the Turkish Great Seljuk
-Ghazi means a warrior for the faith of Islam. The
State in 1071 under the leadership of Ertuğrul
Kayı tribe came to Anatolia in the service of the
Gazi (Ghazi). The Kayı tribe settled in Söğüt- a
armies of the Turkish Great Seljuk State which
small town near present day Eskişehir in Central
once ruled Iran and Caucasia. The Seljuk Army was
Anatolia- allocated to them as a reward for their
composed of many Turkic tribes including the Kayı
service in helping to defeat the Byzantine Empire
who primarily served in the military expeditions of
in the Battle of Manzikert in 1071. Osman Ghazi,
the Seljuk Army.
the successor of Ertuğrul Ghazi, founded the
Ottoman Empire in the thirteenth century and this important
empire became a world power ruling the territories
from Anatolia to Central Europe, from Northern “The origins of the Turkic peoples are not well
Black Sea region to North Africa in the following documented. Yet the Turks or their precursors
centuries. However, the Ottoman Empire lost already had a greater-than-regional role in Eurasian
many of these territories from the eighteenth history before their name appears in historical
century onwards and the final blow came with the sources… Although linguists hypothesize that
World War I (1914-1918). The Ottoman defeat proto-Turkic, of which no direct evidence survives,
in this war threatened its last territory Anatolia was spoken as early as 3000–500 B.C.E., the Turks
since it was occupied by the Allied Powers of the did not indisputably appear in history until the
World War I. The Turkish War of Independence sixth century C.E., when Chinese sources mention
(Türk Kurtuluş Savaşı) started under the leadership a people in Mongolia and southern Siberia called
of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk against the Allied the Tujue (T’u-chüe), whom modern scholars
occupation laid the basis of Republic of Turkey identify as Turks.” (Findley, 2005, p. 21).
in Anatolia. Anatolia was saved and the Ottoman
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Historical Roots of Modern Turkey- Ottoman Legacy
These conquests under the Seljuk started in 1048

were legitimized as ghaza -Arabic word means war important
against “the infidels”- in order to conquer lands of the
Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire) and the The Seljuks were one of the Oghuz Turks like the Kayı
territories in the Caucasus (Findley, 2005, p.71). The Tribe. The Seljuk rulers were the first Turkish rulers
Seljuk Army entered Anatolia under the leadership who used the title of sultan in place of classical Turkish
of Alp Arslan -one of the sons of the Seljuk Shah- rulers’ title kaghan. The Seljuk dynasty was the first
after defeating the Byzantine army commanded by Muslim-Turkish dynasty who legitimized their
the Byzantine emperor Romanus IV Diogenes at Turkish traditional ruling system with Islamic motifs.
the Battle of Manzikert -present-day Malazgirt in The Seljuks were the ones who brought Turkish
Eastern Anatolia- on August 26, 1071. people to the Iranian plateau and Anatolia (Findley,
Alp Arslan, after strengthening its fortification 2005, pp.68-71).
Eastern Anatolia based in Ahlat -a city in Eastern
Anatolia-, expanded its borders in the Byzantine
territories towards the west and established the important
Anatolian Seljuk State. Otherwise known as the Seljuk
State of Rum -Rum was a term used to describe the land Byzantine Empire was also called the Eastern Roman
and people of the Byzantine Empire and the Greeks Empire. It was founded by Constantine I in the
by Turks- in Konya, Conium, in 1074 (Findley, 2005, fourth century CE. His name survived in the Roman
p.72). After Conium, the Seljuks moved towards the city he had built, Constantinople, for a thousand
Byzantine capital city Constantinople. Their advance years until it fell into the hands of Ottoman Turks
was blocked by the First Crusade formed by the in 1453.
Latin Church in 1095 upon the call for help by the
Byzantine Empire.
Figure 1.1 Anatolian Seljuk State of Rum

Source: https://www.britannica.com/place/Anatolia/images-videos
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Meanwhile the Turkic tribes were settled on

the borderlands (uç) to organize raids against the
Byzantine Empire. The tribal leaders on the borders
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served as overlords or marcher lords (uç emîri) and
vassal lords (beg) and were in charge of defending What might be the relation
the borders (İnalcık, 1978, p.104). Ertuğrul Ghazi between Modern Turkey and
was one of these overlords with two small districts the Ottoman Empire?
namely Söğüt and Domaniç around of important
fort city Dorylaion -present day Eskişehir. This
region was given to him in the marches of Western Ottoman Territorial Expansion
Anatolia on the border of the Byzantine province (1300 and 1550)
of Bithynia-north west Anatolia.
The Ottoman Principality was established
The Anatolian Seljuk State lost its power in in northwestern Anatolia in the early thirteenth
Anatolia after it was defeated by the Mongolian century by Osman Ghazi who began to expand
İlhanid State in the Battle of Kösedağ on July its borders. He, with an army composed of
3, 1243. The Turkish tribes loyal to the Seljuks Turkish tribes, easily raided the regions under
became tribute-paying vassals of the Mongolians. the Byzantine rule. He captured two Byzantine
However, heavy taxes levied by the Mongols and strategic forts of Eskişehir and Karacahisar in
their raids forced the Turkic tribes to migrate to 1288. These fort cities provided Osman Ghazi
the west and northern parts of Anatolia after 1250. conditions to move further west to expand into
This migration began to Turkify the Byzantine territories closer to Constantinople. By 1299
territories step by step. Osman Ghazi was able to control the Kocaeli
Peninsula -Mesothynia. He divided the lands he
conquered between his sons as yurtluk -fief- and
Mongolians were a Central Asian tribal he, himself, settled in Yenişehir (Melangeia).
people well-known through their leader Yenişehir provided him with the control of the
Genghis (Cengiz) Khan (1162–1227). roads to the Byzantine capital, Constantinople.
He used Yenişehir as an important assembly
center for his military operations so as to direct
Meanwhile, the Kayı tribe under Ertuğrul his campaigns against the Byzantine Empire.
Ghazi moved to the northwestern Anatolia by Both the Turkish tribes and the independent or
forcing the borders of the Byzantine province semi-independent minor Christian rulers who
of Bithynia. Upon his death in c.1280, his son served as local Byzantine governors in Asia Minor
Osman I -Europeans called him Othman- (r. c.1280- but rivals to the ruling Byzantine Emperor were
1324) became the ruler of the tribe. Meanwhile, tempted with the Ottoman expansion into the
the Anatolian Seljuk State was weakened by the Byzantine territories. Osman Ghazi formed
Mongolian raids after 1261 and came to an end alliances with these Christian governors first
in 1300. Many Turkish tribes who once served as and later made them Ottoman vassals. With
the overlords of this state established their own their support, Osman Ghazi tried to lay siege to
independent political entities as principalities the of city of İznik (Nicaea) in 1301. Although
(beylik or Emirlik) in the West, Central and South he defeated the Byzantine Army at Baphaeon
Anatolia. Some of these were Karesi, Saruhan, -present day Koyunhisarı- close to İznik, he could
Aydın, Menteşe, Germiyan and Ottoman. The not break down the defenses of the city. At the
Ottoman Principality founded by Osman I, also time of Osman Ghazi’s death c.1324, the borders
known as Osman Ghazi, was named after him of Ottoman principality had reached the borders
as he was the founder. The Ottoman Principality of Nicaea (İznik). His successor, Orhan Ghazi
became far more superior over the other Turkish (r.1324-1362) continued to expand the borders
principalities as well as the Byzantine Empire in the westward starting with the important Byzantine
following periods. city of Prousas (Bursa) which he conquered on
April 6, 1326.
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Figure 1.2 Anatolia: Expansion of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1699

Source: https://www.britannica.com/place/Anatolia/images-videos
Orhan Ghazi made Bursa the capital of the principality which also marked the birth of the Ottoman
Empire with urban life style, state institutions, administrative system and a regular army. Orhan Ghazi also
issued an “imperial cipher, known as the tughra, a term derived from those used for the seal of the Oghuz
khans… and coins in his own name, employed slaves and eunuchs, found charitable endowments, and
issued written documents in Persian.” (Findley, 2005, p.111).
Orhan Gazi - Akçe ND/NM
Figure 1.3 Coins issued by Orhan Ghazi named Akçe Figure 1.4 The first known insignia of a ruler belonged
Source: Gazihttps://osmanli-devleti1299.tr.gg/orhan- to Orhan
gazi.htm Source: http://www.osmanli700.gen.tr/album/tugra02.
html
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Murat I (1362-89) took over the rule of the

Ottomans after his father Orhan Ghazi. He, like
The conquest of Bursa marked marked the
his father, also maintained an expansionist policy.
beginning of the Ottoman power as an empire,
He established the Ottoman rule in Anatolia by
which began to be called as the Ottoman Empire
taking other Turkish principalities under Ottoman
with the name of its founder, Othman (Osman).
control. At the same time he benefitted from the
dynastic quarrels in the Byzantine Empire and
During the reign of Orhan Ghazi, the rivalries among the Christian principalities in the
borders were expanded westward and eastward in Balkans. He blocked the connection between the
Anatolia. He was able to conquer Nicaea (İznik) Byzantine Empire and the Balkans by conquering
in 1331 and Nicomedia (İzmit) in 1337. He significant locations in Thrace and southern
expanded the Ottoman borders up to Khrisopolis Bulgaria. He conquered Adrianople (Edirne), a
(Üsküdar) after destroying Byzantine defensive strong foothold in Thrace in 1362. His success
lines just before Constantinople. Moreover, and conquests disturbed the Christian Kingdoms
Orhan Ghazi established Ottoman rule in the the Serbian Bosnian and Wallachian Principalities,
Marmara region around Balcea (Balıkesir) region Hungarian and Bulgarian Kingdoms. They
that was ruled by Turkic Karesi Beylik in 1345. attacked the Ottomans with their combined force
Orhan Ghazi continued with the Ottoman raids in order to put an end to the Ottoman expansion
in the northwest of Sea of Marmara and captured into Europe. This attack would be the First
Gallipoli. Gallipoli gave him the opportunity to Crusade against the Ottomans. Murat I confronted
control the Dardanelles. This was the first time the army of the Christian dynasties at Sırpsındığı
that the Ottomans established a strong hold and -present day Sarayakpınar, a village west of Edirne
permanent residence in Europe. near the banks of Maritsa river -Meriç. Battle of
Orhan’s increasing power pulled him into Sırpsındığı -otherwise called Battle of Maritza-
the Byzantine dynastic dispute between John with the Ottoman superiority in 1364. This victory
VI Cantacuzenus and John V Palaeogus over brought an end to the Hungarian superiority in
the imperial throne of the Byzantine Empire. the Balkans. It was the Ottomans who had control
Cantacuzenus asked Orhan Ghazi to help him of Thrace. As a result Murat I made Adrianople
ascend the throne. In return Orhan Ghazi married (Edirne) the second capital of the Ottoman State in
his daughter Theodara -Nilüfer Hatun in 1341 1367 so as to be close to the battlefields in Europe.
(Findley, 2005, pp. 9-10). This marriage was a first
for the Ottomans but was not to be the last since
Orhan’s successors continued using intermarriage Edirne was the second capital of the Ottoman
policies to secure the alliance of the Byzantines Empire chosen by Murat I.
against their rival Turkic principalities in Anatolia.
Meanwhile, he had organized eastward raids and
conquered Ankara, a city in Central Anatolia from Ottoman Rule in the Balkans and
the İlhanids, a Mongol dynasty based in Iran, in in Anatolia
1356. Orhan Ghazi’s last success was to have the The Ottoman victory at Sırpsındığı (Battle of
control of Rodosto/Tekirdağ -Ottomans called it Maritza) enabled the Ottomans to establish their
Rodosçuk and later Tekfurdağı- in 1357 and this rule in the Balkans. One of the first operation was
provided the Ottoman Army natural passage to be to make Bulgaria Ottoman vassal state in 1369. In
used by Orhan’s successors to expand further into the following years Murat I and his successors had to
southeast Europe. confront the continuous attacks from the Christian
dynasties especially the Serbian Principality in the
Balkans. The Serbians tried to throw the Ottomans
Orhan Ghazi made wise decisions to establish
off the Balkans by attacking the Ottoman Army
and extend the Ottoman rule in Anatolia.
at Çirmen -Chernomen, present day Ormenio
in Bulgaria- on September 26, 1371 but they
were defeated. Murat I with this success made the
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Serbians accept the Ottoman suzerainty in 1374. He a feared and formidable war machine that turned
was also successful in taking control of Macedonia the Ottoman principality into a world empire
after conquering Plovdiv (Filibe) in 1382. In from the fourteenth to the seventeenth century.
acknowledgment of his successes, he was given Furthermore, these forces were the first standing
the titles of Hüdavendigâr and of Sultan. The term army in Europe. Their exploits were much noted
Sultan was used for an Ottoman ruler for the first especially under the sultans, Bayezid I, Mehmet
time by Murat I and his successors continued to use II (Fatih - the Conqueror), Selim I (Yavuz - the
this title to designate an Ottoman ruler or king. Grim) and Süleyman (Suleiman) I (Kanunî - the
Law Giver) who fought alongside with them.
Murat I was the first Ottoman ruler honored

as Sultan. He was called Hüdavendigâr (Hüda The Janissary Corps were an élite military
means creator of the world) used in place of force and the core of the Ottoman central
sultan as well. army developed by Murat I. Their loyalty was
to the Sultan and they were his household
forces.
Murat I was not only trying to conquer regions
in Thrace but he also concentrated his efforts in
Anatolia. He first captured Tokat from the Eretna Bayezid I (r.1389-1402) byname Yıldırım
State in 1360 and cultivated ties with the Turkish -the Thunderbolt- ascended to the throne after
principalities of Germiyan, Teke, and Hamid his father Murad I was killed in the battlefield.
in south Anatolia through wars, marriages, and He was a great warrior and earned his nickname
purchases. Meanwhile, another rival Turkish during a battle against the Karamanids of Anatolia.
principality, Karamanoğulları, provoked these During his reign he continued Ottoman expansion
principalities against the Ottomans and their joint in Europe by crossing the Danube and attaching
army attacked the Ottomans. However, they were Wallachia. He blocked the Hungarian advance
defeated at Konya in 1386. Then, Murat I had in Walachia and Bulgaria. Bayezid I laid siege to
to return to the Balkans to confront a coalition Constantinople in 1394 which lasted until 1401.
of Serbian, Bulgarian and Croatian forces. His Previously, he had Anadoluhisarı fortress build
Ottoman army defeated them at Kosovo, the First on the Asian shores of Bosphorus as part of his
Battle of Kosovo, in 1389 and gained full control of preparations for the siege. At the request for help
the Balkans. But this war at the same time brought of the Byzantine Emperor a new crusade was
his death. Murad I was killed by a Serbian soldier organized composed of Hungarians-Germans
on the battlefield when he was walking around the and the French to stop Bayezid I. Nevertheless,
wounded. this force was defeated at the Battle of Nicopolis
Murat I left behind the title of Sultan to the (Niğibolu) in 1396. Following his victory, Bayezid
next generations of Ottoman rulers and a new I could move further into Europe.
type of army called the Janissary Corps (Yeniçeri
Ordusu). Janissary Corps was first introduced by his
predecessor Orhan Ghazi. This army was composed Bayezid I is also the first Ottoman sultan
of soldiers through a devşirme system -conscription who put siege to Constantinople.
of non-Muslims. This system entailed recruitment
of Christian male children who would then be
trained as individuals loyal to the sultan. This system While Bayezid I was fighting the crusades
of recruitment from Christians was preferred since and continuing his campaigns in the Balkans,
the members of Turkic tribes were only loyal to their the Turkish-Muslim emirates of Anatolia started
own tribal leaders. The Ottoman rulers preferred to resist and fight the Ottoman power. Bayezid I
to have their own loyal armies especially when eliminated them to establish Ottoman suzerainty
they were expanding the borders at the expense in most of Anatolia. However, Ottoman territorial
of the Turkish principalities. The Janissaries were expansion brought Bayezid I into direct conflict
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with Turco-Mongol conqueror Tamerlane (Timur) internal struggle, the King of Hungary, the Pope,
leader of the Timurid dynasty. When Timur Byzantine and Venice wanted to take advantage of
provoked Turkish emirates against the Ottomans, the situation and managed to organize a crusader
Bayezid I waged a campaign against them and this army. When this army started to march towards
resulted in a battle in Çubuk near Ankara on July Edirne and sieged Varna, the former sultan was
1402. Bayezid I was defeated and was taken as a called back to duty to defend the Ottoman lands.
captive. He died in captivity, some say he poisoned Mehmet II left the reign back to his father until
himself. 1451 when he ascended the throne the second time
Death of Bayezid I and the Ottoman defeat at at the age of nineteen.
Çubuk left a vacuum in the Ottoman throne. The When he came to the throne Mehmet I
ten year period called “Reign of Interregnum” (Fetret immediately started his plans for the conquest
Devri, or Devr-i Şehzadegan) was caused when the of Constantinople. He reorganized his army and
sons of Bayezid I started an ongoing dynastic quarrel strengthened his military power by building a fleet
from 1403 until 1413. This chaos was finally ended of galleys to have advantage in the seas. He also had
by Mehmet I, by name Çelebi (r.1413-1421) one of a fortress built in Boğazkesen (now called Rumeli
the sons of Bayezid I. Mehmet I was instrumental in Hisarı) across the fortress built by Bayezid I to
uniting the Ottoman forces after the retreat of the control the supply line to Constantinople. He also
Timurids from Anatolia. He was able to reinstate had cannons built by a Hungarian master Urban
the Ottoman Empire. in a caliber that has never been seen before in
Europe. He also signed peace treaties with Venice
and Hungary so as to keep them neutral during his
Timurids were a Persianate Turco-Mongol campaign against the Byzantine capital.
empire ruled by Tamerlane (Timur) who The siege of Constantinople lasted from April 6
claimed suzerainty over the Anatolian to May 29 in 1453. This was an arduous task for the
Turkmen rulers. army since the fortress protecting the city proved
difficult to penetrate. However, a breech opened by
his huge cannons and the final assault began. On
The Conquest of Constantinople May 29, 1453 Constantinople was conquered. The
(Istanbul) and its Aftermath young sultan entered the city a day later.
The Ottoman state turned into a world power Mehmet II, after entering Constantinople
especially after the conquest of Constantinople in established Ottoman rule and revived the city.
1453 by Sultan Mehmet II. He ruled the empire He did not change the name of the city and for a
twice during the years of 1444-1446 and 1451- long time the name of the city was Konstantiniye.
1481. The throne of the sultanate changed between He encouraged the return of the Greeks and the
him and his father Murat II (1421-1444 and 1446- Genoese of Galata (the trading quarter of the city)
1451). During the reign of Murat II, Ottoman and promised that/he would give their houses
territorial expansion reached İzmir (Smyrna) in back to them and guaranteed their safety. He
western Anatolia and Serbia by1439. He was able to followed a tolerant policy towards non-Muslims
reaffirm Ottoman control in Western Anatolia and and established the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate,
in the Balkans. Murat II before handing the rule a Jewish grand rabbi and an Armenian patriarch to
over to his son Mehmet II also defeated a coalition serve the non-Muslims in the city. He also founded
of the Christians under the Hungarian commander Muslim institutions. The conquered nations under
Janosh (Janos) Hunyadi on 10 November 1444. the Ottomans could observe their own faith,
Murat II set his son Mehmet II on the throne use their own language, and follow their own
and abdicated in 1444. Mehmet who was only customs. The Ottoman tolerance toward religions
12 years old had to face many problems during and customs of the defeated nations became
his first reign of two years. The powerful grand main Ottoman state policy. He created a center
vizier Çandarlı Halil and the viziers Zagonos and of tolerance in every aspect of daily life. These
Şihabettin Pashas were in constant rivalry claiming practices turned Constantinople into a metropolis.
to protect the child sultan. In addition to the Mehmet II spent his time to rebuild the city and
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created himself a capital worthy of his conquest.

In a short period, population increased and the
economy thrived. Fifty years after the conquest,
Constantinople became the largest city in Europe.
The conquest had important results not for the
Ottomans but also for the world. The conquest
ended the Middle Ages (476-1453) and started
a new age called the early Modern Ages. The
scientists who escaped from Constantinople to
Italy contributed to the birth of Renaissance.
Figure 1.6 Insignia of Mehmet II

Source: http://www.osmanli700.gen.tr/album/tugra07.
Starting from 1453 Istanbul stayed as the html
third and the last capital of the Ottomans.
The conquest of Constantinople was a turning
point in the Ottoman history but it did not stop
important
the Ottoman expansion. The Sultan Mehmet II
conquered the Empire of Trabzon (Trebizond
It was the conquest of Istanbul that Mehmet II earned in Black Sea coast) in 1461 and all territories of
the title Fatih (the Conqueror) and he assumed the the Karaman Principality (Beylik) in 1468. His
title of Caesar of Rum/Kayser-i Rum (Roman Caesar). conquests also continued in the northern Black
Mehmet II could speak several languages and read Sea region via the Ottoman navy by capturing the
about Western civilization and thinkers. He compiled Genoese colonies in Crimea in 1475 and the coasts
a library consisting of works in Greek and Latin. He up to Azov and Anapa in 1478. Reaching up to
was truly what the Westerns call a Renaissance man. Crimea was the success of the Ottoman Fleet when
He had his portrait done by Gentile Bellini. He had the empire was not a naval power and Crimean
constructed learning centers around his grand mosque Khanate accepted Ottoman over lordship (Finkel,
that became the centers of scientific research. He also 2005, p.68). His military success and the conquest
invited Islamic scholar to teach and do research in of Constantinople clearly marked the domination
these centers. of the Ottoman over Anatolia and the Balkans.
Sultan Selim I and Ottoman

Expansion towards the East and
the South
The conquest of Constantinople contributed
much the Ottoman prestige and rise. However,
they did not have the full control of Anatolia. This
was made possible by Sultan Selim I (the Grim-
r.1512-1520) grandson to Mehmet II. Selim’s
victory against Shah İsmail, the ruler of Azerbaijan
in Western Persia and Iraq at the Battle of Çaldıran
(near Lake Van) in 1514 resulted in the conquest of
Diyarbakır and annexation of the Eastern Anatolia
in 1516. Selim’s success against Shah İsmail led the
way not only to Syria but also to Egypt Memluks
Figure 1.5 Mehmet II, portrait by Gentile Bellini who were the rulers of Egypt at the time. The
Mamluks who were originally Turkish slaves served
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
in the Abbasid Armies and later took the rule in
File:Sultan_Mehmet_II.jpg
Egypt by defeating the Umayyads. They were also
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the heirs to the caliphs (spiritual leader of Islam) of the Ottomans to capture this city. Although he
of Islam after 1261. Selim I defeated the Mamluks could not conquer Vienna, the siege was enough to
first at Marj Dabık (Mercidabık) on August 24, threaten the European powers.
1516. The conquest of Syria and Egypt was made
possible after the Ottomans defeated the Mamluks
for a second time at the Battle of Ridaniya on
January 22, 1517 near Cairo. Selim I not only
conquered Egypt and ended the Memluk dynasty
but the seat of the caliph also passed on to the
Ottoman Sultans.
important
After he defeated Mamluks in 1517, Selim I became the

first Ottoman caliph. The Sharif of Mecca submitted
to Ottoman authority and Selim’s name was read in
mosques as the Caliph (means spiritual leader of Islam
and successor to Prophet Mohammed) of Moslems.
This ceremony announced him as the ruler of Islam
and the ruler of the two holy sanctuaries-cities of
Mecca and Medina. Moreover, the conquest of Syria
and Egypt enabled the Ottomans further control over
the Arab lands.
Figure 1.7 Depiction of Mohacs Battle
Source: http://www.bleublancturc.com/Turqueries/
The conquest of Egypt eased the conquest images-turqueries/janissaires/turc-Mohac-40-30.jpg
of North Africa for the Ottomans in the south.
During the reign of Selim I, Algiers joined the
Ottoman Empire in 1516 with the help of Uruç, During Süleyman I’s reign Ottoman supremacy
a former pirate serving as military commander in the Mediterranean Sea was unsurpassed and
under the Hafsids, a Sunni Muslim dynasty of his kapudan (admiral) Barbaros Hayreddin was
Berber descent in Algiers. After Uruç was killed in instrumental in this supremacy. Barbaros defeated
1518, his brother Hayreddin known in the West as the combined naval forces of Venice and Spain
Barbarossa, succeeded him as military commander at Preveza (Greece) in 1538 and this enabled
of Algiers. The Ottoman sultan gave him the title the the Ottoman control of the whole of the
of beylerbey (provincial governor) and well-armed Mediterranean Sea.
Janissary units to control the coastal region in North
Africa for the empire. Furthermore, Hayreddin was
appointed the commander chief of the Ottoman
Fleet- Kapudan-Derya (Admiral).
Süleyman I (Kanunî-the Law giver-r.1520-1566),
the longest reigning sovereign on Ottoman throne
took over the empire after his father’s death. The
Ottoman territorial expansion reached its peak
during the reign of Sultan Süleyman I in the
sixteenth century. He conquered Belgrade in 1521
and Rhodes in 1522. Hungary became a vassal
Figure 1.8 Depiction of the Preveza Sea Battle
after he defeated the Hungarians at the Battle of
Moh’acs in 1526 and annexed Hungary in 1541. Source: https://subratachak.wordpress.com/2016/03/07/
Süleyman I sieged Vienna the capital city of Holy the-ottoman-habsburg-struggle-and-western-european-
Roman Empire in 1529 marking the first attempt expansion/
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Süleyman’s campaigns were not only routed to

the West but also to the East. Süleyman I waged
three major campaigns in the east, all were against
2
the Safavids in Iran. In these campaigns Süleyman I
What might be the basic
established the Ottoman rule in eastern Anatolia and
Ottoman conquests that
also captured Baghdad from the Safavids in 1534.
contributed to the territorial
The conquest of Baghdad strengthened Ottoman’s
expansion of the Ottoman
hold in Arabian Peninsula. Although a peace
Empire?
treaty was signed between the Ottoman and the
Safavids in 1555 this did not end the rivalry which
continued in the following years.
Sultan Süleyman died in 1566 when he was The Ottoman Navy
commanding the siege of Szigetvar. His death was The Ottoman Empire was not a naval power until
kept a secret from the army to ensure success. Even the mid-15th century though she used the seas as a
though his body was brought to Istanbul some of line of defense. The Ottoman Sultans built dockyards
his remains (his heart) were buried near the battle when they began to control the coastline on the Sea
the battle ground which is today known as Üzüm of Marmara. The ship building yard built in Gallipoli
Tepesi in Hungary. (Gelibolu) built in the 1390s was followed by the
others on the other coasts. The Ottoman rulers also
used the dockyards previously owned by the Turkish
principalities located in the Aegean coast as well.
However, although the Ottomans had to defend
themselves against the Venetians in the early days,
Ottoman expansion in the coastal waters at the
expense of Venetians and Genoese enabled her to
develop her navy (Finkel, 2005, p.68). The conquest
of Constantinople was the first success of the
Ottoman Fleet composed of galleys. They entered the
city from the west in the Golden Horn away from the
Byzantine forces and behind the massive chain laid
over the Bosphorus. Mehmet II used logs as rollers to
carry the galleys on the landmass.
Figure 1.9 Sultan Süleyman I (Kanuni (Law giver) or
Following the conquest of Constantinople, the
Suleiman the Magnificent as Europeans named him.
Ottoman Fleet captured the Morea Venetian islands
in 1459. Algiers in the Maghreb -western North
Source: http://cihanhukumdari.istanbul.edu.tr/
Africa with countries Algeria, Libya, Morocco,
and Tunisia- was brought under Ottoman control
in the early 1500s. The Ottoman Fleet technically
developed during the reign of Süleyman I with
the help of Italian technicians. The Ottoman fleet
under the command of Admiral Hayreddin Pasha
took Rhodes from the Knights of St. John in 1522.
There was an unsuccessful attempt to capture
the town of Diu (India) from the Portuguese in
1538. In the same year, 1538, as mentioned earlier,
Barbaros Hayreddin Pasha defeated the combined
strong fleets of Spain, the Papal States, Venice, and
the Maltese Knights of St. John at the Battle of
Figure 1.10 Insignia of Süleyman the Law-giver Preveza (Greece) in 1538. The victory in Preveza
Source: http://www.osmanli700.gen.tr/album/tugra10. marked the Ottoman Empire becoming a naval
html power in the Mediterranean. Later, Tunis and
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Tripoli in North Africa were added to the Ottoman Empire in the early sixteenth century. Shortly after the
Ottoman fleet had to counter a strong Spanish expedition against Tripoli but the Spanish fleet was crushed
at Jarbah (Djerba) in 1560. The Ottoman fleet later captured Malta in 1565.
The ascend of the Ottomans as a sea power began to disturb the other sea powers especially when Selim
II (r.1566-1574), son of Süleyman I, continued the naval campaigns in the Mediterranean and conquered
the island of Cyprus 1571. The Venetians declared war on the Ottomans and they defeated the Ottoman
Fleet at the Battle of Lepanto in 1571. The defeat at Lepanto sealed the Ottoman expansion on the seas. In
the ensuing years, Ottoman fleet defended the coastal borders of the Ottoman territories instead of waging
campaigns in the Mediterranean, the Black Sea and in faraway seas.
End of Ottoman Expansion and Reinforcement of the Territories

(1550-1718)
The Ottoman expansion in Europe and in the East mainly in Caucasus and in Iran meant series of
wars with Austria in 1593 and Iran from 1578 to 1590. At the same time, the Ottoman rulers had to deal
with the internal problems that originated from the dynastic quarrels started with the intervention of the
queen mothers in the state affairs in favor of their
important
sons. These quarrels when combined with series of
Janissary rebellions in Istanbul in the late sixteenth
century caused by financial problems and their Celali revolts took place in Anatolia against the
involvement in the dynastic quarrels weakened the Ottoman rule in the sixteenth and seventeenth
Ottoman Empire. While the Janissaries were creating centuries. The first revolt broke out in 1519 under
anarchy in Istanbul, famine and financial problems the leadership of Shiite preacher, Celal. From then
also caused the Celali Rebellions in Anatolia which on, the revolts were known as Celali revolts, which
lasted from 1596 until 1609 and badly affected in fact did not mean to overthrow the sultans but to
production and security in Anatolia during the reign react to the social and financial crisis, to name a few:
of Mehmet III (r.1595–1603). Debasement of coinage, heavy taxation, decline in
the devşirme system.
Despite the problems, the Ottoman sultans
continued campaigns and waged wars in the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries either to defend territories or to gain new lands. To give an example,
Sultan Murat III (r.1574-1595) annexed Azerbaijan after a war with Iran 1578-1590. Eastern campaigns
continued after him in the Caucasus. Erivan was besieged in 1635. Baghdad was recaptured from the
Safavids in 1638 during the reign of Sultan Murad IV (r.1623-1640). The wars with Iran ended for a while
and the border between Iran and the Ottoman Empire was clarified with the Treaty of Peace and Frontiers
(Zuhab or Qasr-e Shirin / Kasr-ı Şirin Treaty) signed on May 17, 1639.
Westward campaigns also continued and Poland was invaded in 1621 by Osman II (r.1618-1622).
Another important development was the conquest of Crete after the war with the Venetians between 1645
and 1669. However, the political turmoil at the Ottoman court created anarchy and the Janissaries with
the provocation of the dynasty members rebelled once again in 1649-1651 and this ended up with the
deposition and assassination of Sultan İbrahim (r.1640-1648) in 1648. The Venetians tried to benefit from
this turmoil and blockaded the Dardanelles from 1646 to
1657 to prevent the operations of the Ottoman fleet and to
cut off “the delivery of foodstuffs to capital city...” (Sutton, From a village in Albania, Köprülü Mehmet
1991, p.139). This blockade was broken in 1657 by the Pasha was one of the most noted and
new sultan Mehmet IV (r.1648-1687) and all disorders in powerful grand viziers. He served as grand
the empire ended after Köprülü Mehmet Pasha became the vizier from 1656 to 1661. He was able to
Grand Vizier in 1656. During his long reign his long reign restore the central authority under Sultan
Mehmet IV also annexed Kaminiec and Podolia in Poland Mehmet IV. After his death, other members
between 1672 and 1676. This expansion in northeast of Köprülü family became grand viziers in
Europe encouraged him and the Ottoman Army to lay the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
siege to Vienna for a second time in 1683.
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The second siege of Vienna in 1683 marked the lacked in training and military technology and had
extent of Ottoman expansion in Europe. A coalition little chance against armies with more advanced
formed by the European Kingdoms (later the Holy arms and new military tactics. As a result, defeat
League) and the Polish Army came to help Austria. became inevitable for the army at the Second Battle
They defeated the Ottoman Army and the second of Moh’acs in 1687 when Imperial Russia also
siege of Vienna failed. The failure in Vienna caused joined the Holy League and attacked the Ottomans.
resignation and stagnation in the empire and the The Ottoman defeat caused the Janissary rebellions
Ottoman sultans mainly gave up ghaza tradition in Istanbul and the deposition of the Mehmet IV
and retired to their palace in Istanbul. Dynastic from the throne in 1687.
struggles for the throne continued and central
authority weakened when there were no charismatic
sultans on the throne. Janissaries were no longer the The second siege of Vienna in 1683 marked
fear of Europe and they could not stand against the the extent of Ottoman expansion in Europe.
coalition armies of European kingdoms. Janissaries
Figure 1.11 The Ottoman Territorial Expansion

Source: http://mapsof.net/ottoman-empire/the-ottoman-empire-in-1481
A Stalemate: The Treaty of Karlowitz

Deposing the sultans and ascending new ones became a policy in the Ottoman Empire especially
following defeats. The problems the Empire had were further fuelled with financial problems. Europe
took advantage of the weakened state of the Ottomans and continued its campaigns. The heaviest of these
attacks came at the Battle of Zenta in September 1697. The Austrian armies under the command of French
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1
Commander Prince Eugene of Savoy in Hungary The Venetian threat to the Ottoman holds
attacked and defeated the Ottoman forces. The in Morea and in the Greek Peninsula in 1714
new Sultan Mustafa II (r.1695-1703) inevitably caused war between them for the last time in
had to negotiate with European powers and sign 1716. Although Venice was defeated and the
the Treaty of Carlowitz (Karlowitz) on January 26, Ottomans gained control of the Greek Peninsula
1699. Namely the first treaty that the Ottoman and Morea, Venice took over the Ionian Islands
Sultans had signed as a defeated power. They and some regions in Dalmatia. Meanwhile Austria
were no more “the Ruler of two continents and continued its attacks and forced the Ottomans to
two seas” but had to accept equal status with the sign the Treaty of Passarowitz on July 21, 1718.
enemy. Although this treaty ended the hostilities The Ottoman Empire with this treaty, though
between the Ottoman Empire and the Holy League secured a 24-years of peace with Austria, ceded
(Austria, Poland, Venice, and Imperial Russia) for Banat of Temesvár (Hungary), Little Walachia
a while, Transylvania and much of Hungary were (today Oltenia in Romania), and Belgrade with
given to Austria. Thus the Ottoman influence in some regions in northern Serbia in the Balkans to
the eastern and central Europe ended while Austria Austria. This treaty signaled the end of Ottoman
gained a dominant position. westward expansion.
important
The Treaty of Carlowitz (Karlowitz) was

signed on January 26 1699. It was the first The reign of Ahmet III was also known as the Tulip
treaty that the Ottomans signed as a defeated Age (Lale Devri) due to the popularity of tulips and
power. flowers in Istanbul in the early eighteenth century.
Tulips became a major theme in arts and folklore and
the daily life. Embroidery, carpets, miniatures had
Actually, the Ottoman Empire could not revive become the theme and large tulip gardens became
after the Treaty of Karlowitz. Financing wars and very popular. There was luxurious expenditure in the
territory loses caused administrative, financial palace, such as having tulip gardens, dissipation of
and social crisis in the empire. The Janissaries the Çırağan Palace and halva conversations, which
and the leading statesmen became dominant in started with the Grand Vizier Nevşehirli Damat
the administration and they deposed Mustafa İbrahim Pasha. He was also one of the pioneers also
II in 1703. This deposition was the first in the of the innovations like printing house and industrial
eighteenth century to be followed with more investments during the Tulip Age starting in 1718.
similar actions. The power of the grand viziers and Please note that even though tulips are made popular
viziers and the Janissaries in the capital city and by Holland, in reality the plant is a native of Central
Ayans (local notables) in the provinces increased. Asia and Asia Minor. It was the Ottomans who have
In the eighteenth century, it became very difficult given the first tulip bulb to Holland as a gift in the
for the sultans to cope with all of internal problems 16th century.
and external threats- the Russian, Venetian,
Austrian and Iranians- all at the same time. To give
an example, Ahmet III (r.1703-1730) who came to THE TERRITORIAL
throne after Mustafa II had to cope with the internal DISSOLUTION OF THE
crisis on one side and with Russia and Venice on OTTOMAN EMPIRE (1718-1800)
the other in the early years of his reign. The Battle
of Pruth with Russia in 1710 was the beginning of The territorial losses in Europe stimulated the
the wars with Russia since her expansionist policy Ottoman Rulers to reconsider their politics and
in the Balkans and in Caucasus at the expense of they began to search for solutions to regain power.
the Ottoman Empire caused many battles and wars The main question was “how to save the empire?”
in the ensuring years. They sought to solve the problems by following
Europe in terms of its military technology. The
sultans went on and introduced reform programs.
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1
All these were the beginning of a new stage in the the artisans who had similar expectations from a
history of the Ottoman Empire. possible campaign (Shaw and Shaw, 1997, p. 240).
First attempt at reforms came after the Treaty Economic problems originating from the
of Passarowitz (1718), with the initiative taken by luxurious expenditures of the palace circles and
the Grand Vizier Damat İbrahim Pasha who served conservatives’ criticism of the adaptation of the
Sultan Ahmet III. The Grand Vizier believed that Frankish customs were some of the causes of
developing diplomatic relations with Europe The Patrona Halil Revolt. Hundreds of civilians
would help the Ottomans to recover. Therefore, and soldiers, and the ulemâ (the men of religion)
he established relations with the European participated in this upraising. They demanded the
ambassadors in Istanbul This was done for the heads of the Grand Vizier Damat İbrahim Pasha
first time in the empire. Then Ottoman envoys and his associates. Sultan Ahmet III was forced
were sent to major European capitals to sign to accept their demands and dismissed the Grand
diplomatic and trade agreements and to secure Vizier and his associates and later executed them.
information about European diplomacy and None of his efforts could stop the rebels. Ahmed
military power. These marked the turning point in III abdicated in favor of his nephew Mahmut I
the Ottoman diplomacy and the Ottoman rulers (r.1730-54). The rebels burned the palaces of the
developed relations with the European states in wealthy, killed many, and created “a mass terror
the following years. These relations followed by a almost unequaled in the Ottoman history” (Shaw
cultural interaction between Ottoman Empire and and Shaw, 1997, p. 240).
European countries. An Ottoman special envoy
was sent to Vienna in order to develop relations in
1719 though this expedition did not bring any gain. Patrona Halil Revolt that took place in 1730
The second envoy sent to Paris in 1720 was led by marked the end of the so-called Tulip Age.
Yirmisekiz Çelebizade Mehmet Efendi. He spent a
year in Paris with his associates and came back with
information about France. In the following years The new Sultan Mahmut I spent the first
Nişli (means from Nish) Mehmet Agha was sent to months of his reign to eliminate the rebels. He
Moscow in 1722, Mustafa Efendi went to Vienna was advised by Comte de Bonneval (Humbaracı
in 1730, and Mehmet Efendi was sent to Poland in Ahmed Pasha, a French convert to Islam), to initiate
1730. All reported to the Grand Vizier about the partial reforms in the Ottoman army. His efforts
countries that they visited (Shaw and Shaw, 1997, constituted a transition from a standing army
p.233). These visits laid the ground of establishing to a state commissioned militia. He also started
permanent Ottoman embassies in major European military schools for training the army. Bonneval’s
capitals at the beginning of the nineteenth century. advice was important because Mahmut I had to
Ottomans also sent envoys to Iran to solve their deal with Iran, Russia and Austria at the same
differences. Nevertheless, these attempts did not time. The internal struggles of Iran finally brought
end the problems. Imperial Russia’s intervention a stalemate between the Ottomans and Iran. The
between these two states further complicated treaty that was signed between the two confirmed
the matters. There were a series of battles where the borders and the conditions of previously signed
cities changed hands between Ottoman, Iran and Zuhab (Kasr-ı Şirin) treaty.
Imperial Russia. When it became inevitable grand On the Western front the Ottomans had to
vizier Nevşehirli Damat İbrahim encouraged the deal with Russia and Austria while these two major
reigning sultan Ahmet III to campaign against Iran. players also had their own conflict of interest.
When the sultan showed reluctance and preference Russia wanted dominance in the Balkans, so did
for a diplomatic solution the Janissaries who wanted Austria. Nevertheless, the Ottomans had to find
to gain much from this campaign revolted headed alliances from Europe to deal with these major
by Patrona Halil who was originally from Albania powers and thus cooperated with Sweden against
on September 28, 1730. They were also backed by Russia in 1740 and extended French capitulations
16
1
to secure French help against Russia and Austria. In the borders that were agreed upon at Carlowitz
fact, the Ottoman-Swedish alliance and extension were secured. However, the Ottoman sultans later
of French capitulations were the practice of the had to deal with the complicated and ever changing
new Ottoman diplomacy to keep the territorial alliances that were formed between western powers
integrity of the Ottoman Empire. and between the Ottomans and western powers.
It was difficult to keep the Russians at bay when There were constant struggles and wars which
Russia’s intervention in Poland caused war with wore down the Empire in military,
the Ottoman Empire in 1768 during the reign of economic and diplomatic sense. This
Mustafa III (r.1757-1774). This war continued in the end would lead to the formation
with intervals until 1792. Meanwhile, the Russian of a new country.
Fleet sent to Morea to provoke the Greeks against
the Ottoman Empire could not accomplish
its goal. However, it became stationary in the
Aegean Sea. This fleet attacked and destroyed the 3
Ottoman fleet at the harbor of Çeşme on July 6-7, What might be the reasons
1770. This battle was the second heaviest defeat that weakened the Ottoman
for the Ottoman fleet. Starting with this attack power?
the Russian Czaritza Catherine II (r.1729-1796)
wanted to materialize Peter the Great’s dream to
moving into warm waters. She sent the Russian Ottoman Political Structure
armies to the Caucasus and captured Crimea in The Ottoman political structure was shaped
1771 and occupied the territories up to Ahıska from a tribe into a principality then to an empire
(present day Georgia). Moldovia and Walachia starting with Osman Ghazi (Osman I). Including
were also occupied by Russia. A pro-Russian Osman I, 35 sultans ruled the Ottoman Empire.
khan was installed on the Crimean throne. The The Ottoman Empire was a patrimonial state
Ottomans could not prevent the Russian advance ruled by the Turkish-Ottoman dynasty. Bursa and
in the northern Black Sea region and in the Edirne served as capital cities of the Empire until
Caucasus. The Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca signed on Constantinople was conquered in 1453.
21 July 1774 was the final of 1768-1774 Ottoman-
The language spoken in the court was Turkish.
Russian Wars. This treaty ended Ottoman control
However, Arabic and Persian words later came to
in the northern Black Sea region. According to the
dominate the official correspondences and a new
terms of the treaty, the Crimean Khanate became
court language - but still Turkish - developed. This
independent and Russia became the protector
was called the Ottoman Turkish (Osmanlı Türkçesi)
of the sultan’s Orthodox Christian subjects with
a mixture of Turkish, Arabic and Persian written in
special rights in Wallachia and Moldavia. Russia
the Arabic script. This language became dominant
also secured commercial privileges for Russian
in the Ottoman bureaucracy and literature while
merchants in the Ottoman waters as well as
the common people in the Empire used simple
the right to appoint consular agents inside the
Turkish or their mother languages. The Ottoman
Ottoman Empire. Russia benefitted much from the
rulers were called Bey or Gazi until the reign of
terms of this treaty and constantly tried to expand
Murat I, with him, the title “Sultan” began to be
its territory against the Ottoman Empire under the
used. The sultans were called padishah (padişah)
pretext of protecting Orthodox Christians. Using
in the empire as well. After the conquest of
this excuse she annexed Crimea in 1783. In this
Constantinople (Istanbul), Mehmet II used the title
policy Czaritza Catherine II was not alone and
of the Caesar of Rum. He had signed the documents
she agreed on a treaty of alliance in 1781 with the
as “the lord of the two lands and the two seas” (i.e.,
Habsburg Emperor Joseph II (r. 1765-1790) for
Anatolia and the Balkans, the Aegean and the Black
a general partition of the Ottoman Empire to be
Sea) and this tradition continued until the Treaty
named later as the “Eastern Question.” With this
of Karlowitz. These titles signaled the Ottoman
treaty, Austria left Belgrade to the Ottomans and
dominance in South East Europe and the Balkans,
17
1
in the Northern Black Sea, in North Africa and some Mediterranean regions. Meanwhile, after Selim I had
taken the two Holy Sanctuaries of Mecca and Medina in 1517, the title “Caliph” was adopted and used
along with the title sultan. These titles and signatures were the sign of the Ottoman Empire being a world
power. When the Ottoman Empire was on the rise her counterparts were the Safavids and the Mughals
in the East and the Byzantine Empire, the Habsburg Dynasty, the Kingdom of France and the Spanish
Kingdom in the West. What differentiated the Ottomans from the others were its political structure,
military power as well as her administrative policy that kept these territories under control for a long time.
Figure 1.12 Ottoman Empire and the contemporary states

Source: http://www.iranpoliticsclub.net/maps/maps09/index.htm
The Ottoman rulers developed a complex the sultan was on top of the hierarchy. In the
ruling system based on their tribal organization periods between 1453 and the sixteenth century
and tradition in the early days of the empire. the sultans ruled as true sovereigns. Mehmet II
With the territorial expansion, the ruling system created the classical image of an Ottoman sultan.
was evolved into the principles of theocracy, The Ottoman sultans until the short experiences
hierarchy, centralization and tradition in time and of the constitutional monarchy in 1876 and
the state was ruled via religious laws called Sharia from 1908 to 1918, were the only leaders who
and Turkish traditional laws called Örfî (kanun). were the decision making authorities. Males in
Beside these laws from the beginning of the empire, the Ottoman dynasty were potential heirs to the
Ferman (Rescripts), Emir or Kararname (Decrees), throne and theoretically, each son had equal rights
Kanunnames (Codes), Nizamname (Regulations) to the throne. The Ottoman princes (şehzade) were
were used to establish state authority and law in the educated at the palace school, Enderun. The capable
society. devshirmes were also educated in this school along
The power of the state depended on the sultan with the princes to become state servants either in
himself. It was represented in the character of the bureaucracy or in the military. In addition to the
sultan and the Ottoman dynasty. In other words, education at Enderun, Sultan Mehmet II started a
18
1
new tradition of bringing up the princes with his The Imperial Harem
Fatih Kanunnamesi (the Laws of Sultan Mehmet The Imperial Harem (the women’s section) or
Khan) or known as Kanûnnâme-i Âl-i Osman. known as Harem-i Hümayun was the house of the
It required princes to go to sanjaks (fiefdoms) dynasty. It was an institution that had to ensure
to complete their education and to learn state the continuation of the Ottoman dynasty. It had
affairs with their tutors while administering these rigid hierarchy and enforced chastity of many
fiefdoms. However, this practice changed in the of its residents. Mother of the reigning sultan
sixteenth century and princes were rarely sent to Queen Mother (Valide Sultan) was on top of this
the sanjaks. hierarchy (Peirce, 1993, pp.126-127). Following
The Ottoman succession practices included the Queen Mother were family members: sultan’s
ideas of survival of the fittest (primus inter pares- sisters-unmarried or widowed princesses, sultan’s
first among equals) and fratricide (the killing of underage sons and daughters, royal consorts
your brother) in the early days. In the political (haseki), and concubines (girls called cariye) all
structure, generally the best trained and capable resided in the Harem (Peirce 1993:119-120, 132).
princes who befitted the throne best ascended Moreover, there were Harem servants to serve
the throne as was practiced in other Turkish members of the sultan’s family, to keep the order
states. Fratricide was implemented not only to in the Harem, to tutor, and manage the training
brothers but also to uncles or sons. In fact, killing of selected concubines for the sultan (Peirce, 1993,
members of the dynasty started with Osman pp.128, 139-140). The Ottoman sultans in general
I who came to throne by assassinating his uncle did not have a single wife and only a few sultans
Dündar. Mehmet II added fratricide to his famous officially married their consorts. One example
Fatih Kanunnamesi and in a way legalized it. This would be Süleyman I who married his royal concort
practice continued for more than a century and Hürrem- known as Roxelena in the west (Peirce,
ended in the first half of the seventeenth century. 1993, pp. 34-39, 59). The sultans did not marry
Over time, the Ottoman dynasty abandoned these mainly because they did not want ensuing fights
traditions and the succession by the oldest male of and chaos that arose from claims to the throne
the dynasty was introduced in 1617 and continued and the state property as it happened in European
until the end of the empire. The new practice dynasties. Although women were not allowed to
was called ekberiyet (primogeniture). When this rule and to deal with state affairs, royal mothers
system was well established, implementation of the competed with one another to make sure that their
“cage” (kafes) started in 1622. In this practice, the sons would ascend the throne. There were times in
younger princes were kept in a place in the palace the history of the empire when the queen mothers
away from the public gaze but under the control had to become custodians of sovereign power if the
of the reigning sultan to avoid dynastic quarrels. sultans were very young or mentally unstable to
It should be noted here that the system of the rule rule. In the seventeenth century, they governed as
of the eldest and the cage system coincided with regent for the same reasons.
the transition of power away from the palace to The regent mother queens or sultans were
the viziers and pasha households (Quataert, 2005, all powerful and intervened in the state affairs.
pp.90-93). Although males held the supreme Mostly they used the support of grand viziers or
authority, women also exercised power not only viziers and even the Janissaries. They would also
in the Imperial Harem but also in the state affairs form foundations (waqfs), or charities, sometimes
especially in the sixteenth century when the through religious sects to help the common people
charismatic rulers were in scarcity. which endeared them to the public. Most women
of power in the Harem also had mosques, soup
kitchens, hospitals and schools built in their names
Ekberiyet means the right of succession of the
both in Istanbul and the holy lands.
first born or the eldest.
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The Central and Provincial Bâb-ı Âsafi and was named later Bâb-ı Âli (Sublime
Administration Porte). Bâb-ı Âlî became the center of the Ottoman
government as it included the offices of the Grand
The Ottoman central administration with
vizier, the ministry of foreign affairs and the council
imperial institutions was developed during the
of state from the mid eighteenth century onwards
reign of Murad I. Mehmet II developed the
(Ágoston and Masters, 2009, pp.11-12).
political system and this was changed according to
the needs of the state in time. Mehmet II codified important
the traditional rules Örfî in his Fatih Kanunnamesi
and these rules were based on the discretion of the The Dîvân-ı Hümayûn, the Imperial Council, was
sultan and applicable to the state affairs and were originally a court of justice and appeals… At the
not inspired by the religious law Sharia. However, same time, the Divan acted as the supreme organ
these rules did not contradict the religious law of government and, in wartime, served as a high
Sharia (Finkel, 2005, p.78). The rules entailed state command. Until Mehmed II, the sultans personally
protocols, state and the court affairs, offenses and presided at the Divan’s meetings, which usually took
penalties, the revenues of high ranking officials, place near the gate of the sultan’s palace. Thus the terms
the annual tributes to be paid by the non-Muslim kapı or gate (of the palace) and dergâh-âlî or Sublime
states, and the titles of the members of the dynasty Porte came to denote the Ottoman government.
and state officials. This code strengthened the However, during the first 150 years of the institution,
central authority and secured state revenues to be which saw almost incessant campaigns, the Divan met
under government control. wherever the sultan was… In the absence of the sultan,
The state hierarchy was organized under the the grand vizier presided over the council.” (Ágoston
ruling sultan in the Ottoman Empire and was and Masters, 2009, pp.10-11).
represented by three major groups of the Ottoman
ruling class called askerî which included the
In the Ottoman administrative system the notion
military (men of the sword-military called Seyfiyye);
of justice was important. The laws were practiced
the state officials (men of pen-bureaucracy called
by the sultan as well as men of justice versed in the
Kalemiyye), and the royal household. The ulemâ,
religious law Sharia. The men of religion ulemâ and
men of religious sciences or religious establishment
the judges called kadı (judge) were the judiciary.
(İlmiyye), were also part of the ruling elite. At the
To add to the judiciary, the military and the
top of the ruling class was the grand vizier and he
bureaucrats represented state authority. The Judges
was the second in command after the sultan. Grand
were responsible for moral, religious and judicial
vizier was also assisted by viziers while Şeyhülislâm
affairs (Khoury, 2006, p.139). Although the Sharia
(Shaykh al-Islam), the head of religious affairs, was
courts survived until the end of the empire, secular
the head of the men of religion.
courts and laws were introduced with the Tanzîmât
The Ottoman lands were divided basically (Restructuring) reforms.
in two administrative units called Beylerbeyilik
or eyalet (first-level province) one being Rumelia
(Balkan Peninsula) and the other Anatolia. With The Army
the new conquests the provincial system was The Ottoman army was one of the important
adopted and the governors were appointed to rule features of the Ottoman Empire which contributed
these provinces. The state affairs were discussed its territorial expansion and survival for a long
at the Imperial council called Dîvân-ı Hümâyûn time. They were also responsible for establishing
(Imperial Council). The Dîvân was a kind of order in the administrative units. During the early
council composed of viziers who provided the years, Kayı tribe members formed the Ottoman
sultan information about the state affairs. The army but in time it included the members of the
other members of the Imperial Council were the other Turkish tribes who joined the Ottoman
representatives of the religious establishments, Army for ghaza- holy war. They were famous
military and bureaucracy. After the Treaty of with their use of swords and arches. Moreover,
Karlowitz, the Imperial Council lost its importance the first first Ottoman rulers cooperated with the
to the office of the grand vizier, which was known as
20
1
local Byzantine rival rulers and used these rival their drums and attacked according
Byzantines against against the Byzantine Empire. to the change in the music which was
During the reign of Orhan Ghazi, the need designed to put fear in the hearts of
for a regular army increased as the number of their enemies.
conquests increased. He established his army called Moreover, the most promising devshirmes
the Janissary with Christian boys recruited through were educated for palace service at Enderun and
a system called devshirme-devşirme system from the talented ones became statesmen and grand
the conquered lands to be trained for the infantry viziers such as Sokullu Mehmet Pasha who
and cavalry units only loyal to the sultan. These served Süleyman I was originally Polish. Many
Christian boys were converted to Islam and sent other converts became commanders, bureaucrats,
to live with Turkish families for eight years to learn architects etc., and contributed to the power and
traditions and Turkish. These devshirmes formed culture of the Ottoman Empire. Famous Ottoman
the origin of the Janissary corps (élite forces) were architect Mimar Sinan who built Süleymaniye
only loyal to the sultan and symbolized the sultan’s and Selimiye mosques and many grand works of
power and his household (Barkey, 2008, p.76). The architecture came from this very system.
Janissary Army constituted the Ottoman Army By the eighteenth century the devshirme
until the eighteenth century. They had special system was abandoned when there were no longer
training with their own principles. They were campaigns and conquests. Moreover, the Janissaries
not allowed to marry. Each corps had their own were no longer trained with new technologies and
commander. The Janissaries were trained in their weaponry available to the European armies. The
barracks and were through the state treasury. They Janissaries, also, degenerated by abandoning the
also had the right to take booty in the campaigns Janissary principles and dealing with other works
as a gift granted to them to show the appreciation other than military service. In the end the Janissaries
of the sultan for their success. became a threat to the wellbeing of the state and
the Ottoman Sultans but not to the enemies as it
was before. The Janissary Corps stayed
as main military units until they were
abolished in 1826 by Mahmut II.
OTTOMAN SOCIETY, CULTURE

AND MAKING A LIVING IN THE
OTTOMAN EMPIRE
The Society
The Turkic people formed the backbone of the
Ottoman principality in the beginning. People
from different ethnic and religious backgrounds
were included to the Ottoman Empire as the
empire expanded. Arabs, Jews, Kurds, Armenians,
Greeks in Anatolia and in the Arabian Peninsula,
Bulgarians, Bosnians, Hungarians, Serbs, Slovaks,
Figure 1.13 Janissary Corps of the Ottoman Army Romanians, Vlachos, and Russians in southeast
Source: http://www.bleublancturc.com/Turqueries/ and all Caucasians in the Caucasus made up
janissaires.htm the people under the Ottoman rule. They were
mainly Muslims, Christians and Jews including
The Ottoman Janissary army marched to the other faiths. In the early periods the non-Muslims
tune of a military band called Mehter, thought to mainly Christians participated in the ruling system
be the first of its kind. The Janissaries marched to as marcher lords together with the Turkic Muslim
21
1
ones. With the transformation of Ottoman recognized and were free in their religious affairs.
principality into an empire the ruling system was The Ottoman Muslims and non-Muslims lived
designed during the classical period and there together in the same districts preserving their own
were two major classes: askerî (military) and reâyâ ethnic and religious traditions. However, there
(common people). The ruling elite who were askerî were settlements where only people of the same
while the rest of the society either Muslims and faith lived together although there were no rules
non-Muslims were regarded as reâyâ and they did that separated Muslims and non-Muslims from
not participate in the process of government. The each other. There were mosques, churches and
askerî class was exempted from taxes and were synagogues for religious worship and instruction.
entitled to carry arms while reâyâ paid taxes. All
people living in the empire either Muslim or non-
Muslim, were accepted as the subjects (kul or tebaa)
of the Ottoman sultans.
The ruling and administrative system concerning
the state institutions, trade as well as society, were
designed once more after the conquests of Istanbul.
Mehmet II sanctioned the position of the believers
of Christianity and Judaism. His son Bayezid II
offered refuge and shelter to the Jews who were
expelled from Spain and Portugal in 1492. This
policy of offering Jews sanctuary continued until
the end of the Empire. For example, Abdülhamid II
wanted to provide a safe settlement in the empire
for the Jewish immigrants from Russia where they
were harshly treated. The Ottomans considered all
the nations and creeds under their rule as millet.
The word millet is Arabic and means “a religiously-
defined people” and it refers to a community Figure 1.14 Gennadios Scholarios (Orthodox Patriach)
(Braude, 1982, pp.69-77). with Mehmet II
important Source: https://orthodoxwiki.org/Gennadius_Scholarius
In the Ottoman Empire minority religious Economy

communities were recognized and were free in their The Ottoman economic system was structured
religious affairs. After the conquest of Constantinople, on the fiscal policies based on land. The early
Mehmet II asked the people of Istanbul mainly the land system was based on the Timar (fief grants)
Greeks and Genoese to return and guaranteed their system until the late sixteenth century. The lands
life and safety. He restored the Greek Orthodox in the Balkans and in Anatolia were divided into
Patriarchate on 6 January 1454 and established a basic Timar units that were granted to the cavalry
Jewish Grand Rabbi and an Armenian Patriarch in the members by the sultan to provide tax revenues to
city. He called on the Jewish population “listen sons of the state budged. Through the discoveries of the
the Hebrew who live in my country…May all of you America, the influx of silver from the west changed
who desire come to Constantinople and may the rest economic patterns. The Ottoman state suffered
of your people find here a shelter. “(Ojalvo,t.y) inflation and devaluation of its money due to
abundance of silver and gold in the market. The
Every Christian and Jew in the empire were Spanish and Portuguese sailors discovered new
under the system called zimmi-dhimmis (people routes to India and China and Ottoman profits
of sacred books and tolerated infidels) which the from silk and spice routes became less and less.
Ottoman rulers adopted from the early Islamic Budget deficits were also caused by long wars
states as well. Minority religious communities were required a radical change in the land and taxation
22
1
system and the the Timar system was replaced by under the laws of its own country by a consul or
the tax farming (iltizam) from the late sixteenth an official invested with the powers of a magistrate.
century onwards. The first capitulations were granted to Genoa in
The Ottoman Empire was an agrarian society 1352 and then to Venice in the late 1380s (Eldem,
for a long time. The state policy had a distinctly 2016, p.289). Later the Italian states and European
local self-sufficient character. The Ottoman nations were granted capitulations. France was
economy was pre-mercantilist and agrarian and the first nation granted trading privileges in 1569
this did not change until the nineteenth century during the reign of Selim II. The British merchants
while the production of artisans contributed to were granted capitulations in 1580 and the other
the economy as well. The primary producers were European states in the following periods (Eldem,
peasant farmers, artisans, traders and herders. 2016, pp.290-291).
Economic activities and money circulation were
mostly limited to large towns while rural areas OTTOMAN DIPLOMACY AND
supported raw materials. Production first satisfied
CULTURAL ENCOUNTERS
local demand; any surplus was either consumed by
the state, especially the military, or sent to other
WITH EUROPE
provinces. The main revenues that formed the basic The Ottoman Empire was born as a Turkish
sources of the state treasury were the taxes collected state and much of Turkish culture and traditions
from agricultural production. The taxes in time were dominant during its early years. The Ottoman
included the ones collected from the common rulers adopted some administrative and economic
people for the special needs like the wars. There practices from the Seljukids as well as from the
was also cizye (head tax) collected from the non- Byzantines as well. In the early periods of the empire,
Muslims or for exemption from military service. Muslim dervishes served as cultural transmitters by
Taxes collected from the artisans, craftsmen and carrying the knowledge of Islam to the Balkans and
merchants were also another sources of the state Europe. With the territorial expansions interaction
treasury. started with different cultures and peoples of
the Balkans and Europe. The Ottoman rulers,
The common people (reâyâ) in the Ottoman
however, isolated themselves from the Europeans
Empire earned their livelihood working in their
in international politics for a long time because
homes and farms in rural. Meanwhile, mainly it
the Ottoman rulers did not accept foreign rulers
was the state personnel, tradesmen, artisans and
as their equal. Their contact with the European
craftsmen and workers lived in the urban areas and
countries and the Asian countries was primarily
when compared to urban, the population density
realized through the military and merchants of the
was high in the rural areas. Production of goods
West and the East. The sultan and Grand viziers
came from the common people whereas trade was
were in charge of foreign affairs. Later, in the late
carried by not only the Ottomans but by foreign and
seventeenth century, Reisülküttab (Reis Efendi
privileged merchants who were licensed (berâtlı).
-chief of the secretaries) was put into charge of
The licenses were granted by the sultans either as
dealing with foreign policy. Reisülküttab supervised
part of the capitulations (ahidname), or through
negotiations with the representatives of foreign
the trade treaties signed between the Ottoman
countries with the assistance of a dragoman -the
Empire and European countries. Capitulations
palace interpreters a deputy of the Grand vizier and
were the privileges given to foreign merchants
a member of the ulemâ. The Ottoman diplomatic
mainly Europeans to trade on the coastal borders
contact with the other nations was carried out
of the empire. The Ottoman rulers encouraged
with the envoys sent to the foreign capitals. The
foreign merchants to trade in the empire in order
Ottoman envoys were only sent to foreign countries
to revive commercial activities. Capitulations
before and after the wars to settle peace terms and
could either be renewed often with modifications
this was the only diplomatic relation with foreign
or ended on the accession of a new sultan. When
countries (Naff, 1963, pp.300-301).
the trade rights were given to a foreign country,
the foreign community or colony was governed
23
1
important way of life. The Ottoman envoys came back full

of information on European military systems and
technology, daily life and the courts of Europe,
The dragomans were interpreters and they were
administrative system, innovations in printing
usually Jews or converted Europeans until the end of
press, factory systems, bridges, streets, economy
the seventeenth century. The leading Greek Orthodox
and culture. The short-term outcome of the
families of the Phanar sector of Istanbul replaced these
envoy visits was the establishment of diplomatic
dragomans in the eighteenth century (Naff, 1963,
relations with the European states and adaptation
pp.300-301).
of European court traditions. The long term
outcomes were the permanent Ottoman embassies
The Ottoman diplomatic relations with the in European capitals and cooperation between
European countries started after the Treaty of the Ottoman Empire and European countries in
Karlowitz (1699) in the eighteenth century since terms of military technology and skills. Military
the conditions necessitated active Ottoman experts invited from Britain, France, Prussia and
participation in the European diplomatic arena. Austria helped to modernize the Ottoman army
Because the west has changed under the impact and the navy in the late eighteenth and nineteenth
of the scientific revolution, the discoveries of new centuries.
territories, accumulation of capital in Europe, the The Ottomans were influenced by Europe but
Enlightenment, and French Revolution. All these they also contributed to the European culture. The
helped to alter not only Western societies culturally impact of the Ottoman Turkish culture was seen
but also Nonwestern ones and the Ottomans were in music, theatre, art and literature. The Ottoman
one of them. themes and scenes from Ottoman lands started an
The cultural impact of the West on the Ottoman art movement called Orientalism. Janissary Band
Empire started with the foreign embassies and music inspired the compositors such as Mozart,
later with the Ottoman envoys sent to European Beethoven, Brahms and Haydn who used Turkish
capitals in the early eighteenth century during the rhythms in their compositions. Turkish coffee,
Tulip Age (1718-1730). The expectations from the armchair with deep fringes and tassels,
envoys were high. They were to establish relations, Turkish carpets, and copper trays
to observe the capabilities of the Europeans, became the fashion for the Europeans
understand European military technology and (Quataert, 2005, pp.8-10).
24
1
Comprehend the historical background of

LO 1 Modern Turkey with a reference to the
Ottoman past from 1071 to 1800
The roots of Modern Turkey go back to the Ottoman period. Modern Turkey was established in Anatolia
on the territories left from the Ottoman Empire. The relation between the Ottoman Empire and Modern
Turkey was not only territorial but also ethnic and cultural as well. Turks came to Anatolia in the service
of the Seljuk Army. The founder of the Ottoman Empire was Osman Ghazi from the Turkish Kayı Tribe.
This tribe settled in Western Anatolia. When the Seljuks weakened after the dynastic quarrels and the
Mongolian attacks, the Turkic tribes in Anatolia established their own principalities and the Ottoman
Principality was one of them. Orhan Ghazi transformed this principality into an empire and this empire
Summary
became a world power from the fourteenth century to the mid-eighteenth century at the expense
of many Christian and Muslim empires. The Ottoman territories in these periods covered not only
Anatolia but also south eastern Europe including the Balkans, the Black Sea, the Caucasus, Northwest
Iran and Arabian Peninsula as well as North Africa and the Aegean and Mediterranean Islands. When
the Ottoman Empire weakened and lost territories with the wars from the eighteenth century onwards,
Anatolia always stayed as the heartland of the Empire where the Republic of Turkey was established after
World War I.
Demonstrate main stages in the Ottoman

LO 2 territorial expansion and the policies
followed to keep the conquered lands
The Ottoman territorial expansion started in the fourteenth century towards western Anatolia and the
conquest of Bursa was the turning point in this expansion which transformed the Ottoman Principality
into an Empire. Bursa served as the first capital of the Ottoman Empire. The conquests of Gallipoli,
Tekirdağ and Edirne enabled the Ottoman expansions towards the Balkans and control of the Marmara
region at the expense of the Byzantine Empire. Then Edirne was made the second capital of the Ottomans.
The conquest of Constantinople in 1453 ended the Byzantine Empire. Constantinople was the third
and last capital city of the empire. The expansion in Anatolia against the Muslims states and Turkic
principalities strengthened Ottoman position in Anatolia. The conquests in Anatolia, Europe, Aegean
and Mediterranean Islands, Arabian Peninsula, the Caucasus and in North Africa were completed until
the mid-eighteenth century. The Ottomans took the control of the Muslim Holy cities Mecca and
Medina after the conquest of Egypt in 1517. This conquest also brought the seat of the caliphate to the
Ottomans and made them the representatives of the Muslims in the world.
The Ottoman rulers in the early periods fought with the zeal of gaza and secured the support of the
Turkic tribes this way. Moreover, the rulers included Christian warriors to their army by appointing
them as marcher lords and also established first imperial institutions. In the vast lands conquered with
different people coming from different ethnic and religion the Ottoman rulers established the Ottoman
rule with justice via the military, bureaucracy and ulema as well as by a fare taxation policy and by
appointing local rulers who in return paid tributes to the Ottoman Empire to continue their semi-
autonomous rule.
25
1
LO 3 Evaluate Ottoman political structure, society

and economy
The Ottoman Empire was a patrimonial state ruled by the Ottoman dynasty. The state was ruled via
Islamic religious laws Sharia and Turkish traditional laws called Örfî (kanun). Although the Sharia was
the rule of the state, the traditional laws came to be used as affectively as the Sharia in the state affairs.
The power of the state was represented in the character of the sultan caliph. Males in the Ottoman
dynasty were potential heirs to the throne. Theoretically, each son had had equal right to the throne. But
Ottoman succession practices eliminated the candidates to the throne either by choosing best trained
and capable one or by killing the rival candidates. The practice of killing rivals and commiting fratricide
Summary
ended in the early seventeenth century. Then the oldest princes ascended ascended to the throne.
The state hierarchy was organized under the reigning sultan. He was represented by major ruling
class called askerî formed by ulemâ, military and bureaucracy. The rest of the society was called reaya
(commoners). The askerî class was exempted from taxes and were entitled to carry arms while reâyâ, paid
taxes. The state affairs were discussed at the Imperial Council where the viziers and related state officials
provided the sultan information about the state affairs. After the Treaty of Karlowitz, the Imperial
Council was replaced by the office of the grand vizier called Bâb-ı Âli.
Under the Ottoman rule, different people coming from different ethnicity and religions formed the
Ottoman society and it was organized along the religious lines as Muslims and non-Muslims and all
were accepted as the subjects (kul or tebaa) of the Ottoman sultans. The non-Muslims were mainly
Christians and Jews and were recognized as freeborn Ottoman subjects free in their religious affairs. The
common people in the Ottoman Empire earned their livelihood by working in their homes and farms.
The Ottoman economic system was structured on the fiscal policies via land system first based on the
prebendal grants (timar) and later the tax farming (iltizam) since the empire was agrarian for a long time.
When the economic functions are concerned primary producers were peasant farmers, artisans, traders
and herders. Economic activities and money circulation were mostly limited to large towns while rural
areas provided raw materials. The main revenues were the taxes collected from agricultural production.
Beside these, there were other taxes collected for certain needs like the wars or for an exemption from
military service as well as the taxes collected from the artisans, craftsmen and merchants.
Identify basis of Ottoman foreign policy and

LO 4 objectives
The Ottoman foreign policy was originally based on the superiority of the Ottoman Empire and the
Ottoman rulers isolated themselves from the Europeans in the international politics for a long time since
the Ottoman rulers did not accept foreign rulers as their equal. The sultan and Grand viziers were in
charge of the foreign affairs. Later Reisülküttab (Reis Efendi -chief of the secretaries) was put in charge
of dealing with foreign policy in the late seventeenth century. The Ottoman contact with the European
countries and the Asian countries primarily was done via the armies, navies, and merchants of the West
and the East. Moreover, the temporary envoys including dragomans (interpreters) were sent to the
foreign capitals before and after the wars to settle peace terms. This was typical Ottoman diplomacy until
the Treaty of Karlowitz. The foreign countries established relations with the Ottoman Empire via the
granted capitulations by the Ottoman sultans. They opened their embassies in the capital city Istanbul.
The Ottoman diplomatic relations with the European countries started after the Treaty of Karlowitz
(1699) since this treaty marked the end of the Ottoman expansion and weakened of the Ottoman power.
The envoys were sent to the European capitals to establish relations, to observe the capabilities of the
Europeans, their goals as well as to observe European military technology. These envoys with the foreign
merchants doing trade in the Ottoman Empire became mediators for the cultural interaction between
the west and the Ottoman Empire and later contributed to the opening of the Ottoman embassies in
the major European capitals from the late eighteenth century onwards.
26
1
References
Ágoston, G. and Masters, B. (2009). Encyclopedia of Kunt, M. (1982). Transformation of Zimmi into
the Ottoman Empire, New York: Facts On File, Askeri. In B. Braude and B. Lewis (Eds.),
Inc.An imprint of Infobase Publishing. Retrieved Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Empire: The
from https://archive.org/stream/Encyclopedia central lands Vol.1, (pp. 55-67). New York and
of Ottoman Empire by G. Agoston and B. London: Holmes & Meier Publishers, Inc.
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Lowry, H. W. (2003). The nature of the early Ottoman
Empire%20by%20G.%20Agoston%20and%20
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B.%20Mastersdjvu.txt
Naff, J. T. (1963). Reform and the conduct of Ottoman
Barkley, K. (2008). Empire of difference: The Ottomans
diplomacy in the reign of Selim III, 1789-1907.
in comparative perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge
Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 83,
University Press.
No. 3, 295-315.
Braude, Benjamin. (1982). Foundation myth of the
Ojalvo, H. (n. d. ). Ottoman sultans and their
millet system. In B. Braude and B. Lewis (Eds.),
Jewish subjects. Retrieved from http://www.
Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Empire: The
sephardicstudies.org/sultans1.html
central lands Vol. 1, (pp. 69-88). New York and
London: Holmes and Meier Publishers, Inc Quataert, D. (2005). The Ottoman Empire 1700-1922
(2nd Ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Brummet, P. (1994). Ottoman sea power and Levantine
diplomacy in the Age of Discovery. Albany: State Shaw, S. and Shaw, E. K. (1997). History of the Ottoman
University of New York. Empire and modern Turkey Volume I: Empire of the
Ghazis: The rise and decline of the Ottoman Empire
Eldem, E. (2016). Capitulations and Western trade.
1280-1800. Cambridge: Cambridge University
In S. Faroqhi (Ed.), The Cambridge History of
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Turkey: The Later Ottoman World 1603-1839
Vol. 3(pp.283-336). Cambridge: Cambridge Peirce, L. (1993). The Imperial Harem: Women and
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New York: Oxford University Press.
Findley, C. V. (2005). The Turks in World History.
Oxford: Oxford Press. Sutton, K. M. (1991). Venice, Austria, and the Turks
in the seventeenth century. Philadelphia: The
Finkel, C. (2005).Osman’s dream, The story of the
American Philosophical Society. Retrieved form
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İnalcık, H. (1978). Ottoman methods of Conquest. In pdf
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Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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2
INTRODUCTION
The word reform denoted different meanings. To the Ottomans, on the one hand, it meant returning
to the age of Sultan Süleyman I (1520-66), which marked the golden age of the Ottoman Empire. On the
other hand, it meant adapting to the west and transferring western knowledge and practices. From the late
eighteenth century onwards, instead of glorifying the age of Süleyman, the reformist Ottoman elite and
most importantly the sultans turned their eyes to the west. They wisely realized that the Ottoman state
which had been ruled and governed through tradition could no longer exist in the same manner. The state
needed more systematization and regulations. Selim III (r. 1789-1807) and Mahmud II (r. 1808-1839)
were two reform-minded sultans who felt the need to reform as well as implement some of the western
innovations and ideas. The present chapter explores the reforms both under Sultan Selim III and Sultan
Mahmud II and discusses of their pros and cons.
This unit is composed of four sections. The first section of the chapter will start with the reign of
Selim III, which coincided with the French Revolution of 1789 and focus on the reform program, called
Nizâm-ı Cedîd (New Order). External and internal pressures, contacts with the west, the role of Alemdar
Mustafa Pasha, the deposition of Selim III, and the brief period of Sultan Mustafa IV will be discussed.
The second section will be on Mahmud II and the events of his early years on the throne. An initial step
towards constitutionalism marked by the Sened-i İttifâk (Deed of Agreement) in 1808 and its aftermath
developments will be analyzed. The third section will detail the problems at the periphery with a particular
emphasis on Serbia, Greece, and Egypt. The focus of the following section of this chapter will be on the
abolition of the Janissary corps in 1826 and the period followed by the post-1826 era where Mahmud’s
radical reforms took place. This unit will be finalized with the fourth section discussing the Anglo-Ottoman
Convention of 1838, which marked the liberal policies of the following period, called Tanzîmât.
--Empire boundary
in 1807
Losses 1807-1829
Losses 1830-1878
Losses 1879-1915
Losses 1916-1923
Turkey in 1924
Figure 2.1 Ottoman Empire and territorial losses from 1807 and onwards
Source: https://tr.pinterest.com/pin/176766354100590163/
33
2
The Early Reform Era, 1789-1839
BEFORE AND AFTER THE NİZÂM-I CEDÎD (NEW ORDER):

REFORMS UNDER SELİM III (1789-1807)
The late eighteenth century witnessed the French Revolution which caused many upheavals and
revolts in the later years. Around the time of the Revolution, the Ottoman lands consisted of the Balkans
(modern day Serbia, Bosnia, Kosovo, Macedonia, Albania, Greece, Bulgaria and greater parts of Romania),
Anatolia (modern day Turkey) and most of the Arab world (modern day Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel,
Iraq, Kuwait, parts of the Arabian Peninsula) and Northern Africa (modern day Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, and
Algeria). The empire had also the control of the Black Sea and its northern shores controlled through the
Crimean Khans as well as the Aegean Islands.
The population of the empire, though it is difficult to ascertain for sure, was about 25-30 million. In the
stretch of all these lands, the Ottoman sultan had more power in certain regions and less in others. There were
naturally territorial and ideological problems in this vast geography and among the peoples who occupied
these areas. They had conflicts either among themselves or with the central Ottoman administration. The
economy which was basically agrarian suffered from natural disasters. Europe had advanced in technology
and had surpassed the Ottomans economically and militarily. The culmination of all these facts inspired the
ideas of change and advancement in the minds of the Ottoman elite, most importantly in the minds of the
sultans.
A reform-minded Sultan Selim III succeeded his uncle
Abdülhamid I (r. 1774-1789) on April 1789. During his
Selim III was known as a poet and a musician,
reign, the Ottoman Empire waged wars against Russia and
composer of Turkish classical music. He
Austria, Napoleon Bonaparte occupied Ottoman Egypt in
was also a member of the Mawlawi order
1798, and the Wahhabis of a religiously fundamentalist
following Celaleddin Rumi’s teachings.
stance conquered much of Arabian Peninsula. There were
problems in the Balkans as well. Seeking autonomy, a local
notable (ayan), Tepedelenli Ali Pasha of Janina (in modern
day Greece), rebelled against the Ottoman rule. Moreover, the Janissaries opposed the reforms, for which
most of the time they allied with the ulemâ (the men of religion). To be successful at wars and to deal with
the growing power of the local notables and the Janissaries, Sultan Selim III started his reform program
called Nizâm-ı Cedîd in the 1890s.
Figure 2.2 Sultan Selim III Figure 2.3 Insignia of Sultan Selim III
Source: http://i-cias.com/e.o/s28-selim3.htm Source: http://sanlitarihim.blogcu.com/osmanli-

padisahlarinin-tugralari-ve-anlamlari-[resimli/5347697
34
2
Towards the Nizâm-ı Cedîd troubled with the wars and the problematic treaties
During the second half of the eighteenth century, that came after. All these made it necessary to
the Ottoman Empire began to lose its power as a major introduce a full-fledged reform program.
world empire. The wars, such as the Russian-Ottoman
War of 1768-1774, played an important role as it Nizâm-ı Cedîd
resulted in a humiliating. Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca. The Inspired by the French Revolution, in 1794, Selim
treaty made the Ottoman Empire lose territories and introduced a new program, Nizâm-ı Cedîd (New Order),
pay a large sum of indemnity. The Ottomans also gave which opposed the existing old system and regulations,
up the Tartar Khanate called Nizâm-ı Kadîm (Old Order). Generally referring
in the Crimea and important
to military and sometimes political and technological
had to grant the trans- reforms, the term Nizâm-ı Cedîd meant new regulation
Danubian provinces The Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca or order. During the reign of Selim III, the term Nizâm-ı
their autonomy. The was signed between the Cedîd was used as an umbrella term covering different
Russian ships now Imperial Russia and areas, such as administration, military, education, and
gained free access to the Ottoman Empire. the society. An example of the social aspect of Nizâm-ı
Ottoman waters and Abdülhamid I and Catherine Cedîd, for example, was the types of measures taken in
the right to protect the Great (1762-1796) were the 1790s to achieve social control. The need arose due to
Ottoman Orthodox the monarchs on throne migration of unemployed bachelors and of workers who
Christians. In this respectively. The Treaty were seen as potential criminals, coming from different
respect, the treaty also recognized Sultan parts of the empire to Istanbul (Başaran, 2014, p. 77).
signified what has been Abdülhamid I as the Caliph
called “the Eastern of all Muslims. This shaped
Question,” involving the later policies of both
the Ottoman Empire’s Empires, which were Pan- In order to take new measures and increase
domestic affairs Slavism vs. Pan-Islamism. tax revenues, Nizâm-ı Cedîd had earlier been
through its Christian used by Grand vizier Köprülüzade Fazıl
subjects. Mustafa Pasha (1689-1691).
The Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca failed to bring

peace, in 1783, Russia, which sought partition Some supporters of Selim’s reforms argued
of the Ottoman Empire and the revival of the that the Janissaries and other corps had to stay
Byzantine Empire in Istanbul, annexed the Khanate in their original forms and continue with their
of Crimea. In 1787, the Ottoman Empire entered traditional functions but with a new weapons
the war against Russia one more time. At that time, and use of techniques. The others suggested to
the empire was at war with Austria. When Selim replace the old military institutions with new one.
III ascended to the throne, he found himself in the Selim initially reformed the Sipâhîs (cavalrymen)
middle of ongoing wars, which were concluded and the Janissaries. Also, he put artillery, mortar,
with treaties that did not favor the Ottomans mine-laying, and cannon-wagon corps under the
much. The Ottoman Empire and Austria signed the command of young officers. These officers were
Peace Treaty of Ziştovi/Sistova (modern Svishtov-in not allowed to get married. This insured that they
present-day Bulgaria) in 1791. Austria could only remained in their barracks. In order to attract the
get the town of Orşova and two small places on attention of young men into the military, salaries
the Croatian frontier. Russia signed the Treaty of were increased. However it soon became clear that
Jassy (modern Iaşi, Romania) in 1792. This treaty introduction of new military means and training to
helped to advance the Russian frontier to the a traditional fighting force was not feasible. There
Dniester River, including the fortress of Ochakov, was great opposition to the innovations and reforms
and restored Bessarabia, Moldavia, and Walachia from the main fighting forces, the Janissaries and
to the Ottomans. In short, the Treaty of Jassy in Sipâhîs. These developments led to the creation of a
1792 re-confirmed the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca new infantry force outside the existing one.
and consequently the Russian dominance over
the Black Sea. Clearly, the reign of Selim III was
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important
Newly created corps of infantry were trained
and equipped with the European standards. The As their wages declined, the Janissaries were
administrative and military functions in each involved in economic activities. In cities such as
corps was divided under a separate supervisor Istanbul, Belgrade, Sofia, Cairo, Damascus, some of
(nâzır). Officers were subjected to examinations them, especially those from the lower ranks, became
and appointments were made according to their butchers, bakers, boatmen, and porters. Also, some
abilities. Soldiers were paid monthly and their Janissaries run coffeehouses and performed artisanal
salaries were raised to make sure that they were activities. If protecting trade, they in return received
not involved in any other businesses. Not only the a fee. As they increasingly became part of the urban
army but also the navy was also reorganized during economy. The Janissaries acted like mafia groups. All
Selim’s time. such activities led to loss of their military identities.
These actions frustrated the Ottoman ruling elite
and the sultans. Selim III was one of them who
wanted to stop their non-military activities and
indeed to abolish their corps.
ŞUBARA NEFERİ
KALPAKLI
NİZAM-I CEDİD NEFERİ ŞUBARA NEFERİ
Figure 2.5 Nizâm-ı Cedîd soldiers parading before the Sultan

Figure 2.4 Nizâm-ı Cedîd Soldiers
Source:http://osmanli.site/osmanli-padisahlari-sultan-
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padisah-sultanlari/sultan-3-selim/sultan-iii-selim-yenilikleri-
pin/352406739568295253/
nizami-cedit-ordusu/
Three barracks for the new army were built in Istanbul far from the eyes of the old corps. Two were
built in Levent Çiftlik and one in Üsküdar. Within four years, in 1801, the new corps expanded to 9,
263 men and 27 officers and in 1806, the number rose to 22,685 men and 1,590 officers. Moreover,
conscription was approved for Anatolia. Each official and notable was required to send men to Istanbul for
training. After they completed training, soldiers would return to their local military units.
Reforms required a great deal of money and the traditional taxation system was inefficient to cover all
the expenses. A new treasury under the name of İrâd-ı Cedîd (New Treasury) was therefore founded to
meet the new needs.
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Educational Improvements, to his palace. He himself followed western classical

Technical Schools, and Other music and poetry and indeed imported portraits from
Developments Europe. Through permanent embassies in London
(1793), Vienna (1794), Berlin (1795) and Paris
Technical and scientific schools had been (1796), diplomatic relationship evolved.
founded before the time of Selim III. As such, during
the reign of Mahmud I (r.1730-1754), a school of Among Europeans, French seemed to carry
mathematics (Hendesehâne) had been opened in more weight. The main concepts of the French
1734 on the advice of Comte de Bonneval who had Revolution liberty, equality and fraternity,
come to Istanbul to train the engineers. Another circulated in the Ottoman coffeehouses. We do
foreigner, Baron de Tott came and served under not know, however, their immediate effects on
Sultan Mustafa III (1857-1874), father of Selim III. the Ottoman populace. It was, however, certain
In 1773, the artillery corps along the European lines that the Revolution had impact on nationalist
were reformed and in 1774 a light artillery corps movements on the Ottoman lands.
was established. Reforms continued during the
reign of Abdülhamid I that Mühendishâne-i Bahrî-i
Hümâyun (The Imperial Naval Engineering School) When he was a prince, Selim had a
was founded in 1775 and in 1784, Mühendishâne-i Venetian doctor and he corresponded with
Tersâne-i Âmire (the Imperial School of Military the French crown prince later French King
Engineering) was reorganized. Louis XVI (1774-1792).
During the reign of Selim III, Mühendishâne-i
Sultanî (Imperial Engineering School) was opened
in 1792 where the curriculum included engineering Although Selim was disturbed by the death of
courses, Turkish, Latin and European Languages as French King Louis XVI, who was a friend and a
well. Mühendishâne-i Berr-i Hümâyûn (the Imperial role model to him, he did not oppose the French
School of Military Engineering) was established Revolution. The problem with France, however,
in 1795. Tersane (Imperial Naval Arsenal) was started when French agents became active in the
reorganized and expanded. New arsenals were opened Balkans and France invaded Egypt in 1798 under
at the provinces and modern ships were built in the command of Napoleon Bonaparte. Napoleon
accordance with the latest techniques. Selim had these not only wanted to conquer Egypt but also
school follow an up-to-date educational curriculum. claim its cultural heritage. The attack on Egypt
He asked assistance from European powers and as deteriorated the Ottoman-French relations and as
a result French and British experts ended up giving a result, French influence on the Ottoman court
lectures and training to the students in these schools. lessened. Under these circumstances, alliances with
Britain and Russia were formed. The British helped
to drive the French out of Egypt only to have a
foothold and secure herself in Egypt. At the end,
As part of reforming the military, technical the Ottomans established a direct rule in Egypt
schools were opened to introduce western under the governorship of Mehmed Ali Pasha, who
sciences and techniques. more or less became a free agent in his rule.
The relationship with France and other powers
was a fluctuating one. As such, the Ottomans
Interaction and Confrontation with signed a treaty with France in 1802. They agreed
the West on mutual assistance in case of war and decided to
renew former treaties and capitulations. In 1804,
During reign of Selim III, the influence of the west, Napoleon Bonaparte declared himself the emperor
compared to the earlier times, was greater. European and the next year, Selim under the influence of
instructors and merchants came to the Ottoman Britain and Austria broke up his relation with
lands where they did not have to live in isolation. France. It was in 1806 that Selim recognized
For example, they interacted with the people of the Bonaparte as the emperor of France. France
capital city. Selim himself invited some Europeans
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2
then helped the Ottomans in their move against The 1787-1792 war with the Russians forced
the Serbs but was blocked by the Russians. As a Selim to rely on local notables of different regions
result, Russia further strengthened its power in the in the empire for manpower. Among the notables
Balkans while its influence in the Principalities of who gained more control in their regions was Ali
Wallachia and Moldavia grew further. Pasha of Janina. He had foreign experts train his
The French victory at Jena in 1806 opened the soldiers in the European style. There were also
way for Russian invasion in the Balkans. Britain others, such as Pasvanoğlu and Tirsiniklioğlu İsmail
entered the war with the pretext of protecting the Agha of Silistra and Rusçuk and later his successor,
sultan against France. In fact, she wanted to ensure Alemdar Mustafa Pasha. These notables expanded
that the Ottomans fulfilled the requirements of their influence in the Balkans. By refusing to pay
the recently signed treaty. Help also came from the required taxes, Pasvanoğlu Osman Pasha, for
Ottoman notables. A notable of Rusçuk (Ruse in example, directly opposed the Sultan.
today’s northern Bulgaria), Alemdar (Standard- Serbian nationalism also posed a serious
bearer) Mustafa Pasha together with another threat for the Ottoman center. At the end of the
notable, Pasavanoğlu, conquered Moldavia and eighteenth century, the disintegration of Ottoman
Dobruca back from Russia. In return, Russia went rule yielded an unstable situation in Serbia. Against
on to triumph in Bessarabia and Wallachia. At the misrule of the local Janissaries in northern
the same time, the British fleet sailed through the Serbia, in 1804, an uprising in south of Belgrade
Dardanelles and anchored at Istanbul. When Selim led by Djordje Petrović, also known as Kara George
III collaborated with France, Britain had to withdraw (Black George), a pig trader who had served with
its forces in 1807. Against the Russian threat, Selim the Austrians in the war against the Ottoman
continued to ally with France and it was Alemdar Empire in 1787–1788. Serbs convened an assembly
Mustafa Pasha who helped him stand against both in 1805 and demanded local autonomy. This was
the Russian and later the Serbian threat. not accepted by the Sultan and the problems with
In Europe, Napoleon was engaged in a power the Serbs remained unsolved during Selim’s time.
struggle with Russia. He was at war with Prussia There were other troubled situations in the
and Russia. However, Napoleon’s victory over these Ottoman lands. In 1805, a notable, Mehmed Ali
powers resulted in the signing of the Treaty of Tilsit Pasha, strengthened his power in Egypt where he
in 1807. The Treaty of Tilsit between Napoleon and soon founded his dynasty. In fact, Mehmed Ali
Tsar Alexander I (1801-1825) made Napoleon the of Egypt created trouble during Mahmud’s time.
sole power in continental Europe up until 1814. During the reign of Selim III, a serious problem
The treaty also made secret provision that aimed came from a strict orthodox Sunni Muslim sect from
at an eventual partition of the Ottoman Empire. Arabian Peninsula. Wahhabism that emerged at the
In this period, Russia continued its war against the beginning of the eighteenth century challenged
Ottoman Empire (lasted from 1806 to 1812). The Ottoman claims as the protector of Islam. Wahhabis
Treaty of Bucharest between Russia and the Ottoman attempted to purify Islamic beliefs and rejected any
Empire was signed in 1812, during Mahmud’s time. innovations that took place after the early centuries
With this treaty, both sides agreed that Russian of Islam. Wahhabi threat in Syria made Selim
acquire Bessarabia and grant autonomy to Serbia. appoint Ahmed Cezzar Pasha as the governor of
Damascus in 1803. This did not stop Wahhabis, and
they continued to pose more threats.
Troubles at Home
Besides the problems abroad, Selim III had
to deal with the ones that arose at home. Some Edirne Incident, The Kabakçı
powerful families of Anatolia wanted to establish Rebellion and Dethronement of
powerful lordships over the regions they lived. In Selim III
the Balkans and the Arab lands there was likewise In order to finance his reforms in the military and
trouble brewing. The local Arab notables appeared bureaucracy, Selim III decided to debase the coinage,
more powerful even though they did not challenge confiscated the property of wealthy merchants
the Ottoman rule. and increased taxes. He also sought to regulate the
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provision of grain, coffee, and other foodstuffs. He Sultan Mustafa IV and Alemdar
hoped to deal with overpopulation and inflation with Mustafa Pasha
these measures. Unfortunately, he failed. Selim had
During Mustafa IV’s reign (r. 1807-1808),
also difficulty in fighting with overstaffing, favoritism
Selim’s new army, schools and other institutions
and corruption. His reformist ideas and actions had
were disbanded. They were dismissed as they
long been disliked by the Janissaries and the ulemâ. The
were said to destroy the exiting order, violate laws
latter argued that his reforms violated Islamic law and
and were against tradition. Those who had been
tradition; in fact, he with sumptuary laws, attempted
dismissed during the reign of Selim III returned to
to uphold traditional order. Selim also agitated people
their posts. Timars were brought back. The Nizâm-ı
when he seized the timars and aimed at reforming the
Cedîd members were hunted down and killed. The
older military corps. The combination of these events
surviving ones took refuge with Alemdar Mustafa
paved the way for revolts against him, namely the
Pasha in the Balkans. For a while, the Janissary
Edirne Incident and the Kabakçı Rebellion.
auxiliaries continued to terrorize the capital city.
The senior Janissaries promised not to intervene
in the state affairs under the condition that the
The timar system in Ottoman Empire meant reforms ended and the Janissary salaries increased.
granting lands to feudal cavalrymen (sipâhî) As part of the recently reached agreement with
who in return rendered military services and the ruling elite, Kabakçı Mustafa became the
provided soldiers to the Ottoman center. commander of the Bosphorus forts in Rumelia
and thereafter he and his men left the capital. At
the capital city, however, Şeyhülislam Ataullah
Edirne Incident took place in 1806 after Selim
Efendi and the Grand vizier struggled for power.
had the ordered some of the Nizâm-ı Cedîd corps
Alemdar and the new regime under Sultan Mustafa
to be stationed in Edirne. This meant to start
cooperated for a while but soon the relationship was
conscription in the Balkans. Notables in the Balkans
broken. Alemdar went back to Rusçuk where he
resisted the conscription since they were afraid of
started his opposition movement. He marched on
losing their men and independent status. Tirsinikli
Istanbul to ensure that Selim III came to the throne
İsmail Pasha was one of them. He and a conservative
again. Unfortunately, he failed to replace Mustafa
notable from Istanbul, and the Grand Vizier Hafız
IV with Selim III. When he arrived at Istanbul,
İsmail Agha allied with him to depose the Sultan and
Selim had already been murdered. Alemdar then
eliminate Nizâm-ı Cedîd. When they threatened the
went on helping Mahmud II’s accession to the
Sultan with a march on the capital city, Selim gave
throne. Because of his aid, he became his Grand
up and ordered the army to come back to Istanbul.
vizier.
This was known as the Edirne Incident.
In May 1807, the Janissaries who had been
restless since the establishment of Nizâm-ı Cedîd Alemdar or Bayraktar (the Standard-bearer)
revolted again under Kabakçı Mustafa. The rebellion Mustafa Pasha was born in Rusçuk. He was the
started when the Janissary auxiliaries (yamaks) who son of a Janissary. He acquired the status of ayan
guarded Bosphorus forts at Büyükdere/Istanbul after the war with Russia in 1767-1774 and
refused to wear the new uniforms and participate became an important figure during the reigns of
in intensive training. They killed a Nizâm-ı Cedîd both Sultan Selim III and Sultan Mahmud II.
army officer and marched on to Istanbul. They
allied with the ulemâ and the students of theology
who were in opposition. Selim tried to appease the
rebels by promising to disband the new army. For 1
the same reason, he appointed some conservative Under what circumstances
people to key positions. Selim failed in all of his was the Nizâm-ı Cedîd (New
efforts. In the end, he was deposed and confined to Order) program introduced?
the palace. His cousin Sultan Mustafa IV ascended What did this program attain?
the throne on May 29, 1807.
39
2
SULTAN MAHMUD II AND HIS INITIAL YEARS

Sultan Mahmud II came to the Ottoman throne on
July 28, 1808. He was the only male member of the
Ottoman dynasty left. Had Mustafa IV been successful,
he would have been killed just like his uncle Selim
III. His reign was marked internally by the Janissary
uprisings and problems with the local notables. Indeed,
a deed of agreement was reached between the Sultan and
local notables. On the military front, he dealt with the
revolts by Serbians and Greeks as a result of the rise of
nationalism in the Balkans, wars with Russia, dealings
with the Egyptian governor and a major loss of a sea battle
at Navarino which eventually led to Greek independence.
In spite of all the internal and external troubles he had
to cope with he was still successful in realizing many of
his westernizing reforms, which helped to consolidate the
Ottoman Empire. Finally, signifying the liberal policies S. İkinci Mahmud Kahya Bey Sadrazam
to some extent, the Anglo-Ottoman Convention of 1838
was signed with Britain. Figure 2.6 Mahmud II, together with Grand vizier and Kahya.
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Sened-i İttifâk and Subsequent
Developments
Mahmud II was more cunning than his uncle Selim III when he started his westernization and reforms.
He had to walk a very tight line to keep the balance among different interest groups, mostly the ayans as
local power groups who had taken over both lands and administrative functions of the traditional elite.
As local notables gained more power through developing their households, patronage systems, political
culture, and local armies Sultan Mahmud needed their aid. When he needed to reassert control over
European provinces, he reaffirmed the roles of the local power holders as agents of the state. Briefly, they
forged alliances with the state and at the same time the state forged alliances with them.
One of the most important alliance he formed was with Alemdar Mustafa Pasha. Alemdar Mustafa Pasha
was a powerful figure who had saved Mahmud and had become a staunch supporter of the reforms. He
was appointed as the Grand vizier by Mahmud II. In late 1808, Alemdar convened an imperial assembly,
to which he invited high officials, governors, pashas, and ayans. Also, a number of ulemâ and high state
officials attended the assembly. The attendants produced the Sened-i İttifâk (Deed of Agreement) reached
between the central government and local interest groups. It was unwillingly approved by the Sultan.
Nevertheless, the aim of this document was to ensure that the ayans in different districts would respect
the central government. In return, the rights and privileges of the provincial local interest groups were
confirmed. Local power holders pledged their loyalty to the Sultan. They also agreed to provide troops for
the army and to pay taxes. Furthermore, the Sultan would avoid any arbitrary punishments, in the same
manner, the local power would be just to the people under their control.
With Sened-i İttifâk, Alemdar Mustafa Pasha sought to
integrate the provincial notables into the imperial system.
This agreement honored the Sultan while at the same Even though it was not implemented Sened-i
time it gave ayans rights and defined their obligations. It, İttifâk has been called the Ottoman Magna
however, failed as ayans did not unite under one roof. Also, Carta because it limited the power of the
its architect, Alemdar, died during a revolt by the Janissaries Sultan. It was also seen as a step towards
who were against the new reforms. As a result, the document constitutionalism.
was not put into practice but its legacy survived.
40
2
important After Alemdar’s death, Mahmud appointed his

other supporters to the key positions and then went
on weakening the roles of semi-independent ayans
On June 15, 1215, under the pressure
from both Anatolia and Balkans. He re-established
of external war, King John of England
his control over Anatolia, Thrace, Macedonia
demanded extra taxes. Thus, the powerful
and the Danube districts by 1820. He appointed
barons forced the King to sign the Magna
governors from Istanbul to replace the local ruling
Carta (The Great Chart). This document
notables. Also, the power of the Kurdish mirs who
granted liberties to the free man at the
ruled the tribal coalitions and of the Arab notables
same time recognized the King as the
(only by the 1840s) were broken.
sovereign power subject to the rule of law.
After the Sened-i İttifâk, Alemdar Mustafa Pasha Removal of former local powers left a power
sought ways to restore Nizâm-ı Cedîd but under a vacuum in certain areas and thus paved the
different name, Sekbân-ı Cedîd, which was made part way for nationalist movements, especially by
of the kapıkulu army. In doing so Alemdar avoided the Serbs and the Greeks.
the Janissary resistance. In addition to creating
the new corps, the navy was reorganized. Alemdar
Mustafa was also inclined to reform the Janissary PROBLEMS AT THE
corps. His reform attempts faced opposition and PERIPHERY: SERBIA, GREECE,
rumors started to circulated among the Janissaries AND EGYPT
that the Grand vizier was planning to abolish the
Nationalism is an ideology that implies one’s
Janissary corps. As a result, a rebellion broke out at
loyalty and devotion to the nation-state. In this way, it
the Porte where the gates were open because of a
surpasses any individual or group interests. At the end
religious holiday. The rebels forced Alemdar and his
of the eighteenth century, with the French Revolution
personal guard to take refuge in a stone gun powder
in 1789, nationalism prevailed around the world. As
building. Alemdar and his men died when he blew
a result, the Ottomans as a multi-religious and multi-
a keg of gun powder taking some of the rebels with
ethnic empire were challenged by the nationalist waves
him. The rebels, after the death of Alemdar, aided
initiated by Ottoman Serbs and Greeks.
by the artisans and the city mob marched to the
Palace but they did not or could not attempt to kill In 1804, Serbs had rebelled against the local
Mahmud II since Mustafa IV had been executed Janissary garrison in Serbia. The insurrection had
and Mahmud II was the last and the only surviving been suppressed but in 1815 it restarted now under
male member of the Ottoman dynasty. To satisfy the a new Serbian leader Miloš Obrenovič who pushed
rebels, Mahmud II the boundaries of the Serbian Principality between
important Belgrade and Nish. An agreement was reached
had to agree to
disband the new between Miloš Obrenovič and the Ottoman center.
army. Mahmud II Sultan Mahmud II has Both sides agreeing that Serbian Principality would
had to restore the sometimes been called as pay yearly tribute and the Ottomans would retain
traditional corps since the Peter the Great of the a garrison in some major towns. Serbia became
there was an ongoing Ottoman Empire. independent much later. It was realized after the
war with Russia. Ottoman-Russian war of 1877-1878.
Another insurrection was led by the Ottoman
Greeks. This was made easier with the removal of
Kapıkulus (slave-servants) were widely Tepedelenli Ali Pasha (1744-1822). When he started
known as the sultan’s loyal servants. They to act independently from the Ottoman center he
were drawn from slaves taken during a war was removed from his position by Mahmud II who
or through the devşirme system. This way, defeated him in 1820. Tepedelenli’s removal left a
they could be part of the privileged elite or power vacuum in the region so that the Greeks of
military (askerî) class. the Danube and Morea regions found opportunity
to rebel for independence.
41
2
important
Tepedelenli Ali Pasha was a brigand and later
became an Ottoman pasha in 1788. After The office of dragoman was an office
getting rich, he formed good relations with the of interpreters between Europeans and
Ottoman household and expanded his rule Middle Easterners. Dragomans worked at
over some parts of Albania, Macedonia, Epirus, ministries of foreign affairs and embassies
Thessaly and the Morea (the Peloponnese). and thus conducted important political
negotiations. This office of dragomons for a
long time remained in the hands of a small
group of Ottoman Greek families from the
The Greek insurrection of 1821 had earlier
Phanar district of Istanbul. They had thus
roots related to a Greek patriotic society, called
been influential in the Ottoman foreign
the Philiki Hetairia. This society was founded in
policy. When the Greek insurrection broke
1814 and led by Alexander Ipsilantis, who was by
out in 1821, the monopoly of the Greeks
then a member of Phanariote, an elite group who
holding this office was broken. As a result,
lived in Phanar/Fener district in Istanbul. Ipsilantis
the last Greek dragoman was dismissed and
also served in the Imperial Russian army. He and
executed. Their positions were then filled
his supporters invaded Moldavia and Wallachia
by Ottoman Muslims.
as he was pursuing a full-fledged rebellion in the
Balkans in order to initiate a second Byzantine
Empire under the Greeks. Although the militants
under Ipsilantis failed, a new rebellion under the Another crisis broke out between Sultan
influence of the Philiki Hetairia was launched and Mahmud and Mehmed Ali Pasha. Originally
spread over some parts of the Balkan Peninsula an Albanian from Kavalla, Mehmed Ali came to
and the Aegean Isles. The Ottoman army was Egypt as an officer taking part in the Ottoman
not successful to suppress the rebels and thus the expeditionary force against the French. He filled
Ottomans lost control over Morea and many of the the power vacuum left by the Mamluks who had
islands. When the rebels captured Athens, in 1824, already been defeated by Napoleon during his
Mahmud had to ask help from Mehmed Ali Pasha invasion of Egypt in 1789. In 1805, he established
of Egypt against the Greek nationalists. his authority in Egypt and Mamluks did not pose
any threat after 1811 when he killed their leaders
In 1828, Britain, Russia and France intervened
in Cairo.
in the Greek case. These countries offered
mediation, which was rejected by the Ottoman After consolidating his power in Egypt,
center who considered the problem an internal Mehmed Ali Pasha started an ambitious reform
matter. A joint British, Russian and French fleet program. He went on creating a modern army and
was dispatched and on the ensuing naval battle bureaucracy, for which he introduced a European
it destroyed the Ottoman-Egyptian fleet at style education. He changed tax farming with a
Navarino. The Russians went further and attacked direct taxation system and replaced the slave system
some Ottoman territories in Europe and Asia in with conscription. Farmers were encouraged to
May, 1828. Their capture of Edirne forced the grow cash crops where cotton played the primary
Ottoman Empire to sign the Treaty of Edirne/ role. Investment was made on irrigation systems
Adrianople in 1829. According to the treaty, Russia and road works. Finally, profitable state monopolies
was given the Danube delta and Ahiska province, were enlarged under his rule.
and the Ottomans recognized the autonomy of In general, Mehmet Ali Pasha acted
Serbia, Moldavia, Wallachia and Greece under the independently from the Ottoman center. On some
Russian protection. In 1830, Greece with the other occasions, he was asked to provide help against
European powers’ intervention was recognized as the Wahhabis in the 1810s and later against the
an independent monarchy. Greek rebels by the Ottoman center. After he
lost his fleet in 1827, he turned to France as he
wanted to solicit close ties with France. As a result
42
2
French officers came on board and trained the new important

Egyptian army. He also negotiated with France for
the occupation of some North African provinces-
Tunisia and Algeria. In return, France would get The Eastern Question arose with the decline
some concessions. Mehmed Ali’s efforts were in of the Ottoman power in different regions.
It meant that great powers competed and
vain. France went on and occupied Algiers by itself.
contemplated either for preserving the
important territorial integrity of the Ottomans or
dividing the lands without upsetting the
balance of power in Europe. Although its
Unrest and rebellion also emerged in origins can be dated back to the Treaty of
Bosnia, Albania, eastern Anatolia and Küçük Kaynarca, it appeared more powerfully
Bagdad. Mahmud II was successful in during the initial stage of the Greek War of
suppressing them in certain places but he, Independence (1821-1829), the Crimean War
for example, failed to prevent France from in 1853-1856, the Balkan crisis in 1875-1876,
occupying Algiers in 1830. the Bosnian crisis in 1908 and finally the
Balkan Wars of 1912-1913.
Mehmed Ali Pasha demanded the governorship

of Syria from the Ottoman center as a compensation Sultan Mahmud II did not really accept Syria’s
of his losses in Navarino. When his demand was loss to Mehmed Ali Pasha. To get the British support
refused, he went on invading Syria in the late 1831. against Mehmed Ali, he sent his Minister of Foreign
The Egyptian army also defeated the Ottoman Affairs, Mustafa Reşit Pasha, to London. The
army in Anatolia and occupied Kütahya in the early British did not attack Egypt but they convinced the
1833. In order to prevent Mehmed Ali’s march on Ottoman center to sign a free trade treaty (The Balta
Istanbul, the Sultan called on the European powers Limanı Treaty-The Anglo-Ottoman Convention)
for aid. The Russians were the only ones who in 1838. In April 1839, the Sultan himself went on
would help and sent in their naval force. Afraid of attacking the Egyptian forces in the northern Syria
Russian influence over the Ottoman court, Britain but he failed. The Ottomans were defeated at Nizip,
and France offered mediation between the two which in fact led to a great reform program, called
parties. This resulted in the Convention of Kütahya the Tanzîmât starting in 1839.
in 1833 and Mehmed Ali became the governor of
Syria and of the province of Adana. ABOLITION OF THE
As a result of Russian aid to the Ottomans JANISSARY CORPS AND THE
against Mehmed Ali Pasha, the Treaty of Hünkar REFORMS DURING THE
İskelesi was signed between Russia and the
Ottoman Empire in the summer of 1833. Not very POST-1826 ERA
happy with the growing influence of Russia on the As elite military forces and standing army, the
Ottoman Empire, other European powers later on Janissaries fought at the center of the armies. They were
convinced the Ottoman Empire to enter a different highly respected for their military achievements and
agreement, the London Convention in 1841. The thus they were the fear of the Europeans for a long time.
European powers through this agreement gained Over time, the Janissaries came to represent status quo
some concessions. The Convention also brought because they were involved in craft and trade activities.
the Ottoman Empire under the protection of In some cases, their relatives and sons were registered
Concert of Europe. in the military corps which was strictly against the new
regulations. In the fifteenth and the sixteenth centuries,
they became very powerful in the political system.
In 1833, Tsar Nicholas I (1825-1855) called Through numerous revolts they interfered with the
the Ottoman Empire “the sick man of political developments and even rebelled against the
Europe.” This became the part of what was sultans to whom they had pledged allegiance. In the
called “the Eastern Question.” nineteenth century they were very much against the
adaptation of European reforms in the army.
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The continuous losses against the adversaries of

the Ottoman state diminished their reputation as
a powerful army. The Greek insurrection in 1821
also proved that they were incapable of defeating
the rebels. Consequently, in addition to improving
the artillery and the navy, on May 28 1826, a new
army was formed to be trained and equipped in the
European military norms. Mahmud II decided to
enroll 150 men from each Janissary battalion to the
new corps called eşkinciyan. In order not to face any
reaction, he did not utter the word reform. He indeed
argued that these changes were legitimate under the
military order of Sultan Süleyman I (Suleiman the
Magnificent). Furthermore, he cooperated with
the Janissary officers as well as some religious and
bureaucratic people of the time. In short, Mahmud
II went about the changes in a very clever manner.
The Janissaries resisted Mahmud’s ideas
of reforms once more and rebelled. This time
Mahmud II asked their surrender when they were
on the way to the palace. When they refused, the
Sultan’s artillery force acted quickly and directed
their fire on the Janissary barracks. Most of the 2 3 1
Janissaries were killed in this attack. The ones who Figure 2.7 Janissary junior officers
escaped were executed. The revolt was overcome
Source: https://tr.pinterest.com/pin/363243526174822599/
in a very short time since the Janissaries did not
receive much support from their old allies.
important
Charles MacFarlane, a Scottish traveler, who stayed in Istanbul
for sixteen months two years after the elimination of the Janissaries,
wrote about the event. He explained how Kara-djehennem (black When the Janissaries rebelled,
hell) knelled the Janissaries -the sons of Hadji Bektash. He detailed they knocked down their cooking
more: “This day blood freed Mahmood forever from the detested cauldron. Cemal Kafadar explains
corps, and might have satisfied even his revenge. Those who fell not this in detail: “If the gesture of the soup
by artillery, musquetry, and yataghans, were burned in their barracks. cups seemed too weak to express the
The ample revenge did not, however, satisfy the mind of the sultan, for intensity of their dissatisfaction, or if
thousands of the Janissaries, who had retired from or taken no part in it were to be neglected, the Janissaries
the unequal struggle, and concealed themselves in their houses, were would turn to an even more radical
afterwards seized, strangled, and thrown into the Bosphorus, while gesture: the removal of the cauldron of
only a few hundreds were condemned to the milder punishment of the mess kitchens from the hearth. That
imprisonment for life in the Bagnio, where I saw a number of them was a potent signifier of full rebellion
last autumn in a most wretched condition. Although, at the moment (and not merely a threat as in the case
of the prepared revolt, there were probably from one hundred to one of the soup cups), for the cauldron on
hundred and twenty thousand individuals at Constantinople bearing the fireplace represented order and
the name of Janissaries, from the effects of the long working I have repose. [As Keçecizade wittily phrased it
described, there were probably not above twenty-five thousand true to after 1826, “raising the cauldron again
the cause, and dangerous to government. The mass of these twenty-five and again, the Janissaries finally spilled
thousand may have sacrificed during the fight, or in the purgation it over and extinguished the fire of the
which followed it.” (MacFarlane, 1829, p. 128). hearth (ocak, which also means the
corps).”(Kafadar, 2007, p. 132).
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In the end, the Janissary corps and their

symbols were abolished. This event that marked
their end was widely known as the Auspicious Bektaşi was a Sufi order founded by Hacı
Event (Vak’a-yı Hayriyye), indeed a victory. Bektaş-ı Veli from Horasan. The order spread
However, those who opposed the abolition of the to Anatolia and Balkans in the sixteenth
Janissaries came to see it as an inauspicious event century but gained a political importance
(Vak’a-yı Şer’iye). Following Vak’a-yı Hayriyye the in the fifteenth century with the Janissaries.
Bektaşi order was abolished as well. Their convents Due to their close ties with the Bektaşis the
were destroyed or put under the supervision of Janissary corps came to be known as the
the orthodox Sunni orders. Ocak-ı Bektaşiyan, meaning the Bektaşi corps.
Immediately after the abolition of the

82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89
Janissary corps, not only the Janissaries but
also their associates were punished. They were
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97
either deported for imprisonment or executed.
Some of them were banished to the cities in
98 99 100 101 1 2 3 4
the Balkans and Anatolia. By sending them to
different places, the state clearly sought to break
down solidarity between those who had shared 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
the same interests with Janissaries. Coffeehouses

and barber’s shops were also closed down since 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
they were places where people exchanged ideas
and socialized.
Janissary insignias, 81-8 101 show units called orta
MacFarlane gave us some details about his 21 22 23 24 25 27 28
observation on the closed coffeehouses: “I was 26
much surprised to see the great sear-city of coffee- 35 36

29 30 31 32 33 34
houses, which abound in Smyrna and in all the
Turkish towns I have visited, and was struck with
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44
a disproportionate frequency of barbers’ shops. (…)
“That’s all very true, Sir,” replied my phlegmatic
46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53
Chaldean; “but what would the bostandjis get by
that. The fact is, the Turks cannot live without
coffee-houses; and besides, the order to shut 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61
them up is now and old affair. Each cafidji may

make it worth their while not to see; and so, you Insignias from 21-61 indicate units called Bôluk
understand, the Stambool-Effendi, and officers of
police under him, need not look beyond the barber’s Figure 2.8 Janissary insignias often used in forms of tattoos.
shop.” (MacFarlane, 1829, p. 35). Source: http://photobucket.com/gallery/http://s1368.
photobucket.com/user/druzhina345/media/Ottoman/
Janissary_Orta_Symbols-p24.jpg.html
Bostandjis/bostancis were imperial guards.
With the abolition of the Janissary corps, İhtisâb Ağalığı/later İhtisâb Nezâreti (the Directorate of
Marketplace) was re-organized. It took over some tasks of the Janissaries on surveillance and taxation
practices in urban areas. It often acted as municipal organization up until the Tanzîmât era when a much
organized municipal organization (Şehremaneti) was founded.
45
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Military Reforms
It was the post-1826 era that Mahmud started his reform program. He abandoned the eşkinci unit and
created a new army, called Muallem Asâkir-i Mansûre-i Muhammediye (The Trained Victorious Soldiers of
Mohammed). The Mansure troops were appointed a commander-in-chief, called Serasker and by putting
soldiers under his control, autonomy of different corps came to an end.
Serasker replaced the head Janissary (Janissary Agha) and took some Janissary
tasks in public security, police duties, and fire-fighting in the capital city. Later, in important
1845, another department, Zabtiye Müşiriyeti came to replace the police functions.
Under the Serasker, 12,000 men from the newly founded army was stationed in The office of Serasker
Istanbul. New recruits were ordered from the provinces and soldiers were expected developed into the
to serve for twelve years, which later was reduced to four to five years of service. Minister of War by 1908.
The Education
Mahmud sought guidance and instruction from Europe
when he attempted his reforms. The British were asked for A Prussian lieutenant and later field-marshal,
assistance in 1834 to reorganize the army but the British did Helmuth von Moltke, came to Istanbul in 1835
not respond favorably. France and Britain were sympathizers to advise Mahmud II on the modernization of
of the Greek insurgents. Furthermore, France supported his army. He even served under the Ottoman
Mehmed Ali Pasha of Egypt. The indifference of these flag for some time. He wrote books on his
powers made Mahmud to seek advice and help from other travels. He later became the Chief of the
sources. In fact, he turned to Austria and Prussia. With this
Prussian Staff. He was also instrumental in
new cooperation, Prussians came to Istanbul while some
changing the European map with Otto von
Ottomans went to Vienna.
Bismarck, who unified Germany in 1871 and
Sultan Mahmud revived the naval and military schools of
became the chancellor and prime minister.
the late eighteenth century. In 1827, he established a military
medical school to train doctors for the new army and in 1834,
Mekteb-i Ulûm-ı Harbiye (the School of Military Sciences).
Muzika-i Hümâyûn Mektebi (Imperial Music School) was Giuseppe Donizetti (1797-1848) was
founded and Giuseppe Donizetti-titled later as Donizetti
an Italian opera composer and the older
Pasha- an Italian composer, was invited to Istanbul to teach
in this school where he introduced European brother of the famous Italian composer,
style music to the Ottoman army. Donizetti also Gaetano Donizetti.
taught the palace dignitaries and compesed the
first Ottoman national anthem.
Figure 2.9 Giuseppe Donizetti

Source: http://www.sabah.com.tr/kultur-sanat/2014/12/03/giuseppe-donizetti-beyoglundaki-evinde-anildi
46
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Although most of Mahmud’s educational Bureaucratic Reforms

reforms were directed to the military, he founded In addition to modernizing the army and
schools for the civilian population as well. The reforming the education, Mahmud tried to
Ottomans relied on foreign nationals to do the establish an efficient bureaucratic mechanism.
translations in their interactions with the great In 1826, he abolished the office of confiscation
powers. The increasing relations with the west (appropriation of private property for state) and
necessitated that civil servants who worked for the escheat (a reversion to the state-the ultimate owner
Palace to learn the languages of the west. Tercüme of property-in the absence of legal heirs). The state
Odası (The Translation Office) was founded secured the property rights in this way and thus
in 1821. The purpose of this school/office was more people were interested in becoming state
to train civil servants in foreign languages and officials. Moreover, regular salary for the scribes
educate translators for the Palace. Mahmud also was introduced. Mahmud sought to replace the
sent a small number of students to Paris in 1827 old guild-like system on the job training with a
to study military sciences. Permanent embassies modern hierarchical system of rank.
were reconstituted in London, Paris and Vienna.
As relationship with the west developed, many like
Mustafa Reşit Pasha, who was to be the architect of
the Tanzîmât reforms, went to Paris in 1835 and Guild like organization and procedure
then to London. His pupils, Ali Pasha were sent to showed itself within the scribal service,
Paris and Fuat Pasha to London. especially the lower strata.
The sons of important
the first diplomats
to Europe, who
Ahmet Vefik Pasha was a By 1835, civil bureaucracy (kalemiyye) was
were children or
political figure but more reorganized under the Grand vizier, the religious-
youngsters found
importantly he was a very judicial administration (ilmiyye) under Şeyhülislam
opportunity to
significant literary man. and the military (seyfiyye) under Serasker. They
observe Europe.
He established the first were considered to be equal to one another and all
Ahmed Vefik Pasha
European style theatre and were responsible to the Sultan. The power of the
(1823-91) is such
theatre plays in Bursa. He Grand vizier declined with changing of his title
an example who was
translated major works of from absolute deputy (vekil-i mutlak) into chief
educated in Paris
Moliere and staged them. deputy (baş vekil), which meant that the Grand
where his father
was stationed. He vizier’s duties were like those of a prime minister.
ended up as the Ottoman ambassador to Paris Furthermore, Grand vizier’s steward, kahya, became
and twice Grand vizier and the president of the the minister of the civil affairs that later developed
Chamber of Deputies in the Ottoman Parliament into the minister of the interior. The chief scribe
that opened in 1877. He translated Télémaque, Gil (reisülküttâb) became the minister of the foreign
Blas and most of Moliere’s works. He contributed affairs. Treasury and justice departments were also
to the development of Turkish literature with his institutionalized and advisory councils were created.
translation efforts. The above men later became the Such bureaucratic divisions of responsibilities made
next generation of the state officials. the Sublime Porte, seat of the Grand vizier, a place
where power was consolidated, especially after
In 1838, Rüşdiye schools as middle schools Mahmud’s reign.
between elementary and high schools were proposed
to be opened in the hope of increasing literacy in There were consultative committees that
the empire. Moreover, in 1839, Mekteb-i Maârif-i were formed earlier to aid the state affairs. A
Adliye (School for Judicial Education) and Mekteb-i new one like Meclis-i Hass and Meclis-i Vükelâ
Ulûm-ı Edebiye (School for Literary Sciences) were (Privy Council or Council of Ministers) were
founded. Mahmud’s such educational reforms were founded. Meclis-i Dar-ı Şûrâ-yı Askerî (Council
followed by his successors. for Military Affairs) and Meclis-i Vâlâ-i Ahkâm-ı
Adliye (Supreme Council for Judicial Regulations)
47
2
were created to plan and execute reforms. As the

highest of the councils, the Supreme Council for
Judicial Regulations was established in 1838 as During the post-1826 era, vakfs/evkâf,
an advisory council for the Sultan. This Council which were pious foundations, were put
prepared new legislations and acted as a court of under one roof, Evkâf-ı Hümâyûn Nezâreti
appeals in administrative matters. Its procedures (The Ministry of the Imperial Pious
were parliamentary although its members were Foundations).
composed of high dignitaries rather than the
elected ones. During the final years of Mahmud
II, committees for agriculture, trade, industry The Clothing Law of 1829 and
and public works were created. All these Other Changes
efforts did not yield great changes in the short
The 1829 Clothing Law introduced unity
run. However, they helped to break down the
and uniformity among the bureaucrats. The civil
traditional order.
servants were required to follow the dress code.
Earlier forms of dress codes had promulgated to
The Ulemâ Under the State Control differentiate the subjects in terms of religion,
After the abolition of the Janissaries, in the capital status, rank and occupation by wearing certain
city, the office and residence of the head Janissary colors and fabrics. The 1829 Clothing Law aimed
was turned into the office of Şeyhülislam. The at eliminating the visual differences among men
bureaucratization of the ulemâ took place with the by requiring them to wear a special headgear.
creation of the Bâb-ı Meşihat- an office and department According to the law, a new head gear called fez of
of the Şeyhülislam. Under this office, fetvas were drafted North African origin was introduced and extended
by a committee of legal specialists. As an outcome of to civilians. Frock-coat, capes, trousers and black
reorganization of the religious bureaucracy, the power leather boots replaced the traditional ones. Beards
ulemâ enjoyed declined because pious foundations were also trimmed as part of the new policy.
(evkâf) were put under state control. Furthermore,
appointment of teachers and administration of schools
were transferred to the ministry of education. By the
same token, appointment of judges and administration
of legal procedures later became the responsibility of
the ministry of justice. The outcome of centralization
through new division of labor and secularization
through the newly created bodies lessened the role of
men of religion in state matters.
important
Secularism is an ethical system independent of

revealed religions and superstitions. It is some kind
of separation of state and church. Thus, it came
to mean that religion should not play a role in
government, education, or other public functions
of society. More specifically, secularism represents
state neutrality, which is to avoid favoring or
disfavoring any religion and non-religion or any
religion over against non-religion, or the other
Figure 2.10 Sultan Mahmud II in his modern attire
way around.
Source: https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/236x/7e/
1d/57/7e1d576848679088f486369a42bb9da4.jpg
48
2
important Misriya (Events of Egypt) was published in Egypt

in 1828. The newspaper was a bilingual one-it was
printed half in Turkish and half in Arabic. A few years
Although it did not include women
later, in 1831, the first issue of an official newspaper
and brought equality for males only,
was published under the name of Moniteur Ottoman,
the 1829 Clothing Law marked the
which was in French. The Turkish version of the official
end of the pre-modern society unlike
newspaper was called Takvim-i Vekâyi (Calendar of
the former society which differentiated
Events) published in the same year. The state officials
the subject population in terms
were required to read important
of their religion, status, rank and
it and be informed
occupation. Some workers reacted to
about the Sultan’s
this law since they sought to preserve Ceride-i Havadis
policies. Takvim-i
their class interests through different published only news in
Vekâyi remained as
headgears that they were wearing. the beginning. Later, the
the only newspaper
paper included translations
published in the
of Western literature
Turkish language
As part of this legal requirement, Feshane, a hat and advertisements.
until 1840 when
factory was built located on the shores of the Golden A gentleman sending
William Churchill,
Horn to manufacture fez for the army and the news from Alexandria is
an Englishman,
bureaucracy. When fez became the official headgear, considered the first Turkish
started to publish a
fezzes were brought from Tunisia. Later, masters journalist. The paper also
non-official, semi-
from Tunisia came to Istanbul to work at Feshane. used war correspondents
independent Turkish
Later, the factory also manufactured clothes. It during the Crimean War.
newspaper, called
should be noted here that it was the post-Mahmud It closed its doors in 1864.
Ceride-i Havadis.
period that factories as commercial enterprises were
opened in different parts of the empire.
The changes of the era were not only in the From 1860 and onwards, more newspapers
way individuals dressed. The social culture and appeared on the Ottoman lands and formed
individual tastes were also changing. As such, the basis of the modern intelligentsia.
European style of chairs and tables appeared along
with divans and cushions. European social manners
and protocols were adopted. Similar to European Sultan Mahmud attempted to limit the military
counterparts the walls of the governmental offices and financial power of the ayan and thus appointed
were adorned with the picture of the Sultan. This officials functioning as tax collectors and military
was a complete novelty of the time. commanders from Istanbul. In order assert more
control over the provinces, the sultan did not
only publish an official newspaper, but also held
Reaction to Mahmud’s reforms made him be census and land surveys, and introduced a postal
called as Gavur Padişah (the Infidel Sultan). system. The first Ottoman modern census and
survey were held in 1831. Census was made to
create an efficient system of taxation and recruit
males for the military. The census was started in
The First Newspaper (in Turkish), 1828-1829 but due to the war with Russia it was
Census, Land Survey and Postal rather limited. The census figures of 1831 showed
System that the male population of the Ottoman Empire
The first newspaper had been published by the was 3.7 million out of 23 million (excluding North
French embassy in Istanbul within the Ottoman Africa). For military purposes a second census was
capital. It was in French and was printed from 1796 ordered in 1844, according to which, Ottoman
to 1798. In the 1820s, French newspapers appeared population including those from the North Africa
in İzmir, as well. The first local newspaper, Waka-i and Egypt was 35,350,000.
49
2
A land survey was also held to register important

landholdings for tax assessment and
collection. Timar as military fief which
2 During the post-
declined in importance from the sixteenth
Mahmud period, modern
In what areas did the reforms of century onwards, was abolished. Some of communication and
the post-1826 era concentrate on? the lands were converted into state lands transportation systems were
and they were later leased out to the
introduced. As such, the
tax farmers. The timar system, however,
first telegraph was used in
continued to play a role in Anatolia although the sipâhis (the cavalrymen)
1855 and the first railways
were pensioned off and their timars were seized.
was opened in 1866.
There were other developments. As such, roads were constructed and a
postal system was inaugurated. The first postal system was established from
Üsküdar to İzmit and the second one was from Istanbul to Edirne. A quarantine system was also established
in those years and thus vexatious delays were prevented. All these developments strengthened Mahmud’s
administrative centralization.
Shortcomings of Mahmud’s Reforms

Even though established with the greatest of good intentions, all these reforms required a great deal of
money. The Mansûre Treasury was created to meet the increasing monetary demand. The income for the
treasury was collected from tax farms, religious foundations, which were put under the central control,
confiscated properties as well as newly introduced taxes. In spite of such efforts, the state did not raise
sufficient amount of revenue. Moreover, state monopolies could not be used efficiently and they were
abolished in the last years of Mahmud II. As a result, a monetary deficit was inevitable. The deficit meant
the debasement of coinage which in turn increased inflation. As a snowball effect, the Ottoman currency
devalued which in turn affected those with fixed income.
Some reforms used a top down process and therefore remained superficial. Because of the fact that
the Islamic law was in use in the family matters such as marriage and divorce and even property and
inheritance cases remained the same. The status of women and slaves also stayed the same. Mahmud II
did not really interfere with the religious law since Islamic tradition existed at both the state and society
levels. Most reforms including laws and institutions in general existed alongside with the old ones. The
functions of the old and the new institutions were not defined clearly and rendered the application of
the new ones difficult.
Mahmud’s reforms also suffered from the lack of trained and reliable personnel. One reason was the
difficulty of eliminating the patrimonial system altogether. Persistence of the patron-client relationship
and corruption among civil servant prevented Mahmud II from having an efficient modern bureaucracy.
Unlike the patrimonial one, a modern bureaucracy has an impersonal

and rational character. It is thus based on rules rather than kingship and
friendship ties or patrimonial and charismatic authority.
Furthermore, among the civil servants, those who knew European

languages were not many and Mahmud’s men of reforms were not all 3
skilled enough to carry out such a broad range of reform program. In
spite of such difficulties, his reforms paved the way for more secular What were the shortcomings of
and egalitarian reforms of the following period. Sultan Mahmud II’s reforms?
50
2
Towards Liberal Policies: The Anglo-Ottoman Convention of 1838

Following the post-Napoleonic period starting in 1814-1815, Great Britain emerged as an industrial
power. As other nations introduced protectionist policies, Britain signed free trade agreements with different
countries in order to open up new markets to the British products. They would also get free access to their raw
materials for the British industry. The Ottoman lands provided such an opportunity. For the sake of liberal
policies, in 1825, Great Britain dissolved the Levant Company (trading monopolies). In order to reduce
the burden of the trading restrictions that stemmed from the state monopolies, internal custom duties, and
some extraordinary duties were imposed due to wars, Britain signed the Anglo-Ottoman Convention in 1838.
This came after the Ottomans asked British help against Mehmed Ali Pasha of Egypt. According to the
Convention, the new tariffs for the British traders was 12 % on exports and 5 % on the imports.
Figure 2.11 Figure 2.12 Miss. Julia Pardoe

Source: https://semrabayraktar.blogspot.com.tr/2013/01/istanbul- Source: https://sites.lib.byu.edu/worldhistory/wp-content/
bartlett-ve-pardoe.html uploads/sites/42/2013/05/beautiesofbospho1838pard_00081.jpg
important
In 1838, a British woman Julia Pardoe

Levant, historically meant the countries
visited Istanbul when she was 30 years old.
along the eastern Mediterranean shores. It
She arrived to the city with her father on
was used for the coastlands of Asia Minor
their way to Egypt. She wrote books that
and Syria and sometimes the term Levant
gave detailed information on Istanbul and
included the areas from Greece to Egypt.
the domestic manners of the Turks. They
The term was also used for Anatolia and in
were: The City of the Sultan, and Domestic
general for the Middle or Near East.
Manners of the Turks in 1836 and The
Beauties of the Bosphorus.
51
2
This Convention abolished the state monopolies In conclusion, the Ottoman Empire lost its
and the right to impose extraordinary taxes. power as a major world empire at the end of the
As such, it marked the end of the protectionist eighteenth century. One reason was that it was not
policy, which had provided a shelter for local modern in terms of its bureaucracy that was limited,
merchants and craftsmen. In other words, lifting the military that was too traditional (lack of efficient
the protectionist policies served the interests of the training and technology) and intermediaries existed
foreign merchants who found the opportunity to between the state and society to collect taxes. In
reach directly to the internal trade. The Ottomans other words, it was far from being centralized. Also,
who were involved in the international trade external wars and internal rebellions weakened its
benefitted from the atmosphere of the free trade power. Selim III enforced traditional clothing and
economy. Especially the intermediaries between building restrictions to uphold the Islamic order.
small farmers and European industries profited. Despite such traditional ways of upholding order and
Among them the Ottoman Greeks played asserting power, Selim III pursued westernization in
significant role while the Ottoman Armenians had his reforms. He launched a reform program called
a lesser role. They were under the berât system, Nizâm-ı Cedîd (New Order) after the Treaty of Jassy.
which gave them protection of the Europeans. Nizâm-ı Cedîd was an attempt to strengthen the state
On the other hand, some traditional handcraft apparatus and thus fought abuse and corruption of
industries were adversely affected especially those power. Like Selim III, Mahmud II introduced his
at the port cities which had direct contact with reform program but faced both internal and external
Europe. Inland regions were not shaken by the problems.
imports. It was cotton yarn production that was Mahmud II, compared to Selim III, was more
badly affected and to some extent the clothing successful. Unlike Selim III, Mahmud II sought
sector. Also, income and unemployment increased to spread reforms not only to the military but to
in some places. The guild system which protected other institutions and society. He did not change
tradesmen and artisans and was a self-regulatory the old system but created new administrative
system had already suffered a setback with the and legal systems. New institutions of education
abolishment of the Janissaries. Now with the new in modern sciences produced rationalist and
concession to the foreigners, the guild system positivist thinking. This in the long run paved the
became less efficient. way for the emergence of reformist people of the
In short, the Anglo-Ottoman Convention opened later generations. As such, both the Translation
the way for further liberal economic policies. It Office and the embassies were where later reformist
was not a turning point but it marked the end Ottoman bureaucrats came from. Finally, although
of protectionism and provisionism. Although it they had shortcomings, Selim’s and Mahmud’s
opened the Ottoman market to the British trade, reforms certainly routed the Ottoman Empire in
similar concessions were also given to other nations the course of modernization and helped to opening
between 1838 and 1841. a new era of reform, Tanzîmât.
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Understand why the Ottoman Empire lost its

LO 1 power as a major world empire and felt the need
to introduce a broad range of reform program
The Ottoman-Russian War that resulted with the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca in 1774 caused the
Ottoman Empire lose territories and later she had to give up Crimea to Imperial Russia. Russia
also established itself as the protector of the Orthodox Christians who lived under the Ottoman
rule. Later this brought more of Russia and other great powers’ involvement into Ottoman
domestic affairs. They sought either to protect the territorial integrity of the Empire or to share
it without upsetting the balance of power. This policy was known as “the Eastern Question.”
Indeed, in the nineteenth century, the Ottoman Empire was seen as the “sick man of Europe.”
Summary
Moreover, the French occupation of Egypt in 1798 made the Ottoman Empire side with other
major world powers. There also emerged nationalism with Serbs and Greeks, resistances by local
notables and Wahhabis. Reforms were faced by reactions, which came from the Janissaries and
other conservative groups. In spite of all these problems, Selim III introduced a reform program
called Nizâm-ı Cedîd. He was followed by Mahmud II who introduced his reforms in various
areas during the post-1826 era.
Explain how the reforms under Selim III and Mahmud

LO 2 II formed the basis of the Tanzîmât era (1839-1876) and
ponder on the processes in which modern Turkey emerged
Tanzîmât era lasted from 1839 to 1876. Reforms under Selim III and Mahmud II formed the basis
of this era in a variety of ways. Although Selim’s Nizâm-ı Cedîd came to an end with his overthrow,
the soul of his reforms especially those in the military continued with Mahmud II. Mahmud II
was only able to initiate his reforms during the post-1826 era, which marked the abolition of the
Janissaries, notorious for their anti-reform stance. During this period, Meclis-i Vâlâ-i Ahkâm-ı
Adliye was created as a council with advisory functions. This particular council continued to exist
during the Tanzîmât era. Also military conscription, abolition of confiscation, putting ulemâ,
bureaucracy, and the military under one roof, interaction with the west by establishing embassies
in certain European cities, sending students to Europe, creating ministry of foreign affairs were
also sustained during the following period. Secular and egalitarian character (bringing equality
before the law for all Ottoman subjects) of the Tanzîmât came about through the reforms under
Sultan Selim III and Sultan Mahmud II.
53
2
LO 3 See to what extent the west had impact on the

Ottoman reforms
The Ottomans from the eighteenth century onwards followed the west in terms of its
knowledge and practices. Technical schools were opened to introduce western sciences and
techniques and European instructors came to the Ottoman lands. New corps of infantry were
trained and equipped in the line of Europe. Books were brought to be translated into Turkish.
Sultans themselves invited Europeans to their palace. Selim indeed followed western music and
poetry and imported portraits from Europe. Permanent embassies were opened in London,
Vienna, Berlin, and Paris and thus diplomatic relations developed. The main ideas of the French
Summary
Revolution found its expression on the Ottoman lands. European material culture, social
manners and protocols were adopted. The governmental offices had the Sultan’s portraits which
started with Sultan Mahmud II. The foreign powers were very much involved in the Ottoman
internal affairs as well. The invasion of Egypt by Napoleon, Serbian, Greek and Egyptian
questions where they confronted the Ottoman Empire or each other.
examine the steps taken towards modern state

LO 4 and society and consequently point out the
dynamism of the Ottoman Empire
Ottoman state and society were dynamic and that they believed they could find solutions to their
problems. As such, under the policies of centralization, ulemâ, military and bureaucracy were
put under one roof. A more efficient system of administration with a new division of labor was
introduced. Secular state bodies were also created. The 1829 Clothing Law brought uniformity
and thus to some extent marked the rising egalitarianism. The abolition of the Janissary corps
along with its symbols and status also contributed to this. Different interest groups, such as
local notables resisted in certain places. Wahhabis challenged the Ottoman rule, the ulemâ sided
with the Janissaries, local notables forced the Sultan to agree on Sened-i İttifâk that signified
memorandum of understadning between the Sultan and local interest groups. Having non-
religious character, this particular agreement limited the power of the Sultan. Although it did
not last long, it paved the way for latter developments, indeed constitutional movements. There
were also nationalist sentiments that arose among Ottoman Greeks and Serbs and they founded
their own patriotic societies. From all these angles, Ottoman state and society were not static.
They were changing and adapting themselves to their new circumstances.
54
2
References
Ahmad, F. (1993). The making of modern Turkey. Mac Farlane, C. (1829). Constantinople in 1828: A
London: Routledge. residence of sixteen months in Turkish capital and
provinces, with an account of the present state of the
Ahmad, F. (2003). Turkey: The quest for identity.
naval and military power, and of the resources of the
Oxford: OneWorld Publications.
Ottoman Empire (Vol. 2). London: Saunders and
Barkey, K. (2008). Empire of difference: The Ottomans Otley.
in comparative perspective. New York: Cambridge
Quataert, D. (2000). The Ottoman Empire: 1700-1922.
University Press.
Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
Başaran, B. (2014). Selim III, social control and policing
Quataert, D. (1997). Clothing laws, state, and society
in Istanbul at the end of the eighteenth century:
in the Ottoman Empire, 1720-1829. International
Between crisis and order. Leiden: Brill.
Journal of Middle East Studies, 29(3), 403-25.
Hanioğlu, M. Ş. (2008). A brief history of the late
Shaw, S. J. & Shaw, E. K. (1977). History of the
Ottoman Empire. Princeton, NJ: Princeton
Ottoman Empire and modern Turkey reform,
University Press.
revolution, and republic: The rise of modern Turkey,
Kafadar, C. (2007). Janissaries and other riffraff 1808–1975 (Vol. 2). Cambridge: Cambridge
of Ottoman Istanbul: Rebels without a cause? University Press.
International Journal of Turkish Studies, 13 (1&2),
Turna, N. (2008). Pandemonium and order:
113-34.
Suretyship, surveillance and taxation in early
Levy, A. (1971). The Ottoman Ulema and the military nineteenth-century Istanbul. New Perspectives on
reforms of Sultan Mahmud II. Asian and African Turkey, 39, 167-89.
Studies, 7, 13-39.
Zürcher, E. J. (1993). Turkey: A modern history.
Lewis, B. (1961). The emergence of modern Turkey. London, I. B. Tauris.
London, Oxford University Press.
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Further Readings
Aksan, V. (1999). Ottoman military recruitment Karpat, K. H. (1985). Ottoman population, 1830–
strategies in the late eighteenth century. In 1914: Demographic and social characteristics.
Erik Zürcher (Ed.), Arming the State: Military Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press.
Conscription in the Middle East and Central Asia,
Levy, A. (2002). Jews, Turks, Ottomans: A shared
1775-1925 (pp. 21-39). New York: NY I. B.
history, fifteenth through the twentieth century. New
Tauris.
York, NY: Syracuse University Press.
Fahmy, K. (1997). All the pasha’s men: Mehmed Ali, his
Levy, A. (1971). The officer corps in Sultan Mahmud’s
army and the making of modern Egypt. Cambridge,
new Ottoman army, 1826-1839. International
UK: Cambridge University Press.
Journal of Middle East Studies, 2(1), 21-39.
Heyd, U. (1961). The Ottoman ‘Ulema and
Quataert, D. (1994). The age of reforms, 1812-
westernization in the time of Selim III and
1914. In H. Inalcık & D. Quataert (Eds.), An
Mahmud II. In Uriel Heyd (Ed.), Studies in Islamic
economicand social history of the Ottoman Empire,
History and Civilization (pp. 63-96). Jerusalem,
1300-1914 (Vol. 2, pp. 843-87). Cambridge,
IL: Magnes Press.
Cambridge University Press.
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INTRODUCTION will be discussed in terms of taxation policies,

In the eighteenth and the nineteenth centuries, abolition of forced labor, monopolies, and legal
the world changed drastically after the Industrial matters. The emphasis will also be put on the crisis
Revolution, which transformed Europe from a of the years from1870s until mid-1870s. The third
rural and agrarian society into an industrial and section will examine an important international
urban one. Iron and textile industries were the war, known as the Crimean War that broke out
initiators of this revolution. Developments in in 1853. The same section will closely look at
transportation, communication and banking the Imperial decree of 1856, which came out of
also helped to change the living standards of the the Crimean War and confirmed the Gülhâne
individuals. Unfortunately, the Ottomans were Decree. This will follow how Ottoman citizenship
slow to follow and were weighted down by internal developed under the new ideology of Ottomanism
and external struggles. The political events earlier along with its shortcomings. The last section
in the century gave way to attempts of reforms led of this unit will be on print media, the Young
by Sultans, Selim III and Mahmud II, that started Ottomans as the first modern intelligentsia and the
with the military and tried to be extended to many development of constitutionalism.
layers of the society. While Selim III could not
achieve his goals, his cousin Mahmud II was more THE GÜLHÂNE DECREE AND
successful in his attempts at modernization. THE REFORMS
Mahmud II had to deal with several external
events during his reign. One of the most
problematic issues he had to deal with was curbing
The Gülhâne Decree
the ambitions of the governor of Egypt, Mehmet Egypt was a semi-autonomous province of
Ali Pasha who had started fighting the Ottoman the Ottoman Empire. In 1798, it was occupied
army towards the end of his reign. The news of the by French under Napoleon Bonaparte. Mehmed
Ottoman defeat at Nizip by the Egyptian forces Ali Pasha arrived Egypt with Ottoman forces
came after Mahmud’s death in 1839. With his that wanted to oust the French. He was clever
death, his two sons came to the Ottoman throne. in gaining the Ottoman Sultan’s confidence and
His elder son Abdülmecid succeeded him. The became the governor (wali) of Egypt. He had aided
son continued with the modernizing reforms, the Ottomans in many of their struggles. When
which his father had already started. These efforts he wanted to expand his realm he challenged the
required help from Europe and produced the Sultan. After a series of conquest, his armed forces
Tanzîmât, which means ‘ordering,’ ‘regulating,’ or defeated the Ottoman army at the Battle of Nizip
‘restructuring’ and as a noun, it denotes ‘reforms.’ (1839). When the defeat by Egypt at Nizip left
In the history of the Ottoman Empire, Tanzîmât the Ottoman Empire defenseless, Abdülmecid
was also the name given to the period from 1839 asked for help against Egypt from Britain and
to the First Constitutional era, starting in 1876. Russia. Both countries decided to act on behalf
During this period, Sultan Abdülmecid (r. 1839- of the Ottomans while France sided with Egypt.
1861), Sultan Abdülaziz (r. 1861-1876) and Sultan A local Ottoman conflict, then, turned into an
Murad V (r. June to August 1876) were in power. international one. The Ottoman allies pushed for
the Egyptian evacuation of Syria. The British navy
Focusing on the Tanzîmât era, this unit is
bombarded some Egyptian positions where they
composed of four sections. The first section will
landed an expeditionary force. As a result, Egypt
detail the Gülhâne decree (or the Rose Chamber
lost Syria in 1841. Mehmed Ali Pasha, however,
Edict) along with its reasons and consequences.
received the hereditary governorship of Egypt and
It will then focus on the reforms, their main
from then on Egypt acted as an autonomous region
aspects -for example egalitarian and secular ones-
under the Ottoman center.
and shortcomings. The second section will give
an overview of the nineteenth-century Ottoman In order to get the support of the European
economy with particular emphasis on agriculture, powers against Mehmed Ali Pasha and at the same
trade, and manufacturing. The Tanzîmât economy time prevent any foreign powers’ intervention in
61
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The Tanzîmât Reforms, 1876
the Ottoman domestic affairs, reforms were introduced by promulgating the Gülhâne decree in 1839.
Other goals of the reforms were to solve the existent treasury crisis through new policies of taxation and to
foster Ottoman patriotism to unite people under the new ideology, Ottomanism (Osmanlıcılık).
Figure 3.1 Sultan Abdülmecid and the original Gülhâne decree.

Source: http://osmanli.site/osmanli-padisahlari-sultan-padisah-sultanlari/sultan-abdulmecid
The Gülhâne decree was read in the name of Sultan Abdülmecid at

Gülhâne (Rose Garden)-located outside the Topkapı palace- by Mustafa
Reşit Pasha, the leading statesman and the architect of the reforms of this
particular period. Sultan Abdülmecid, state dignitaries, religious leaders,
foreign diplomats and some noble people, like Prince de Joinville who
was the son of King Louis Philippe (1793-1830), King of France, were
all present during the ceremony.
It was proclaimed in this reformist decree that the Ottoman state
could not survive under the present circumstances. It was stated that the
problems that arose in the last 150 years weakened the Islamic law and
order. Additionally, old power and richness now turned into poverty and
weaknesses. The decree made it clear that the aim was to develop the
country and increase people’s wealth.
To summarize, the Gülhâne decree promised:
Figure 3.2 Mustafa Reşit Pasha,
• to guarantee the life, honor and property of the Ottoman
the architect of the Gülhâne
subjects,
decree.
• to treat subjects from all classes alike,
Source: http://www.nkfu.com/ • to make all trials public,
mustafa-resit-pasa • not to sentence any subject to death without proper trial and
sentencing,
• and equality to all subjects in taxation.
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With this decree, indiscriminate and random

confiscation was abolished to protect people’s
property rights; and thus, to increase their trust in
the state. In order to raise the state revenue, the
existent indirect tax system was replaced by a direct
taxation system, which, in fact, lasted only a few
years. Changes were also made to reduce military
service from lifetime to four to five years and to
increase the salaries of the state officials in order to
prevent bribery.
Administrative Reforms
Under the reform program, the central
bureaucracy became more specialized. Notably,
the power shifted from the palace to the Sublime
Porte (Bâb-ı Âli), which represented the Ottoman
government and was where state departments were Figure 3.3 Sultan Abdülmecid, on his way on the
Sublime Porte.
housed. Here, the role of the ministry of foreign
affairs was significant in that the post had great Source: www. flickr.com/ottoman imperial archives
power. Mustafa Reşit Pasha and his pupils, Ali
and Fuad Pashas were those who gained power
through this particular ministry. Its role, vis-à-vis, With the Tanzîmât reforms, power shifted
the sultans’ increased through such leading figures. from the palace to the Sublime Porte. It was
Civil, military and religious services had their own however, reversed during the reign of Sultan
headquarters at the Sublime Porte, which came Abdülhamid II (r. 1876-1909).
to combine office of the grand vizier, council of
ministers and some important consular bodies
while other sections of the civil bureaucracy existed The Tanzîmât era was marked with new
outside the Sublime Porte. councils, some of which, however, had been created
earlier. Meclis-i Vâlâ-yı Ahkâm-ı Adliye (Supreme
important Council of Judicial Ordinances) had been founded
during the reign of Mahmud II. As the workload
Ali Pasha [Mehmet Emin Ali] (1815-1871) of this particular council grew in time, the ruling
and Fuad Pasha [Keçecizade Mehmet Fuat] elite of the Tanzîmât period changed some of its
(1815-1868) were two important protégés functions. The judicial functions were maintained
of Mustafa Reşit Pasha. They served as and a new body, Meclis-i Âlî-yi Tanzîmât (Supreme
ministers of foreign affairs and Grand Council of Reforms) was created to cover the
viziers during the Tanzîmât era. They legislative functions. These two bodies were united
collaborated on the reform policies in the in 1860, with a new division of labor: legislative,
1850s and the 1860s. administrative investigation and court of appeals.
In 1868, they were divided once again under the
name Şûrâ-yı Devlet (Council of State) with both
Christian and Muslim members who were selected
by provincial governors. This final division covered
legislative functions and court of appeals.
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In the 1840s, internal administration (province), sancak (county), kaza (district), nâhiye
was centralized through the councils and the (rural community) and kariye (village). Twenty-
appointments. The appointed officials were seven provinces were designed under the revised
responsible directly to the Sublime Porte. Inspection law of 1871 which survived until 1913. These
commissions were sent out and councils at county districts were later organized as vilâyet, sancak or
and provincial levels were established. These livâ, kaza and nâhiye. The Provincial Law of 1864
councils acted as representative bodies of the state. also established provincial executive councils
made up of two Muslim and two non-Muslim
representatives who were chosen from the local
New councils opened the way for a populace. Along with the state bureaucrats, they
parliamentary system that was realized in were to serve at the councils. With these changes,
the 1870s. the Tanzîmât statesmen sought to make different
ethnic and religious groups participate in the
political decision making processes.
Local notables called ayâns gained access to the
sancak (county) councils where they implemented Military Reforms
orders sent from Istanbul. Even though ayâns had
The military was another area that the Tanzîmât
such privileges, especially landlords from both
reforms covered. Under the command of Serasker
Muslims and Christian communities were still
created during the post 1826 era, the name of the
unhappy because of the fact that they have lost the
army was changed to nizâmiye (regular army) troops
corvée, forced labor. With its abolition, reâyâs -the
that were organized according to the European
subject population- would no longer render services
military design. An important novelty of the time was
to the landlords. The landlords reacted and claimed
the official introduction of military conscription. For
that the lands were their personal properties relying
the sake of equality, Christians were initially subjected
on the protection of the law. With such social and
to conscription. They were later excluded and instead
economic reasons, the Tanzîmât reforms faced
of performing military duty, they paid a special tax
reactions in places like Nish and Vidin located in the
known as bedel-i askerî (military payment). Like
Balkans. In Rumelia, reaction to the forced labor
Christians, the residents of Istanbul and nomads were
was turned into a nationalist movement while in
exempt from military service. Furthermore, under the
Anatolia, it meant the preservation of the status quo. It
regulation of 1869, military obligation was defined as
should be noted here that although legally abolished,
four years of active duty.
the forced labor continued to exist in different forms.
It was during the reign of Abdülaziz that the

From the eighteenth century onwards,
Ottoman navy was expanded and it became
ayâns prospered financially through lifetime
the third largest in Europe.
tax farms and their exertion of political
authority at the provinces.
Legal Changes
The Ottoman legal system also underwent
In the 1850s, centralization did not yield a
significant changes. Although, with Tanzîmât
successful administration in the provinces. As a
secular laws replaced the traditional system of law,
consequence, in 1858, new provincial regulations
Tanzîmât statesmen did not abolish the cannon
reinstated the powers of the governors. In other
law of Islam, Şeriat, but confined its practice to
words, officials sent from Istanbul were made
the family law. A new penal code– later revised-
subordinate to the provincial governors rather than
was announced in 1843 and it introduced equality
to the center. Later, in the provinces, a hierarchical
between Muslim and non-Muslim subjects under
system was introduced with the Provincial Law
the law. The next year, death penalty for Muslims
(Vilâyet Nizâmnâmesi) of 1864. According to this
who apostatized, meaning abandoning religious
law, provinces were organized as follows: vilâyet
64
3
beliefs and allegiances, was abolished. Mixed Innovations in Education

tribunals were created for legal commercial cases Tanzîmât brought innovations into the
that involved foreigners. Inspired by French legal educational system. A modern and secular school
codes, a new commercial law was passed in 1850.
system was achieved through the creation of the
This was followed by the maritime law in 1863.
Council of Education in 1845, the Ministry of
In 1867 another legal decision allowed foreigners
Education in 1857 and the Law of Education
to own land in the Ottoman Empire. In 1869,
(Maârif-i Umûmiye Nizâmnâmesi) in 1869. This
nizâmiye (regular) courts were created to serve for
law required that schools be established in every
both Muslims and non-Muslims alike. Inspired
by the French law, these courts were designed for corner of the Ottoman state.
criminal, civil and commercial cases. Until the Tanzîmât, the schools based on
Furthermore, a civil code was proposed by Ali the teachings of the Quran were called Sıbyan
Pasha taking the French one as a model. However, Mektebi (Children’s school) that had offered
this was rejected by the ulemâ as their power primary education. In 1847, a decree from Sultan
over the existing judicial system declined. As an Abdülmecid required a two-year compulsory
outcome, instead of the French civil code, the education following the four-year Sıbyan schools.
religious law was codified and Mecelle (Civil Code These schools were called Rüşdiye. The aims
of Legal Affairs) was written (1870-1877). This of Rüşdiye were to prepare students for further
civil code covered the civil life of the Muslims of education in schools such as the military academy
the Hanefî sect. The code lasted until 1926 when or the medical school. Until the establishment of
the new civil code was introduced. İdâdî schools, Rüştiye schools became the basis
of secondary education. In 1845, İdâdî schools
were established to serve two purposes. One was
New courts and laws were more egalitarian to have students ready for higher education and
when compared to the earlier ones. the other was to accept both non-Muslim and
Muslim students so that they could have a better
intercultural understanding of one another.
In 1868 a new school, called Sultani, modelled
after French secondary schools was established.
The language of instruction in these schools was
French. The first of these school was the one
initiated at Galatasaray (1868). Another one was
Darüşşafaka (1873) for students who had lost
their parents. Due the fact that these schools had
different curriculum and accepted students from
both non-Muslim and Muslim population, they
Figure 3.4 Ahmet Cevdet Pasha, a statesman, became preferred schools.
historian, and a scholar The first higher education institutions
Source: http://www.bilgiustam.com/ahmet-cevdet- established in the nineteenth century were
pasa-kimdir/ Mekteb-i Mülkiye (School of Political Science) in
important
1859 and Mekteb-i Tıbbiye (School of Medicine)
in 1838. In fact, Mahmud II earlier had ordered
the establishment of military schools, such as the
Ahmed Cevdet Pasha (1822-95) was an Ottoman Mekteb-i Harbiye. Mekteb-i Mülkiye trained civil
statesman and scholar. He was a protégé of Mustafa servants who would be appointed to bureaucratic
Reşit Pasha. Working with Fuad Pasha, Ahmed Cevdet positions and conduct state affairs. On the other
wrote the first modern Ottoman grammar. In addition hand, Mekteb-i Tıbbiye was established in order to
to holding important official positions, Ahmed Cevdet replace the military medical schools and offered
was known for his ten-volume, “History of Cevdet.” modern medical education. The graduates of both
Also, in the 1870s, Mecelle ,as a civil code of Islamic these schools were instrumental in later political
character, was written under his direction. and social developments of the empire.
65
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In 1863, Dârülfünûn was opened in Istanbul as the first bona fide Ottoman university. The courses were
taught by the scientist of the time. The viziers and ministers would often come and listen to the lectures.
Furthermore, the classes were open not only to the students but to the public. However, this institution
was closed in 1871.
Figure 3.5 Dârülfünûn, literature students

Source: https://slymnalp.files.wordpress.com/2012/12/mehmet-akif-darc3bcl-fc3bcnc3bcnda.jpg
The establishment of Rüşdiye and İdâdî

schools required more teachers with better
qualifications. An outcome of this new demand
was the opening of Darülmuallimin (School for
Teachers) in 1848 to train male teachers. Later,
in 1870 the first female teachers’ school under
the name of Darülmuallimat was established to
train teachers for female secondary schools.
The non-Muslims were also allowed to
establish their own schools. Many non-Muslim
groups had their own schools. Especially with
Figure 3.6 Darülmuallimat building. the free hand that was given to the non-Muslim
population and foreign powers, many schools
Source: http://www.egitimkutuphanesi.com/drulmuallimt-1870
were established. The different ethnic and
religious groups were in competition with one
another and many opened private schools. Foreign Catholic and Protestant missionaries also founded
schools on the Ottoman lands. Among them was Notre Dame de Sion, a school for girls, established in
1856. Another example to such schools would be Robert College which was initiated by Cyrus Hamlin
in 1863.
Even though, much thought went into the development of the
educational system so as to unify the nation through education and 1
promote Ottomanism, these efforts did not yield results. The presence
of many minority schools, missionary schools especially ones established What were the main aims and
in locations where the great powers had political interests hindered characteristics of the Tanzîmât
the development of intercultural understanding that the educational reforms? In what areas did they
reforms hoped for. focus on?
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3
NINTEENTH CENTURY The introduction of the steam engine into

OTTOMAN ECONOMY AND THE transportation increased the volume of commerce
and agriculture in Europe. The European
TANZÎMÂT
penetration into the Ottoman lands was made
possible through these transportation facilities.
Trade, Agriculture, and As such, use of steamships on the newly opened
Manufacturing Suez Canal in 1869 paved the way for the British
The elimination of the Janissaries in 1826 as occupation of Egypt in 1882. The opening of the
protectors of monopolies, the Anglo-Ottoman Suez Canal had other results, too. The construction
Convention of 1838, the Gülhâne decree of 1839 of the Canal offered advantages to Iraq, Arabia and
and the Imperial decree of 1856 helped barriers Iran in trade. This, in return, meant economic
for the protectionist economy to disappear or be losses for some of the main cities in the Empire
reduced. In other words, the old bazar type local such as Damascus, Aleppo, Mosul, and even Beirut
markets lost importance as they were replaced by and Istanbul.
regional, national and international markets. As a The railroads with the use of steam engine
result, the Ottoman Empire became increasingly helped the development of agriculture; and thus,
integrated into the world capitalist system. opening of new lands to cultivation. Ottoman
As international trade increased around the cultivators found the opportunity to sell their
mid-nineteenth century and liberal policies were products at competitive prices. Nevertheless, there
put into effect, the Ottomans imported colonial were still some problems. The railroad network
goods, such as sugar, dyestuffs, coffee and textile did not reach most places in the empire because of
from India and Europe. They exported foodstuffs low population density, lack of capital and other
and raw materials, including wheat, barley, reasons. Additionally, the railroads were largely
cotton, tobacco, and opium. After 1850, they built with foreign capital. This increased the foreign
came to export manufactured goods, like carpets financial control over the Ottoman lands especially
and raw silk, as well. However, the exportation of in regions where railroad construction took place.
agricultural goods remained more or less the same.
Foreigners and Ottoman non-Muslims became
dominant in the foreign trade because they established The first Anatolian lines were built in the
partnerships with European merchants. Non-Muslim 1860s and it was in the 1870s that most
merchants held certificates (berâts), through which railways were built in the Balkans.
they held capitulatory privileges and paid lower
taxes, therefore, they had lower business costs. This
new set up declined the significance of the Ottoman Railroads enabled the flow of domestic wheat
Muslims as major group of merchants. They, however, and other cereals to reach Istanbul, Salonika, İzmir,
continued to dominate the trade in inland regions and Beirut. The income of the cultivators increased
and from these regions to the port cities. Port cities, when they could sell their products to the port
such as Istanbul, İzmir and Salonika, prospered as cities. More income meant that they could buy
the international trade did. An Ottoman bourgeoisie consumption goods. Moreover, they also needed
emerged from the local men of commerce. The new the cash income from these sales since they had
bourgeois class had western tastes and developed their to pay their taxes in cash. Briefly, the cultivators’
own consumption patterns. desire to be involved in this new market economy
was due to two reasons. They not only needed
the cash to pay their taxes, but they also enjoyed
Although it had been used earlier to denote buying consumer goods. The availability of cheap
European goods, like furniture, the term alla imported goods motivated their desire to buy
Franca became the hallmark of the Tanzîmât more; and thus, they wanted to produce more, for
era. Generally, the term came to be used to more cash and to buy more.
express western lifestyle and progressivism.
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important of the land owners did not want to register their

ownership since they were afraid of being subject
to more taxation. This created more advantages for
During the Tanzîmât era and in fact
the big landowners. They in turn acquired more
throughout its history, the Ottoman
and more property.
Empire stayed as an agrarian economy
that had labor scarcity, rich land and poor important
capital. Most of the population, around
80-90 percent, lived on the land. Most
The land code opened the way for the
of the Ottomans were cultivators who
leaders of the newly settled tribes. The
held family holdings rather than large
leaders became landlords and farmed
estates. In addition to agriculture, some
their lands, for which they used peasants
of them earned their livelihood by selling
as sharecroppers. Some of these landlords
manufactured goods to others.
became capitalist farmers in cotton and
tobacco production. During and after the
American Civil War, fought from 1861
During the nineteenth century, the use of to 1865 between United States of the
modern agricultural tools increased agricultural North and 11 Southern states that formed
production for sales. This led to hiring of labor the Confederate States of America, the
with wages. An upshot of this was the change of Ottoman landlords expanded their market
rural labor relations. to Europe. After the 1908 revolution, these
Land owners used wage labor which they did not men appeared as the new middle class.
prefer due to increased production costs. Therefore,
sharecropping continued as the preferable agrarian
labor. Another change that took place was the Manufacturing also underwent changes when
sedentarization policies that was settling down of mechanization appeared towards the end of the
a nomadic population. The nomads who either nineteenth century. Factories were established for
raised animals or grew crops in different areas food processing, spinning silk, and weaving cloths.
settled down and were involved in agriculture From 1875 onwards, some factories were opened in
rather than raising animals. Consequently, this led Istanbul and western Anatolia. Silk reeling factories
to a decline in animal population. were founded in Bursa and in Lebanon. Later,
steam-powered silk reeling factories in Salonika,
Edirne, and western Anatolia and in Lebanon were
Sharecropper was a tenant farmer who founded. Mechanization in manufacturing did
farmed the land in exchange for a portion of not, however, replace manual labor. Also, according
the crops. to Donald Quataert, “Manufacturing in the
countryside, increasingly by female labor, became
more important and that by urban-based, male,
There were other changes that affected often guild-organized, workers less so” (Quataert,
agriculture and the use of land. In 1847, a new 2000, p. 134).
law was accepted to encourage cultivators to farm
unused state lands. It allowed local landlords to Reforms in the Taxation System
increase their land holdings and consequently, their
wealth and power rather than allowing landless During the Tanzîmât era, the tithe (a‘şâr)
peasants to acquire land. The Land Code of 1858 and service tax (mürettebat) were maintained.
(Arâzi Kanunnâmesi) came to cover the lands that Nevertheless, the burden of providing food and
belonged to private owners, the state or pious lodging to the travelling or visiting officials on
foundations. It required ownership based on title the villages or communities ended. The head tax
deeds to be registered. Then the state lands (mîrî) cizye for non-Muslims was abolished with the
turned into private lands (mülk). However, some Imperial decree of 1856. Instead, a military service
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3
exemption tax (bedel-i askerî) taken from non- budget and one treasury” policy was adopted, in
Muslims was put into effect. The sheep tax (ağnâm 1840, multiple treasuries were abolished. In this
vergisi) was extended to all farm animals in the same era, modern banking and financial institutions
year. With the land code in 1858, the state sought were founded. For example, in 1856, the Ottoman
to tax the property owners. The consolidated tax Bank was created as a British enterprise. Because
(vergü) was not taken out but collected at the of the French interference and competitive nature
quarter or village level. In 1860, taxation of real of the economy, the bank was reestablished as an
property and income on a proportional basis were Anglo-French initiative now under the name of the
systematized (Findley, 2008). Banque Impériale Ottomane with headquarters in
London and Paris. In 1864, the first agricultural
credit union was established in Rusçuk and other
The land tax and the tithe alone contributed foreign banks such as Société Générale de l’Empire
to 40% of all taxes collected. Ottomane in 1864 and Banque Austro-Ottomane
in 1872 were founded. In time, such modern
banks and institutions came to replace traditional
Along with new taxes, the system of collecting money lenders. Finally, in 1873, although it was
taxes changed. The tax farming was replaced by not comparable to its European counterparts, the
a direct taxation system in the 1840s. As such, Constantinople Stock Exchange was established.
salaried officials (muhassıl) as tax collectors were
appointed from the central administration. The
aim was to increase the state revenue and lift the
burden off the producers. With the help of the local
councils, muhassıls were appointed to collect taxes.
They were also responsible for telling people about
the Tanzîmât, creating councils, and registering
taxpayers and their properties. But the direct
system of taxation failed. It was due to inadequate
number of muhassıls, sabotage by the local notables
who benefitted from the tax farming system and
lack of knowledge as cadastral survey remained
incomplete. In 1842, Mustafa Reşid Pasha decided
to bring the tax farming system back and the tax Figure 3.7 Kaime
farmers continued to collect the tithe.
Source: https://lh3.ggpht.com/0hemCFRcR-S7rE7GBojq
6m9MyaBY12KfRunBeAcEN8h0z3Wj-5PMqsIy5w
Abolition of the direct taxation system did

In this period, due to financial problems, the
not mean to end the provincial councils
government had difficulty in paying the salaried
because they were needed to fill the gap
bureaucrats and buying necessary equipment
where a bureaucratic administration was
for the new army. Personal expenditures of
missing.
the palace also increased the existing financial
burden. To cover the deficit, instead of debasing
coinage, paper currency called kaime, was put into
Financial Developments, circulation. Because of the market crash of 1861
Problems, and Solutions and counterfeiting, consumers lost confidence in
During the Tanzîmât era, a transition to a the paper currency; and thus, it was withdrawn
unitary monetary structure was achieved and state from the market in 1862 and finally in the mid-
revenues went to the Central Treasury. As “one 1880s.
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3
important THE CRIMEAN WAR

(1853-56), “THE FERMÂN
The first Ottoman paper currency OF CONCESSIONS,” AND
Kaime was issued in 1840 under Sultan OTTOMANISM
Abdülmecid. These banknotes were not
printed but rather handmade and were
stamped with the official seal. Later
they were printed in various forms and
amounts until 1862.
Facing more economic difficulties, the

Ottoman center started internal borrowing from
the Armenian bankers in Galata. These bankers
lent small amounts of money and charged high
interest rates. It was in 1854 that the Ottoman
government officially borrowed money from
outside sources. Additional external borrowings
continued in later years and became a heavy burden
on the state because new loans were used to pay the
interest on earlier loans. Situation worsened when
the international stock exchange crushed in 1873 Figure 3.8 One of the first war photographs from the
and lasted until 1896. Crisis in the world capitalist Crimean War-Allied soldiers sharing a cup of tea
system made it difficult for the Ottoman state to
Source: http://www.chron.com/news/nation-world/
pay back the interests on older loans. By the mid-
article/Photos-art-capture-images-of-Crimean-War-
1870s, the Ottoman state was unable to repay its
between-6655391.php#photo-9014474
international debts. As a result, negotiations were
made between the European creditors and the
Ottoman state. In 1881, the Ottoman Public Debt The Crimean War
Administration (Duyûn-ı Umûmiye İdaresi) was The Crimean War (1853-1856) broke out in the
created as a consortium of foreign creditors. They Crimean peninsula when Catholic and Orthodox
were to oversee the Ottoman economy and make it Churches competed over the keys of the Church
possible to repay the debts. of Nativity in Bethlehem, Palestine. In May, 1853,
In the 1870s, there was also famine in Anatolia Russia demanded the right to protect the Orthodox
that had killed large number of people and large Church and the Orthodox population of the
amount of livestock. This resulted in depopulation Ottoman Empire. Supported by Britain and France,
in rural areas and migrations. Accordingly, tax the Ottoman state refused the Russian demands.
income declined, leaving the tax burden on the As a result, in July, 1853, Russia moved its troops
shoulders of the remaining population. into the principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia
under the Ottoman rule. The European powers
and the Ottomans demanded that Russia evacuate
these principalities. Russia did not comply with
these demands. The Ottoman state declared war on
Russia on September 23, 1853. France and Britain
joined the war on the Ottoman side in 1854. Russia
was afraid that Austria would enter the war. It, thus,
evacuated the Danubian principalities, which were
occupied by Austria in the summer of 1854. Later,
Sardinia-Piedmont joined the anti-Russian front by
1855. In the beginning of 1856, under the pressure
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of the growing tension, Russia agreed to make Moreover, the decree established rights for
peace with the Ottomans and her allies. As a result, non-Muslims to have education in public schools
the Treaty of Paris was signed in 1856. and to be employed in state bureaucracy. It
The Treaty of Paris stipulated the surrender of the reaffirmed the historical communal privileges
mouth of Danube and parts of Bessarabia by Russia, that non-Muslims could form their own
discontinuation of Russian influence over Moldavia assemblies and organize their own affairs. Now,
and Wallachia, agreement on the neutralization of they could also establish their own regulations
the Black Sea, returning the province of Kars to the that were known as constitutions. Along with
Ottomans and relinquishing the claims of the right assemblies as representative bodies and types of
to protect Orthodox Christians by Russia. constitutions, non-Muslims for the first time
found representation in the Supreme Council.
One of the most important results of the Treaty of
the Paris was that the Ottoman Empire became part
of the Concert of Europe –also called the Congress
System. With this inclusion, Ottoman territorial Dhimmi/zimmi was a term used for non-
integrity was guaranteed. This did not mean that Muslims under the Muslim rulers. They
the Ottomans and the European states became preserved their status and maintained their
equals, for instance, the Ottomans could not force original faith and in return, they paid a tax
the European powers to abolish the capitulations. to the state, called cizye.
important
The decree did not, however, satisfy Britain
and Russia since the word equality had different
Concert of Europe was established in order
interpretations for both. The British considered
to preserve the territorial and political
equality to mean millets under Ottoman rule as a
status quo of Europe during the post-
corporate community. For the Russians, it meant
Napoleonic era, starting from 1814-1815.
the rights of religious communities and their
autonomy. Moreover, the decree faced internal
Imperial Decree of 1856 and other reactions. Ottoman Muslims criticized it since it
Consequences of the War gave concession to non-Muslims. Ali and Fuad
One of the results of the Crimean War Pashas were blamed for granting political privileges
was the proclamation of the Imperial Decree to Ottoman Christians. Giving full equality meant
(Islahât Fermânı) in 1856. Called “the fermân of that the political power of the Muslims would
concessions”, the decree reaffirmed the terms of be lessened. On the other hand, there were some
the Gülhâne Decree. In a similar vein, it declared to who were happy to see Muslims and non-Muslims
maintain equality for all Ottoman subjects before integrate. They were few in numbers, however.
the law, guaranteed protecting of their properties, The higher Christian clergy, especially the Greeks,
and preserve their honor without any distinction was afraid of losing control over their religious
of class or religion. In other words, the Imperial communities. Moreover, some Christians did not
Decree reasserted the rights of all subjects and like to be considered in equal terms with the Jewish
guaranteed freedom of religion. Compared to the population.
Gülhâne Decree, the Imperial Decree of 1856 did
not refer to the religious law. The decree of 1856
confirmed the abolition of the death penalty if
and when a Muslim apostatized and converted to
another religion. It also put an end to the dhimmi The reforms concerning non-Muslims to
status of non-Muslims, and abolished the head tax some extent were disliked by the clergy who
called cizye. This signified that the Islamic aspect of did not want to lose their power.
taxation was replaced by a more secular one, bedel-i
askerî, taken as a military exemption tax.
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The Crimean War had other results such as

the increased contact with the west. Compared
to their Muslims counterparts, the middle class
Christians strengthened their positions. As a result,
Muslim merchants had difficulties in competing
with Christians merchants who were under the
protection of European powers. These contacts also
made western commodities appear more on the
Ottoman lands. During the war, many westerners
came to Istanbul and the Parisian customs became
appealing to the upper class Muslims. To give an
example, Sultan Abdülmecid went to a western
type of gathering, a ball, given by the British
ambassador in celebration of the victory over the
Russians.
Figure 3.10 Florence Nightingale, a nurse pioneer

Source: https://tr.wikiquote.org/wiki/Dosya:Florence_
Nightingale_CDV_by_H_Lenthall.jpg
The war also had devastating effects on

common people. Russia forced Muslims in
Crimea to leave and replaced them with Orthodox
Christians. Muslims emigrated from Caucasus to
the Ottoman lands. This continued from 1864 to
1870, approximately 2, 500, 000 refugees flooded
into the Ottoman lands.
Figure 3.9 Sultan Abdülmecid at the ball given by the
British embassy in Pera, Istanbul.
important
important It was during the

Crimean War that the
Florence Nightingale (1820-1910) was a nurse first telegraphic line
who served during the Crimean War at a British was established between
base hospital in Istanbul. She was also known as, Europe and the Ottoman
“the Lady with the Lamp” for her night rounds Empire.
to help the wounded people. Her work during
the war inspired to create a society for sick
and wounded Ottoman soldiers. This society
represented the Red Cross Society in Europe. In
1877, its Ottoman version came to be called the 2
Ottoman Red Crescent Society. What are the consequences of
the Crimean War?
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3
Sultan Abdülaziz by his ministers on May 30, 1876. He died a few

Sultan Abdülaziz ascended to the Ottoman throne days later. Whether his death was due to suicide
upon Abdülmecid’s death in 1861. Like his brother, or murder is still a topic of discussion and debate.
he continued the reforms directed by the Grand
viziers Fuad Pasha and Ali Pasha. He established new
administrative districts (vilayet), organized public
education and declared the first Ottoman civil code.
Sultan Abdülaziz cultivated good relations with
the European powers especially with France and
Great Britain. He was the first Ottoman sultan to
visit Europe in 1867.
Figure 3.12 British Newspapers on Abdülaziz’s visit to

London
Source: http://sultanabdulaziz.com/abdulaziz-haberleri/
sultan-abdulaziz-haber/sultan-abdulazizin-avrupa-
seyahati/
Figure 3.13 Medallion commemorating Sultan

Figure 3.11 Sultan Abdülaziz Abdülaziz’s visit
Source: http://sultanabdulaziz.com/abdulaziz-kimdir/ Source: http://kentvedemiryolu.com/arazi-
abdulaziz-ve-ailesi/osmanli-sehzade-abdulaziz-sultan/ kanunnamesi-ve-sultan-abdulazizin-avrupa-gezisi-21-
haziran-1867/
Sultan Abdülaziz became more autocratic with
the death of his ministers Fuad and Ali Pashas Local Problems and Ottomanism
who could guide him. He declared the Law of
After the Egyptian crisis in 1840-1841, the
Ottoman Nationality and Ottomanism received
Tanzîmât era was hit by a sectarian conflict that
more attention on both state and national level. In
broke out in Lebanon between the Maronite and
the final years of his reign, the Ottoman Empire
Druze. The governor-general of Sidon could not
was hit by famine in 1873 which increased the
resolve the problems and tension arose in 1845
social and economic unrest. The political situation
when Maronite Christian villages were burned
in the Balkans got more complicated and there
down by the Druzes. As a result, France claimed a
were mounting ill feelings against Russia for its
de facto protectorate over the Maronite Christians,
encouragement of the rebellious Balkan states.
Britain over the Druzes and the Russians over the
The economic situation was not any better. The
Orthodox Christians. In order to prevent their
financial problems due to excessive borrowing
intervention in its domestic affairs, the Ottomans
increased public debt which further increased
punished the Druze leaders and established
discontent with his regime. Abdülaziz was deposed
consultative assemblies on both sides. In 1860s, the
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3
sectarian violence once more broke out now in Damascus and as a result a special administrative system in
Mount Lebanon was introduced under a Lebanese Christian governor. In the following decades, this reform
led to a new wave of sectarianism.
Another local crisis broke out among Christians and Muslims in Crete where Christian population
wanted to unite with Greece. Although suppressed, the revolt took place in 1866. Also, in the Balkans,
nationalism posed a threat for the Ottoman mainland. In fact, Serbia had won her autonomy in 1815,
Greece had become independent in 1830. Minor insurrections took place in Bulgaria before and during
the Tanzîmât era. Wallachia and Moldavia sought unification with Romanian principalities. Although
Romanian nationalism was suppressed during the 1848 Revolutions, they unified in 1861 and became
independent after the Ottoman-Russian war of 1877-1878.
Inter-communal tension among non-Muslim
important communities had been growing since the late eighteenth
until most of the nineteenth century. Problems arose
especially between Greeks and Jews and increasingly
The Revolutions of 1848 took place in Europe. among Christians and Muslims. Spread of nationalism
They were a series of republican revolts against in Europe and the Ottoman lands, getting Western
European monarchies. They first began in Sicily support and advantages in trade strengthened communal
and spread to France, Germany, Italy, Austria and ties within non-Muslim communities. However, these
other places. The Revolutions did not directly ties were more secular than religious. Developing
affect the Ottoman Empire. However, some economic relations with Europe and Ottoman non-
revolutionaries fled from Poland and Hungary to Muslims’ becoming protégée of European countries
seek refuge on the Ottoman lands. also contributed to the inter-communal tension and
competition. In this particular context, France provided
protection for the Catholics, Britain for the Protestant,
and Russia for the Orthodox and Italy for the Jewish. This alarmed the Ottoman ruling elite that non-
Muslims enjoyed more privileges. In other words, diversity produced problems and now it also indicated
weakness.
The Ottoman ruling elite developed a uniform system of identity and pursued a macro nationalist
agenda to counter this diversity. They introduced an official ideology, known as Ottomanism. Citizenship
under this ideology emerged as a response to solve problems, like those that emerged as a result of the
Balkan nationalism. It entailed national unity shaped around the sultan/dynasty and sought to create loyal
subjects and unite the Ottoman Empire’s different ethnic and religious groups.
Both the Gülhâne Decree and the Imperial Decree of
1856 made important contributions to the creation of
Law of Ottoman Nationality in 1869 Ottomanism and thus Ottoman citizenship. In a more
was important as it defined Ottoman direct way, Tabi’iyet-i Osmaniye Kanunnâmesi (the Law
citizenship. of Ottoman Nationality) of 1869 was closely related to the
issue of citizenship. Compared to the former decrees, this
law, however, enunciated a clear definition of citizenship. It
focused on the basic rights and created a political identity shaped by birth and residence. The Ottoman ruling
class aimed at identifying who citizens were and who were not. The law also gave the right of citizenship
to those foreign nationals who lived in the Ottoman lands for five consecutive years. Those who were born
to foreign parents in the Ottoman lands could also claim the Ottoman
citizenship within three years of reaching a certain age.
In general, Ottomanism failed to unite all subjects. Micro-
3
nationalist identities and refugees coming from different parts of the
Empire challenged the idea of official identity. The latter increased Under what conditions did
the communal problems and competition. Muslim refugees quickly Ottomanism emerge? Why
adopted Muslim identity of the local population of the empire rather did Ottomanism fail to unite
than adopting Ottomanism. Furthermore, Ottomanism came to all Ottoman subjects?
compete with Pan-Slavism, through which another phase of Balkan
nationalism was encouraged by Russia in the 1870s.
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3
TOWARDS THE FIRST CONSTITUTIONAL ERA: PRINT MEDIA AND

THE YOUNG OTTOMANS
Print Media
Print media in the Ottoman lands was not a novelty of the Tanzîmât period. It had earlier roots.
The newspaper Takvîm-i Vekâyi (Calender of Facts) had been published in 1831 as an official bulletin.
Cerîde-i Havâdis (Journal of News) came up as a semi-private newspaper in 1840 and was dominant
in the Ottoman press for twenty years. The
actual beginning of the Ottoman press was the
1860s when print media produced a new style
of penmanship under the influence of French
literature. İbrahim Şinasi (1826-1871), Ziya
Pasha (1829-1880) and Namık Kemal (1840-
1888) were three of the major figures of the
new literary movement. This new wave of
literature influenced the start of a weekly
journal, Tercüman-ı Ahvâl (Interpreter of
Situations) in 1860 as the first privately owned
newspaper. It was published by Çapanzade
Agah Efendi, a member of the Translation
Figure 3.14 Agah Efendi and a page from Tercüman-ı Ahval
Bureau of the Sublime Porte. İbrahim Şinasi, a
Source: https://www.turkedebiyati.org/sinasinin-tercumani- liberal minded intellectual, poet and dramatist
ahval-gazetesi became its editor and writer.
important
Şinasi served in the Ottoman government as

clerk but later was sent to Paris as a student at
the governments’ expense. He studied economics
and scientific subjects but he also developed an
interest in literature. He witnessed the 1848
Revolution and met Alphonse de Lamartine
(1790-1869), a French poet, writer, and
politician. Although he wrote drama and poetry,
his real work was in journalism.
Figure 3.15 İbrahim Şinasi
Source: https://alchetron.com/Ibrahim-Sinasi-1152343-W
Figure 3.16 Namık Kemal Figure 3.17 Ziya Pasha

Source: https://alchetron.com/Namik-Kemal-1170817-W#- Source: https://alchetron.com/Ziya-Pasha-830431-W#demo
75
3
Şinasi left the newspaper in 1862 when it was closed down for two weeks by the government. He,
then, started to publish his own newspaper, called Tasvîr-i Efkâr (Illustration of Opinion), which became
a platform for the criticism of the government in terms of its authoritarian character and its subordination
to the European powers. The newspaper asked for financial and legal reforms. Afraid of raising official
anger, Şinasi left for Paris in 1865. Then, Namık Kemal took over the editing of Tasvîr-i Efkâr. Unlike
Şinasi, Namık Kemal used a more radical tone in his criticism.
Namık Kemal wrote in different newspapers along with Tasvîr-i Efkâr, such as Hürriyet (Freedom) and
İbret (Warning). In his writings, Namık Kemal used old concepts with new meanings assumed after the
French Revolution. Among them, vatan (French patrie), hürriyet (liberty) and millet (nation) were the
most notable and important ones.
Ayine-i Vatan (Mirror of the Fatherland) and Mirât (Mirror), Muhbir (Informer) were other newspapers
published in the Ottoman lands. Muhbir was edited by Ali Suavi (1839-78). He was a poor boy from a
village and received medrese (religious school) education. He was sent to exile as a result of his ideas.
However, he escaped to London where he continued to publish Muhbir.
Increasing number of the papers alarmed the government. Accordingly, a law was passed that imposed
strict rules to the press. Moreover, a Press Commission at the Sublime Porte was created to suppress the
opposing ideas that appeared in print. In spite of such measures, journalists of the time did not give up.
Indeed, they continued to publish their work even in exile, may it be London, Paris or Geneva.
There were other publications that contributed to the intellectual life. Mecmûa-i Fünûn (Journal of
Science), in the 1860s, was the journal of sciences that introduced European science to the empire. Diyojen
(Diogenes) and Hayâl (Dream) were other journals where cartoons caricaturized political and social issues and
helped to form public opinion. In those years, there were various other publications. For example, published
in 1862 by the Ottoman Greeks, Kypseli was the first periodical of women editors concentrating on women’s
issues. The first Armenian one was Gitar that came in 1862. In 1869, the first Turkish magazine for women
was published under the name Terakkî (Progress). It was, however, after the Tanzîmât era that Şükûfezar
(flower garden) was published in 1887 as the first Turkish women’s periodical with a female editor.
Figure 3.18 Front page of the journal Diyojen (Diogenes)

Depicting the story of the philosopher Diogenes asking Alexander the Great not to shadow his sun.
Source: http://digitale-sammlungen.ulb.uni-bonn.de/ulbbnioa/periodical/pageview/3392496
76
3
In this period, there were also translation of European works into Turkish. For example, in 1862, Yusuf
Kamil Pasha translated Fenelon’s Aventures de Télémaque which criticized the absolutist rule. Works of
Victor Hugo, Molière and other prominent French writers of the time were also translated. Drama, too,
found its expression in the Ottoman world. In theatres, translated works were seen on stage. It was Şinasi,
who wrote the first play in the Turkish Language, Şair Evlenmesi (The Marriage of the Poet).
Moreover, novel was one of the important literary genres that reached the public. Yovsep Vardanean’s
Akabi Hikayesi (The Story of Akabi) was published in 1851 as the first novel written in Turkish language but
the text used Armenian writing script. This story was about a love-affair between two different Armenian
sects. Published as fascicle from 1872 to 1873, Taaşşuk-ı Talât ve Fitnat (The Romance of Talât and Fitnat)
was the first novel written by an Ottoman Muslim, Şemseddin Sami (1850-1904).
Figure 3.19 Naum Theatre was founded in 1848 and functioned as a main opera house of Istanbul until it was
destroyed in a fire in 1870.
Source: http://www.degisti.com/index.php/archives/7945/naum-tiyatrosu
important
Young Ottomans
The first modern intelligentsia called the Young
Carbonari is an Italian word. In English, it Ottomans emerged in the 1860s. The hallmark of this
means “Charcoal Burners.” Carbonari emerged new intellectuals manifested itself when Namık Kemal
in early nineteenth century Italy as a secret and some young bureaucrats founded a secret society
society of liberal and patriotic ideas. This society known as İttifâk-ı Hamiyet (Alliance of Patriotism) in
challenged the conservative regimes during the 1865. This society, like Carbonari in Italy, aimed at
post Napoleonic era from 1815 on. Its members preventing foreign intervention and sought to create
defended constitutional and representative a patriotic and a constitutional parliamentary system.
government. The Carbonarias influenced the İttifâk-ı Hamiyet grew quickly and the number of its
later movements that led to Italian unification members soon reached 245.
in 1861. (https://www.britannica.com/topic/
Carbonari).
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More conservative than Namık Kemal, Ziya He proposed to have a constitutional regime and
Pasha was another member of the Young Ottoman asked for reforms. His letter excited the Ottoman
movement. He studied French and translated liberals, such as Namık Kemal and Ebuzziya Tevfik
French books into Ottoman Turkish. Ziya Pasha (1849-1913). They distributed the printed version
supported parliamentary system but of a limited of Mustafa Fazıl’s letter. As a result, Namık Kemal
power. He opposed the Tanzîmât reformers on the and his friends were sent into exile. Mustafa Fazıl
issue of giving equal rights to non-Muslims. He Pasha asked them to join him in France. There they
explained his thoughts in the following poem: assumed a new name for themselves - the New
“If but the help of God assist in his Ottomans (Yeni Osmanlılar). In French, they were
purpose dear, referred to as Jeunes Turcs.
Full soon will these gypsies sit on the important
couch of the Grand Vizier;
It is but the Jews alone that form the
exception here, Although it had been used earlier, khedive was the
For of Greeks, and Armenians both doth title granted by Sultan Abdülaziz to İsmail Pasha
he make Bey and Mushir; and, later to his sons. Khedives then became the
The equality of rights to perfection viceroy of Egypt responsible to the Ottoman
brought hath he.” (Gibb, 1967, p. 105-6). government from 1866 to 1914, by then, the
British established its direct protectorate.
important
The Young Ottoman Movement was not the Financed by Mustafa Fazıl Pasha, New
only opposition movement. Another example Ottomans expressed themselves through journals
was, the Kuleli Incident (Kuleli was the military published in London, Paris, Geneva, Lyon, and
cadet school). The plot was under the leadership Marseille. The Young Ottoman Movement came to
of Muslim clerics and the army officers who a turning point when Mustafa Fazıl Pasha decided
sought to depose or assassinate the sultan. It to return to Istanbul. He reached an agreement
took place in the Kuleli barracks in 1859 to with the Sultan during the Sultan’s visit to France
oppose absolutism and violation of the Islamic in 1867. Namık Kemal also returned to Istanbul
law. The idea of giving concessions to Christians in 1871 since he believed that he could promote
was considered as such. It, however, failed and liberal reforms better if he were in the capital.
the plotters were deported. Unlike the Young The Young Ottomans affected the Turkish
Ottoman Movement, the Kuleli Incident did not intelligentsia as the first modern ideological
develop any principles that would pave the way movement. As Ottoman patriots, they created
for a constitutional and parliamentary system. public opinion through their writings. They sought
to gain individual liberties and therefore, favored
a government by consultation. Like other Young
Prince Mustafa Fazıl Pasha had an important Ottomans, Namık Kemal challenged the arbitrary
role in the Young Ottoman Movement. Mustafa and absolutist government. He argued that former
Fazıl opposed his brother İsmail Pasha who then system of checks and balances disappeared. As
was the governor of Egypt. Problems arose when such, abolishing the Janissaries had led to the
İsmail Pasha was granted the title of khedive by disappearance of the armed popular assembly. He
Sultan Abdülaziz. This changed the formally argued that reforms left the sovereign unchecked.
established law of succession in Egypt that agreed He criticized that changes were only made in
to the passing of the title khedive from father to administrative rule. In short, he and other Young
son. Prince Mustafa Fazıl Pasha left for France from Ottomans defended a written constitution, an
where he sent an open letter to the Sultan. In his elected parliament, and adoption of some of the
letter, he criticized the Sultan and the Grand vizier. European institutions.
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replaced by the so-called western laws, which were

neither Islamic nor western.
The Young Ottomans were clearly
influenced by the ideas of political The Young Ottomans criticized the Tanzîmât
philosophers such as Charles-Louis statesmen believing that they were under the
de Secondat, baron de La Brède et de foreign advice and pressure. The Young Ottomans
Montesquieu (1689-1755) and Jean-Jacques argued that they, Tanzîmât statesmen, made the
Rousseau (1712-1778) as well as political country open to foreign influence and interference.
economists, Adam Smith (1723-1790) and This did not help to develop a domestic industry.
David Ricardo (1772-1823). Also, Ottoman agriculture deteriorated due to
conscription and taxation policies. Lack of roads,
and educational facilities left the Ottomans
Namık Kemal continued to annoy the ruling backward and impoverished.
elite when he wrote his famous play, “Fatherland
They wanted to reform the existing system
or Silistra” (Vatan Yahut Silistre), in 1873. Staged
rather than to overthrow the regime. Their difficulty
at Gedikpaşa Theatre, the play arose national
was not to have a social base composed of rural
sentiments and led to demonstrations. As a result,
and urban people that supported the movement.
the Young Ottomans including Namık Kemal
Therefore, starting a bottom up revolution was a
were sent into exile and the theatres were closed.
difficult task. Still, their ideal constitution based
As an outcome, the concept of fatherland (vatan),
on rights and liberties was almost realized with the
territorial patriotism and the sovereignty of the
Constitution of 1876.
people were introduced. Namık Kemal’s idea of
patriotism meant Ottomanism. A patriot was
someone who was loyal to the Ottoman fatherland
regardless of religion and language. Thus, he
theoretically moved loyalty from the Ottoman
dynasty to fatherland.
Figure 3.21 Midhat Pasha

Source: http://www.ziraat.com.tr/tr/Bankamiz/
Hakkimizda/Pages/BankamizTarihcesi.aspx
It was Midhat Pasha (1822-1884) who with

some Young Ottomans like Namık Kemal and Ziya
Figure 3.20 Emblem of Gedikpaşa Theatre Pasha wrote the Constitution of 1876. The First
Source: http://scontent.cdninstagram.com/t51.2885-15/ Constitutional Era (1876-1878) did not yet last long
e35/15623599_688001894693914_3521481112335417344 and thus during the reign of Abdülhamid II some of
_n.jpg?ig_cache_key=MTQxMDczMTQ4Mzk3OTQyNTA the Young Ottomans suffered either imprisonment
5MQ%3D%3D.2 or death. Some of them left their ideals and went on
to governmental jobs. Namık Kemal, for example,
Namık Kemal admired western progress in was exiled to Chios. After two years in exile, he
technology. In order to make progress, he argued received a small governmental post on the Aegean
that the Ottomans should leave the tradition of islands where he spent rest of his life until his death
fatalism. In fact, he did not see Islam as a barrier in 1888. Even though he was away from the capital
to the development of Ottoman economy. Indeed, city, he still faced censorship and he was not allowed
he argued that the Holy law was violated by being to print anything.
79
3
important The Tanzîmât reforms did not do much for

women interms of bringing equality between men
and women. Also the reforms did not create real
Midhat Pasha had a good reputation for his
equality among all citizens. As such, non-Muslims
honesty and efficient administration as the
did not serve in the military until 1909 when
provincial governor of Nish. He also governed
military conscription became obligatory for this
the newly formed Danube province and
particular group. During this era, the gap between
Baghdad. He served as the president of the
the lower classes and upper classes widened as the
state council and a Grand vizier. Midhat Pasha
latter came to have European tastes and lifestyles.
was also known for his creation of agricultural
Macro nationalism (Ottomanism) to unite all
credit cooperatives, which were later turned
Ottomans failed but micro nationalism rather than
into Ziraat Bankası (Agricultural Bank). He
religious identities gained more ground. There
inaugurated the first constitution, which he said
were other problems. Ottoman identity clashed
to open a new era of prosperity. In 1877, with
with nationalism and centralization clashed with
the order by the autocratic ruler of the time,
political fragmentation. New laws remained on
Sultan Abdülhamid II, Midhat Pasha was exiled
paper while old practices continued, however,
into Taif in Arabia where he was killed in 1884.
the new laws remained valid in the long run. As
such, during the Second Constitutional era 1908-
In conclusion, it can be argued that the Tanzîmât 1918, reference was given to the Gülhâne Decree
period marked a transition from the empire to the on banning torture. The rational and universal
Republican Turkey to be established in later years. characters of the law could no longer be ignored.
With new reforms of the era, the western statecraft This was the real legacy of the Tanzîmât.
in terms of universal legal principles, uniform rules The Tanzîmât reforms opened the way for
and regulations were introduced. The reforms the first Ottoman constitution introduced on
changed the relationship between the state and the December 23, 1876 along with a parliamentary
society by bringing equality before the law. This system. This was a short-lived experience. The
was a real challenge to the superiority of Islamic Ottoman failure in the war with Russia offered
populations over non-Muslims. Now, loyalty Abdülhamid II the opportunity to bring an
was defined around the sultan and to the state/ end to the Tanzîmât bureaucracy and the First
administration and more, argued by Namık Kemal, Constitutional Era. His autocratic tendencies
defined around fatherland. The role of religion closed the First Constitution era but could not
was reduced through provincial representative stop the restoration of the constitution in 1908.
assemblies, which were not under the control of Finally, the Tanzîmât reforms and the well-known
the ulemâ. Creation of commercial and criminal product, the first constitution and parliament,
law followed the same pattern. The Tanzîmât had opened the way for further modernization.
a dual character that showed itself in new secular
courts. They coexisted side by side with religious
ones and modern schools with the old style ones.
80
3
Explain the reasons and the consequences of the

LO 1 Tanzîmât reforms.
Tanzîmât reforms were introduced in order to save the

Ottoman Empire since the Ottoman ruling elite believed
that the Ottoman state would not survive under the present
circumstances marked by poverty and weakness. As it was
stated in the Gülhâne Decree problems accumulating in the
last 150 years weakened the Islamic law and order. The aim
was to develop the country and increase people’s wealth. With
reform programs, the ruling elite sought to prevent foreign
Summary
intervention in domestic affairs one hand. They wanted to be
part of the European Concert System to receive international
respect and recognition on the other hand. The Tanzîmât
reforms resulted in challenging the Muslim superiority by
bringing equality to all. Also, secular laws, courts, and councils
transformed the religious communities who then developed
their own constitutions and assemblies. The Tanzîmât reforms
however faced some reactions. Kuleli Incident, Young Ottoman
Movement and opposition to the abolition of the forced labor
are manifestations of the reactions. Finally, the reforms opened
the way for a representative government and constitutionalism,
and the egalitarian aspect of the reforms formed the basis of
later Turkish modernization.
Explain the secular characteristics of the Tanzîmât,

LO 2 which marked the Ottoman / Turkish modernization.
Most Tanzîmât reforms were secular in nature. The reforms

made the cannon law of Islam, Şeriat, be confined to the family
law. There were some exceptions, such as the Mecelle as a civil
code was accepted according to the Hanefi sect of Islam. Still,
most laws, courts and councils created during this period did
not have religious roots. They were largely inspired by the
French examples. Newly created councils were no longer in the
hands of the men of religion, ulemâ, but in the secular hands,
such as the governors, muhassıls and the directors of the district.
Also, everyone was considered equal in front of law regardless
of one’s religion. Muslims who apostate were no longer put to
death. As a result of such changes, although the superiority of
Muslims over non-Muslims was challenged, egalitarian ideas
continued to shape the later developments.
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3
define main developments and trends in the nineteenth century

LO 3 Ottoman economy; and thus, understand at what level it was
incorporated into the world capitalist system
Throughout Ottoman history, most revenues came from

agriculture. In the nineteenth century, a shift from subsistence
to the market economy was realized. Modern agricultural tools
were used and thus agricultural production for sale increased.
Despite the fact that manufacturing was mechanized in urban
areas, it continued to stay as manual. In the countryside,
manufacturing became increasingly female labor oriented. In
Summary
the nineteenth century also global commercial importance

of the Ottoman Empire declined but its economy did not
shrink due to its partnership with European countries. In the
domestic trade, Muslims formed the dominant group, for the
international trade it was the opposite. Wars like the Crimean
War and free trade agreements (came, for example, with the
Anglo-Ottoman Convention of 1838 and the Gülhâne Decree)
made the Ottoman Empire be part of the European system.
Furthermore, with the introduction of the steam engine
used for water and land transport, the volume of commerce
increased as well as the European penetration into the Ottoman
lands, largely the port cities, which thus prospered and were
connected to global markets. This, likewise, came as a result of
banking and financial institutions. It was in this century that
the Ottoman state officially took loans from outside financers.
This created a heavy burden on the government who borrowed
to pay the interest rate of the earlier loans. The state did not
deal with the foreign debt in an efficient manner, and thus it
had to declare bankruptcy in 1875. This led to creation of the
Public Debt Administration and made the Ottoman Empire
become dependent on the existent capitalist system.
evaluate the period towards the constitutionalism; thus, examine

LO 4 the emergence of print media and the first modern intelligentsia
that opposed the autocratic nature of the reforms and formed
the public opinion through its writings
With the Tanzîmât, steps were taken towards constitutionalism.

As such, non-Muslims developed their own regulations
(nizâmnâme), which also came to be known as constitutions.
Also, councils appeared as representative bodies. The print media
developed mostly in the 1860s. Newspapers helped to spread
the idea of constitutionalism. The Young Ottomans as first
modern intelligentsia opposed the autocratic character of the
Tanzîmât. They supported liberal ideas and thus representative
government. They influenced public opinion through their
writings and introduced the idea of individual liberties. They
also challenged tyranny, favored a government by consultation
and a written constitution, an elected parliament, and adoption
of some European institutions. The Young Ottomans finally
together with important statesmen of the time like Midhat
Pasha wrote the constitution of 1876.
82
3
References
Ahmad, F. (1993). The making of modern Turkey. İnalcık, H. (1973). Application of the Tanzîmât and
London: Routledge. its social effects. Archivum Ottomanicum, 5, 97-
128.
Oxford: OneWorld Publications. Karpat, K. H. (1985). Ottoman population, 1830-
1914: Demographic and social characteristics,
Barkey, K. (2008). Empire of difference: The Ottomans
Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press.
in comparative perspective. New York, NY:
Cambridge University Press. Lewis, B. (1961). The emergence of modern Turkey.
London: Oxford University Press.
Davison, H. R. (1963). Reform in the Ottoman Empire,
1856–1876. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Mardin, Ş. (1962). The genesis of Young Ottoman
Press. thought: A study in the modernization of Turkish
political ideas. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University
Falierou, A. (2013). Enlightened mothers and
Press.
scientific housewives: Discussing women’s social
roles in Eurydice (Evridiki) (1870–1873). In D. Quataert, D. (2000). The Ottoman Empire: 1700-
Köksal & A. Falierou (Eds.) Social History of Late 1922. Cambridge:: Cambridge University Press.
Ottoman Women. Leiden Brill.
Quataert, D. (1994). The age of reforms, 1812–
Findley, C. V. (1980). Bureaucratic reform in the 1914. In H. Inalcık & D. Quataert (Eds.), An
Ottoman Empire: The Sublime Porte, 1789-1922. economic and social history of the Ottoman Empire,
Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 1300-1914 (Vol. 2, pp. 843-87). Cambridge::
Cambridge University Press.
Findley, C. V. (2008). The Tanzimat. In Reşat Kasaba
(Ed.). The Cambridge history of Turkey: Turkey in Shaw, S. J. & Shaw, E. K. (1977). History of the
the modern world (Vol. 4). Cambridge: Cambridge Ottoman Empire and modern Turkey, reform,
University Press. revolution, and republic: The rise of modern Turkey,
1808-1975 (Vol. 2). Cambridge:: Cambridge
Gibb, E. J. W. (1967). A history of Ottoman poetry
University Press.
(Vol. 5). E. G. B. (Ed.) London: Lowe-Brydone
Ltd. Toprak, Z. (Spring 1992). Modernization and
commercialization in the Tanzimat period, 1838-
Hanioğlu, M. Ş. (2008). A brief history of the late
1875. New Perspectives on Turkey, 7, 57-70.
Ottoman Empire. Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press. Zürcher, E. J. (1993). Turkey: A modern history.
London: I. B. Tauris.
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h t t p : / / w e b p o r t a l . r o b c o l . k 1 2 . t r / Ab o u t - RC /
HistoryOfRc/Pages/default.aspx
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Further Reading
Akarlı, E. (1993). The long peace: Ottoman Lebanon, Köksal, Y. (Fall 2002). Imperial center and local
1861-1920. Berkeley, CA: University of groups: Tanzimat reforms in Edirne and Ankara.
California Press. New Perspectives on Turkey, 27, 107-138.
Aytekin, A. E. (November 2009). Agrarian relations, Köksal & A. Falierou (Eds.). A social history of late
property and law: an analysis of the land code of Ottoman women (2013). D. Leiden: Brill.
1858 in the Ottoman Empire. Middle Eastern
Makdisi, U. (2000). The culture of sectarianism:
Studies, 45(6), 935-51.
community, history, and violence in nineteenth
Devereux, R. (1963). The first Ottoman constitutional century Ottoman Lebanon. Berkeley, CA:
period: A study of the Midhat constitution and University of California Press.
parliament. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Press.
Makdisi, U. S. (2002). Ottoman orientalism.
Doumani, B. (1995). Rediscovering Palestine: Merchants American Historical Review, 107, 768-96.
and peasants in Jabal Nablus, 1700-1900. Berkeley,
Palairet, M. (1997). The Balkan economies, c.1800-
CA: University of California Press.
1914: Evolution without development. Cambridge:
Eldem, E. (1999). A history of the Ottoman imperial Cambridge University Press.
bank. Istanbul: Ottoman Bank Historical
Pamuk, Ş. (2000). A monetary history of the Ottoman
Research Centre.
Empire. Cambridge: UK: Cambridge University
Findley, C. V. (1989). Ottoman civil officialdom: A Press.
social history. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University
Quataert, D. (1993). Ottoman manufacturing in
Press.
the age of the industrial revolution. Cambridge:
Hamlin, C. (2013). Among the Turks. M. Gülsoy Cambridge University Press.
(Ed.). Istanbul: Boğaziçi Üniversitesi Yayınları.
Rogan, E. L. (1999). Frontiers of the state in the
Göçek, F. M. (1996). Rise of the bourgeoisie, demise of late Ottoman Empire: Transjordan, 1850-1921.
empire: Ottoman westernization and social change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Somel, S. A. (2001). The modernization of public
Jelavich, B. (1987). History of the Balkans, eighteenth education in the Ottoman Empire, 1839-1908:
and nineteenth centuries. Cambridge: Cambridge Islamization, autocracy and discipline. Leiden:
University Press. Brill.
Khoury, P. S. (1983). Urban notables and Arab
nationalism: The politics of Damascus, 1860-1920.
Cambridge:: Cambridge University Press.
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INTRODUCTION Ottoman minorities were being founded in order

The Tanzimat Period reforms in different fields to win independence or autonomy. The Turks also
from the state institutions to education modernized established ideological and political societies such
the Ottoman Empire in certain levels and also laid as the Ottoman Committee of Union and Progress,
the ground for the creation of a constitutional ideologically similar to the Young Ottomans, to
system of government in 1876. The constitutional restore the constitution and to save the country
system in fact became possible with the efforts from dissolution as well as from the authoritarian
of the Young Ottomans. They believed that a rule of the Abdülhamid II. All these organizations,
representational system would limit the absolute either Turkish or non-Turkish, created tension
power of the sultans and of the Bâb-ı Âli (Sublime in the country. However, the first constitutional
Porte) and prevent foreign intervention in the period beside these developments also witnessed
Ottoman Empire. However, this constitutional modernization in education, army, agriculture,
system although acknowledged the principle of industry and in arts as part of Abdülhamid II’s
equality was still a constitutional monarchy instead policy. These innovations contributed to the
of a representational system. survival of the Ottoman Empire until the early
twentieth century against the desires of the
The constitutional regime was adopted in a European powers to carve up the Empire for
period when the Ottoman rulers had to struggle themselves.
with the financial and political crisis as well as with
the rebellions in the Balkans that started in mid- This unit is designed to examine the first
1870s. The Constitution was accepted by Sultan constitutional period in the Ottoman Empire
Abdülhamid II on December 30, 1876 in the in four sections. The first section will examine
turmoil of these rebellions which created tension the establishment of the constitutional regime
between Russia and the Ottoman Empire. Sultan with reference to the characteristics of the 1876
Abdülhamid II closed the parliament due to the Constitution and the first Ottoman Parliament.
Ottoman-Russian War, and the Constitution of The second chapter will detail the Ottoman-
1876 was restored later in 1908. Although the Russian War of 1877-1878 along with its reasons
period from 1876 to 1908 was accepted as the first and consequences with a reference to the San
constitutional period, the constitution in fact was Stefano and Berlin treaties signed after this war.
in practice only between 1876-1877, and for this The third section, will examine the reign of
reason the period was called the “Hamidian” period Abdülhamid II, his internal and foreign policies
“as the only reign in the late Ottoman period to be plus the reforms made during his reign. The last
known by the name of its sultan” Abdülhamid II section will explore the rise of nationalism and its
(Fortna, 2008, p. 38). aftermath through the ideological and political
organizations established by the non-Turkish and
Abdülhamid II ruled the country as a true Turkish Ottoman people.
autocrat with an iron hand. His word was
taken as the final decision. War expenditures
and indemnities increased the burden on the THE FIRST OTTOMAN
state budget and the empire had to accept the CONSTITUTION AND
foundation of the Düyun-u Umumiye (Public CONSTITUTIONAL REGIME
Debt Commission) which was another burden
on the economy of the Ottoman Empire in
addition to the capitulations. The Sultan while On the Eve of the Declaration of
trying to overcome the financial problems had the Ottoman Constitution
to follow a careful foreign policy with the great The chains of events that brought the
powers by granting them railway privileges. At constitutional regime to the Ottoman Empire
the same time, he used his Caliphate status to get started when the Grand vizier Mahmut Nedim
support of the Muslim nations through a Pan- Pasha announced the suspension of interest
Islamist policy. All along, ideological and political payments on the Ottoman debt in October 1875
organizations of the Balkan people and of the during the reign of Sultan Abdülaziz. This was
89
4
Constitutionalism and the Reign of Abdülhamid II: 1876-1908
nothing more than a declaration of bankruptcy Efendi deposed Sultan Abdülaziz on May 30, 1876.
of the Ottoman government. This badly affected They brought crown prince Murad V, Abdülaziz’
the prestige and credit of the empire in Europe. nephew, to the throne after they secured a promise
Around the same time, the Christian peasants to promulgate a constitution.
of Herzegovina rebelled against their Muslim
landlords and Ottoman Turkish rulers in July 1875
refusing to pay taxes. This rebellion spread to Bosnia
and then autonomous Serbia who favored a Pan-
Slavic policy joined them. Later with provocation
of Russia, peasant rebellions spread to Bulgaria in
May 1876. Shortly after an incident broke out in
Salonica on May 6, 1876 and it became hard for
the Ottoman government to establish order in
the Balkans (Deringil, 1998, pp.98-101). Many
Muslims and Christians in Bulgaria killed each
other. However, only the Christian deaths drew
the interest of the Europeans and fueled the anti-
Ottoman propaganda in Europe while many
Muslims in the Balkans who were afraid of being
killed by Christians took refuge in Istanbul (Shaw
and Shaw, 2002, p.162).
The political situation in the capital was also in
turmoil. These rebellions and financial crisis caused
two coup attempts in Istanbul against Sultan
Abdülaziz. The first one happened on May 8, 1876.
The rebels accused the Sultan and his government
for the deaths of many innocent Muslims in the Figure 4.1 Ahmet Midhat Pasha
Balkans with their unsuccessful policies. They source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
demanded dismissal of the Grand vizier Mahmut commons/9/97/Midhat_pasha.jpg
Nedim Pasha and the Şeyhülislam Hasan Fehmi
Efendi. Sultan Abdülaziz yielded to these demands However, neither political nor financial crisis
and dismissed them including the Minister of War were solved in the reign of Murad V. His reign
on May 12,1876. Mütercim Mehmet Rüştü Pasha rather caused further crisis. Midhat Pasha and his
was appointed as the new grand vizier, Hüseyin fellows were expecting the new sultan’s orders for the
Avni as the Minister of War, and Hasan Hayrullah declaration of a new constitution for which they had
effendi as Şeyhülislam. The new government tried already prepared a draft empowering the parliament
to solve the financial crisis by making arrangements more than the sultanate by proposing a separation of
with the European bankers. But this could not be powers. Meanwhile, the deposed Sultan Abdülaziz
done since the new government rejected a financial committed suicide on June 5, 1876 in Çırağan
arrangement offered by the foreign bankers since Palace where he was kept after his deposition
it was designed in favor of the Europeans and the from the throne. According to some sources, this
crisis prevailed (Shaw and Shaw, 2002, p.163). was not a suicide but murder. (Hanioğlu, 2008,
Meanwhile, the government members were p.117).
changed once again upon the demands of the Shortly after, Çerkez Hasan, a Circassian army
opposition in the riots. When the sultan could not captain and brother in-law to Abdülaziz, killed
control the riots and his extravagant expenditures Hüseyin Avni Pasha, Raşid Pasha, the Minister
threatened the state budget, Midhat Pasha, the of Foreign Affairs, Şükrü Bey and several others
President of the Council of State, with Hüseyin present in the mansion of Midhat Pasha during
Avni Pasha, Süleyman Pasha, the director of the a meeting. Abdülaziz’s death and the ensuing
military academy and Şeyhülislam Hayrullah murders badly affected the mental health of
90
4
the new Sultan Murad V. Due to the fact that army commanders, bureaucrats (three of them
Murad V had mental problems, the declaration of Christians), ulemâ as well as Midhat Pasha and
the constitution became a necessity. The cabinet Young Ottomans Namık Kemal and Ziya Pasha
therefore decided to have the Sultan examined (Shaw and Shaw, 2002, p.174). The commission
by Ottoman and foreign doctors. The Sultan was studied and compared many constitutions that were
found unsuitable to rule the Empire and three in practice in Europe and in the US. Finally, a draft
months later the Ministers including Mithat Pasha constitution was prepared with articles adopted
deposed him on August 30, 1876. Murat V was from liberal Belgian Constitution of 1831, Prussian
replaced by his younger brother Prince Hamid Constitution of 1859 and the French Constitution
as Sultan Abdülhamid II on August 31, 1876. of 1814. The draft was officially approved by the
Mithat Pasha and his fellows secured a promise Ottoman government (Heyet-i Vükela) on October
from Abdülhamid II to accept the constitution. 10 and later by the sultan on October 28, 1876,
The new sultan Abdülhamid II, nevertheless, did and named Kânûn-ı Esâsî (Basic Law).
not grant these men, who brought him to throne, The 1876 constitution was full of firsts in
administrative positions since he did not trust the history of the Ottoman Empire. It was the
them. Instead, he appointed Mehmet Rüştü Pasha first written law and a detailed one bringing
as Grand vizier and his brother-in-law, Damat equality to all Ottoman citizens before the law in
Mahmut Celaleddin Pasha as chief of the palace education, employment in state institutions and
inner services (mabeyin müşiri). Midhat Pasha was in the army together with equal representation in
not in the cabinet and he continued to work as the the parliament. It was composed of 119 articles
President of the Council of State (Shaw and Shaw, classified under 12 sections. The constitution
2002, p. 174). declared Istanbul as the capital city of the Ottoman
Meanwhile, the rebellions in the Balkans caused Empire, determined Turkish as the official language
wars when the Serbian Prince Milan Obrenovic-IV of the state, and required a knowledge of Turkish to
and Prince Nicholas of Montenegro declared war on be eligible for public office. The constitution also
the Ottoman Empire on June 30, 1876. However, accepted Islam as the state religion but protected
neither Serbia nor Montenegro had the capacity to free exercise of different faiths all over the empire.
pursue a war against the Ottoman Empire. Therefore, The parliament was to be composed of two
Serbia asked help from Russia. Although Russia did chambers as the Chamber of Notables or Senate
not want to be involved in this conflict, Russian (Meclis-i Ayan), and the Chamber of Deputies
volunteers, nevertheless, rushed to aid Serbia. At the (Meclis-i Mebusan) according the constitution.
same time, Serbia wanted to occupy Bosnia, but she Deputies for the Chamber were to be formed by
failed and the Ottoman forces under the command an elected 120 members, both Christians and
of Gazi Osman Pasha advanced towards Belgrade. Muslims, serving three year terms with one-third
It was then that Russia got involved and with an being replaced each year. The members of the
ultimatum to the Ottomans managed to secure an Chamber of Senate were to be appointed by the
armistice on October 31, 1876. Negotiations started Porte and would have between 30 and 50 members
with the initiative taken by the European powers, (Shaw and Shaw, 2002, p.175). The sultan, for
and they met in Istanbul at the Shipyard Conference this Chamber, would appoint the persons who
on December 23, 1876 when the constitution was had previously served as Ministers, Governor-
promulgated. Generals (vali), Commandant of Corps (ordu
müşirliği), Judges (kazasker), Ambassadors,
The 1876 Constitution Patriarchs, Grand Rabbi, and Generals who
either served in the army and or in the navy.
The preparation for a constitution started after
The senators were to be nominated for life and
Abdülhamid II came to the throne. He ordered for the
no one could be a member of both Chambers
preparation of a constitution on September 30, 1876
at the same time. Moreover, according to the
and a commission called Cemiyet-i Mahsusa
constitution, all ministers and undersecretaries
(Special Commission) was formed for this task.
(müsteşarlar) of the government had to get a vote
The commission had 28 members including
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of confidence in the parliament, otherwise, the Ottoman Empire. But the European powers were
government would resign since it was responsible not satisfied with the constitution and criticized it
to the Parliament. as “simply a piece of window-dressing, a maneuver
intended to throw dust in the eyes of the western
powers and to circumvent their plans of intervention”
(Lewis, 2002, p.165).
The constitution was promulgated on the
day that the Shipyard Conference or otherwise
known as Constantinople Conference (Tersane
Konferansı) convened at Tersane Sarayı (Shipyard
Palace) in Istanbul. This conference was held in
order to discuss and end the problems faced by the
Ottomans such as the Ottoman suppression of the
rebellions in the Balkan provinces that caused the
wars between the Ottoman Empire and Serbia and
Montenegro. In this conference, representatives of
European powers mainly Germany, Russia, Britain,
Austria-Hungary, France and Italy were present.
The Ottoman Empire was represented by Safvet
Pasha, the Ottoman Minister of Foreign Affairs, and
İbrahim Ethem Pasha, the Ottoman Ambassador
to Berlin. As the conference was convening,
cannon salutes were heard outside the conference
Figure 4.2 The Cover Page of the first constitution of building. Safvet Pasha informed the participants
the Ottoman Empire- Kanun-i Esasi that there was no need for the conference since
Source: http://osmanlilar.gen.tr/Yazilar/osmanlilarda-
the Sultan just granted his subjects a constitution
anayasa-macerasi.html
that guaranteed the integrity of the Empire and the
equality among all Ottoman subjects that would
meet all the expectations of both the Serbians and
Montenegrins. Nevertheless, the Russian delegate
The 1876 constitution was based on the insisted on the continuation of the conference
Belgian, French and Prussian constitutions. and asked for reforms in the Balkans. He also
According to the articles of this constitution, professed that the problem in the Balkans would
effective power would be placed in the eventually lead to a war between Austria and Russia
hands of a council of ministers appointed by over the control of the Balkans since the Ottoman
the sultan and legislative power would be in authority had weakened in the region. Following
the hands of a chamber of deputies, elected a break, the Shipyard Conference was reconvened
indirectly by the people, and a senate, in January 1877. The European delegates proposed
appointed by the sultan; though sovereignty autonomy to Bosnia and Herzegovina, division of
would in principle remain with the sultan. Bulgaria into two provinces as Tuna and Eastern
Rumelia with a military force formed by Bulgarian
militias (opalchentsi- Bulgarian voluntary army
units) and keeping Ottoman garrisons outside the
After the approval of the Constitution, Midhat castles. Moreover, they asked the Sultan to appoint
Pasha, the architect of the constitution, was Christian governors and to pursue reforms in these
appointed as grand vizier for the second time in provinces. Furthermore, the delegates requested
December 19, 1876. The constitution was declared that the income derived from Bulgaria be spent on
on December 23, 1876 by Sultan Abdülhamid local expenses, and local languages be used in the
II with the hope that it would be able to stop the courts in Bosnia and Herzegovina and in Bulgaria.
European intervention in the internal affairs of the
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important belonged. After the elections, 115 deputies of which

69 Muslims and 46 non-Muslims representing the
major religious and ethnic groups in the Ottoman
Among the opposition to the Ottoman rule, especially
Empire were endorsed as the first elected deputies.
Bulgarian militias known as opalchentsi, the anti-
These deputies were mainly the members of the
Ottoman militia, formed the ground warfare of the
executive committees of the council of provinces,
Bulgarian Land Forces established in 1878.
liva (administrative district, equivalent of sancak)
and kaza (district). In addition, there were 26
members of which 21 Muslims and 5 non-Muslims
All these claims were rejected by the Ottoman appointed to the Chamber of Ayan (Shaw and
government after a special Ottoman council of Shaw, 2002, pp.175-178).
consultation was formed by Midhat Pasha who
thought that giving in to these demands would
hurt the Ottoman power and image in the region. important
Therefore, the Shipyard Conference ended without
coming up with a solution on January 20, 1877 “No elections were held in autonomous regions
with the protests of the participants. But the that had their own representative institutions. Thus,
impact of the conference had adverse effects for Egypt, Montenegro, Rumania, Samos, Serbia,
Midhat Pasha. Sultan Abdülhamid II had expected and Tunisia were not represented in the Ottoman
a peaceful solution from this conference, but when parliament; the local council in Mount Lebanon
the consultation council rejected the western decided not to send deputies to Istanbul while in
demands he was incensed with Midhat Pasha, and Crete, the Muslim community elected one deputy,
dismissed him on February 5, 1877. The Sultan but the Greek Orthodox community, in an act of
accused Midhat Pasha of being a traitor and sent defiance, declined to send a representative. Instead
him into exile soon after by using Article 113 of the of overcoming sectarian divisions through the
Constitution. Meanwhile, Serbia was forced to sign institution of universal representation, the elections
a peace treaty based on status quo on March 1, 1877 reinforced the communitarian basis of society by
believing that she could not expand its territory as allotting quotas to the various religious communities
was demanded during the conference. based on projections of population figures derived
from the census of 1844. Istanbul, for example, was
The First Ottoman Parliament to be represented by five Muslims and five non-
Muslims (two Greeks, two Armenians, and a Jew)”
(1876-1877)
(Hanioğlu, 2008, pp.118-119).
After the promulgation of the constitution,
elections were held in the country between
January and March 1877 in accordance with the
The Ottoman Parliament was opened on
constitution. According to the Article 65 of the
March 19, 1877 at Dolmabahçe Palace. The new
constitution, the number of deputies was fixed at
Grand vizier İbrahim Ethem Pasha, the ministers,
one deputy for every 50.000 males of the Ottoman
statesmen, bureaucrats and high ranking officers
nationality. The election was held by secret ballot
were ready at the opening but not Midhat Pasha
and only trustable Ottoman citizens who could
who was the Grand vizier when the constitution
speak Turkish, literate in Turkish and at the age
was declared because he had already been dismissed
of 30 or over were elected as deputies. According
by the sultan. Thus, Midhat Pasha, the leading
to the constitution, the eligible voters should be
architect of the constitution, could not see the
tax-paying males who were over the age of 25 and
opening of the parliament for which he had spent
could only vote for their deputies from among
time and effort (Fortna, 2008, p. 43).
the inhabitants of the province to which they
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Figure 4.3 The opening ceremony of the First Ottoman Parliament

Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Opening_ceremony_of_the_First_Ottoman_
Parliament_at_the_Dolmabahce_Palace_in_1877.jpg
All state offices were vacated for the opening of the two chambers on the 1st of November every
ceremony and after the ceremony the first meeting year, the Parliament could not meet until 1908 again.
of the Parliament took place at the building in Sultan Abdülhamid II sent many of his opponents into exile
Ahmet district in Istanbul on March 20, 1877. to keep himself safe and away from any coup attempt
The first session of the Parliament was completed on in future. However, all the measures against opponents
June 28, 1877. Unfortunately, during the sessions of the and measures taken against any claims for freedom in
Chambers, war broke out between the Ottoman Empire the country could not give him time to take a breath
and Russia when Russia declared war on April 24, 1877 since many other problems arose waiting for solutions
demanding reform in the Balkans. The Parliament met internally and externally: to name a few, the war with
again on December 13, 1877 and continued to work Russia between 1877-1878, unending demands for
until February 14, 1878 when the Sultan dissolved the reforms from the Great Powers for the Ottoman
parliament using article 113 of the constitution which Balkans and Ottoman minorities plus the financial
sanctioned state of siege (idare-i örfiyye) and temporary crisis the empire had to face.
suspension of constitutional freedoms in regions where
public order was threatened by major disruptions.
In fact, the Sultan used the article that stated “in
the months and years following the constitution’s 1
promulgation, through a set of measures specific to What was the role of the Young
the state of siege, such as curfews, a ban on public Ottomans in materializing
gatherings, and the establishment of court-martials to the constitutional Regime in
try civilians” in his favor since the reason behind was Ottoman Empire?
quite different (Lévy-Aksu, 2016, pp. 6-9). The Sultan
was displeased when the Chamber approved of a
bill by 305 to 148 votes to investigate and ascertain
causes of defeat in the wars. The Deputies were TERRITORIAL LOSSES: THE
planning to call the Ministers of War and Navy for OTTOMAN-RUSSIAN WAR
an investigation pertaining to military failures in the (1877-1878)
Balkan fronts. The Sultan was annoyed under the The Ottoman-Russian War, also known as 93
circumstances since it was he who had appointed Harbi (93 War) among the Turks with a reference to
these ministers according to the Article 7 of the the Hijri Calendar 1293, started in April 1877. The
Constitution. But when he dissolved the Parliament, reason behind this war was the disagreement between
he used the Ottoman-Russian War (1877-1878) as the Ottoman Empire and the European delegates in
an excuse to hide his annoyance. Although Article the Shipyard Conference. Russia declared war on
43 of the 1876 Constitution determined the meeting the Ottoman Empire on April 24, 1877 to force the
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Ottoman Sultan to implement reforms in the Balkans and to secure her own image (Fortna, 2008, p. 44). The
Russian armies attacked the Ottoman territories both in the Balkans and in eastern Anatolia. The Russian
Armies occupied Kars, Ardahan, Batum and Bayezit, cities in eastern Anatolia, and advanced to Sofia crossing
the Danube River in the west. The Ottoman forces could not prevent the Russian advance in the Balkans
since they were dispersed over a large geography. Later, the Ottoman forces under the command of Gazi
Osman Pasha stopped the Russian forces and did not give up Plevna (in present day Bulgaria) for a while, but
in the end Osman Pasha had to surrender on December 10, 1877.
Figure 4.4 Ottoman-Russian War front, 1877-1878.

Source: http://pages.uoregon.edu/kimball/images/frn.MPR.1877.78.RTwrx.Ctq29.jpg
The fall of Plevna cleared the way for the Russians to advance all the way to the capital city Istanbul
especially when Edirne, a gate to Istanbul, was lost to the Russians in January 1878. The Russians advanced
close to Ayastefanos (Hagios Stephanos-present day Yeşilköy) at the outskirts of Istanbul defeating the
Ottoman Armies. The Russian advance alarmed Britain and Austria so much so that they wanted to
prevent the Russian march to Istanbul. Meantime, the Ottoman government asked for mediation to the
European powers on January 8, 1878. While Germany refused the Ottomans, the British government
accepted to be a mediator between the two, and with the help of other European powers asked Russia for
an armistice which was accepted.
Treaty of San Stefano (Ayastefanos)

The Ottoman Foreign Minister Safvet Pasha and Sadullah Bey, Ottoman Ambassador to Germany
and Russian Representatives Count Nicholas Pavlovich Ignatiev and Alexandre Ivanovich Nelidov met
in Ayastefanos and signed the Treaty of San Stefano (Ayastefanos) on March 3, 1878. The terms of the
treaty in fact were the realization of what the Europeans claimed and the Ottomans rejected at the
Shipyard Conference. According to the Treaty of San Stefano, Ottoman Rumelia was to be divided
into two as Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia. Bulgaria would become an autonomous principality linked
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4
to the Ottoman State while Eastern Rumelia to emerged among the western powers to control the
be remained under Ottoman rule with borders regions under the Ottoman rule in the 18th, 19th,
reaching Black Sea in the northeast and to the and early 20th centuries once the Empire started to
Aegean Sea in the south at the expense of the disintegrate. Before joining the Congress, Britain
Ottoman Empire’s aimed at creating “Greater asked for the complete control of the island of
Bulgaria”. In addition to the Bulgarian losses, the Cyprus from the Ottomans to safeguard British
Ottoman Sultan was to recognize the independence investments in the Levant (Mediterranean region)
of Serbia, Montenegro, and Rumania. The rights and consolidate her colonial regime and trade
and the properties of the Muslims who stayed in in India (Rose, 1915, p.235). In return, Britain
these regions would be protected. With this treaty, promised to defend the Ottoman interests at the
the Ottoman Empire had to accept reforms in Berlin Congress. After a secret meeting held between
Bosnia and Herzegovina, in Rumelia’s residential Britain and the Ottoman Empire on June 4, 1878, the
areas and also in the places where Armenians were Sultan agreed to rent Cyprus to Britain. However,
located in eastern Anatolia under the supervision neither Britain nor other countries defended the
of Austria-Hungary and Russia which was a direct Ottoman rights and interests in the congress, and
intervention into the Ottoman internal affairs. thus, granting Cyprus to Britain was a wasted
Moreover, the Ottoman Empire had to pay war effort.
indemnity to Russia. Kars, Ardahan, Batum At the end of the Congress, the Treaty of Berlin
and Bayezit were left to Russia as part of this was signed on July 13, 1878. The Treaty of Berlin
compensation. Russia was also given economic approved what was granted to Russia in the Treaty
privileges and Russian consuls’ official protection of San Stefano (Rose, 1915, p.235). Russia in
on the Russians living in the Ottoman territories return agreed to hand over the Alashkert Valley
was approved. The Treaty of San Stefano in fact was and the town of Bayezit to the Ottoman Empire.
a victory for the Pan-Slavist policy of Russia. Russia Russia also promised that “Batum should be a free
literally planned to bring the Ottoman Empire to port, and left unchanged the regulations respecting
an end with territorial losses and heavy financial the navigation of the Dardanelles and Bosporus.”
crisis due to war indemnities. However, neither (Rose, 1915, p. 242).
the Ottoman Empire nor the Balkan countries
The independence of Bulgaria was also
and the European powers were satisfied with the
approved but with changes in her territorial gains
terms of this treaty. Greece and Serbia opposed
dividing “Greater Bulgaria” into three regions.
to the creation of a “Greater Bulgaria” since they
Bulgaria proper became an autonomous state but
wanted Macedonia for themselves. England and
remained under the Ottoman rule to be ruled
Austria challenged the terms of the treaty because
by a Prince who was to be elected “freely” by the
with these terms, Russia got a stronghold not only
population of the Principality. The elected prince
in the Balkans but also in the Aegean region via
needed to be confirmed by the Sultan “with the
Salonika. As an outcome of these objections, an
assent of the Powers” (Rose, 1915, pp. 238-
international convention was held in Berlin in
239). Eastern Rumelia was given “administrative
June 1878 to revise the terms of the Treaty of San
autonomy” under a Christian governor, and
Stefano.
Macedonia remained under Ottoman rule. Beside
the Balkan states, Austria-Hungary also benefitted
Berlin Congress and the Treaty of from the Treaty of Berlin by having right to occupy
Berlin (1878) and administer the provinces of Bosnia and
Herzegovina. If Austria did not want to administer
The Berlin Congress was attended by delegations
Bosnia-Herzegovina legally, they were to remain a
from Russia, England, Austria-Hungary, Germany,
part of the Ottoman Empire. In addition, Austria-
France, Italy, and the Ottoman Empire. The
Hungary also secured special commercial and
Congress was not more than an international
military privileges in the Sanjak of Novi Bazaar
meeting to discuss the Eastern Question. The term
(Yeni Pazar) (Rose,1915, p. 613).
eastern question referred to the problems that
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4
Figure 4.5 Changes in the Ottoman Borders in the Balkans after the Treaties San Stefano and Berlin
Source: http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/russo-turkish-3.htm
In addition to territorial losses in the Balkans which strengthened the relationship; and thus,
and in the Caucasus, the Ottomans promised to Germany became the country that the Sultan stayed
pursue reforms and improvements in the provinces in close cooperation with in many matters from
inhabited by the Armenians, and guaranteed their education to military reforms.
security against the Circassians and the Kurds. Any
measures taken by the Porte for this purpose were to
be monitored by the Great Powers. Moreover, the 2
Porte promised to maintain religious liberty of the
non-Muslims as promised in the Reform Decree What were the outcomes of the
of 1856. With this Treaty, the Armenian question 1877-1878 Ottoman-Russian
was brought into the international arena for the first War for the Ottoman Empire?
time and the foreign intervention on this issue was
to continue until the end of the Ottoman Empire.
The treaty also required the Ottomans to pay war Ottoman-Greek War 1897
indemnity to the Russians although the amount was In the last quarter of the nineteenth century,
less than the one demanded at San Stefano (Findley, the Ottoman Empire went into war with Greece
2010, p.85). Thus, the Treaty of Berlin was a in 1897 upon a rebellion that broke out in the
presumptuous show that on the surface pretended to Island of Crete in 1896. The rebellion in Crete
keep the integrity of the Ottoman Empire. In reality, was provoked by a secret Greek nationalistic
the Ottomans had to accept and grant what Russia society called Ethniki Etairia (National Society)
and the Great Powers wanted and lost important that aimed to unite Crete with Greece. As a matter
territories in the Balkans and in the Caucasus as well of fact, Crete had presented problems for the
as paying war compensation. All these losses also empire since 1860s because of continuous clashes
shaped the foreign policy of Abdülhamid II and he between the Muslim and Christian Cretans
carved close relation with Germany. German Kaiser provoked by the Greek Nationalists. The Ethniki
Wilhelm II made two visits to the Ottoman capital Etairia (National Society) was founded by a group
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of Greek officers in November 1894 was behind

the rebellion in Crete. (Shaw and Shaw, 2002,
p.206). Although the Ottoman government tried
to solve the problems with reforms and provincial
councils, the Greek nationalists did not stop their
provocation and the Christian Cretans attacked
the Muslim Cretans. The Ottoman-Greek War
broke out when Greece sent a fleet to the Island
at the beginning of 1897 to defend the Christians
and proclaimed annexation of Crete. Although
the European powers tried to convince Greece
to withdraw, she insisted and even sent an army
commanded by Prince Constantine to attack the
Turks in Thessaly in April 1897. This was openly
a declaration of war against the Ottoman Empire.
The Ottoman Armies defeated the Greek forces
in Thessaly in 30 days. The Greek government
appealed to the European powers for help but
they rejected Greek demands since they did not
want to indulge Greece. Moreover, the Europeans
were unwilling to see the Crete rebellion cause
disorder and problems in the Balkans which they Figure 4.6 Sultan Abdülhamid II in the early days of
had already settled with the Treaty of Berlin. Thus, his reign.
Greece had to withdraw its troops from Crete and
Source: George Grantham Bain Collection, Prints
an armistice was signed on May 20,1897 (Shaw
and Photographs Division, Library of Congress.
and Shaw, 2002, p.206).
en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Image: Abdulhamid 21890.jpg.
Later a peace treaty was signed between the
Ottoman Empire and Greece on December 4, 1897
and Greece accepted to pay war compensation to REIGN OF ABDÜLHAMID II
the Ottomans. Greece also agreed to return some The reign of Sultan Abdülhamid II started with
territories in Thessaly to the Empire. However, financial problems, rebellions, wars and declaration
although the Ottoman Empire defeated Greece of a constitutional system. At the beginning of his
and Crete remained under Ottoman control, reign, the Sublime Porte and the bureaucracy were
the treaty required the withdrawal of the Greek dominant in the state affairs but the Sultan with
and Turkish troops from Crete. Shortly after an the rights entrusted to him as sovereign diminished
international protectorate was created and an their power and he took control of the country.
autonomous government under Prince George Abdülhamid II used exile and imprisonment as
was formed in Crete in 1898 (Shaw and Shaw, punishment for many of his opponents, journalists
2002, p. 206). Later, this autonomous government and intellectuals (Fortna, 2008, p.43). He had
declared its union with Greece in 1908. One dismissed Midhat Pasha. Later though Midhat
of the effects of the Ottoman-Greek War was Pasha was called back to duty a couple of times,
psychological. The victory over the Greeks helped in the end he was put to trial with the accusation
the Ottoman society to overcome the defeat in that he had been responsible for the death of the
the Ottoman-Russian War of 1877-1878. deposed Sultan Abdülaziz. He and his cohorts
were found guilty, charged and sentenced to death.
With the intervention of the western powers, this
sentence was changed into exile for life and he was
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sent to Taif where he was murdered (Fortna, 2008, After Abdülhamid II closed the Parliament,
p. 43). The death of Midhat Pasha was interpreted his opponents staged a coup to bring Murad V
as the end of the dominancy of the Tanzimat back to the throne. The first coup d’état attempt
bureaucracy in the state affairs as well as the shift of known as Çırağan Baskını (Çırağan Raid) took
power from the Sublime Porte to the Palace. place in Istanbul on May 20, 1878. The coup was
Abdülhamid II appointed the leading Young organized by Ali Suavi, a well-known journalist, a
Ottomans to posts far away from Istanbul so that member of the Young Ottoman Society and keen
he could keep them away and prevent further supporter of the constitutional regime. Ali Suavi,
coups. For example, Ziya Pasha spent years in with his hundreds of companions mostly migrants
serving as the Governor of Syria (1876) and later from the Rumelia who fled to Istanbul after the
of Konya and then Governor of Adana where he turmoil in the Balkans, came to Çırağan Palace to
died in 1880. Namık Kemal, who had given new save and ascend Murat V to the throne. However,
meanings to old concepts like fatherland (vatan) this attempt ended with failure and Ali Suavi and
and freedom (hürriyet) into Turkish language and most of his companions were killed by the police
whose patriotism and ideas influenced the Young forces. There was another attempt called the
Turk and Turkish nationalist movements, was Second Çırağan Incident (İkinci Çırağan Vakası)
also kept away from Istanbul with appointments at a later date which also ended with failure
and spent his years abroad or away from Istanbul. (Riedler, 2013, p. 138). There had been no other
When the Ottoman-Russian War broke out attempts later to ascend Murat V the throne since
Namık Kemal was accused of being against the Murat V was not capable of ruling the Empire,
sultan and he was imprisoned for five months and Çırağan Palace was protected heavily against
then exiled to Mytilene Island (1877). Two years any other attempt.
later, he was appointed as the governor of the same These coup attempts and the ongoing war with the
island (1879) and later as the Governor of Island Russians were enough to alarm Abdülhamid II in the
of Rhodes in 1884. Then, Namık Kemal became early years of his reign. He established total political
the governor of Chios Island (Sakız) in 1887 where control called istibdad (autocracy) in the country
he died of pneumonia in December 1888 and his aided by his own loyal men carefully chosen by him.
body was buried in Bolayır in Gallipoli. Stemming from these difficulties he had preferred
After clearing the ground from Midhat Pasha to rule the Empire with an iron hand practicing
and most of the Young Ottomans, the next step for an authoritarian policy dependent on absolute
the Sultan was the Parliament where the deputies sovereignty of the Sultan and the supremacy of the
began to discuss the failure in the wars and put Muslim millet. Abdülhamid II followed different
the blame on the Minister of War and Minister policies for different groups. His conservative policies
of Navy for these failures. The Sultan was also were used to get support from the conservative groups
disturbed with the discussions in the Parliament against the reformist and secularist groups and at the
about the freedom of press which was supported same time to control the ulemâ and the students of
with a new law passed in the Parliament. While Medrese. He emphasized the title of the Caliph to get
the political situation was getting more heated, the support of the Moslem countries and followed Pan-
Russian armies were about to march on to Istanbul. Islamist policies, and implemented it in internal and
They had advanced all the way to Saint Stephanos foreign policies which angered the European powers.
defeating the Ottoman army. Abdülhamid II The educated people with their reformist ideas were
dissolved the parliament on February 14, 1878 not welcomed although they were the graduates of
using his constitutional right to dismiss the the modernist schools founded during the reign of
parliament when faced with a state of emergency Sultan Mahmud II.
according to Article 113. Thus, the constitutional Moreover, Abdülhamid II’s reign is remembered
regime ended and the Parliament did not meet with his use of a secret police organization (called
for thirty years until 1908. Abdülhamid II had to Hafiye Teşkilatı in Turkish). It was formed by the
face many assassination attempts, coup d’état and Sultan to get to know who was loyal to him and
conspiracies in the early years of his reign. who was not. This police organization had official
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informants (jurnalci) and spies who were appointed Factories were founded and efforts were made to
to every department of the government to report introduce modern farming and agriculture to
on the actions and ideas of individual bureaucrats Ottoman peasants. The Sultan personally followed
reported in memorandums (jurnals) (Shaw and all advancements in technology, education and
Shaw, 2002, p.214). The appointments in the agriculture.
state offices, promotions both in civil bureaucracy Despite his conservative policies, Abdülhamid II
and in the army had to have the approval of the was a progressive thinker, and westernization
Sultan. One important criteria for appointments and modernization through modern education
or promotions was loyalty to the Sultan attested by institutions were maintained during his reign. He
the reports compiled by the secret police (hafiye). opened vocational schools for girls and boys and
These reports were also used to dismiss, or even encouraged cultural activities. Moreover, he was
imprison those who were thought to be treasonous fond of “European classical music and theater.
under article 113 of the Constitution. With these For example he, brought many stars to perform
actions, the secret police organization served the privately at his palace. These included such famous
authoritarian policies of the Sultan and threatened opera singers as the Belgian soprano Blanche Arral
not only the statesmen but also common people. and legendary actresses like French tragedienne
Abdülhamid II also imposed censorship on the Sarah Bernhardt.” (Hanioğlu, 2008, p.141). He
press and publications in order to establish total himself played the piano almost at a concert pianist
control in the country. Because, he was not happy level. He continued to support the music school
with the liberal journalists and their articles about his founded by his father, and the Imperial Academy
policies. During his reign, important newspapers of of Fine Arts (Mekteb-i Sanayi-i Nefise-i Şahane)
the Tanzimat period were closed and the newspapers was opened in 1882. A national anthem named
began to be controlled daily before they were Hamidiye was composed in his honor and was used
published. There were censor committees for different during his reign as the Ottoman national anthem.
kinds of publications. All books were controlled In addition, the first cinema show was introduced
including the religious ones. Even the foreign to the Ottoman Empire during his reign after he
language books imported to the Ottoman Empire approved it. Women periodicals were published
were controlled. Moreover, the use and publication by women such as Şükûfezar (flower garden) by
of some words like liberty (hürriyet), nation (vatan), Arife Hanım in 1886 and first women aid societies
equality (eşitlik), constitution (Kanun-i Esasi), and were established during his reign. Like
other words reminding revolution and the name many Ottoman Sultans, he had his
Murad were banned since they reminded previous own craftsmanship interests. He was
periods and rivalry to the Sultan. an excellent carpenter trained by an
Beside his authoritarian rule, the reign of Italian master. He is known to have
Abdülhamid II is also remembered with increasing made canes for wounded soldiers.
adaptation of technology which he was interested
and keen on implementing. The emphasis put on
to the adaptation and transfer of technology first
for military purposes and railway construction and
telegraph lines which were built during the Crimean
War (1853-1856) were extended during the reign
of Abdülhamid II. Railway networks and roads
linked cities in the west and in Central Anatolia
to Istanbul. The seas surrounding the empire
housed new shipping and navigation companies
mostly by foreigners. There were also ships that ran
transportation on the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.
Figure 4.8 Insignia of Abdülhamid II

Source: http://www.hisartmuseum.com/tr/Page.asp?ID=488
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There were different visual symbols used for mosques bearing commemorative plaques that
the symbolic representation of the Sultan. The linked his name with distant Ottoman ancestors”
Nişan-ı İmtiyaz (The Ottoman equivalent of the (Deringil, 1998, p. 30). Moreover, he, for the first
Legion D’Honneur) was one of them given not time, employed photographers to photograph
only to the Ottomans but also to foreign nationals the state buildings, factories, institutions, streets,
to honor and ensure their loyalty. “Symbols like railway lines as well as the Ottoman people.
his insignia (tuğra) appeared on all public works
completed in his time. Clock towers erected all
over Anatolia bearing the imperial coat of arms Reforms in Education
and other reminders of Sultan’s power” (Deringil, Sultan Abdülhamid II supported and facilitated a
1998, p.29, 142). modern public education and considered secondary
education especially the most significant stage
in education. In the Ottoman Empire, primary
education for both sexes had been made mandatory
with the 1876 Constitution. These schools were
established by the foundations and Ministry of
Education or by private individuals. Abdülhamid II
worked hard to eliminate deficiencies both in the
primary and in the secondary education system.
Before he came to the throne, there were 4 colleges,
4 male teacher training schools (Darülmuallimin),
253 secondary schools (Rüştiye mektebs), 18, 490
primary schools (Sıbyan mektebs), and one private
school in the Ottoman Empire. There were also
independent schools run by the state for the various
millets of the empire. There were missionary schools
run by American, French, British, German, Italian,
Austrian and Russian organizations as well. The
Figure 4.7 Nişan-ı İmtiyaz missionary schools primarily accepted non-Muslims
Source: http://www.trmilitary.com/viewtopic.php?t=2166 but they had Muslim students as well. However,
although the Article 16 of the 1876 Constitution
brought state supervision on all schools, the
missionary schools were not intervened by the state
Abdülhamid II on one hand was progressive,
and this did not help the national unity (Shaw and
pro-technology and keen on educational
Shaw, 2002, p.249).
reforms. On the other hand, he pursued
conservative Pan-Islamic policies and was Most of the state schools concentrated in Istanbul
an absolute monarch which he thought was due to lack of capital to finance them elsewhere
necessary in order to save the country. He was while missionary schools were established in
not in favor of a constitutional regime. All his different provinces. In 1883, the Sultan developed
efforts to hold the Empire intact did not bear the old Assistance Surtax (İane Vergisi) one-tenth
fruit and could not keep the Ottomans united of which was the Education Benefits Share (Maarif
during his reign of thirty plus years. Hisse-i İanesi) levied on the tithe (tax) to provide
capital for education. One third of the total amount
was allocated to education and the remaining was
The clock towers were part of the secular given to the agricultural bank. This capital helped
understanding of keeping time unlike the Qur’anic to increase the number of primary, secondary, and
time used for prayers. There were “small uniform high schools in the empire. A Commission for
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4
Supervision and Examination was established in and reestablished on 12 August 1900 with the
1880 to help the Ministry of Education. His special initiative taken by Sait Pasha to commemorate the
interest in education bore fruit and the number of 24th anniversary of the Abdülhamid II’s ascendance
primary schools, secondary and high schools across to the throne. The university was organized into
the country increased during his reign. These four faculties under the general direction of the
schools were under the authority of the Ministry of Ministry of Education (Shaw and Shaw, 2002,
Foundations (Evkaf Nezareti) and named as usûl-i pp.250-251).
atika mektepleri (old fashioned schools). Then sıbyan Interestingly, modern education in public and
mektebs were replaced by ibtidai schools (substitute military schools during the reign of Abdülhamid II
schools) and the curriculum was modernized with raised a new generation with western liberal ideas,
the name Usul-ü Cedide (new system). This new full of patriotism but anger not only against absolute
system required trained teachers and payment for monarchy and territorial losses in the empire but also
them instead of gifts given by the students. A new towards the intervention of the European powers in
system of teaching to write and read letter by letter the Ottoman internal affairs. The graduates of these
called usul-ü saftiye was developed. public and military schools formed the cadre of
The Sultan was particularly keen on the individuals who would help the foundation of the
education of the girls. The school Islahhâne Turkish Republic in the later years.
(reformatory) which Midhat Pasha had founded
for orphaned girls in 1864 continued to provide
Reforms in Military
vocational training to girls during the reign of
Abdülhamid II. Moreover, the Girl’s Teacher Sultan Abdülhamid II was closely interested
Training School (Dar-ül Muallimât) which was in the modernization of the Ottoman Army. He
established in 1870 survived and the graduates was instrumental in the establishment of schools
could teach at Sıbyan and Rüştiye mektebs for girls. for the army personnel in terms of military
In 1893, the school also had a department which training and technological training. He rearranged
offered 6 year education (İhtiyat Kısmı). the higher echelons of the Ottoman Army and
bypassed the Sublime Porte in the same way he did
Abdülhamid II also founded schools of
with his other decisions. In the Ottoman Army, the
higher education and many vocational schools
responsibility of commander in chief was given to
in major provinces and cities. These vocational
Serasker (commander in chief of the Army) during
schools aimed at training future state bureaucrats,
the reign of Mahmud II. Abdülhamid created a
technicians, veterinarians and agricultural experts
new authority over the Serasker and established
to develop finance, industry, modern agriculture
High Commission of Military Inspection (Teftiş-i
and increase production so that the Empire would
Umumi-i Askeri Komisyon-u Alisi) of which he was
not depend on foreign goods. These vocational
the chair himself. Ghazi Ahmet Muhtar Pasha was
schools were Hamidiye Trade School (Ticaret
the executive director of this new commission. The
Mektebi) founded in 1883, Imperial Veterinary
members of this commission were chosen among
School (Baytar Mektebi) in 1891 and Halkalı
the men loyal to Abdülhamid II and thus this
Agricultural School (Ziraat Mektebi) in 1892. They
gave him control over the army. Additionally, the
were supplied with modern textbooks which were
Sultan also changed the position of the General
brought from Europe and translated under the
Staff (Erkân-ı Harbiye) from “directing the army
Ministry of Education.
to preparing staff studies and collecting data and
Among his educational improvements, the statistics on the army” while establishing “a Second
Imperial School for Civil Servants (Mülkiye General Staff (Maiyet-i Seniye Erkân-i Harbiye)
Mektebi) founded in 1859 was modernized during … to convey the Sultan’s wishes directly into
Abdülhamid II’s reign and Imperial Law School the military structure” (Shaw and Shaw, 2002,
(Hukuk Mektebi) was opened in 1890. The first p.245). Furthermore, the number of military
Ottoman university Dar’ül-Fünûn-i Osmani schools increased and by the end of 1897, there
(Dârülfünûn- house of sciences) was reorganized
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4
were 29 Military Rüştiye schools - six of them Medrese and secular schools were also exempt from
were in Istanbul, while there was one in each of the military service.
the other provinces. Military schools which offered In addition to the arrangements in the Army
higher education had 15, 351 students who were and recruitment, Abdülhamid II established a
mainly Muslims and a few non-Muslims. The cavalry unit in 1891 called Hamidiye Alayları
War Academy, the Imperial Engineering School, (Hamidiye Regiments). This cavalry was composed
the Army Medical School, the civil service section of only Kurdish and Turkoman tribesmen from
of the Army Engineering School, and the Naval eastern Anatolia. These regiments served as local
Academy (Bahriye-i Şahane) maintained education tribal gendarmes. A Tribal School (Aşiret Mektebi)
though modernization in the Navy could not be was also established to train native Turkoman and
achieved due to financial difficulties (Shaw and Kurdish officers to support these regiments (Shaw
Shaw, 2002, p.249). and Shaw, 2002, p.246). These regiments were
During Abdülhamid II’s reign, German officers commanded by the tribal chiefs and regular army
were invited as advisors to help the modernization officers. The Sultan planned to use them to counter
of the Ottoman army. Upon the Ottoman Russian attacks in the Eastern border. To serve this
invitation, German chief of the General Staff purpose, the cavalry regiments were established
Helmuth von Moltke who previously had come in the areas near the Russian fronts. These cavalry
to Istanbul to help modernize the Ottoman Army units were also used to combat the Armenian
sent his best officers including Von der Goltz to terrorist attacks in Eastern Anatolia who had taken
accomplish this task. The Sultan trusted these strength from Russian wars.
foreign advisors thinking that Germany had no
aspirations on the Ottoman lands. However,
he was much mistaken in his impressions.
The Ottoman-German cooperation in army 3
modernization activated German arms industry.
What might be listed as the
Although the modernization efforts could not be
progress during the reign of
carried out due to economic difficulties. Only land
Abdülhamid II?
forces were strengthened with German methods
and ammunitions which made the Ottoman Army
dependent on the German arms industry. The
defense of the Straits and Çatalca (a defense line Pan-Islamism
in the west of Istanbul) were strengthened with The reign of Abdülhamid II is not only
German cannons manufactured by German Krupp remembered with the new institutional reforms,
Company and other German made weapons technological adaptations, and modernization
between 1885 and 1888. In addition to Krupp efforts in education and in the army but also
Cannons, modern German Mauser rifles were used clashes of various versions of pan ideologies.
in place of carbines (Shaw and Shaw, 2002, p.245). Among these ideologies nationalist ideology
found first supporters among the Ottoman non-
Along with the changes in the command posts
Muslim subjects in the Balkans to be used as a tool
and arms and ammunitions, the conscription
to unite their people to get their independence
system was also changed in 1886 and military
from the Ottoman Empire. The Young Ottomans
exemption payment (bedel-i şahsi) was abolished.
developed Ottomanism as an ideology to unite
Military service was made mandatory for all Ottoman people around the same goal against the
Muslim males at the age of 20 and above. But, the other nationalisms. Although Ottomanism was
residents of Istanbul and its environs, Muslim males not supported at the state level during the day it
from Albania, the Hedjaz and Nejd in Arabia, and was popular, “it become more Islamic in tone and
Tripoli and Benghazi, the nomadic Turkomans, nuance” used by Abdülhamid II (Deringil, 1999,
Kurds, and Arabs were exempt from the military p.46). But this new form of Ottomanism was
service (Shaw and Shaw, 2002, p.245). Students of nothing more than Pan-Islamism.
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Pan-Islamism was born as an Islamist discourse The missionaries sent by the Sultan were active in
in the nineteenth century to unite Islamic societies Asia and even in the Dutch East Indies (modern
around a common front against the European Indonesia). Even the khutbah (a sermon preached
colonialism, European political, military, economic, by an imam in a mosque at the time of the Friday
and missionary penetration. This discourse found noon prayer) in the mosques began to address the
supporters among the Muslims in the world with Caliph Sultan Abdülhamid II as the sovereign
the propagation of Sayyid Jamal ad-Din al-Afghani power in 1886.
who was accepted as the major propagator of anti- As part of his Pan-Islamist policy, he ordered
western Pan-Islamism. The idea was to revive Islamic for the construction of the Hedjaz railway line
civilization by understanding and using the western which was the continuation of Baghdad Railway
science, technology and contemporary political through Damascus. This railway line connected
principles. Pan-Islamism claimed the Sultan as a Mecca and Medina, the sacred cities of Islam, and
universal caliph to whom Muslims everywhere this eased the Pilgrimage and ensured control on
owed allegiance and obedience. While it became a the Muslims in the region by transporting military
political ideology covered with nationalism among personnel and arms in cases of rebellions against the
the Muslims of the world, it also became the state Empire. Although Abdülhamid II was successful to
policy in the Ottoman Empire and provided the make the name of Islam be heard in the World, his
golden opportunity to Abdülhamid II to be used Pan-Islamist policy angered the European powers
both in his internal and foreign policies when the who had colonies composed of the Muslims as
empire was suffering from the territorial losses well. They feared that Pan-Islamism might cause
and financial difficulties. Abdülhamid II’s Pan- uprising against their rule. However, although the
Islamist policies had two basic goals: to protect the Sultan promoted the traditional Islamic values
country in the short term and to establish unity and was able to get substantial support of the
of the world of Islam around of the Caliphate in Muslim peoples of the Ottoman Empire, the loss
the long term (Deringil, 1999, p. 29). According of Tunis to France in 1881, and Egypt and the Suez
to Abdülhamid II, the integrity of the empire Canal-opened in 1869- to Britain in 1882 caused
could be secured by keeping the loyalty of the disappointments in the country. Moreover, Pan-
Muslim subjects since the idea of Ottomanism Islamist policies and missionaries were not enough
did not work, especially with the non-Muslim to strengthen the Sultan’s control on the Arab
subjects. As part of Pan-Islamist policy, religious nations. Arab nationalism was already effecting the
education and teaching of religious essentials in the Arabs in Syria, Egypt and Iraq with the support
schools became important. He required reforms of the European propaganda spreading European
for the Medreses. Pan-Islamism was used to curb imperialist interests against the Ottoman rule.
nascent proto-nationalist activities among Muslim
Ottomans (Hanioğlu, 2008, p.142). Especially the
conservative members of the ulema were promoted, Financial Difficulties and the
and members of the Muslim mystic brotherhoods Public Debt Commission
were appointed to important positions. The financial crisis Ottoman Empire had
Abdülhamid II also presented his Pan-Islamist in the nineteenth century brought European
policy to secure the liberation of the enslaved financial control on the Ottoman Empire. The
Muslim peoples of the world living under the empire was also struggling with foreign debts
colonial regimes of Britain, France and Russia, in of about 7.6 million Ottoman Liras in the mid-
Central Asia, the Middle East and North Africa. nineteenth century. The accumulation of debts led
This policy much disturbed and concerned the to the establishment of Public Debt Commission
great powers. As part of his Pan-Islamist policy (Düyûn-u Umumiye Teşkilatı -Administration de la
Abdülhamid II promoted his Arabic subjects to Dette Publique Ottomane) on December 20, 1881
important positions. Between 1901 and 1907, by the European states whose banks lent money to
167 Arabs studied in the Imperial Public Service the Ottomans (Hanioğlu, 2008, p. 135).
School (Mekteb-i Mülkiyeyi Şahane) after they The Public Debt Commission controlled all
graduated from the Tribal School (Aşiret Mektebi). the Ottoman financial sources. Ottoman salt and
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tobacco monopolies, stamp, silk, alcohol, fish and This railway contributed to the export of cotton
income taxes, monies gained from patent regulations from Menderes valley to Izmir. The line served the
and taxes from Bulgaria, Cyprus and Eastern European economic interests just like the other
Rumelia constituted the economic gains of the railway lines constructed in the Empire. However,
empire. The Commission had the right to control the railway constructions caused rivalry among the
and distribute the total income. In 1883, Société de European countries like Britain, France, Germany
la Régie Cointeressée des Tabacs de l’Empire Ottoman and even Belgium. These countries negotiated
(Osmanlı Reji İdaresi) was founded and replaced among themselves for indirect and illegal
the Ottoman Tobacco Monopoly. Given the occupation of Ottoman territories.
authority to direct the Ottoman financial policies, The Anatolian railways ensured connection
the Commission directed not only the Ottoman between the important cities of the Empire to
financial policies but also foreign investments. The Istanbul. The Berlin-Baghdad railway project was
acts and decisions of the Commission were crucial drawn and presented to the Sultan with the intent
for the economic development since the Empire of serving their military, political and economic
was dependent on transfer of technology especially interests. The British members of the Public Debt
in terms of arms and railways. Commissions wanted the extension of the rail
Meanwhile, the financial difficulties required lines to Baghdad to be constructed by Britain.
a new financial reorganization in the Empire. After negotiations, the privilege of constructing
Agriculture became important and modernization Anadolu-Baghdad Railways (Anadolu-Bağdat
of farming methods started during the Hamidian Demiryolu) was given to Germany in 1888. The
period “The state founded agricultural schools, agreement included a new line that would extend
established model farms, and provided tax relief old Haydar Pasha-İzmit line to Ankara via Eskişehir
to farmers who grew produce desired in foreign and eventually reach Baghdad and the Persian Gulf.
markets …” (Hanioğlu, 2008, p.136). The This initial contract did not yield the desired results
unofficial national bank Agricultural Bank (Ziraat and the Baghdad railroad was not completed (Shaw
Bankası) was founded in 1888 for two proposes: and Shaw, 2002, p.227). On December 23, 1899
a) to provide agricultural credits for public Ottoman Empire and Germany signed a new
improvement and b) to compete with the foreign- agreement for the construction of the Baghdad
owned Ottoman Bank which dominated financial railroad. With the financial support provided by
policies and markets in the Empire. Deusche Bank, the building of the line started in
1903.
Railways in the Ottoman Empire
important
Railway construction was one of the important
investments during the reign of Abdülhamid II. In
“The Ottoman government guaranteed a minimum
fact, railway construction in the Ottoman Empire
amount of gross income per kilometer of track
started with the encouragement of foreign powers
constructed and put into operation, supplementing
for their own trade interests. Railways built in the
the railroads’ revenues only when they fell below
empire linked important cities to the capital city,
the agreed amounts. To finance the guarantee, the
Istanbul via the Anatolian railways that were mainly
government set aside revenues not under the control
constructed during the reign of Abdülhamid II.
of the Public Debt Commission - usually the tithes
The Ottoman rulers supported railways for two
or sheep taxes collected from areas that benefitted
reasons: 1) internal conflicts could be prevented or
from the railroad construction - on the assumption
controlled with the transportation of the troops; 2)
that total treasury revenues from those areas would
tax collection would be rendered easy without the
rise as a result. Since the foreign financiers really did
prevention of the brigands.
not trust the efficiency of the Ottoman government,
First railway construction in the Ottoman these revenues usually were administered for them
Empire was started in 1856 by a British company by the Public Debt Commission.” (Shaw and Shaw,
after the Crimean War. It was constructed between 2002, p.227).
İzmir and Aydın and completed in 1866-1867.
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In addition to this railway

network, another network
was the construction of the
Hedjaz railway that started in
1901 financed by voluntary
subscription to ease the
transportation of the Muslim
pilgrims to the sacred cities Mecca
and Medina via Damascus-Syria.
This railway changed the towns
and cities where it had lines and
stations. For example, new roads
and buildings were established in
Damascus, Beirut and Jerusalem
which modernized these cities.
One of the more significant
railroads constructed was
the Hedjaz railway through
Damascus. The purpose was Figure 4.9 The Hijaz railway connected the wider Ottoman rail network:
not only to connect Mecca and Source: http://ilmfeed.com/the-ottomans-built-a-railway-which-linked-istanbul-to-
Medina, the holy cities of Islam, madinah/started in 1900
to one another and support
Muslim subjects in the Empire but also to transport
military personnel and arms in cases of rebellions against
the Empire.
Sultan Abdülhamid II wanted to use the privileges
he had granted to foreign countries as a way of
preventing their intervention into the internal affairs of
the Ottoman Empire and as a tool in foreign policy of
playing one power against the other, and to secure their
alliances against Russia (Shaw and Shaw, 2002, p.227).
His attempts were in a way futile due the fact that the
European powers had already decided to solve what they
called the Eastern Question among themselves.
Eastern Question means sharing the

Ottoman Empire by the European powers
without getting into internal struggles
among themselves.
With railway networks, many parts of the empire

previously remote and isolated were opened not only to Figure 4.10 The proposed route from Damascus to
the international trade but also to affective government Makkah Commissioned by Sultan Abdul Hamid II
control. But Ottoman economic dependency on
Source: http://ilmfeed.com/the-ottomans-built-a-railway-
European capital increased and this made the Empire
which-linked-istanbul-to-madinah/started in 1900
more depended on diplomatic support of the foreign
countries mainly of Germany. Because German interest
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4
in the empire was nothing more than part of The early nationalist organizations were founded
the German expansionism. Thus, the Sultans by the Greeks, Serbians and Bulgarians to protect
expectations were not met. Germans followed the the interests of their communities in Macedonia.
policy of Drang nach Osteen -towards the east- by The Bulgarian Cyril and Methodius Committee and
securing favors from Abdülhamid II (Hanioğlu, the Serbian Society of Saint Sava were some of these
2008, p.132). This economic dependency and societies. The Society of Saint Sava was established
foreign intrigues catalyzed the rise of Ottoman in Belgrade in 1886 to defend the rights of Serbians
nationalism among the young generation Muslim in Macedonia, Austrian-Hungarian Empire and
Turks who were called the Young Ottomans. in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Later, other Balkan
nationalities established their own societies and
they used their churches, schools, and cultural
RISE OF NATIONALISM AND activities for the purpose of propaganda and
ITS AFTERMATH IN THE indoctrination. There were also nationalist terrorist
OTTOMAN EMPIRE organizations, and the Bulgarian Macedonian-
Nationalism began to effect the Ottoman Edirne Revolutionary Committee established in 1893
Empire from the early nineteenth century onward by the Bulgarian nationalists in Salonica was one
with the nationalist uprisings that started in the of them. It claimed first autonomy for Macedonia
Balkans. These uprisings as well as European and and then the union of the territories which were
Russian territorial expansions and rivalry among still under Ottoman control with Bulgaria and
them to control the Ottoman territories worsened Serbia. This committee later took the name
the conditions in the Balkans. The capitalist “Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization”
investments of the European companies and (IMRO) (Shaw and Shaw, 2002, p.209). But
their direct involvement in the Ottoman internal this society was not welcomed by a group of
affairs via the investments in the Balkans made Macedonian refugees (Bulgarian, Serbian, Greek
this region easy prey for struggle among the Great and Ulah) resident in Bulgaria and they formed
Powers at the expense of the Ottomans. The loss the Macedonian Supreme Committee or known as
of Ottoman control in the Mediterranean and External Macedonian Revolutionary Organization
in the Balkans combined with liberal, secular (EMRO) in Sofia to raise awareness among the
and nationalist ideas gave birth to revolutionary, Macedonian exiles for unification with Bulgaria
nationalist, and anti-Ottoman organizations once the Ottomans were driven out of Macedonia
first in the Balkans and later in the other parts (Shaw and Shaw, 2002, p.209). Though both the
of the empire. Especially modern education and IMRO and the EMRO were supported by Russia
institutions as well as cultural interaction between and European powers with arms and ammunition,
Europe and the Ottoman Empire plus the wide the result was turmoil in the Balkans in the late
range of publications promoting revolutionary nineteenth century. Bulgaria with the support of
ideologies smuggled into the country contributed the IMRO and the European powers annexed
to the spread of nationalism. Various nationalist Rumelia and declared its independence in 1885
organizations were founded by the non-Muslim (Shaw and Shaw, 2002, p.210). Moreover, the
Ottoman subjects from the early nineteenth IMRO members and Bulgarian komitadjis (rebel
century onwards. The Ottoman Greeks, Albanians, bands) also attempted to provoke a general uprising
Bulgarian and Serbians struggled to keep the in Macedonia in August 1903 during the St Ilias
Ottomans out of the Balkans and of Macedonia by Day to ensure intervention of European powers
using arms and political propaganda. They attacked in Macedonia (Stanev et all., 2011, p.124). These
Ottoman officials and the Muslim residents. The rebels attacked the Muslim districts and villages in
independence claims of the Ottoman subjects in the Province of Monastir, Kosovo and Salonica and
the Balkans were instigated by Russian Czars and killed many Muslim peasants, blew up the railways
European powers. They were all for the control and bridges, cut the telegraph lines and burned the
of the Ottoman Empire with their own political, state buildings and police stations. The rebels even
economic and diplomatic interests in mind. came up close to Edirne. The continuous attacks
of these terrorists not only horrified the Muslims
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living in the Balkans and the Ottoman government October 1894 in the province of Bitlis in eastern
but also the European powers as well. Nevertheless, Anatolia , mainly populated by Armenians, was the
they continued supporting these committees first attempt (Shaw and Shaw, 2002, p.204). Later
pouring more oil into the fire by protesting the the Henchaks organized demonstrations twice in
Ottoman government. When the events got Istanbul, one in 1895 and the other in 1896, to
worsened, Russia and Austria-Hungary agreed on attract the attention of the European powers to the
a reform in October 1903 in Mürzsteg (Austria). Armenian case. But these demonstrations turned
This plan known as Mürzsteg Agreement offered into rebellions and clashes between the Muslims
military and financial reforms to Macedonia and the Armenians could only be suppressed by
under the supervision of Russian and Austrian using military force. Especially, the 26 August
military and diplomatic personnel. According to 1896 İstanbul rebellion was more organized than
this agreement, an international gendarmerie force the previous one. The Armenian terrorists occupied
would be deployed to establish order and security. the Ottoman Bank and held the bank employees as
This was to be the first international peacekeeping hostages, they raided the Sublime Porte, wounded
police mission within Ottoman Macedonia. several officials and threatened the Grand Vizier
(Shaw and Shaw, 2002, p.210). Later Austria- with rifles. Another group threw bombs and fired
Hungary offered this program to the Ottoman at people, killing and wounding innocent people.
Empire and the Ottoman Sultan accepted this Moreover, they threw bombs at the Sultan while
plan unwillingly in 1905. The Sultan’s acceptance he was going to St. Sophia (Ayasofya) Mosque for
of this plan disappointed and frustrated the Young the Friday prayer. The Sultan was safe but more
Turkish officers in the Ottoman Army since what than 20 policemen guarding him were killed (Shaw
had been discussed in Mürzsteg was continued in and Shaw, 2002, p.204). Meanwhile the terrorists
Reval (present day Tallinn in Estonia) in 1907 and gave list of claims to the European Powers. The
the whole affair was nothing more than a direct list included demands as such: appointment of
foreign intervention into the internal affairs of the Christian administrators, gendarmerie and militia
Ottoman Empire. forces to replace the state forces unit in Armenian
While the Ottoman authorities were busy populated regions, increase in financial support to
with the Balkans, there were other nationalist the Armenian schools plus pardoning of all taxes
anti-Ottoman political organizations founded for five years, a general pardon for all Armenians
in the Empire not only in the Balkans but accused and/or convicted of crimes during the
also in Anatolia wanting to establish their previous incidents, and restoration of all confiscated
independent states. Among those anti-Ottoman property (Shaw and Shaw, 2002, pp.204-205).
nationalist organizations, the ones established The Sultan did not accept their claims and
by the Armenians such as Henchak (Bell) and the terrorists were arrested. But later, he issued
Dashnaktsutyun (confederacy) directly organized a decree for a general amnesty and appointed
terrorist attacks on the Muslim population in Christian administrators in the eastern provinces
Anatolia. Main target of these Armenian societies to investigate the abuse of power by Ottoman
was to establish an independent socialist Armenian officials. However, these measures did not satisfy
republic including Eastern Anatolia and to revive the foreign powers, namely British, Russian
Greater Armenia (The Kingdom of Armenia). Both and French and they pressured the Ottoman
the Henchak and Dashnaktsutyun had branches government to give concessions in favor of the
in the Ottoman cities and in Europe. They even Armenians. Abdülhamid II was enraged by these
cooperated with the other anti-Ottoman subjects interventions and became increasingly suspicious
in Macedonia, Crete and Albania. Meanwhile, of the motives of these countries. Furthemore, all
revolutionary literature was smuggled into the these disorders in Macedonia and in the eastern
Empire to indoctrinate the Armenians. provinces angered the Ottoman Muslims and they
The Dashnaktsutyun and Henchak members also began to organize their own nationalist societies
organized a series of campaigns from 1890s to restore the constitution which Abdülhamid II
onward to reach their goal and to get independence had put onto a shelf. These idealist Muslims were
or autonomy. The rebellion started in Sasun in the Young Turks who preferably chosen this name
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4
for themselves with a reference to their Turkish expected the Ottoman rulers to save the Turks
ethnic origin which was forgotten for a long time. from Russian oppression. Abdülhamid II did not
welcome this new ideology believing that it was
useless while the non-Turks and non-Muslims
Turkism and the Young Turks did not even assume the Ottoman identity. He
The Young Turks were the idealist and patriotic preferred Pan-Islamism as an ideology to be used
men brought up with the Western liberal ideas (civil in saving the empire from dissolution with the
rights, freedom, parliament, nation, and fatherland) support of the Muslims and Muslim nations.
and revolutionary ideologies (nationalism,
The Sultan was informed of the Ottoman Union
nation state, socialism and republic). They were
Society, however, the members could not be traced
not content with Abdülhamid II’s policies and
or revealed since they were organized in cells and
they blamed him of causing territorial losses and
they did not know the members of other cells. The
putting the empire under financial and political
society organized campaigns and the first event
control of the Europeans with his misguided
where their name came up was in 1895 during
policies. They wanted to restore the constitution
the raids of the Armenians in Istanbul at Bab-ı
to save the Ottoman Empire from dissolution. To
Ali. The members of the Ottoman Unity Society
this end, they founded a secret society named the
distributed leaflets in Istanbul on October 5, 1895
Ottoman Unity Society (Osmanlı İttihadı Cemiyeti)
accusing the Sultan and criticizing his policies.
on June 3, 1889. The founders of the society were
Moreover, in this leaflet they introduced their goals
medics namely İbrahim Temo (İbrahim Edhem-
stating that Turks like all other Ottomans wanted
Ohrid), Abdullah Cevdet (Arapgir), İshak Sükûti
independence and liberty of the people and the
(Diyarbakır), Mehmet Reşid (Circassian-Adigey)
society was working to achieve this goal. They
and Hikmet Emin (Konya) at the Imperial Medical
also told the Muslims that they should not punish
Academy (Mekteb-i Tıbbiyye-i Şâhâne) in Istanbul.
the Armenians, but rather they should punish the
In the following years, many high-ranking officers,
government, the Şeyhülislam and the Yıldız Palace
the directors of Military colleges, many bureaucrats
(the sultan). While this leaflet made the Sultan and
and members of the ulemâ joined this society.
the government anxious, it attracted the European
The members of the society followed the Young
attention through the French version of the leaflet
Ottomans in their ideas and prepared a program
sent to European states and to the Palace. The Sultan
proposing constitutionalism, Ottomanism, and
arrested the ones whom he suspected and among
freedom to be achieved by replacing the Sultan
those was İbrahim Temo. He was released later and
with one of his brothers, either the former sultan,
fled to Romania soon after. The secret police kept
Murat V, or the man who ultimately would succeed
their investigation trying to find the members of
him, Prince Mehmet Reşat (Mehmet V).
the Ottoman Union Society. The society was already
Although the name of the society was Ottoman listed among the terrorist organizations.
Union, the Europeans called its members “Jéune
Many opponents of Abdülhamid II from
Turcs” meaning Young Turks. In fact, the term
different occupations, different bureaucratic
“young” in the nineteenth century was used for
assignments, the army, the medical profession,
the revolutionary nationalists in Europe like Jéune
literature figures as well as individuals from
German, Jéune Italian etc. The society members
different religious background had to leave the
adapted the name Young Turk preferably with
country especially after the Ottoman Empire
a reference to the ethnic origin of the Turkish
won the Ottoman-Greek War of 1897. In time,
founders of the Empire who had been forgotten
Armenians, Bulgarians, Arabs, Greeks and Kurds
for a long time, and the term Turk was used to refer
joined the Ottoman Union Society. The Islamist
to the nomads and peasants living in Anatolia. In
opposition also worked with the Young Turks
fact, the awareness of Turkish identity was on the
abroad (Hanioğlu, 2008, p.140). Geneva, Paris,
rise in the nineteenth century among the educated
London and Cairo were the foreign cities where
generation of Turks who were influenced by the
the supporters of the Ottoman Union Society came
Turks who had escaped from Czarist Russia. These
together. They published journals and newspapers
Turks accepted Anatolia as Turkish homeland and
to spread their propaganda. These papers mostly
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4
included political discussions and the events in of an Ottoman national identity, centralization and
the Ottoman Empire and ways of overthrowing national economy while the other group led by Prince
Abdülhamid II, and also how the country should Sabahaddin supported the restoration of the old
be run after such an event if it ever happened Ottoman decentralized system and liberal economy.
(Yalman, 1914, p.70). Ahmet Rıza Bey published The Young Turks who supported Ahmet Rıza and
the newspaper, Meşveret (consultation) in 1895 and favored Turkism renamed Ottoman Union Society as
its French version Mechveret Supplément Français in Osmanlı İttihad ve Terakki Cemiyeti (the Ottoman
Paris in 1897 became the main publication of the Committee of Union and Progress-hereafter CUP)
Young Turks. Abdülhamid II tried to stop the Young while Prince Sabahaddin founded his society while
Turks abroad trying to prevent their anti-Ottoman Prince Sabahaddin founded his society Teşebbüs-ü
propaganda by promising them to implement all Şahsi ve Adem-i Merkeziyet Cemiyeti (the League of
the reforms they proposed and to grant general Private Initiative and Decentralization).
amnesty under the condition that they should In addition to these societies, the idealist and
cease their organization and propaganda. This nationalist Ottoman officers and bureaucrats
would and give the throne opportunity to attain founded secret societies in the Ottoman Empire since
some prestige for the coming reforms. However, they began to believe the empire was on the brink of
these promises only convinced a few while other collapse. One of these secret societies, Vatan Cemiyeti
opponents of Abdülhamid II escaped to Paris. (Fatherland Society) was founded by a young
Among these were Ali Haydar Mithat Bey son captain Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk-the future founder
of Mithad Pasha who fled to Paris in 1900 and of Modern Turkey) in 1906 in Damascus while he
Damat Mahmut Celaleddin Pasha husband of the was serving in the Fifth Army. In a short time, the
Sultan’s sister with his two sons, princess Lütfullah Fatherland Society had branches in Jaffa, Beirut and
and Sabahaddin escaped to Paris in 1901. Jerusalem and even in Salonika in 1906 but with a
The new members of the Young Turks caused different name Osmanlı Hürriyet Cemiyeti (Ottoman
ideological differences among the Young Turks. The Liberty Society). Later with the participation of
differences of opinion between Abdullah Cevdet and provincial bureaucrats like Talat Bey, the name of the
Ahmet Rıza was the first one to emerge. Later, Prince society in Salonika was changed to Vatan ve Hürriyet
Sabahaddin led a different ideology than Ahmet Cemiyeti (Fatherland and Freedom Society) and many
Rıza Bey and this caused a severe division among Turkish and non-Turkish idealists and opponents
the Young Turks. Ahmet Rıza Bey was a follower of of Abdülhamid II joined this society. This society
the positivist movement of Auguste Comte and merged with the Committee of Union and Progress
demanded a Parliament on the basis of the old Islamic on 27 September 1907 (Shaw and Shaw, 2002,
and Ottoman tradition of consultation (meşveret) p.265). This merge provided the CUP the chance to
and used this concept as a name for his paper expand its membership within the army. The CUP
Meşveret. This group was Turkist and believed that later adapted to the Ottomanism ideal to get support
“no revolutionary movement could succeed without of the common people and the Ottoman military
the support of army officers” (Hanioğlu, 2008, units they were planning to use as armed forces led by
p.146). Prince Sabahaddin, however, supported the officers loyal to the Committee followed by their
the restoration of the old Ottoman decentralized demand of the restoration of the constitution in 1908
system and liberal economic system (inspired by the (Hanioğlu, 2008, p.147).
Anglo-Saxon Edmond Demolins’ ideas on private
initiative and decentralization, and the Science
Sociale movement. The Young Turks met in a congress
4
held in Paris in February 1902 upon the call made
by Prince Sabahaddin to resolve their differences. What might be the basic reason
But this congress clarified ideological differences in the foundation of the Ottoman
and the participants were split into two groups; the Unity Society (later named CUP)?
group lead by Ahmet Rıza supported the promotion
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4
LO 1 Introduce the First Constitutional

Regime in the Ottoman Empire
The first constitutional regime in the Ottoman Empire started in 1876 with the promulgation of the
Ottoman Constitution (Kanun-i Esasi) on December 23, 1876 by Abdülhamid II. This regime became
possible with the efforts of the Young Ottomans and idealist Tanzimat men like Midhat Pasha after
the deposition of the Sultans Abdülaziz and Murat V. This constitution was the first written law and
a detailed one bringing equality to all Ottoman citizens before the law, in education, employment in
state institutions, in the army and equal representation in the parliament. Moreover, the constitution
for the first time accepted Turkish as the official language and Islam as the state religion of the Ottoman
Summary
Empire. After the constitution was promulgated, elections were held in the country and Ottoman
Parliament was opened on March 19, 1877 at Dolmabahçe Palace with two chambers; the Chamber of
Senate (Meclis-i Ayan), and the Chamber of Deputies (Meclis-i Mebusan). But the first constitutional
regime lasted short since Abdülhamid II dissolved the parliament on June 27,1878 on the basis of
Article 113 of the constitution and the Ottoman-Russian War (1877-1878). Although he promised to
restore the parliament as soon as the threats to the country were over, the constitutional regime could
not be restored until 1908.
LO 2 understand domestic and foreign developments

throughout the reign of Abdülhamid II
The reign of Abdülhamid II started with the promulgation of the constitution in 1876. This year also
witnessed problems in the Balkans and these problems brought war with Montenegro and Serbia.
Though the wars with Montenegro and Serbia ended with the Ottoman victory, the European Powers
including Russia interfered and asked for reforms, independence and territorial rights on behalf of the
Balkan nations in the Shipyard Conference convened in December 1876. The Ottoman government
rejected the demands made and yet again another war with Russia started in 1877-1878. The Ottoman
defeat in this war followed by two treaties San Stefano and Berlin which imposed harsh terms on the
Ottoman Empire that included territorial losses, heavy war compensations and intervention in the
Ottoman internal affairs to ensure that the demands made for reforms in the Balkans and by the
Armenians in Anatolia were met. The war expenditures as well as war compensations increased the
financial crisis in the empire and the Public Debt Commission was established to manage foreign debts.
While the Ottoman rulers were busy overcoming the negative effects of the war with Russia, Greece
backed a rebellion in Crete for union (enosis) with Greece. This rebellion caused a war between Greece
and the Ottoman Empire and the latter defeated Greece.
Although the empire had experienced troubles with these wars, Abdülhamid II maintained modernization
attempts, modern civilian and military schools and vocational schools were opened. The education of
girls was encouraged. The Ottoman Army was modernized with the help of the German officers. New
state institutions and councils were established to meet the needs of the state. Technological innovations
in transportation and communication were adapted. New railway and telegraph lines were built.
Railway lines linked important cities to Istanbul. Despite the problems faced, modernization attempts
continued during the reign of Abdülhamid II and women’s participation in the public sphere increased
with the modern education policies. Moreover, cinema, theaters and music companies were introduced
to the empire during the reign of Abdülhamid II as well.
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4
LO 3 identify Pan-Islamism
Pan-Islamism was an Islamist discourse born in the nineteenth century to unite Islamic societies around
a common front against the European colonialism. This discourse found supporters among the Muslims
in the world with the propagation of Sayyid Jamal ad-Din al-Afghani who was accepted as the major
propagator of anti-western Pan-Islamism. Pan-Islamism later became important state policy in the
Ottoman Empire during the reign of Abdülhamid II when the empire was suffering from the territorial
losses and financial difficulties. It provided a golden opportunity for Abdülhamid II to use this ideology
both in his internal and foreign politics. For him, the integrity of the empire could be secured by
keeping the loyalty of the Muslim subjects since the non-Muslims proved that Ottomanism did not
Summary
work. Pan-Islamism was used for the preservation of the state and religious justification for Ottoman
rule. Abdülhamid II tried to emphasize essentially Islamic character of the empire and revitalize the
position of the caliphate among the Muslims of the world and to establish unity in the world of Islam
around the Caliphate. As part of Pan-Islamist policy, importance was given to religious education and
teaching of religious essentials in the schools. The Hedjaz railway line was constructed to connect Mecca
and Medina, the sacred cities of Islam, to Syria to ease the Pilgrimage and at the same to establish
Ottoman control in the region.
LO 4 explain Ottoman financial difficulties and

establishment of the Public Debt Commission
The Ottoman Empire had experienced financial difficulties from the nineteenth century onwards and
territorial losses, war expenditures and heavy war compensations caused financial crisis. Investments
in industry, telegraph and railways required more foreign investments with more privileges and these
contributed to this financial crisis. The Ottoman Empire became dependent on the European banks
and bankers via the debts it borrowed and unpaid debts brought the establishment of Public Debt
Commission on December 20, 1881. It was established by the European states whose banks lent money
to the Ottoman Empire and this institution controlled all the Ottoman financial sources based on the
incomes of certain products and incomes to charge the Ottoman debts.
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4
LO 5 comprehend the rise of the Nationality Questions and Formation

of the Nationalist Organizations in the Ottoman Empire
Nationality question started earlier in the nineteenth century in the Ottoman Empire with the
nationalist uprisings in the Balkans in the form of protests against the local Muslim rulers and the
Ottoman taxation policy. These uprisings in the late nineteenth century increased with the provocation
and intervention of the Great Powers and the Ottoman government could not establish order and
security in the Balkans. Moreover, European and Russian territorial expansion and their direct
involvement in the Ottoman internal affairs via the investments in the Balkans made this region easy
pray for the struggle among the Great Powers at the expense of the Ottomans. Rivalry among the Great
Summary
Power to control the Ottoman lands combined with liberal, secular and nationalist ideas gave birth to
revolutionary nationalist and anti-Ottoman organizations and societies in the Balkans. The Ottoman
Greeks, Albanians, Bulgarian and Serbians struggled to keep the Ottomans out of the Balkans and of
Macedonia with arms and political propagandas. These people attacked the Ottoman officials and the
Muslim. The independence claims were not limited to the Balkans and later spread to the other parts of
the Empire. The Ottoman Armenians were also organized to claim autonomy or independence from the
Ottoman Empire. These claims and national organizations against the very existence of the Ottoman
Empire worried the Turkish and Muslim Ottoman subjects and they established the Ottoman Unity
Society (Osmanlı İttihadı Cemiyeti) in June 1889. This society unlike the others was established to
restore the Ottoman constitution and to prevent the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire on the basis of
Ottomanism. This society later was named Committee of Union and Progress as it merged with other
Turkish nationalist societies such as Fatherland and Freedom Society and found supporters among the
army members and common people.
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5
INTRODUCTION The political struggle and nationalist/separatist

The period that starts with the restoration of the movements gained impetus as the Ottoman state
constitutional regime on July 23, 1908 - also called waged wars, first, in Tripolitania against Italy and
the 1908 Revolution, the Young Turk Revolution- later in the Balkans against a coalition of Balkan
has been considered a landmark in the history of states. These wars had tremendous effects on the
modern Turkey. The constitutional revolution transformation of the Ottoman state in terms of
incited profound changes in the Ottoman political, geography, population, ruling ideology as well as
economic, social and administrative system. the prospects toward its future.
The revolution introduced a modern political
system based on representation in which the THE REVOLUTION
Assembly got priority over the traditional ruling The restoration of the constitutional regime
center, namely, the palace. The new system also on July 23, 1908 was mainly the work of the
acquainted the Ottoman politics with competition Committee of Union and Progress which had
among political groups and parties. However, this effectively brought together almost all discontented
transition was not a smooth one as fierce political opposition groups from Abdülhamid II’s regime
struggle began between the Committee of Union prior to 1908. There were two most noteworthy
and Progress (CUP), the Committee which had led developments prelude to the 1908 Revolution in
the revolution, and its opponents immediately after this regard. The first was the merger of the Paris
the restoration of the constitution. It eventually faction of the Committee of Union and Progress
resulted in the victory of the Committee of Union with the Ottoman Freedom Society founded in
and Progress in January 1913. Salonika that had a wide network in Macedonia
with the goal of restoring the constitution in
1907. Young officers, especially those of the
Third (Macedonian) and the Second (Edirne)
Armies, and bureaucrats were the backbone of the
Ottoman Freedom Society; thus, its merger with
the Committee of Union and Progress resulted in
the expansion of the Committee’s membership
base in the army. Its focus was also diverted to
Macedonia where Great Powers’ intervention
was frequent and the danger of partition was
imminent.
Figure 5.1 Post card commemorating the reestablishment
of the Constitution in 1908
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:1908- Macedonia had been a bone of contention
mesrutiyet.jpg among the Great Powers; namely, Britain,
France, Russia and Austria-Hungary as
The Committee of Union and Progress well as the competing nationalisms of the
attempted to gain control of the affairs and Greeks, Bulgarians and Serbs who were in
consolidate its power. The political manner in search of extending their territories. It was
which they had done this led to the estrangement subjected to increasing foreign intervention
of various ethnic and religious communities since the beginning of the twentieth
as well as rival political groups. These groups century on the pretext of reform that would
welcomed the revolution with high expectations provide better life conditions for the diverse
for a better political and administrative system. populations of the region.
While their discontent hardened the political
struggle, it strengthened the nationalist/separatist
movements in the Ottoman Empire at the same The organization also contacted the
time. Muslim Albanian national groups that had
119
5
The Revolution of 1908 and Its Aftermath
been organized in north Albania

to force the Sultan to reinstate
the constitution. The second
development was the convention
of the Second Young Turk Congress
in Paris, in December 1907. It was
a new effort to secure cooperation
through reconciliation of different
groups against the absolutist
rule of the Sultan. In the final
declaration of the Congress, it
was stated that the Sultan should
be deposed and a constitutional
regime replace the existing system.
In order to realize such a change, Figure 5.2 Post card depicting the proclamation of the 1908 Constitution
violence, if necessary, could be
Source: http://www.pronews.gr/istoria/436457
used. In order to stand against the
oppression of the regime, peaceful
means such as strikes, refusal to pay taxes, circulation of propaganda materials would be used besides
armed resistance (Shaw and Shaw, 1977, p. 265).
When the Committee decided to act to force Sultan Abdülhamid II for the restoration of the
Constitution in July 1908, it had already secured the support of the key officers in the Ottoman
army amidst rumors of a new intervention by the Great Powers; notably Britain and Russia, into the
Macedonian affairs. The Russian tsar and the king of Britain met in June 1908 at Reval in the Baltic
to settle some problems that hindered their cooperation against their common fear; namely, Germany.
A proposal suggesting the settlement of the Macedonian question on the basis of foreign control that
would implement an extensive reform program leaving the Ottoman rule as a formality was one of
the resolutions of this meeting. The news of the Reval meeting was considered a sign of forthcoming
intervention of foreign powers into the Ottoman affairs by the Unionists. Such an intervention, in case
it materialized, would result in the partition of the Ottoman Empire. A second significant factor in the
decision to act at that point in time was to avert any attempt by Sultan Abdülhamid II’s agents to crush
the opposition. The Committee actually had the intelligence that the government agents were close to
preparing to act against them.
The Committee’s initial act with the aim of restoring the constitution began on July 3, 1908. The
National Battalions, formed by the defected Ottoman military units were under the command of the
Committee members who took to the mountains in Macedonia. Sultan Abdülhamid II attempted
to suppress the rebellion by sending trusted troops in the first instance. Later, he also sent Anatolian
troops to Macedonia. However, both were unable to overcome the situation; either some officers were
murdered or refused to fight the insurgents as they were influenced by the Unionist propaganda or, in
some cases, joined them. Local Macedonian bands also became part of the rebellion demanding the
restoration of the Constitution. The rebellion was accompanied by demonstrations, especially in the
European lands of the Empire: Thrace and Macedonia. Uprisings with the participation of civil and
military groups took place in Monastir, Firzovik, Serez and Skopije on July, 20-23, 1908. They publicly
declared their support for the restoration of the constitution and sent telegrams to the sultan to express
their demands. As the movement gained strength to the extent that it could lead the Second and Third
Armies on a march to the capital, the sultan had to give in. On July 23/24, 1908, he proclaimed the
reinstatement of the constitution and the convention of a new chamber of deputies by an imperial
decree.
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5
Aftermath of the Revolution published without fear. Political prisoners and exiles
The era that started with the Revolution began to return to Istanbul from different places
of 1908 promised ‘liberty, equality, fraternity as an amnesty was declared for them. Knowing
and justice’, the slogan of the revolution, to all there were no spies around them, people gathered
Ottoman citizens. Instead of the absolute regime and talked freely at the coffee houses. The removal
of Abdülhamid II, the revolutionaries stood for a of the bans on organization and assembly led to
constitutional monarchy based on the rule of law. the rise in political demonstrations, economic
They aimed to install a parliamentary democracy boycotts, workers’ strikes and feminist gatherings
led by a responsible government. Its administration on an unprecedented scale and frequency in the
was to rest on a meritocratic bureaucracy. In the Ottoman Empire (Hanioğlu, 2008b, pp. 66-67).
new regime, political parties were to replace the
traditional institutions such as the notable houses
and religious orders as the main mediums of political 1
participation. In addition, they promoted a new
What might be the possible
Ottoman identity, Ottomanism, based on equal and
reasons of the joy and
fraternal citizenship which would unite the people
enthusiasm of the various
from all segments of society against Great Powers’
segments of the state and
intervention in the domestic affairs of the Ottoman
society in the aftermath of the
Empire (Hanioğlu, 2008b, pp. 65-66).
restoration of the constitutional
regime?
important
Liberty, equality and fraternity

FROM THE REVOLUTION TO
were the principles of the French
Revolution in 1789. The members
THE COUNTER REVOLUTION:
of the Committee of Union THE 31 MARCH INCIDENT
and Progress had been greatly In the aftermath of the Revolution, the
influenced by the ideals of the Committee of Union and Progress did not
French Revolution. It was one of attempt to assume power. It did not depose Sultan
their inspirations in organizing Abdülhamid II, neither did it change the existing
an opposition movement against cabinet headed by Grand Vizier Said Pasha. He was,
Abdülhamid II’s regime. now, acting at the behest of the central committee
of the Committee of Union and Progress. The
Committee remained in the background, mostly
located in Salonika, and preferred to be a watchdog
The reinstatement of the Constitution was met of the constitutional regime interfering in politics
with great enthusiasm by the public in Macedonia, as it deemed necessary.
Istanbul and Anatolia respectively. All citizens, Committee of Union and Progress’ first
Muslims and non-Muslims as well as various interference came early in August 1908 when the
ethnic groups including the Greeks, Bulgarians, sultan insisted on his right to appoint the ministers
Serbs, Macedonians, Armenians, Arabs, Kurds, of war and navy directly himself in violation of
Jews and Turks, all celebrated the constitutional the constitution. This situation emerged when
regime on the streets. Expectations for a better two imperial decrees modified the article 113 of
life by people from all walks of life were high at the 1876 Constitution which had given enormous
the outset of the revolution. The developments authority to the sultan were issued limiting the
that immediately followed the declaration of the sultan’s authority. However, the sultan wanted to
constitutional regime were promising in this regard. keep the right of appointing the ministers of war
As censorship was lifted, there was an expansion in and navy in his hands. These posts were very critical
new publications. Newspapers and journals were ones because whoever made these appointments to
121
5
these positions would acquire the control of the army and the navy. The Committee who was very aware
of the sultan’s desire intervened. They prevented the sultan from acquiring such great power. At the same
time, they forced the grand vizier Said Pasha to resign as he was considered to be behind this attempt. He
was replaced by Kıbrıslı (Cypriot) Kâmil Pasha, known as a liberal with pro-British tendencies.
The 1908 Elections

The most notable political development in the remaining months of 1908 was the elections which were held in
November and December. Eligible voters were the tax-paying males who were over the age of twenty-five. Deputies,
who would be elected had to be at least thirty years old and should have knowledge of the Turkish language.
Osmanlı Ahrar Fırkası (The Party of Ottoman Liberals), a new party that had been founded after the revolution
by Prince Sabahaddin’s
followers was the only rival
party to the Committee
of Union and Progress in
the elections. This party
defended decentralization
as the principle means of
maintaining the empire.
However, unlike the
Committee, this party
did not have an effective
countrywide organization.
The Committee of Union
and Progress before the
revolution had a strong
provincial organization in Figure 5.3 One of the most crucial elections in Turkey’s history before the foundation
the European provinces of the Republic was the 1908 elections for Chamber of Deputies in the Ottoman Empire
of the Empire. Now, they Source: http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/looking-back-at-turkeys-local elections.as
extended their influence px?pageID=238&nID=64282&NewsCatID=338
into the Asiatic provinces
and North Africa. The Committee’s branches, speaking generally, were made up by a coalition of professional
men; that is, teachers, lawyers and doctors, Muslim merchants, guild leaders and big landowners. During the
elections, the Committee also sought the cooperation of non-Muslim ethno-religious communities; the Greeks,
Armenians and Jews. To ensure their support, they guaranteed them a number of
seats in the new Parliament (Zürcher, 1993, p. 95). The main issues of discussion
during the election campaign revolved around westernization, centralization,
decentralization, Islamism, Turkism and aspirations of the minorities. While the
Ottomans were occupied with the elections, Austria annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina,
Bulgaria declared independence and Greece annexed Crete. It seemed that the
restoration of the constitution and promises of liberty and equality could not
offer a solution to the territorial losses of the Ottoman Empire. Despite such
unfavorable developments, the elections resulted in an overwhelming victory for
the Committee of Union and Progress. 288 deputies were elected; nearly half
of the seats (147) were held by the Turks. The rest of the seats were distributed
among 60 Arabs, 27 Albanians, 26 Greeks, 14 Armenians, 10 Slavs, and 4 Jews
(Ahmad, 1969, p. 28).
Figure 5.4 Ballot box used in the 1908 elections

Source: http://www.dunyabulteni.net/tarih-dosyasi/163112/1908-meclis-i-mebusan-secimleri-foto
122
5
Despite its overwhelming victory in the

elections and the majority they acquired
in the parliament, the Committee of
Union and Progress continued to exercise
their indirect rule. In many parts of the
empire, they relied on local notables who
were actually not members but accepted to
contest in the elections as their candidates.
After the elections, the power of the palace
was curbed but not eliminated completely.
The bureaucracy which had lost influence
in the previous period began to acquire a
more independent character. Under these
circumstances, the Committee of Union
and Progress attempted to control the
government through the majority in the Figure 5.5 Sultan Abdülhamid II opening the new parliament
parliament. However, they did not have Source: https://longtimegoneconstantinople.wordpress.com/2015/03/30
a strong party discipline. As a result, the
power of the Committee of Union and Progress was far from being absolute; yet, they were still the most
powerful force in the country.
Opposition Against the Committee the secular characteristics of the new regime as well
of Union and Progress as the Western style of life that it had introduced.
As early as October 1908, they had demonstrated
Several types of opposition emerged against the
their discontent for the constitutional regime
Committee in the aftermath of the elections; but
and the Committee of Union and Progress. On
two were more evident. The first one was the Party
the occasion of protesting annexation of Bosnia-
of Ottoman Liberals who had been disappointed
Herzegovina by Austria, they made calls for the
with the results of the elections since they could get
abolition of the constitution, the restoration of the
only one seat. The Liberals were mainly critical of
şeriat (religious law), the closing of drinking houses
the Committee of Union and Progress’ rule behind
and theatres, the prohibition of photography and
the scenes. Similarly, the Grand Vizier Kâmil Pasha
the restriction of participation of women in the
who had a reputation as a liberal resented the
social life (Zürcher, 1993, p. 96). They were also
Committee’s pressure behind the scenes. When
disturbed by the principle of equality offered to
he attempted to remove the ministers of war and
non-Muslims. They openly propagated against the
navy and appoint his men in their seats in February
constitution claiming that the decline of the empire
1909, his relations with the Committee became
had been caused by its divergence from Islamic
strained. The Committee interpreted this attempt
principles. These views of the Islamists had many
as a bid for personal power. The pro-Unionist press
sympathizers among not only the ulema but also in
interpreted this action as a coup d’état against the
the bureaucracy, army, the dervish orders and the
parliament and a violation of the constitution. On
masses sensitive to religious appeal.
February 14, Kâmil Pasha was removed from the
office by vote of no confidence in the parliament Opposition to the Committee of Union and
and was replaced by Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha, who was Progress gained impetus in the next two months that
close to the Committee. followed Kâmil Pasha’s fall in mid-February 1909. At
the beginning of April, the religious fundamentalists
The second type of opposition against the
established an umbrella organization called İttihad-ı
Committee of Union and Progress came from
Muhammedi (Muhammadan Union) and targeted
the conservative religious circles, specifically the
the secularist policies of the Committee of Union
lower ulema (Muslim scholars) and the heads of
and Progress. This organization directed its appeal
the dervish orders. These people were critical of
mainly to the conservative and religious groups. It
123
5
also tried to appeal and influence ‘tradition-bound Sophia with a large number of softas, students
deputies and the ranks and files of the army’ from theological schools, newly joined troops
through a paper named Volkan (Volcano) which and ulema and some other discontented elements
they had been publishing since November 1908. opposing the Committee of Union and Progress.
The paper strongly opposed the secularism of the Six demands were presented by their spokesmen to
Committee of Union and Progress, the increasing the chief of police sent by the government:
influence of the minorities in the new regime 1. Dismissal of the grand vizier and the min-
and foreign representatives. At the same time, in isters of war and the navy;
April 1909, they mounted a campaign accusing 2. Replacement of a number of Unionist of-
the Committee of treachery and using dictatorial ficers;
methods. The tension increased as a result of the 3. Replacement of Ahmet Rıza, the Unionist
murder of the editor of an anti-Unionist daily, president of the Chamber of Deputies;
Serbesti, on April 6. His funeral turned into a mass 4. Banishing a number of deputies from
demonstration against the Committee who were Istanbul;
hold responsible for his murder. 5. Restoration of the Sharia (the holy law of
Islam)
6. An amnesty for the rebellious troops
Revolt in Turkey by Reactionary (Zürcher, 1993, p. 96)
League
By WILLIAM S. NIEDERKORN
Figure 5.6 New York Times Headline 2
Source: https://timestraveler.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/04/14/ What were the sources

of conflict between the
Committee of Union and
The 31 March Incident Progress and the opposition
Anti-Unionist tide eventually culminated in forces?
an armed insurrection of the Istanbul garrison on
the night of April 12/13, 1909. On account of the
solar calendar which was in use at the time of the The Committee of Union and Progress seemed
event, this insurrection is known as the 31 March to have been completely defeated. The Grand Vizier
Incident. The immediate cause of the insurrection Hilmi Pasha tendered his resignation to the sultan
was the attempt of the Committee of Union and who promptly accepted. He was replaced by Tevfik
Progress to expand its control over the armed Pasha. The sultan also appointed a new minister of
forces. To this end, they removed officers loyal to war, Marshal Ethem Pasha, who immediately after
the sultan by purging the alaylı officers who had his appointment visited the soldiers and promised
been promoted through the ranks by his blessing. them that all their demands would be met. Many
The committee also annulled the promotions and members of the Committee fled Istanbul or were
decorations provided by the sultan to his most in hiding. The political vacuum created by the
loyal officers. Eventually, they replaced the less Unionist defeat was tried to be filled by the Party
reliable imperial army in Istanbul with the more of Ottoman Liberals. They, from the outset of
reliable ‘hunter battalions’ from Rumelia. All such the insurrection, aimed to turn it into an anti-
measures caused resentment, especially among Unionist but constitutionalist one. The Liberals’
those who realized that their time has ended. Yet, attempt of seizing the power was interrupted by
the actors involved in the insurrection were not the intervention of the Hareket Ordusu (The Action
restricted to the discontented armed forces. It began Army) which was specifically organized to suppress
as mutiny of the alaylı soldiers against the mektepli, the rebellion.
college trained file soldiers. As they locked their The sultan seemed to get his power back
officers and imprisoned them, they marched to the while the Committee of Union and Progress was
city, toward the parliament building near Hagia shattered in the capital. Despite the heavy blow they
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received, the Committee kept their organization Among the several causes of the insurrection, four
alive in the provinces, especially in Macedonia are prominent in retrospect:
where they started to take countermeasures. From 1. Discontent of different groups; especially,
April 15 onwards, they led an organization of those who lost their jobs, because of the
a military campaign against the rebels. Fearing new regime. As Abdülhamid II’s spy
that the new government might succeed not only network collapsed after the revolution,
in restoring the authority of the sultan but also hundreds of people earning their living
destroying the Committee, the central committee from activities of espionage lost their
swiftly started to organize the Action Army. Led income. The same was valid for those who
by Mahmut Şevket Pasha, the commander of the benefited from the nepotism of the old
Third Army, the Action Army was the combination regime. Hundreds of civil servants who
of principal divisions of the Ottoman Second and did not have the qualifications for the
Third Armies and volunteers who were mostly positions they occupied but only loyal to
Albanians. Furthermore, the Committee of Union the sultan, lost their jobs.
and Progress organized public demonstrations in 2. In the army, there was a friction between
provincial towns. They bombarded the parliament the alaylı officers, who had risen through
and the palace with telegrams accusing the sultan ranks and favored by the old regime,
of destroying the constitutional government and and the mektepli officers, who had been
the constitution. They called for dismissal of the trained in military schools and the mili-
unconstitutional cabinet as well as the arrest of a tary academies. The latter were the driving
number of supposed leaders of the rebellion. force behind the 1908 revolution. Most of
The Action Army left Salonika on April 17 with the alaylı officers lost their status after the
the aim of restoring the order in Istanbul. Five days revolution and the system of promotion
later, it surrounded the capital. At the same time, from the ranks ended. It was this friction
the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies assembled in the army that inflamed the insurrection.
outside the capital in Yeşilköy (San Stefano) as
meclis-i umumi-i millî (the general national
assembly). They enacted a resolution sanctioning The friction between the alaylı and mektepli
the army’s entry into the capital, the restoration of officers was one of the causes of the rise of
order, and the punishment of the rebels. They also the Committee of Union and Progress as
declared that their decisions were in conformity an opposition movement. It was also one of
with the aspirations of the nation. On April 24, the reasons for the politicization of the army
the Action Army entered the capital with little prior and after the 1908 Revolution.
resistance and suppressed the insurrection. As the
Action Army took the capital under its control, it
declared martial law. It set up two martial courts 3. The constitutional regime brought about
which convicted the rebels and executed them. a change of atmosphere, the secularization
Measures were also taken against the opposition of social life which threatened the position
parties. The Liberal Union Party and many cultural of the lower ulema. A particular discontent
and political associations as well as newspapers that arose among the students of theology whose
were sympathetic to the opposition were closed right of exemption from military service was
down. Finally, on April 27, the national assembly made conditional to a certain degree of suc-
declared its decision to depose Abdülhamid II on cess in exams made by the ministry of war.
the basis of his complicity in the rebellion and the Students who failed to pass the threshold
deaths that resulted. He was replaced by his brother level were to be recruited to military service.
Mehmed Reşad (Sultan Mehmed V). 4. The discontent of the opposition party.
The deposition of Abdülhamid II, sanctioned The Party of Ottoman Liberals viewed
by a fetva, legal opinion based on the religious law, the Unionist policies as irresponsible and
marked the end of the insurrection that had shaken disliked their attempt to monopolize
the very foundations of the constitutional regime. power. This resentment was a significant
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factor in creating the circumstances removal of the article that gave him the right to
favorable for the break out of the dissolve the Parliament. Based on this article,
insurrection. Abdülhamit II had dissolved the parliament in
1877. According to the new article, the dissolution
of the parliament would only be possible if the
cabinet lost a vote of confidence. In case of
3
dissolution, the elections were to be held within
Discuss the role of the army three months. The parliament became the sole
in the early years of the organ with the prerogatives of making legislation
constitutional regime. and negotiating and ratifying treaties. The sultan’s
right of appointing ministers was taken back. Now,
his prerogative was restricted to the appointment
of the grand vizier and şeyhülislam, the chief
POLITICAL STRUGGLE FOR religious official. The rest of the cabinet was to
POWER AFTER THE 31 MARCH be chosen by the grand vizier and sanctioned by
INCIDENT the sultan. Ministers were to be responsible to
the Chamber of Deputies for the policy of their
The suppression of the 31 March insurrection government as well as the policy of their ministries.
led to a prolonged military rule. The power As a result of these and some other amendments in
remained in the hands of the army. Mahmut the constitution not mentioned here, the legislative
Şevket Pasha, the commander of the Action Army, body, the parliament, strengthened while the
who had suppressed the insurrection, became the executive power weakened. The amendments in the
dominant force. He was appointed inspector- constitution extended the power of the parliament
general of the First (Istanbul), Second (Edirne) at the expense of the Porte as well. Ministers were
and Third (Monastir) Army Corps, and later the to be responsible to the parliament rather than the
minister of war. He was independent of the cabinet grand vizier. In case of disagreements between the
as long as the martial law was in operation. The cabinet and the parliament, the latter was to prevail
Committee of Union and Progress was his junior and the cabinet had to resign if it did not agree
partner; it was in no position to challenge him. to the solutions offered. The parliament had the
Yet, the members were given a free hand to make right to question the grand vizier or any minister.
legislative changes that would consolidate the If the conduct of a minister was disapproved, that
constitutional regime. minister had to resign. In cases where the conduct
of the grand vizier was disapproved, the cabinet
Constitutional Amendments would fall and a new cabinet would be appointed
and the Consolidation of the (Shaw and Shaw, 1977, p. 284).
Constitutional Regime The constitutional amendments were followed
The constitutional amendments, above all, by a number of new laws and decrees which aimed
aimed to make the Chamber of Deputies as the at the centralization of the government and the
supreme authority at the expense of the palace and restriction of individual and collective liberties
the Porte. The amendments to the Constitution of that had been released in the aftermath of the
1876 marked the end of the sultan’s absolute power revolution. Within the span of a few months,
and prerogatives. To begin with, the sovereignty the Chamber of Deputies enacted laws on public
that had been previously vested in the House of meetings, on associations, on brigandage, on
Osman, the palace, was made contingent on the strikes, on press and printing establishments,
sultan’s fulfillment of his accession oath to the and on the compulsory military service of non-
assembly. By this oath, he had to promise respect to Muslims. By these laws, expressing dissatisfaction
the religious law, Shariah, and to the constitution against the government’s policies became almost
and to be loyal to the motherland and the nation. impossible. The law on public meetings made
One of the most important changes was the any public protest practically impossible, and the
law on press and printing establishments brought
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great restraints on the freedom of the press. The they could preserve their communal privileges
newspapers were held responsible for publishing that had been granted previously. Contrary to
information that might disturb public order and these expectations, the Committee of Union and
encourage violations of the Constitution. The law Progress, especially after the suppression of the
also restricted the printing press and the publishers. counter-revolutionary insurrection in April 1909,
The anti-strike law targeted the actions that might took several measures aiming at centralization as
have come from the labor movements. The law on explained earlier. In addition, they attempted to
associations, brigandage and conscription aimed to curb communal privileges relating to military
eliminate the differences between various ethnic/ service and taxation, promoting Turkish as
national groups in the Empire and provide unity compulsory language in elementary schools and
among these groups. The law on associations making it as the official language in administration.
forbade the formation of political clubs or All of these dashed the expectations for self-rule.
associations bearing ethnic/national names while
important
the law on brigandage allowed the creation of
special military units to disarm and repress the
Greek and Bulgarian bands in Rumelia and the The non-Muslim
Armenian bands in eastern Anatolia. The law on communities and non-
the conscription imposed military service to all Turkish Muslim groups
male Ottoman subjects (Ahmad, 1969, pp. 61-62). such as the Albanians and
Arabs viewed the measures
for centralization as
The Rise of Opposition attempts at ‘Turcification’,
The legislative measures coupled with the role making Turkishness the
that the military played in politics as well as the basis of the state.
discontent of hundreds and thousands discharged
officers and officials created the circumstances
Two developments displayed the extent of the
that gave rise to new political opposition. Three
opposition against the Committee of Union and
types of opposition against the Committee of
Progress through the years of 1910-1911. The
Union and Progress could be seen during the
first was the outbreak of a large-scale insurrection
1909-1911 period. The first were the Liberals who
in Albania where the demand for autonomy was
were the traditional, old-established rivals of the
strong. The insurrection began as a resistance
Committee. They initially organized themselves as
against the taxation and recruitment, continued
new parties called Mutedil Hürriyetperveran Fırkası
as a protest against centralization measures of the
(Party of Moderate Liberals) and Islahat-ı Esasiye-i
Committee of Union and Progress and ended
Osmaniye Fırkası (Party of Fundamental Ottoman
with the independence of Albania in 1912. This
Reforms).The second type of opposition emerged
insurrection was a shock to the Unionists. The
from within the Committee itself. Disturbed by
Albanians were mostly Muslims. They had played
secular policies of the Committee and the central
a significant role in the Ottoman administration
role of the military in politics, the dissident
and even in the Committee of Union and Progress.
Unionists –some favored a more liberal and some
They were the first Muslim community that
more conservative line- founded the Ahali Fırkası
seceded from the Ottoman Empire.
(the People’s Party) in 1910 and the Hizb-i Cedid
(New Party) in 1911 respectively. Finally, there was The other development was the formation of an
the opposition of non-Muslim and non-Turkish umbrella party, the Hürriyet ve İtilâf Fırkası (the
Muslim communities who were disaffected by the Party of Freedom and Accord) in November 1911.
centralization and modernization attempts of the Almost all the opposition groups and parties,
Committee. The common expectations of both whether conservative or liberal, came together
non-Muslim and non-Turkish Muslim groups in this party. It contained diverse elements such
from the constitutional regime was a decentralized as clericals, free-thinkers, constitutionalists,
government allowing a degree of self-rule where absolutists, non-Turkish Muslims, non-Muslims.
They had one common denominator which was the
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hatred they felt against the Committee of Union (elections with a stick) because of the coercion and
and Progress and their sole aim was to overthrow intimidation that the Committee used to guarantee
the Committee. Within a short time following its its majority. To ensure their victory, they adopted
foundation, the Party of Freedom and Accord won several measures such as direct intervention in the
a spectacular victory in a by-election held in the campaign process, arrest of political opponents,
capital. banning of opposition meetings, and shutdown
Facing opposition stemming from different of opposition newspapers and use of government
sources including opposition within its ranks, sources to support their candidates as well as
the response of the Committee of Union and corruption in the counting of the votes (Hanioğlu,
Progress was conciliatory in the beginning. 2008b, p. 72).
They sent Sultan Mehmed V on a goodwill The Committee of Union and Progress won
tour to Macedonia and Kosovo to appease the an overwhelming victory in the elections. Very
Albanians, bring an end to the insurrection and few deputies were elected from the opposition
secure their loyalty to the Ottoman state. In party; therefore, the new parliament seemed to be
confronting the domestic rivals a similar attitude an obedient instrument of the Committee even
was followed. Hardliners in the cabinet including, though it lacked legitimacy in the eyes of the
Talât Pasha, the minister of interior, and one of opposition. Nevertheless, the committee did not
the cornerstones of the Committee, resigned enjoy power for long. A group of officers led by
from the government in an effort to placate the Colonel Sadık had formed the Halaskâr Zabitân
opposition. He was replaced by a more moderate Grubu (Group of Savior Officers) with the
figure, Halil Bey, who, immediately after his purpose of stopping the Committee’s autocracy
appointment, quietly withdrew the principles and eliminating politics from the army in May-
of centralization from the provinces and non- June 1912. It threatened the Committee with an
Turkish elements. The Committee maintained its armed intervention and forced the government
conciliatory attitude by conceding the demands to resign. The new cabinet, led by Gazi Ahmet
of the opposition formulated by Colonel Sadık in Muhtar Pasha, was a liberal and anti-Unionist
a ten point program. However, such measures by one. It perceived the involvement of officers
the Committee were only influential in the short in politics and the irresponsible policies of
term; they did not ensure the political stability. the Committee of Union and Progress as the
Pressures on the Committee continued. Italy’s causes of political instability in the Empire.
declaration of war on the Ottoman Empire and her Consequently, the government was determined
attack on Tripoli in Libya at the end of September to break the power of the Committee and to
1911 aggravated the political situation. When crush them. This was also one of the aims of
the Italians occupied the Dodecanese Islands Colonel Sadık who demanded the dissolution
on the Aegean and blocked the Dardanelles, of the Committee dominated parliament. It was
the Committee lost much prestige. The Party of the Senate, the Upper House of the parliament,
Freedom and Accord was founded during this which took the decision to dismiss the Chamber
course of time and its victory in by-elections came of Deputies and call for new elections. From
when the Committee was losing its grip on the August 1912 to July 1913, the Committee of
parliament through which it had controlled the Union and Progress would be the target of the
government, the sultan and the bureaucracy. government of Gazi Ahmet Muhtar Pasha and of
As a result, conciliatory attitude that the the succeeding one by Kâmil Pasha who worked
Committee of Union and Progress adopted hard to destroy them. The ongoing political
to appease the opposition came to a halt. The struggle for power would be overshadowed by
Unionists decided to dissolve the assembly and the breakout of the Balkan War in October
hold general elections in early 1912. They were 1912. For a while, political activities came to a
sure of themselves since they had the advantage of a halt; a tacit agreement to deal with the outside
widespread organization in the Empire considered dangers prevailed. The Balkan War, on the other
to guarantee their victory. The elections that were hand, marked the beginning of another and the
held in February-April are known as sopalı seçim last episode in the struggle for political power.
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on the Ottoman territory as well as the irredentism

of the new Balkan states continued.
4 The Committee of Union and Progress, facing
such challenges, like their predecessors, sought to
Do you think that the
secure an alliance with a great power for protection.
opposition forces that arose
Britain and Germany were the two major powers
against the Committee of Union
whom the Unionists knocked the doors for alliance.
and Progress after 1909 were
However, they did not get results. In the autumn
anti-constitutionalist? Why
of 1912 the Balkan War broke out. Until then,
do you think the legislative
the Ottoman state had to deal with three cases of
measures that the Committee
internal and external pressure: The insurrection in
of Union and Progress took
Albania, the revolt in Yemen and the war with Italy
for the consolidation of the
in Tripolitania where its rule was nominal. None
constitutional regime disturbed
of these substantiated the isolation of the Ottoman
them?
state in international politics as the Balkan War.
THE BALKAN WARS AND

THE RISE OF TURKISH
NATIONALISM
The most prominent objectives of the Committee
of Union and Progress for having the constitutional
regime restored were to end foreign intervention
into Ottoman domestic affairs, especially on behalf
of the non-Muslim communities, and neutralizing
nationalist/separatist movements in the Ottoman
Empire. This is how the territorial integrity of the
empire could be preserved. In doing so, they also
expected to get the support of the liberal states of
Western Europe, especially, that of Britain. Yet,
in the course of events and the aftermath of the
revolution was a disappointment for them. Austria- Figure 5.7 The Balkan league against the Ottoman state
Hungary unilaterally annexed the Ottoman 1912-1913
provinces of Bosnia-Herzegovina; Bulgaria
Source: http://www.trmilitary.com/viewtopic.php?t=1471
declared independence and Crete was annexed by
Greece, all before the end of 1908. Great powers The Ottoman state was at war with Italy in
including Britain did not intervene on behalf of Tripolitania when a very threatening situation
the Ottomans and remained silent to the change of suddenly emerged in the Balkans. Four new national
status quo. The Committee of Union and Progress states; Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria and Greece,
was powerless to react. The only reaction was an unexpectedly agreed to remove the Ottomans
economic boycott of the Austrian goods in protest. from Europe. This was unforeseen because Serbia,
Expectations from different realms also continued. Bulgaria and Greece were mutually hostile toward
Not only the non-Muslim communities but also each other. Furthermore, their aspirations on
the non-Turkish Muslim groups; for example, the Ottoman Macedonia were irreconcilable.
the Albanians strongly resisted the Committee’s Nevertheless, these states signed agreements
attempt to install Ottoman identity above any with one another on March-October 1912 with
other. Domestic pressure emanating from the the eventual aim of conquering the European
nationalist/separatist movements of non-Turkish domains of the Ottoman Empire. The ongoing
communities and external pressure coming from political struggle in the capital and the war with
the rival foreign powers with imperialist ambitions Italy prompted the timing of these agreements.
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Both events had shown to the Balkan allies the Edirne, the capital of the Ottoman Empire
political and military vulnerability of the Ottoman from 1365 to 1453, was a largely Muslim town
Empire. On October 2, 1912, they issued a joint and had vital importance for the defense of the
ultimatum to the Ottoman state demanding capital. The possibility of its relinquishment
reforms in Macedonia under the control of great offered an opportunity to the Committee of Union
powers. The Ottoman state, then at war with Italy, and Progress to act for patriotic reasons. They
adopted a conciliatory attitude and declared that attempted to organize popular resistance against
it was ready to implement all the reforms that Edirne’s surrender. When it became clear that the
had been agreed before without renouncing its government would yield under the great powers’
sovereignty in Macedonia. This promise did not pressure, the Committee carried out a coup on
satisfy the Balkan allies. The great powers did not January 23. A group of Unionist officers led by
support the war and warned that they would not Enver, one of the freedom heroes of 1908, and
permit any change in the status quo whatever the one of the key officers of the military wing in the
outcome might be. Despite this, the Balkan allies, Committee, invaded the room where cabinet was
first Montenegro (October 8) then the three larger in session. They shot the minister of war, took the
Balkan states (October 18), declared war on the members of the cabinet prisoner and forced Kâmil
Ottoman state. The situation in the Balkans forced Pasha, the grand vizier, to sign his resignation letter.
the Ottomans to come to terms with Italy. On This notable event is named the Bab-ı Âli Coup,
October 18, an agreement was made after the name of the Porte where the Ottoman
with Italy leaving Tripolitania and government resided. Mahmut Şevket Pasha formed
the Dodecanese islands to the Italian a new cabinet where he became grand vizier and
hands. minister of war.
The Ottoman Defeats in the Balkan

War and the Bab-ı Âli Coup
The Ottoman army was defeated heavily in the
Balkan war. They lost the battles of Kırkkilise (today
Kırklareli) and Lüleburgaz against the Bulgarians
and Kumanovo against the Serbians. Greece was able
to take a number of Aegean Islands. The Ottoman
forces had to withdraw to the Çatalca lines, on the
very outskirt of the capital (37 miles). Except for
a few besieged fortress cities, Scutari in Albania,
Janina and Edirne, all European territories were lost.
Figure 5.8 Ottoman post card depicting siege of Edirne
Ottoman state appealed to great European powers
and Şükrü Pasha
for intervention with no result. The powers were
more interested in enforcing a truce and discussing Source: http://www.trmilitary.com/viewtopic.php?t=1471
the future of the Balkans in a conference. An
armistice was negotiated on December 3. Ten days Soon after the coup, in early February, the
later, two parallel conferences convened in London. hostilities with the Balkan states resumed. After a
One was of the belligerents -Ottoman and Balkan six-month siege, Edirne fell on March 26, 1913.
delegates- who met to discuss the future of Ottoman The Committee of Union and Progress had
territory in Europe and the Northern Aegean no other choice rather than pursue peace. The
islands. The other was of the great powers who negotiations resulted in the Treaty of London, signed on
debated a general settlement in the Balkans. While May 30, 1913 that left Edirne in enemy hands. The
the former conference broke down on January 6, the
loss of Edirne to Bulgaria undermined the prestige
latter resulted in a note warning the Ottoman state
of the Committee of Union and Progress. On June
to reach a peace agreement. The Ottomans were
11, a supporter of the Party of Freedom and Accord
urged to cede Edirne which had been besieged by
the Bulgarian forces and leave the question of islands assassinated Mahmut Şevket Pasha. The Committee
to be settled by the great powers. viewed this act as a Liberal plot to seize power. After
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the plot was foiled widespread arrests and a

number of executions followed. As a result,
the opposition was completely eliminated. The
Committee of Union and Progress took full
control of the government.
In the meantime, a major conflict between
the Balkan allies over the division of spoils was
emerging. The Bulgarian attack on the Serbs
and the Greeks in late June led to the second
phase of the Balkan War. As the Balkan alliance
dissolved, the Ottomans took advantage of Figure 5.9 Funeral procession of Mahmut Şevket Paşa
the situation to recover some of their losses. Source: http://www.3b-liberal.com/index.php?sid=yazi&id=107937
Edirne was the most important in this regard.
In July, a group of junior officers led by Enver, now the minister of war, important
marched on Edirne and recaptured the city on July 22. Bulgaria was forced
to sign a peace treaty accepting the restoration of Edirne to the Ottoman Migration of the Muslim
state on September 29. Peace treaties with Serbia (November14, 1913) population of the
and Greece (March 14, 1914) followed. The status of the Ottoman-owned Balkan states became a
property and of Muslim residents in the lost territories was also regulated by tool for ethno-religious
these treaties. The Muslims were to decide if they wanted to live under the homogenization of the
rule of the independent Balkan states or to migrate to the territories under lost territories while it left
the Ottoman control in four years. the Ottoman state dealing
The end of the war in the Balkans paved the way for the re-opening of with a very hard situation
the parliament. The elections were held during the winter of 1913-1914. in managing the flow of
The Party of Freedom and Accord did not participate though it had not been refugees.
dissolved nor outlawed after Mahmut Şevket Pasha’s assassination. As a result,
the new parliament was formed by an overwhelming Unionist majority.
When the parliament convened in May, the Committee of
Union and Progress had established its firm control on the
government, parliament, and the army. It became the sole Three leading figures of Committee of
power with no domestic political challenge to its rule. Now, Union and Progress; namely, Enver, Talât
it was in full power. and Cemal Pashas were mostly in the
control of affairs. Therefore, the form of
rule that had emerged is defined as the
The Consequences of the Balkan Wars ‘Triumvirate’.
The consequences of the Balkan wars were multi-
dimensional. The Ottoman Empire was reduced from the
empire of three continents to an Asiatic state. The Empire has lost almost all its territories in Europe and
approximately four million inhabitants who lived in these regions. The loss of one of the central pillars of
the empire, Rumelia, -the other was Anatolia- was actually traumatic. Rumelia had been the richest region
and contained the most developed provinces within its borders. It was also the cradle of the Committee of
Union and Progress. Many Unionists who became part of the ruling elite were originally from Salonika.
The Ottoman boundaries were confined to Anatolia, now being the core territory, and the Arab lands
which were loosely connected to the center. Hundreds of thousands of Muslims escaped from the atrocities
committed by the Balkan states in the lost territories poured into the capital. Their resettlement was the
most important problem that the Ottoman state faced during and after the Balkan wars. Mortality was
high among the refugees. They widely suffered from fatal diseases like typhus and cholera. The population
of the Muslims in general and the Turks in particular increased sharply as a result of migration from the lost
territories into Anatolia while the non-Muslim population fell drastically. By the end of the Balkan Wars,
the Ottoman state had lost considerable number of its non-Muslim population. The Armenians, situated
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5
in eastern Anatolia, Cilicia and in

the capital, and the Greeks, situated
in western Anatolia, northern Black
Sea basin and in the capital, were
the only non-Muslim ethnic groups
left with a considerable population.
The territorial losses and
the demographic change had a
tremendous impact on the ongoing
debate about the basis of loyalty
in the empire. The constitutional
revolution of 1908 had promoted
a supra identity, Ottomanism, the
idea that all subjects of the state, Figure 5.10 Refugees coming to the Çerkezköy Train Station during the
irrespective of ethnic, religious, Balkan War
cultural or linguistic differences, Source: http://www.gzt.com/derin-darih/modern-turkiye-nin-temellerini-
would be citizens with equal rights balkan-muhacirleri-atti-2613789
establishing the basis for loyalty.
This was to supersede ethno-religious identities and neutralize nationalist/separatist movements which
were influential especially among the non-Muslim communities. The results of the Balkan Wars shattered
the Ottomanism idea and gave the upper hand to the Turkists in the internal debate on the basis of
identity. As a matter of fact, it became clear immediately after the revolution that the non-Muslims, the
Greeks, Bulgarians, Macedonians and Armenians, would not be content with an ambiguous Ottoman
identity imposed by the central administration. They continued to further their nationalist goals opting for
self-administration and preserving communal privileges that the Committee of Union and Progress aimed
to remove in order to promote constitutional citizenship based on equality. Even non-Turkish Muslim
groups were in favor of self-administration and preferred their inherent identity to Ottomanism as it was
in the case of Albanians.
The Rise of Turkish Nationalism

Following the Balkan Wars, the Committee of Union and Progress, now enjoying full power, increasingly
adopted Turkish nationalism as the ideological base of its policy. Although Turkish nationalism was a late
comer to the Ottoman political scene, its cultural development goes back to late nineteenth century. In
its initial phase, Turkism developed as a result of increasing contact with Europe and discoveries made
by European Orientalists who had studied the Turks of Central Asia. These factors acquainted Ottoman
intellectuals with the concepts of history, language and culture as delineating boundaries of a nation in
general and their nationality in particular. Historical, linguistic and cultural issues increasingly became
subjects of interest in the last two decades of the nineteenth century. At the same time, Anatolia, previously
viewed as a source of revenue and manpower for military service, began to be closely identified as Turkish
homeland.
Another source of Turkish nationalism was the Turks who had migrated from the Russian Empire.
As a result of the Ottoman-Russian hostilities and pressure of the Tsarist government on its Muslim
subjects, hundreds and thousands of refugees fled from Crimea and the Caucasus to Ottoman territories
in early 1860s. Such migrations had two main impact on the development of Turkish nationalism. First,
many intellectuals and men of letters from the Russian provinces came to the Ottoman capital and
were put in charge of government affairs. Among these, there were middle class/bourgeoisie who had
been educated in Russian schools and universities where they felt the acute threat of pan-Slavism to
their own communal identity. In response to pan-Slavism, they clung to the pan-Turkist idea which they
disseminated in the modern Ottoman schools. Among the chief Turkist figures were the Azeri Hüseyinzade
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Ali (Turan), Ahmet Ağaoğlu and the Tatar Yusuf Akçura. The so-called
manifesto of Turkism was written by Yusuf Akçura in 1904. It was
titled as Üc Tarz-ı Siyaset (Three Types of Policy). In his article, Akçura
compared Islamism, Ottomanism and Turkism policies in terms of
their applicability to securing the survival of the Ottoman state. He
argued that Ottomanism, forming an Ottoman supra identity out
of the diverse ethnic and religious elements of the empire, was an
unattainable dream. Creating an identity on the basis of Islamic unity
was similarly not possible as the colonial powers would not allow any
attempt to this end. The only way to salvation, according to Akçura,
rested in pan-Turkism, the union of the Turkish and Turkic peoples.
The second impact of the migrations was that they tremendously
altered the demographic composition of Anatolia in favor of the
Muslims in the long run. From the end of 1870s to the end of the
Balkan Wars in 1913, millions of refugees who took shelter in Anatolia
reduced the proportion of the non-Muslim population from 40 per Figure 5.11 Postage stamp
cent to 20-25 per cent. The immediate result of this change was the commemorating Ziya Gökalp
rise of a popular base for a nationalist policy observing Islamic religion Source: http://www.altayli.net/
and Turkish ethnicity.
It was the defeat of the Ottoman state in the Balkan culture of the Turkish peasant population as the true,
Wars which demonstrated very clearly the failure authentic and uncorrupt Turkish culture.
of Ottomanism. It stimulated the rise of Turkish
nationalism politically. During and after the wars,
Ottomanism was heavily criticized by prominent 5
intellectuals, such as Ziya Gökalp. Ottomanism was
to be blamed because it delayed the development of Discuss the social and political
a national idea among the Turks. It also prevented a impacts of the wars that the
forward social and economic development. In order Ottomans fought in 1911-
to overcome the threats that the state had to face, 1913.
the nation has to be awakened. This was attempted
by a nationalist mobilization led by the Committee The Balkan War also had a significant result
of Union and Progress. The Committee presented in terms of foreign policy of the Ottoman state.
the situation as a life and death struggle for the During and after the war, the Ottoman state had
Turkish nation and mobilized people of all ages. The been diplomatically isolated. The Unionists realized
Committee considered the foundation of the state that the survival of the Ottoman state would not be
on Turkish idea as the sole way of salvation at the possible without a great power protection. Following
end of the war. Yet, the arising Turkish nationalist the end of the War, the Committee of Union and
ideology was not pan-Turkish in character. The Progress sought an alliance with Britain but they were
influence of pan-Turkism seemed to be restricted rejected. In 1914, the Committee’s attempts to have
to some intellectuals who gathered around a social alliance with Austria-Hungary, Russia and France
and cultural organization close to the Committee ended in discontent. Germany was also reluctant to
of Union and Progress called Türk Ocağı (Turkish form an alliance with the Ottoman state after the
Hearth). It was founded in 1912 with the aim of disastrous defeat in the Balkan Wars. The Germans
disseminating Turkish nationalist ideology through would change their calculations in July 1914 when
lectures, discussions and artistic performances. It an international crisis broke out as a result of the
published a widely read journal Türk Yurdu (Turkish assassination of crown prince of Austria-Hungary by
Homeland) which was influential on men of letters. a Serbian nationalist in Sarajevo. A year after the end
A second type of Turkish nationalism developed of the Balkan War, the Ottoman state would find
alongside with pan-Turkism. It concentrated on itself at war again as an ally of Germany.
Anatolia as the Turkish homeland and idealized the
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5
LO 1 Display the forces of change in

the late Ottoman Empire
The growing discontent from Abdülhamid II’s absolutist regime

gave impetus to the search of opposition groups led by the
Committee of Union and Progress to find ways of restoring the
constitutional regime and opening the parliament that had been
shelved in 1877. The opposition groups which had ranged from
the officials and officers who dominated the Committee of Union
and Progress to the Liberals, to the Armenian Revolutionary
Summary
Federation, to Macedonian guerilla organizations, etc., were

able to force the sultan to reinstate the constitutional regime on
23/24 July 1908. The constitutional revolution was expected to
bring liberty, equality, justice and the rule of law to the peoples
living within the Ottoman boundaries. Therefore, it was widely
celebrated by all ethnic and religious groups of the Ottoman
Empire. The Committee of Union and Progress did not assume
direct political rule after the revolution. It remained behind the
scenes as a watchdog of the constitutional regime. The signs of
political struggle for power between the Palace where the sultan
resided, the Porte, the center of the Ottoman bureaucracy and
the Committee of Union and Progress were obvious in the early
days of the constitutional regime. The struggle escalated toward
the elections. In the elections that were held in November-
December 1908, the Committee of Union and Progress was
victorious decisively. Following the elections, tension between
the Committee and its opponents, primarily the Liberals and
religious conservatives, increased. It eventually resulted in the
counter-revolutionary rebellion on 31 March 1909.
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Outline political developments that eventually resulted in the establishment of

LO 2 the autocratic regime of the Committee of Union and Progress
Demonstrate the vision of state and society of the leading Ottoman political
LO 3 and administrative cadres
LO 4 Show the resistance toward changes envisioned by the Committee of Union

and Progress
The 31 March rebellion was suppressed by the Action Army which had been formed in Macedonia.
Summary
Sultan Abdülhamid II was deposed thereafter. After the restoration of the order, a prolonged military
rule allowing the Committee of Union and Progress to take legislative measures in order to consolidate
the constitutional regime was established. It attempted to strengthen the parliament at the extent of the
palace and the Porte through constitutional amendments. Legislative measures and the involvement of
the army in politics led to the rise of opposition under new circumstances. The Liberals, conservatives,
the dissidents within the Committee of Union and Progress, non-Muslim communities and non-Turkish
Muslim groups increasingly voiced their discontent for the Committee’s way of action for different
reasons. Initial sign of the discontent came when the Albanians insurrected against centralization
attempts of the Committee of Union and Progress. In 1911, all opposition groups gathered under the
newly founded umbrella party, the Party of Freedom and Accord. Meanwhile, the Ottoman state found
itself at war with Italy in Tripoli. Domestic political developments were further complicated as a result
of the autocratic tendencies of the Committee of Union and Progress that were exhibited during the
1912 elections. Although it won the elections, the Committee did not form a government as a threat of
military intervention came from a group within the army. The ongoing political struggle came to a halt
temporarily as the Ottoman state found itself in another war; now, with the Balkan states.
The Balkan states, namely, Greece, Bulgaria, Serbia and Montenegro formed a coalition and declared war
against the Ottoman state in order to terminate its existence in Europe. As soon as hostilities opened,
the Ottomans were heavily defeated and withdrew to the outskirts of their capital. In the meantime, the
Committee of Union and Progress took over the power by a coup on the pretext of the defeats in the
war and the claim that Edirne should be surrendered to the enemy by the government. The Committee
took over the government but was not able to prevent the loss of Edirne. In June 1913, the assassination
of Mahmut Şevket Pasha, then the grand vizier and the minister of war, diverted the attention of the
Unionists toward the domestic opposition, mainly, the Liberals. They almost entirely eliminated them
from the political scene. As the second phase of the Balkan War started around the same time, they were
able to recover Edirne in July and as a result, their prestige. Consequently, The Committee of Union and
Progress emerged as the victorious party from the political struggle for power that had been continuing
since 1908. The Committee had been transformed from a political organization demanding liberty,
equality, fraternity and justice into an authoritarian party with a monopoly of power.
LO 5 Explaine how successive wars

transformed the Ottoman Empire
The consequences of the Balkan Wars for the Ottoman Empire were tremendous. As a result of the loss
of territory in the Balkans, its central territory became Anatolia. Hundreds of thousands of Muslim
refugees poured into Istanbul and Anatolia as a result of the territorial losses. The increase in the
size of Muslim population and the obvious failure of the policy of saving the state by promoting
Ottomanist identity brought about the rise of Turkish nationalism on popular and governmental
level. A fundamental change in the ruling ideology of the Ottoman state came into being as the
Committee of Union and Progress increasingly adopted Turkish nationalism as the basis of the state
and Turkishness as the new basis of loyalty. The Balkan Wars had also demonstrated the Unionists the
isolation of the Ottoman state in international politics. If the state was to survive, this isolation had to
be ended by entering into alliance with at least one great power.
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5
References
Ahmad, F. (1969). The Young Turks the Committee of Hanioğlu, M. Ş. (2008b). The second constitutional
Union and Progress in Turkish politics 1908-1914. period, 1908-1918. In R. Kasaba (Ed.), The
Oxford: Clarendon Press. Cambridge history of modern Turkey Vol. 4: Turkey
in the modern world (pp. 62-111). Cambridge
University Press.
Oxford: OneWorld Publications.
Shaw, S. J. and Shaw, E. K. (1977). History of the
Akşin, S. (1987). Jön Türkler ve İttihat ve Terakki.
Ottoman Empire and modern Turkey, Vol. II.
İstanbul: Remzi Kitabevi.
Hanioğlu, M. Ş.(2008a). A brief history of the late
Zürcher, E. J. (1993). Turkey: A modern history,
Ottoman Empire. Princeton: Princeton University
London: I. B. Tauris.
Press.
Further Reading
Ahmad, F. (1993). The making of modern Turkey, Kushner, D. (1977). The rise of Turkish nationalism
London: Routledge. 1876-1908. London: Frank Cass.
Ginio, Eyal .(2005). Mobilizing the Ottoman Nation Macfie, A. L. (1998). The End of the Ottoman Empire
during the Balkan Wars (1912-1913): Awakening 1908-1923. London: Routledge.
from the Ottoman Dream. War History, 12/2,
Psilos, C. (2006). Albanian Nationalism and Unionist
156-177.
Ottomanization 1908 to 1912. Mediterranean
Hanioğlu, M. Ş. (2001). Preparation for a revolution Quarterly, 17/3, 26-42.
the Young Turks 1902-1908. Oxford: Oxford
Turfan, M. N. (2000). Rise of the Young Turks: Politics,
University Press.
the military, and Ottoman collapse. London: I.B.
Kayalı, H. (1997) Arabs and Young Turks Ottomanism, Tauris.
Arabism and Islamism in the Ottoman Empire,
1908-1918. Berkeley: University of California
Press.
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INTRODUCTION THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE’S

Almost a year after the end of the Balkan ENTRY INTO WORLD WAR I
War, the Ottoman state found itself in another
war. The attempts of the leading political figures
Causes of World War I
to end the diplomatic isolation that had been
grievously experienced during the Balkan War There were many factors that caused the
eventually resulted in an alliance with Germany. break out of the First World War in June 1914.
The German-Ottoman alliance was concluded Imperialist rivalry as well as competition among
on August 2, 1914 following the opening of the major powers; namely, Britain, France, Russia,
hostilities in the Balkans in June 1914. By Austria-Hungary, Germany and Italy, was the most
reaching an agreement with one of the great significant one. By 1914, these powers had formed
powers of Europe on equal terms, the Ottomans alliances which resulted in the rise of two broad
aimed to protect the empire from the ambitions groups. Britain, France and Russia formed the
of European imperialism and to bring an end to Triple Entente (the Entente/Allied Powers) while
its semi-colonial status. In Novermber 14, 1914 Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy comprised
the Ottoman state entered the war on the side of the Triple Alliance (the Central Powers). The
the Central Powers; namely, Germany and Austria- main expectation of Britain and France from the
Hungary fighting against the Entente (Allied) alliance was to preserve their overseas empires
Powers; that is, Britain, France and Russia. against Germany which was in search of ambitious
expansion in the way of creating a large empire.
From their entry into the First World War
Therefore, the relations among the major powers
to their defeat in October 1918, the Ottomans
of Europe were tense when Archduke Franz
fought on a wide geography from Caucasus to
Ferdinand, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary,
the Middle East, to the Balkans and to Galicia in
was assassinated by a Serbian nationalist on June 28,
Eastern Europe. They were not successful in most
1914. A month later, on July 28, Austria-Hungary
of their battles; however, they won a significant
declared war on Serbia. The alliances came into
victory at Gallipoli. The defeat of the British and
effect after the assassination as the European states
the French there prevented them from reaching
came to each other’s aid. Except for Italy, which
İstanbul. Another notable success of the Ottoman
followed a policy of “wait and see” until 1915, all
forces was in Iraq (Kut-ul-Amara) where they were
powers that had been part of alliances soon found
able to take captive more than ten thousand British
themselves at war.
soldiers. In the war, the Ottoman forces were
mostly short of equipment and suffered much from
hunger and disease. In the meantime, the Allied Alliance With Germany
Powers reached four secret treaties partitioning the The outbreak of the First World War in the
Ottoman Empire in case of her defeat. summer of 1914 caught the Ottoman Empire
As explained in the previous unit, the Committee unprepared and at a time of distress. Its army was in
of Union and Progress embarked on a reform program no condition to fight such a war despite the military
as soon as they gained the monopoly of power in restructuring program that had been launched in
January 1913. They continued unabated during the December 1913 with the contribution of German
First World War. The war provided the Unionists advisers. Financially, the state was in dire straits.
with a free hand to carry out some of the reforms Defeats in successive wars had further aggravated the
that would have been impeded by the intervention empire’s precarious financial situation. As a result,
of great powers under normal circumstances. The in the impending war, there was no powerful state
overall aim of the reforms was the creation of national in Europe which considered the Ottoman Empire
economy/bourgeoisie and further secularization as a possible ally. They thought that the Ottoman
of the administration. War and the reforms led to state would be more likely a diplomatic and military
considerable social and economic change. These liability than a contributing actor. This idea was also
changes would be disrupted by the defeat of the shared by Germans with whom the Ottoman state
Central Powers and the Ottoman State as their ally formed an alliance just before the war. Several senior
in the autumn and consequently the defeat of 1918. figures of the German army and navy considered
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The Ottoman Empire in the First World War
the Ottoman army insufficiently trained and Empire and given an effective role to play
equipped to make a significant contribution in a under the Ottoman high command.
major European war (Trumpener, 1996, p. 116). • Germany would protect the Ottoman
On the other hand, the Committee of Union and territorial integrity.
Progress viewed an alliance with a great power as • The agreement would immediately
indispensable if the empire was to survive. Any become effective and remain valid until
alliance was preferable for the Unionists to end the December 31, 1918.
isolation. The Ottoman leaders strongly believed • The agreement would automatically be
that an alliance with Germany could achieve renewed for five years unless one of the
security and economic benefits for the Ottoman signatories denounced it.
state. As a result, on July 22, Enver Pasha, then • The Ottoman Sultan and German Kaiser
the minister of war, proposed that the Ottoman would ratify the agreement within a month.
state join the Central Powers led by Germany. • The agreement would remain a secret
The proposal was initially rejected by the German (Zürcher, 1993, p. 117).
Ambassador in Istanbul. Nevertheless, on Kaiser’s Seemingly, this agreement did not force the
personal instructions, negotiations were reopened Ottoman state to enter the war. Yet, it was signed
where Germany responded favorably to the a day after Russia mobilized its army against
Ottoman search for a defensive alliance. The details Austria and Germany. This made it inevitable
of an agreement were negotiated between a small for the Ottomans to enter the war on the side of
circle of the Unionist leaders and the Germans in Germany. The Ottomans believed that joining
the deepest secrecy. The formal treaty of alliance was forces with Germany would end their isolation.
signed in Istanbul on August 2, 1914. Its terms were They also expected that the war with Russia would
as follows: be short and end in victory for Germany and
• The Ottoman state and Germany would Austria. In the perceptions of the Ottomans, the
remain neutral in any Austro - Serbian German land army was the strongest in Europe.
conflict. It was the only one that could defend the empire
• In case Russia intervened in the conflict against Russian designs on the Straits and eastern
and forced Germany to do so in relation Anatolia. The Ottomans also considered that the
to Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire alliance with Germany would lead to a period of
would also join the Central powers. relative security allowing the empire’s institutions
• In case of war, the German military mission to be modernized without foreign intervention
would be at the disposal of the Ottoman (Aksakal, 2008, p. 93).
Figure 6.1 Leading political figures of the Committee of Union and Progress: Talât Pasha, Enver Pasha, Cemal Pasha
Source: http://www.altust.org
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The Ottoman leading political figures Enver, Talat state became more valuable because the Ottomans
and Cemal Pashas had four main goals that led the had the potential of mobilizing the Muslims in the
Ottoman state to enter the First World War. Firstly, colonial empires of France and Britain. Furthermore,
they wanted to reach a more favorable treaty of alliance the Ottomans could effectively control the Straits,
with Germany in order to have strong protection and thus severing the communication between
against both European and Balkan powers. Secondly, Russia in the Black Sea and her Western allies. Taking
the war was to provide the Ottomans with a chance to these factors into consideration, Germany increased
reestablish their control over the various autonomous its pressure on the Ottoman state to open hostilities
regions of the empire, especially over those situated against the Entente powers and have new fronts.
in the Arabian Peninsula. Thirdly, the territories that Seeing that the conflict would be much more than
had been previously lost to different powers had to a short war against Russia, a majority within the
be restored. The Ottomans expected, for example, Committee of Union and Progress and the Ottoman
to recover Northern Aegean islands, occupied cabinet wanted to stay out of the war until the
during the Balkan Wars, from Greece, and Tripoli, fulfillment of some conditions such as the completion
Cyrenaica and the Dodecanese from Italy. They of mobilization and the arrival of German financial
also hoped to restore the three Anatolian provinces assistance. They also wanted to see some signs of
lost to Russia in 1878 and expand further into the German success in the Western front. However, the
Caucasus. Finally, the Ottomans viewed the war as pro-German faction among the Unionists led by
an opportunity to eliminate the economic and legal Enver Pasha believed that the Ottoman state should
constraints generated by the capitulations granted to immediately join the war in order to claim a share
foreign states. This meant that the Ottoman leaders from the spoils.
would be free to establish state monopolies on crucial
items and fix customs taxes at will, which would 1
foster the growth of industry in the Ottoman Empire
(Hanioğlu, 2008a, pp. 178-180). What were the goals and
Germany initially expected the Ottoman Empire considerations of the leading
to be a deterrent force that would tie down Russian Ottoman political figures by
and British divisions in the Caucasus and Egypt. concluding a treaty of alliance
However, Germany had to change her expectation with Germany that would
of the Ottomans. Their plans to knock France out lead the Ottoman state to be
of war in forty days had failed. France’s ally, Russia an active German ally in the
rapidly advanced into the East Germany. In these First World War?
changed conditions, the alliance with the Ottoman
Figure 6.2 The Central Powers: Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany, Mehmet V of the Ottoman Empire, Emperor Franz
Joseph of Austria-Hungary
Source: http://farm4.static.flickr.com/3014/2309605704_d5c0a50a11_o.jpg
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The Entry of the Ottoman State itself at war for the last time. The declaration of
Into the War war by Russia, Britain and France on the Ottoman
Empire spread the war into new fronts. Russia
The Ottoman government began to shape
launched an offensive in the Caucasus and diverted
the public opinion for war immediately after the
some of its troops from the European fronts to
signing of the secret agreement with Germany.
the benefit of Germany. Similarly, Britain had to
The British government’s decision to confiscate
reorganize its troops fighting in the Middle East
two warships that the Ottomans had ordered and
and postponed its planned attack on the Suez
paid for at the beginning of August was helpful in
Canal.
mobilizing the public opinion. This created anger
and disappointment in the Ottoman Empire and
strengthened the position of Germany further. WARTIME MILITARY AND
Taking advantage of the situation, Germany ordered DIPLOMATIC DEVELOPMENTS
two cruisers from the German Mediterranean RELATED TO THE OTTOMAN
squadron, Goeben and Bresleu, to sail to the EMPIRE
Dardanelles after the bombardment of French bases
in North Africa. On August 10, these two cruisers The declaration of war was followed by full
escaped to the Sea of Marmara because they were mobilization. New taxes were introduced and
pursued by the French and British Mediterranean the parliament was suspended in order to take
fleets. They were let through the minefields of the additional measures in no time. Enver Pasha
Dardanelles Straights on Enver Pasha’s orders. assumed the command of all Ottoman operations
Britain demanded their extradition. However, with in eastern Anatolia while Cemal Pasha took the
the efforts of the pro-German clique in the cabinet control of Syria. The German officers took very
led by Enver Pasha, these two cruisers became part active roles in the departments of the ministry of
of the Ottoman navy. The cabinet announced that war such as the operations, intelligence, railroads,
they were bought from Germans. supply, munitions, coal and fortresses (Shaw and
Shaw, 1977, p. 313).
These two cruisers were named Yavuz Sultan
Selim and Midilli. The squadron commander, On November 14, the Ottoman şeyhülislam, the
Admiral Souchon, became the commander of the main religious authority, issued a religious decree,
Ottoman Black Sea fleet. The German sailors were a fetva, to announce the religious/holy war, jihad,
enlisted in the Ottoman navy. Britain and France on the demand of the important
responded to this incident by a naval blockade. sultan. It was hoped
Naturally, Germany’s influence on the Ottoman that this would stir
government increased after this event. When the a global insurrection The German influence on
expected German financial aid arrived, the hand of of the Muslims the Ottoman military began
Enver led pro-German faction strengthened further against their colonial in the nineteenth century. It
in the administration. This faction, in coordination masters, particularly increased especially during
with the German military, prepared a plan for a Britain and France. the rule of Abdülhamid II.
naval attack against the Russian sea ports. This In order to call upon Abdülhamid II was under
plan was unknown to the cabinet including the the Muslims to the influence of German
grand vizier. It was put into effect on October 29, support the Ottoman military might. He invited
under the command of German Admiral Wilhelm Empire in the war, German officers to reorganize
Souchon, who had explicit orders from Enver Pasha these appeals were and modernize the Ottoman
to attack the Russian shipping and ports on the also made in Arabic. military. One of these officers,
Black Sea so as to establish naval superiority in the However, the appeals Colmar von der Goltz,
region. Souchon bombarded the Russian coast and made to the Muslim who was appointed as the
caused the destruction of several Russian ships. On world did not yield inspector of military schools,
November 2, Russia declared war on the Ottoman any results and they would have great influence on
were ineffective. the cadets with his teachings.
Empire. This declaration was soon followed by
Britain and France. Thus, the Ottoman state found
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During the war, the Ottomans were usually town’s occupation as an initial step of invading the
guided by the German strategy based on aggression. Caucasus. Enver Pasha decided to send more and
The Russian Transcaucasia and the Suez Canal were more troops to Sarıkamış. Without supplies and
the primary targets in the operational plans that with temperatures constantly below 20 degrees
had been developed in the early stages of the war. centigrade, thousands of Ottoman soldiers froze
to death before even reaching the frontline. When
the Russians finally encircled the Ottoman troops,
The Ottomans at Sarıkamış defeat was inevitable. The offensive ended with a
The campaign to Caucasia required huge defeat at Sarıkamış, on the road to Kars in
advancement into the mountainous arid and a month. Enver Pasha left the front for Istanbul.
cold territory which was not suitable for offensive Approximately, a hundred thousand Ottoman
warfare. Early confrontations with Russian forces soldiers died; mostly not by bullets but due to
were in November 1914. Managed to have stopped extremely harsh winter conditions. The Ottoman
the Russians, the Ottomans launched a major morale and military position in the east declined.
offensive under the command of Enver Pasha in As a result of the victory won over the Ottomans,
December. The consideration was to cut the Russian the Russians were able to advance into the eastern
lines of communication between the Caucasus Anatolia toward Erzurum and Van.
and their main base at Kars to be followed by the
Figure 6.3 The grim picture from the Sarıkamış Campaign: Russian soldiers viewing frozen bodies of the Ottoman
soldiers
Source: http://www.vatanhaberleri.com
The Gallipoli Campaign

The Gallipoli campaign (also known as the Dardanelles Campaign) lasted from March 1915 until the
final withdrawal of the Entente powers on January 8, 1916. This operation was proposed by Winston
Churchill, then the First Lord of Admiralty in order to lessen the pressure on Russia and open supply
lines via the Black Sea. The consideration was initially a naval expedition that would take the Gallipoli
Peninsula with İstanbul as its objective. The capture of the Straits and the following occupation of İstanbul
would be the end of war for the Ottomans. Furthermore, the success would thwart German efforts to
expand into the East. The British would be at more ease with their campaigns in Mesopotamia and could
protect their position in Egypt.
The attack on the Dardanelles Straits was initially planned as a naval action. However, later it was
decided that if the fleet passed through the Straits, then a land force would be needed to protect the gains.
To this end, the British assembled a large military force in Egypt and the French contributed to this force.
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The Naval Battle the western side of the peninsula. Landings on

Britain and France began the bombardment of the eastern side were only partly successful and
the outer forts of the Dardanelles in mid-February there were heavy losses. The Ottomans did not
1915. They expected to force the Straits and pass leave their fortifications from which they beat
on to İstanbul easily. They were unaware that the the British assaults for several times. The military
Ottomans had mined the waterway and mounted situation, however, was desperate for the Ottomans
strong batteries on the surrounding hills. As a result, a in the second half of 1915. An Anglo-French
month had passed without fulfilling their objectives. breakthrough in Gallipoli was still imminent. In
August, there were new landings of the Entente
On the other hand, in İstanbul, the fear that the
troops.
Allied Powers would be able to break through the
Straits and reach the capital alarmed the Unionists. The British and the ANZAC (Australian and
They made plans to withdraw into Anatolia from New Zealand Army Corps) troops made another
where they would continue the struggle in case of landing at Anafarta (Sulva Bay) in order to sever the
the occupation of the capital by the Entente forces. Ottomans’ north-south communications down the
peninsula from İstanbul. Another force mounted the
The sinking of a French battleship, Bouvet, on
heights of Kilid-i Bahr fort, which overlooked the
March 18 eased the situation for the Ottomans.
Straits from the east. However, both forces faced a
Along with the Bouvet, two more battleships sank
fierce Ottoman resistance that did not allow them to
and many more were damaged either by the mines
advance beyond the coastal area. The decision to give
the Turks have managed to lay secretly at night or
up the operation was taken by the British cabinet after
by the cannons of the Turkish artillery from the
such failures. As they realized that a breakthrough
shores. In the face of this failure, it was decided
would not be possible, they evacuated their position
that the combined British and French fleet could
on the western banks in December and the tip of the
not succeed without military help.
Gallipoli Peninsula in January 1916. The attempt to
capture the Straits had failed. The attempt had cost
The Land Offensive the lives of hundreds and thousands of soldiers from
In April, an amphibious attack was launched by both sides (Shaw and Shaw, 1977, pp. 317-318).
the British onto the coasts of Gallipoli. It involved The news of the evacuation was celebrated publicly
landings on the coast of Asia Minor and Gallipoli by in Istanbul. It was described in the press as ‘Great
the British, Australian and New Zealand (ANZAC) Victory’ and it purged the traumatic experience of the
troops but with no success. In the face of strong Balkan War for a while. The Ottomans considered
Ottoman opposition, a British force composed of that they had decisively defeated the British, who,
Australian and New Zealand contingents managed with their strong fleet, had been threatening the
to establish a bridgehead north of Kabatepe on capital for a long time.
Figure 6.4 15 year olds on their way to Dardanelles

Source: http://eskiturkiye.com/onemli-olaylar/canakkale-savasi-15-yasindaki-askerler
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From the Turkish point of view Gallipoli is full of stories of bravery and important
sacrifice. When the ANZACs landed at Gallipoli they were met by a Turkish
colonel, Mustafa Kemal, who successfully commanded the Turkish troops.
Even though the Turkish land forces were poorly equipped and trained, they The reputation of Mustafa
had a very powerful reason to fight. They were defending their homeland Kemal, the future leader of
against an invasion. Even the very young were enlisted in the army. Most Turkey, as a brilliant soldier
high schools and universities did not have any graduates that year due to the started during the Gallipoli
fact that their students all died in Gallipoli. Turks had more than 60.000 campaign. He commanded
dead and about 250.000 casualties. Nevertheless, the expression ‘spirit of the Ottoman forces that
Dardanelles’ became a byword when talking about things that are impossible effectively repelled the
to achieve. offensives of the Allied Powers.
ANZAC troops may not have lost as many lives as the Turks;
however, they fought a battle which they were ill prepared for. Nearly 9.ooo Australians were
killed at Gallipoli. New Zealand lost around 3000 men and the French and the British about
30.000. Many of the dead have not been recovered or identified. Today the entire battlefield
in Gallipoli is considered a graveyard.
Figure 6.5 Daughters and granddaughters or great grandsons of Australian war veterans from the Gallipoli visit the
ANZAC cemeteries at ANZAC Cove
Source: http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/american_military_history/2013/11/the_battle_of_gallipoli_
winston_churchill_mustafa_kemal_and_the_battle_that.html
Nearly a century after Gallipoli, the parties involved, namely Australians, New Zealanders
and Turks regard Gallipoli as a central event in their history. All countries commemorate the
event. What is more, this horrific battle of the First World War was the beginning of a long
lasting understanding and friendship between these countries.
The Deportation of the Armenians

When the Gallipoli campaign was was in progress the Ottoman government took the decision to
deport the Armenian population off the war zone to Deyr-i Zor in the Syrian desert. From the political
perspective, the Dashnakzutioun, one of the most influential political organizations of the Ottoman
Armenians, maintained close relations and cooperated with the Committee of Union and Progress in
restoring and safeguarding the constitutional regime. Through this cooperation, the Armenian platform
wanted to settle the problems of the Armenian community and have a kind of self-rule. After the Balkan
Wars, the Armenians realized that they would not get the reforms they hoped for. Therefore, they began
to favor foreign support.
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It seems that the Armenian nationalist to secure new allies against the Central Powers.
organizations hoped for the establishment of an To this end, there were promises made to the
independent Armenian state including eastern inhabitants of some regions under the Ottoman
Anatolia in case of a Russian victory in the war. When administration for self-rule.
the Ottoman state entered into war against Russia, Four agreements were concluded in the first type
a considerable number of Armenians joined the of category from 1915 to 1917. The first agreement
Russian army. Some of them were deserters from the was the Constantinople Agreement which was signed
Ottoman army. Desertions from the Ottoman army on March 18, 1915. It was concluded by exchange
had increased especially after the Sarıkamış disaster. of notes between Britain, Russia and France.
Because they were located behind the Ottoman The agreement intended to settle the question
lines, they were engaged in guerilla warfare, killing of who would control the Ottoman capital. This
many civilians of Turkish and Kurdish descent. agreement allowed Russia to take Istanbul and the
Straits. Moreover, Russia was to be given sufficient
important
land on both sides of the Straits and the islands at
their mouths to secure full control of all navigation
The Armenian reform question had and defenses against outside threats. Russia was
been internationalized in the Treaty also to take eastern Thrace to the Enos-Midye
of Berlin in 1878. The related article Line, the Anatolian hinterland of the Bosporus and
stipulated making reforms in the six the Sakarya River to the Gulf of Izmit. Istanbul,
provinces of eastern Anatolia; namely, though under Russian control, would remain a free
Erzurum, Van, Bitlis, Diyarbekir, port for the Entente members. Russia also agreed
Mamuretu’l-Aziz (Elazığ) and Sivas, to allow free commercial navigation through the
where the Armenian population was Straits and accepted the British and French spheres
considerably high. Until 1913, this of influence in Anatolia. This agreement also
question had become one of the main stipulated the separation of the Muslim holy places
pretexts of the great powers, especially in Mecca and Medina and the rest of Arabia and
Britain and Russia, for the intervention the Arab world from the Ottoman Empire. They
in the Ottoman domestic affairs. were to be placed under independent Arab rule.
The Entente powers reached a different
Untrusting the Armenian nationalists and actually agreement with Italy on April 26, 1915, called the
suspicious of their possible action in the war, the Treaty of London. This agreement gave Italy full
Unionist government took measures to keep them sovereignty over the Dodecanese islands. In addition,
under surveillance. It was amidst these circumstances all Ottoman rights in Tripoli were transferred to
that the decision for the deportation of the Armenians Italy. Equally important, in case of the defeat of
was taken. It was stated that the Armenian nationalists the Ottoman Empire, a part of the Mediterranean
were helping Russia, fighting along with her against coast of Anatolia, the province of Adalya (Antalya),
the Ottoman army and carrying on guerilla activity would be included in the Italian sphere of influence.
behind the Ottoman lines. The deportation was All these concessions were made to Italy so that she
carried out under harsh climatic conditions; cold, would join the Entente Powers.
starvation and diseases caused losses of life. Among these agreements, the most important
one with long term effects was the Sykes-Picot
The Secret Treaties and the Agreement signed on May16, 1916. This agreement
Partition of the Ottoman Empire was named after Sir Mark Sykes of the Arab Bureau
in Cairo and French diplomat François Georges
The Allied Powers concluded a number of
Picot. The agreement negotiated by these two
agreements regarding the partition of the Ottoman
diplomats granted southern Iraq, from Baghdad to
Empire in case of its defeat. There were mainly two
the Persian Gulf, and the ports of Haifa and Acre
types of agreements in this respect. The first type
in Palestine to Britain. In return, France would get
of agreements were conducted among the powers
the coastal province of Syria, including Lebanon,
themselves to divide and share the lands and riches
the province of Adana and all of Cilicia.
of the Ottoman Empire. The second type aimed
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Figure 6.6 The division of territories: The Sykes-Picot Figure 6.7 The 1916 map, with signatures of Mark
Agreement Sykes and Francois Georges-Picot
Source: http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-36300224 Source: http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-36300224
According to this agreement, Palestine Britain promised to support Sharif in his efforts
would be internationalized. The remaining Arab to establish an independent Arab kingdom. This
territories between the British and French areas kingdom would stretch from the 37th parallel to
of influence would be formed into an Arab the Persian Gulf in the east, south to the Arabian
state or a confederation of Arab states. This area Peninsula and the Red Sea, and in the west to the
was also divided into areas of influence. France Mediterranean. The agreement excluded the Syrian
would control the rest of Syria and northern coast and the holy places in Palestine.
Iraq including Mosul. Britain would get the area
stretching between Palestine and Iran. Russians
were promised compensation in eastern Anatolia
to keep them happy. The Italian area of influence in
Anatolia was redefined and enlarged by the Treaty
of St. Jean de Maurienne, April 17, 1917. It was
extended to include the provinces of Izmir and
Konya.
In the second type of agreements, there were
the contact and discussions between Sir Henry
McMahon, the British high commissioner in
Egypt and the Sharif Huseyin of Mecca which
aimed to win new allies for the Entente against
the Central Powers. These contacts and discussions
eventually resulted in the Arab revolt of June 1916.
Sharif Huseyin was one of the rulers of the Arabian
Peninsula. He ruled the Holy Cities, Mecca and
Medina. He was an autonomous vassal of the
sultan. Abdulaziz Ibn Suud, another vassal of the
sultan, was in control of Necd (roughly today’s
Saudi Arabia) and its environs. Figure 6.8 Belfour Declaration
Sharif negotiated through a long-drawn Source: https://beyondthecusp.wordpress.com/the-
exchange of letters between July 1915 and March balfour-declaration/
1916. In return to launching an Arab revolt,
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Nevertheless, while negotiating with Sharif, a already advanced into eastern Anatolia in the spring
different venue of negotiations was conducted with of 1915 launched a new offensive in January 1916.
the Zionist leaders of England and America. These The Russian army occupied Erzurum in February,
discussions would eventually lead to the Balfour Trabzon in April and Erzincan in July.
Declaration of November 2, 1917. In order to gain It was when the Ottomans were struggling in
the support of influential Jewish circles in England, all different fronts that Sharif Huseyin launched his
Germany and Austria, Arthur Balfour, the British revolt for the Arab independence. In accordance
Foreign Secretary, declared, after discussions with the previous promises and agreements, Britain
with the cabinet sponsored his efforts in arms and money. In the
important
and consultations Arabian Peninsula, the Ottoman army was stationed
with Zionist in Yemen, at the Holy Cities (Mecca and Medina)
leaders, that Britain The promises given to Sharif and the Hejaz Railroad which connected Medina to
would support the Huseyin and the Zionists Damascus. Sharif Hussein organized the Bedouins as
establishment of a were in contradiction with a guerilla army. The commander of this army was his
national home for the provisions of Sykes-Picot son, Emir Feisal, who was advised by several British
the Jewish people Agreement. officers. The revolt cut the Hejaz Railroad and
in Palestine. The overran the Ottoman garrisons in Mecca and Jidda.
decision of the British government to Except for Medina, all towns in Hejaz came under
endorse the establishment of a Jewish the rebel control. Another Arab force commanded
national home was publicized by a by Emir Feisal moved north to support the British
letter from Arthur Balfour to Lord in their advance into Syria from Egypt.
Rothschild.
However, in all this time, despite the dire
situation in many fronts, the Ottomans still
The Ottoman War Efforts in the sent their troops to support the Germans and
Middle East Austrians in Romania, Galicia and the Bulgarians
in Macedonia at the request of the German general
The struggle in the Middle East was particularly
staff. In 1917, the situation worsened for the
difficult for the Ottomans due to constant French
Central Powers. The British expeditionary force
and British efforts to undermine their authority in the
captured Baghdad in March 1917. In Palestine, the
region where they were mostly in defense. The British
British attempted to break through the Gaza strip
were trying to protect their oil wells and refineries
to capture Jerusalem. They eventually succeeded
in Iran and gain new ones in Mosul and Kerkuk in
before the end of 1917. Germany responded to
Northern Iraq. They worked to make the sultan’s call
this worsening situation by creating a new army
for jihad ineffective to this end. After the Dardanelles
group called Lightning (Yıldırım) composed of
and Gallipoli victories, the second significant success
thousands of selected German soldiers. It was
of the Ottoman troops in the war was in Iraq. They
formed in Aleppo in order to prepare a counter
surrounded the British Indian expeditionary force
offensive against Baghdad. This elite group never
at Kut-ul-Amara and captured over ten thousand
went to Iraq. It had to move to Palestine where
soldiers in April 1916. This was one of the worst
the British offensive resumed against Ottoman
defeats the British suffered during WWI.
defenses stretching across much of Palestine. The
initial aim of this army was to prevent the fall of
Oil was first discovered in Iran in 1908 by Jerusalem into the British hands but it ended up
the British. They had obtained concessions being unsuccessful.
from the Iranian King for exploration.
2
The news from other fronts was discouraging
for the Ottomans. The two attempts to cross or cut What did the Arab revolt indicate in terms of the
off the Suez Canal in 1915 and 1916 failed. On Ottoman strategy of war and the preservation
the Anatolian lands, the Russian army which had of the territorial integrity of the Empire?
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The Russian Withdrawal From the War

In the Ottoman capital, the political situation became
complicated with the resignation of the Grand Vizier, Sait
Halim Pasha, in February 1917. In his place, Talât Pasha, Bolshevik means majority in Russian. The
the minister of interior, was appointed who also kept his Bolsheviks were a faction of the Russian Social
position as the interior minister. The Russian invasion of Democrat Labor Party which was led by Lenin.
eastern Anatolia affected agricultural productivity and They became increasingly popular among the
caused food shortages in Istanbul and other major cities. workers and soldiers following the first phase of
In the war zones, a terrible epidemic of typhus began to the Russian Revolution in February 1917. They
devastate the civilian population. Just as maintaining and became the leading party the second phase of
remaining in the war became more and more difficult, the Revolutione in October 1917.
the Ottoman war efforts were given a new lease of life. In
Russia, the Bolshevik Revolution was in full force and the
Tsarist regime collapsed in 1917. The Bolsheviks assumed power and this resulted in the withdrawal of Russia
from the war. As soon as they were in full control of affairs, the Bolsheviks denounced the secret agreements as
imperialist treaties and publicized them. They conducted a separate peace negation with the Central Powers at
Brest-Litovsk in March 1918. They agreed to restore to the Ottomans the territories Russian forces had captured
during the war and the three eastern provinces (Kars, Ardahan, Batum) that had been under Russian rule since
1878. The Russian withdrawal had created a power vacuum in the Caucasus which was attempted to be filled
with the formation of the Republic of Transcaucasia by Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan on anti-Bolshevik
basis. While this new state objected the restoration of the three provinces to the Ottoman state, the Ottomans
raised their stakes demanding more territory than had been agreed to in Brest-Litovsk.
The withdrawal of Russia consequently led to the revival of pan-Turkist ideas. The union with the
Turkic peoples of Central Asia became a major goal of particularly Enver Pasha, who wanted to revitalize
the empire on this basis. In his point of view, the lost Arab provinces could be compensated by the
establishment of a Turkish Empire extending from the Caucasus into Crimea and Central Asia. For the
military offensive into the Caucasus, Enver sent the divisions that had just returned from Galicia when
there was more need for them in Mesopotamia and Palestine. The Republic of Transcaucasia collapsed in
May 1918. The Ottomans viewed this as an opportunity to advance further in the Caucasus. The Germans
attempted to restrain them as they wanted to take the control
of the Baku oilfields but to no avail. In September, the
Ottomans advanced as far as the shores of the Caspian Sea
in Baku.
THE DEFEAT OF THE OTTOMAN

EMPIRE AND THE ARMISTICE OF
MOUDROS
The Western front which was decisive in determining
the fate of the war fell when the German army was forced
to retreat from France. Another ally, Bulgaria, was defeated
in Salonika by a joint British-French expeditionary force.
As a result, the war had been already lost to the Central
Powers when the Ottoman army occupied Baku. The
Ottomans surrendered on October 2, 1918 and sued
for an armistice. Soon after, the cabinet resigned. A new
cabinet led by General Ahmet İzzet Pasha was formed
to conclude an armistice with the victorious powers.
On October 31, 1918, the Ottoman delegation led by Figure 6.9 Text of Moudros Armistice Treaty
Hüseyin Rauf [Orbay] signed an armistice agreement as published in the Turkish Newspaper Vakit
with Admiral Calthrophe, the commander of the British November 3, 1918
squadron anchored in Moudros, a town on the island of Source: http://www.turkeyswar.com/
Lemnos in the Aegean Sea. documents/mudros.html
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The Armistice of Moudros and its The agreement also put Allies in charge of all the
Aftermath food supplies for the empire’s civilian population.
However, from the Ottoman perspective, two
The Armistice of Moudros stipulated a total and
clauses of the armistice, articles seven and twenty-
unconditional surrender of the Ottoman state.
four, were the most critical. The seventh article
According to the conditions of the armistice:
granted the Allied Powers the right to occupy any
• the Straits were to be opened at once and area in the Ottoman Empire in the event of any
their forts surrendered to Allied crews, situation that they thought as threatening to their
• all mines were to be moved or their location security. The other article gave the Entente Powers
communicated to the Allied commanders, the right to militarily intervene in the six Armenian
• Allied prisoners held in Ottoman populated provinces in case of disorder (Shaw and
prisons were to be freed immediately, Shaw, 1977, p. 328).
• Ottoman forces were to be demobilized and
The armistice terms went into effect the next
surrendered except where their presence was
day, on October 31, 1918. The occupation of the
temporarily needed to keep law and order,
Allied Powers began on November 3, 1918. Under
• Ottoman warships were to surrender, and
article seven of the armistice, the British forces
all ports were to be opened to Allied ships,
occupied Mosul, the main town in northern Iraq
• The Allies were to be allowed to take over
which had been originally assigned to the French
important forts, railroads, telephone and
in the Sykes-Picot Agreement. In the southern
telegraph lines, harbors, quays, and the
regions of Anatolia, the Cilicia region including
tunnels leading through the Taurus in Cilicia,
Mersin, Tarsus, Adana and the Taurus tunnels
• Ottoman forces still operating in the east
were occupied by the French forces in November
were to surrender to the nearest Allied troops,
and December. The French occupation would be
• the Ottomans were to supply the
extended into Ayıntab, Maraş and Urfa within
occupation forces with coal, food, and
months. In the North, the British occupied
whatever else they needed without charge
Merzifon and the three provinces of Kars, Ardahan
• German and Austrian military and
and Batumi. In the South-west, the Italians
civilian officials in the empire were
occupied Marmaris, Fethiye, Antalya and Burdur
to be turned over to the Allies,
that had been promised to them in the treaty of St.
• communication with the Central
Jean de Maurienne in January-April 1919.
Powers was to discontinue immediately.
Figure 6.11 Aerial view of Istanbul from 1920 showing

Figure 6.10 British troops of the Army of Occupation of Istanbul the Allied fleet anchored in the Bosporus
Source: http://www.levantineheritage.com/troops.htm Source: http://www.levantineheritage.com/troops.htm
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The most significant of all these acts was Sultan Vahdettin, who had ascended the throne
the occupation of the Straits and Istanbul on in July, 1918, and the anti-Unionist government
November 13, 1918. The city was placed under sought to preserve the state and its territories primarily
joint Allied occupation but, militarily, the control by cooperating with the British. The leading political
was in the hands of the British. Overall political and military figures of the Committee of Union and
and administrative control was given to Admiral Progress, Talât, Enver and Cemal Pashas, who were
Calthrophe as the High Commissioner of the mainly responsible for the wartime policies of the
Allied Powers. He governed with the help of a Ottoman state, fled as soon as the armistice was
three-man High Commission formed by British, concluded. The Committee of Union and Progress
Italian and French members. The Bosporus shores was dissolved and its properties were confiscated. The
were under the British and French control. Party of Freedom and Accord, their main rival, who
had been silenced in 1913, resurged under Damat
Ferit Pasha’s leadership. However, the Unionists
continued to be in control of crucial positions in the
3
parliament, the army, the police force, the postal and
What did the terms of the telegraph services. Former Unionists were also active
Moudros Armistice and the in party politics. Its parliamentary members founded
following occupations suggest for Teceddüd Fırkası (the Renovation Party) after the
the future of the Ottoman state? dissolution of the Committee of Union and Progress.
Championing a secularist and national policy, they
attempted to take over many local branches of the
Following the armistice, the Ottoman government Committee of Union and Progress in Anatolia.
and society reacted, on the basis of self-determination Osmanlı Hürriyetperver Avam Fırkası (Ottoman
principle, to the Allied occupations and territorial Freedom-Loving People’s Party) was another party
claims of the non-Muslim minority populations as that was founded by the former Unionists after the
well as non-Turkish Muslims. Woodrow Wilson, armistice. Its goal was to unite all the Ottoman
the President of the United States, in the Twelfth political groups against foreign occupation. Another
Point of his famous Fourteen Points Declaration
organization that also aimed political unification
of January 1918, had set three main principles
was the National Congress, which held a series of
regarding the settlement of the Ottoman state after
meetings of delegates from different political groups
the end of the war. The first was the sovereignty for
in Istanbul. It tried to provide reconciliation among
the Turkish portion of the empire. The second one
the groups and mobilize the popular opposition to
concerned the unquestionable security of life and an
absolute opportunity of autonomous development the approaching peace settlement (Shaw and Shaw,
to nationalities under Ottoman rule. Finally, the 1977, p. 333). In the midst of the signs of the revival
third one concerned the, permanent opening of the of the Committee of Union and Progress and the
Dardanelles as a free passage to the ships and commerce acceleration of the political groups opposing the
of all nations peace settlement and Allied occupation, the sultan
under international important dissolved the Parliament on December 21, 1918.
guarantees. This Thereafter, the government ruled by decree without
point became the The novelty of the principle consulting the popular will.
basis of political of self-determination lied
self-determination in its emphasis on the REFORMING THE STATE AND
not only among link between nations and
the non-Muslim independent states. It
SOCIETY DURING THE WAR
ethnic groups such provided a legal framework As soon as they acquired complete control
as the Greeks and for breaking apart of the political situation in January 1913, the
Armenians but also multinational empires and for Committee of Union and Progress embarked
among the non- their replacement by nation- on a reform program that would transform the
Turkish Muslim states as political entities. empire. The program mainly covered the military,
groups. administration and the economy. The defeat at the
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6
Balkan War showed that the army needed urgent mostly owned by the Ottoman non-Muslims and
attention. The Committee, considering the task foreign entrepreneurs as partners increased. Besides
to be a priority, authorized General Liman van attracting foreign trade and investment, the
Sanders of the German military mission to lead government also attempted to develop a responsible
the reorganization of the army. For the Ottoman financial policy by improving tax inspection
state, having a foreign mission to modernize and collection. The Unionists naively believed
the army was not something new. However, for that liberal economic policies accompanied by a
the first time, the members of this mission were modernized financial system would bring respect
given actual commands. In the First World War, and promote cooperation of the European powers,
a considerably large number of German military which would eventually lead them to relinquish all
officials exercised great influence on Ottoman privileges granted by capitulations and treat the
military decisions. Ottomans on equal terms (Zürcher, 1993, p. 124).
In 1914, to get more effective results, the The economic policy of the Committee of
organization of the provincial administration was Union and Progress gradually shifted from liberal
reformed. The new law introduced a measure of to nationalist/protectionist after the breakup of the
decentralization. It required a centrally appointed Balkan War. The rise of anti-Western, pro-Muslim
governor (vali) to be dependent on a locally elected and Turkist sentiments created the ground for the
council in making decisions related, especially, promotion of a national economy. This new view
to financial affairs and other important local combined the principles of state control over the
matters. It has been generally agreed that, by this economy with favoritism towards the Turkish
law, the Committee of Union and Progress aimed entrepreneurs. In this perspective, the Unionists
to keep the Arabs within the Empire. After the were under the influence of German economic
Balkan Wars, they became the largest minority. thought and experience of the 1860s which led
Despite these efforts, Arab nationalism had already Germany to have a strong industrial base. The ideas
developed among the Arab intellectuals and some of state control over the economy, the necessity
separatist groups emerged among them. of a more nationalist policy that would serve the
creation of a Turkish bourgeoisie and protectionism
were mainly introduced by Alexander Helphand.
Creating a National Economy He is mostly known by his pen name Parvus. He
Before the First World War, another field of wrote articles in the journal Türk Yurdu (Turkish
reform was the economy. One of the primary goals Homeland), in which many defenders of Turkish
of the 1908 Revolution was to create a national nationalism published articles. He defined the
economy. The aim was to abolish the capitulations Ottoman Empire as a semi-colony and the
and dissolve the Public Debt Administration economic policies of the Committee of Union and
(Düyun-u Umumiye İdaresi) since they were Progress as naïve. The only way to end this position
the indicators of the semi-colonial status of the was the emergence of an indigenous commercial
Ottoman Empire. The Unionists strongly believed and industrial entrepreneurial class. This could
that economic independence was the precondition be possible through nationalist and protectionist
of the political one. Nevertheless, in the first five economic policies that would favor the Turkish
years of the revolution, they did not carry out a entrepreneurs and producers. The state had to
radical program of economic reform. Instead, impose high customs tariffs, abolish foreign legal
they adopted a pragmatic line. In this period, the and economic privileges, namely the capitulations.
economy was run by Mehmet Cavid, the minister of Furthermore, a new financial and transportation
finance, who had a reputation of being very liberal infrastructure to support local manufacturing had
in economic matters. In his point of view, foreign to be established. (Hanioğlu, 2008b, p. 97).
investment was crucial. As a result, the immediate
These ideas started to become influential in 1913
concern in the aftermath of the revolution was to
in the context of the national mobilization during the
attract foreign entrepreneurs to invest in the empire.
Balkan War. In order to protect and encourage the
From 1908 to 1913, the number of Ottoman joint
development of indigenous industrialists by means
stock companies founded by foreign capital and
of high customs, tax exemption or land allocation,
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the government introduced the Temporary Law for the role of Muslims and Turks in the economy in
the Encouragement of Industry. Yet, a full-fledged general and to create the national bourgeoisie in
program aiming to create a national economy was particular. Muslim traders in provincial towns,
implemented during the First World War. The war members of the guilds and even some bureaucrats
created favorable circumstances for the Unionists affiliated with the Committee of Union and
because there were no foreign interventions. In Progress were asked to form this bourgeoisie
September 1914, they unilaterally abolished the class under the government’s patronage. Certain
capitulations which they saw as the main cause measures taken to provide capital accumulation
of subordination to the European powers. They for these groups of the society had actually started
turned a deaf ear to all the reactions coming from in 1915. The most notable development in this
the great powers, even those of Germany. respect was the foundation of Esnaf Cemiyeti
(the Society of Artisans and Shopkeepers) which
important
was made up of local merchants, grocers and
entrepreneurs in the capital. Supported by the
Until the First World War, the prominent Unionists, the aim of this organization
Ottoman economy and finance was evidently to control the market by maintaining
had been dominated by the Greeks supplies and by regulating prices. While the Turkish
and Armenians who formed the traders, the big landowners and guilds accumulated
intermediary class in the trade considerable amount of capital as a result of these
between Europe and the Ottoman efforts, foreigners and non-Muslim merchants, the
Empire. The Turks/Muslims had Greeks and Armenians, were the largest losers. As
dominated the state sector, that is, a consequence, by the end of the war, there had
the bureaucracy and the army. emerged a national economy with a dominant
Turkish element and a new Turkish entrepreneurial
Following the victory at Gallipoli, the program class engaged in commerce and industry.
of the national economy gained impetus. This
policy was extended into agriculture and it was Attempts at Secularization
symbolized by the change of the name of ministry During the First World War, the Committee
of commerce and agriculture into the ministry
of Union and Progress also took some legislative
of national economy. For the development of
measures that further secularized the judicial and
agriculture, Çukurova and Konya plains were
educational systems and undermined the position
put under cultivation, work for infrastructure
of the ulema. All Şeriat courts and those organized
began and credit facilities were made available. In
February 1916, the parliament passed a legislation by the ministry of religious foundations looking
that made it compulsory to use Turkish language after the properties of foundations and orphans
in commercial transactions. A month later, a new were transferred to the secular ministry of justice.
legislation imposing new customs tariffs furthering Since 1909, the power of Şeria courts had been
the protection of the domestic market was accepted. limited, but now they were brought under direct
Forming national companies under state control control of the ministry of justice. Decisions of
was considered the most effective way of creating the religious courts were reviewed by the secular
a national economy. In 1916, in order to achieve appeals court. Kadıs, the judges of Islamic canon
this goal Heyet-i Mahsusa-i Ticariye (Special Trade law, were appointed, supervised, transferred and
Commission) was founded. Another attempt in dismissed by the ministry of justice following the
the development of national economy was the same regulations and standards applied to the
establishment of Kambiyo Muemalatı Merkez judges of secular courts. Members of the ulema
Komisyonu (the Central Exchange Commission) in were put under government control with similar
1917 and İaşe Nezareti (the Ministry of Provisions) salary and pension scale as the other civil servants.
in 1918. As a result, over eighty new joint stock The property of the religious foundations was put
companies had been founded by September 1918. under the control of Ministry of Finance. The
The establishment of commercial companies highest religious dignitary in the government, the
was one of the important steps taken to increase şeyhülislam, was removed from the cabinet in 1916.
157
6
The next year, his jurisdiction was considerably and watching musical performances. They were
restricted. Families continued to be within the particularly active in the operations of the Turkish
jurisdiction of the religious law, although the Heart (Türk Ocağı) organizations where they gave
Unionists had attempted to limit its power in and listened to speeches.
this field as well. For example, they introduced In the area of education, the Committee of
a new law of inheritance in 1913 and a uniform Union and Progress made primary education
family law for all Ottoman subjects in 1917. The compulsory for girls in 1913. Ministry of
family law included the fundamental regulations education greatly expanded elementary and
of Islamic, Christian and Jewish laws relating to middle school education for girls. The first high
the matters of divorce, marriage, and other family
school for girls was established in 1911. Vocational
relationships for the followers of these particular
schools where the girls attended equipped them
faiths. Although, references were also made to
with the qualifications to be a part of professional
the religious code in the law, it was subjected to
life as secretaries, nurses and the like. Urban
secular regulations. The regulations were enforced
women began to work in not only textile and
by the state’s legal power and as a result, a secular
tobacco factories but also businesses and stores. As
understanding developed. Furthermore, the
marriage contract became a secular one. The most mentioned earlier, the position of women within
notable development in education was bringing the family was also improved by the secularization
the religious schools, medreses, under the secular of the family law- limited though it may be.
ministry of education. Their staff and curriculum
were also modernized.
4
Improvement in the Position of On which foundations did the Committee
Women of Union and Progress attempt to rest the
Another noticeable social change during the First Ottoman state and society?
World War was in relation to the position of women.
Before the war, quite a few women were in the job
market. Lack of manpower due to mobilization was Her defeat in the First World War practically
compensated with women. The Unionists founded brought the Ottoman Empire to an end. The
Kadınları Çalıstırma Cemiyeti (the Society for the Empire lost its European and Arab lands during
Employment of Women) which recruited women the Balkan Wars and World War I respectively.
for service in industry and regulated their working On the day the Moudros Armistice was signed, the
conditions (Zürcher, 1993, p. 122). only territory left was Anatolia. Unfortunately,
Paralleling their participation in the job market, the fate of the Empire was not secure since how
the rights of women were improved. The family law it would be re-mapped by the peacemakers was
of 1917 was important in this respect. Although not clear yet. War and the wartime policies of the
it was partial, the family law granted the Muslim Unionists had fundamentally transformed Anatolia
women right to divorce. The law required marriages socially, economically and demographically. It was
to be concluded before a magistrate and brides religiously more homogenous. New economically
to be aged over 16. Such reforms were actually prosperous classes were formed by the Muslim/
defended by a modernist faction of the Committee Turkish entrepreneurs. The administration
of Union and Progress led by Ziya Gökalp. Gökalp was secularized further. Women increasingly
championed an Islamic understanding limited to participated in social and economic life. These
private faith and ritual. He advocated legal reforms
were the most prominent characteristics of the
giving women positions equal to those of men
transformations the Unionist brought about. As the
in every sphere of life. He also supported social
war ended, the most important question remaining
and economic reforms allowing women to fully
concerned the peace terms that would be imposed
participate in social, economic and professional
upon the Ottoman Empire by the victorious Allied
life. Through these reforms and innovative ideas,
Powers.
middle and upper class women became visible
in public with their husbands attending plays
158
6
LO 1 Display the process of the Ottoman entry into

the First World War as a German ally
The Balkan War experience taught the Committee of Union and Progress that if the Ottoman
Empire was to survive, it should end its isolation. By this time, the Unionists had firmly
established their power. The empire needed to reach an alliance at least with one of the great
powers and secure its protection. On the other hand, for the great powers, the Ottoman Empire
was far from being a possible ally because it was militarily and politically weak. The calculations
of one such power, Germany, changed after the outbreak of the First World War. The two states
secretly negotiated and concluded a treaty of alliance on August 2, 1914. The Ottoman state
Summary
agreed to be on the side of the Central Powers led by Germany if the latter entered into war
with Russia. In return, Germany would protect the territorial integrity of the Ottoman Empire.
LO 2 Describe what the Ottoman state aimed by

entering the war
The Ottoman leaders considered that the security and development of the empire could be
provided through an alliance with Germany. They expected a short war with Russia that would
end by the victory on their side. In the long run, the alliance with Germany and a victory in
the war would secure a strong protection against European and Balkan powers. Such victory
would re-establish the Ottoman control on autonomous regions of the empire and restore some
of the lost territories. Furthermore, it would remove the barriers before economic development.
For Germany, the alliance with the Ottoman state was valuable for several reasons. First, it
was a deterrent force that would tie down Russian and British divisions in the Caucasus and
Egypt. Secondly, it had the capacity to mobilize the Muslims in the British and French colonies.
Thirdly, it could effectively control the Straits and severe the communications between Russia
and its Western allies.
LO 3 Explain the developments at different fronts
The Ottoman state entered into the war as one of the Central Powers after the bombardment
of Russian sea ports that caused the destruction of several Russian ships in November 1914.
Russia declared war on the Ottoman state immediately, which was soon followed by Britain
and France.
The Ottoman soldiers fought on a wide territory extending from the Caucasus to Middle East to
Europe. Except for their successes at Gallipoli and Kut-ul-Amara in Iraq, they lost many other
places. In December 1914, they were severely defeated by the Russian forces at Sarıkamış, which
opened the way for the occupation of eastern Anatolia by Russia. This led to the deportation
of Armenians from the region for security considerations. The deportation process resulted in
the death of Armenians due to diseases, hunger and cold. In the meantime, the Allied Powers
concluded secret treaties partitioning the Ottoman territories among themselves. The Ottoman
lands were divided into the spheres of influence among Russia, Britain, France and Italy by four
secret treaties that were signed in between 1915-1917.
159
6
Describe the aftermath of the defeat of the

LO 4 Ottoman Empire in the First World War and
its short term consequences
The Ottoman forces were losing ground on several fronts when the Bolshevik Revolution
occurred in Russia in the spring of 1917. The immediate results of the revolution were the
withdrawal of Russia from the war. The Bolsheviks also publicized the secret treaties signed
with the Entente powers and conducted separate peace treaties with the Central Powers. Besides
the restoration of the three provinces lost to Russia in 1878, the Ottoman leaders thought of
revitalizing the empire by realizing their pan-Turkist ideas. Led by Enver Pasha, they attempted
to penetrate into Central Asia and unify all Turkic peoples under the Ottoman banner. However,
Summary
when they were on the shores of the Caspian Sea, the war was totally lost to the Central Powers.
The Ottomans sued for an armistice. It was signed on October 30, 1918 in Moudros. The
armistice terms were harsh. Above all, the Allied Powers were granted the right of occupying
any place they viewed as threatening to their security, which meant that they could intervene
militarily in the six provinces of eastern Anatolia in case of disorder. Occupations of the Allied
Powers began immediately after the armistice. The Ottoman government and society demanded
a resolution on the basis of the self-determination principle promoted by Woodrow Wilson.
Analyze the reform policies and the

LO 5 transformation during the First World War
After the Balkan War and during the First World War, the Committee of Union and Progress
implemented a reform program aiming at the creation of a national economy/bourgeoisie,
secularization of the administration and modernization of the empire. Creating a national
economy was seen as the pre-condition for political independence. As soon as the Ottoman
state entered the war, the Unionists unilaterally abolished the capitulations. They followed a
protectionist economic policy where they encouraged the Muslim/Turkish entrepreneurs to take
their place in the economy at the expense of the non-Muslims. In the meantime, they further
secularized the administration. These attempts were prominent especially in jurisprudence and
education. The power and authority of religious figures including the şeyhülislam were reduced.
Secularization also covered the family. The position of women was improved in matters of, for
example, marriage and divorce. At the same time, women were encouraged to have education
and participate in social and economic life.
analyze the reform policies and the transformation

during the First World War
160
6
References
Ahmad, F. (2003). Turkey: The quest for identity. Shaw, S. J. and Shaw, E. K. (1977). History of the
Oxford: One World Publications. Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, Vol. II.
Ahmad, F. (2008). Vanguard of a nascent bourgeoisie:
The social and edonomic policy of the Young Toprak, (1982).Türkiye’de “Millîİktisat” 1908-191.
Turks 1908-1918. In From empire to republic essays Ankara: Yurt Yayınları.
on the late Ottoman Empire and modern Turkey
Trumpener, U. (1996). Germany and the end of the
Vol. 1 (pp.23-62). İstanbul: Bilgi Univerity.
Ottoman Empire. In M. Kent (Ed), The great
Hanioğlu, M. Ş. (2008a). A brief history of the late powers and the end of the Ottoman Empire (2. Ed.),
Ottoman Empire. Princeton: Princeton University (pp. 107-135). London: Frank Cass.
Press.
Zürcher, Eric Jan. (1993). Turkey: A modern history.
Hanioğlu, M. Şükrü. (2008b). The second constitutional London: I. B. Tauris.
period, 1908-1918. In R. Kasaba (Ed.), The
Cambridge history of modern Turkey Vol. 4: Turkey
in the modern world (pp. 62-111). Cambridge
University Press..
Further Readings
Beşikci, M. (2012). The Ottoman mobilization of Macfie, A. L. (1998). The end of the Ottoman Empire
manpower in the First World War. Leiden: E. J. 1908-1923. London: Routledge.
Brill.
McCarthy, Justin (2001). The Ottoman peoples and the
Fromkin, David. (1989). A peace to end all peace: The end of Empire. London: Arnold.
fall of the Ottoman Empire and the creation of the
Trumpener, Ulrich (1968). Germany and the Ottoman
modern Middle East. New York: Henry Holt and
Empire 1914-1918. Princeton: Princeton
Company.
University Press.
Kayalı, H. (1997). Arabs and Young Turks Ottomanism,
Yalman, A. E. (1030). Turkey in the World War. New
Arabism and Islamism in the Ottoman Empire
Haven: Yale University Press.
1908-1918. Berkeley: University of California
Press.
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1

Principles of Atatürk and History of Turkish Revolution I

INTRODUCTION Sultanate was abolished in 1922 leaving behind an

These conquests under the Seljuk started in 1048

Figure 1.1 Anatolian Seljuk State of Rum

Meanwhile the Turkic tribes were settled on

Figure 1.2 Anatolia: Expansion of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1699

Orhan Gazi - Akçe ND/NM

Murat I (1362-89) took over the rule of the

Murat I was the first Ottoman ruler honored

created himself a capital worthy of his conquest.

Figure 1.6 Insignia of Mehmet II

Sultan Selim I and Ottoman

After he defeated Mamluks in 1517, Selim I became the

Süleyman’s campaigns were not only routed to

End of Ottoman Expansion and Reinforcement of the Territories

Figure 1.11 The Ottoman Territorial Expansion

A Stalemate: The Treaty of Karlowitz

The Treaty of Carlowitz (Karlowitz) was

Figure 1.12 Ottoman Empire and the contemporary states

OTTOMAN SOCIETY, CULTURE

important Source: https://orthodoxwiki.org/Gennadius_Scholarius

In the Ottoman Empire minority religious Economy

important way of life. The Ottoman envoys came back full

Comprehend the historical background of

Demonstrate main stages in the Ottoman

LO 3 Evaluate Ottoman political structure, society

Identify basis of Ottoman foreign policy and

BEFORE AND AFTER THE NİZÂM-I CEDÎD (NEW ORDER):

Source: http://i-cias.com/e.o/s28-selim3.htm Source: http://sanlitarihim.blogcu.com/osmanli-

The Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca failed to bring

Figure 2.5 Nizâm-ı Cedîd soldiers parading before the Sultan

Educational Improvements, to his palace. He himself followed western classical

SULTAN MAHMUD II AND HIS INITIAL YEARS

important After Alemdar’s death, Mahmud appointed his

French officers came on board and trained the new important

Mehmed Ali Pasha demanded the governorship

The continuous losses against the adversaries of

In the end, the Janissary corps and their

Immediately after the abolition of the

the same interests with Janissaries. Coffeehouses

much surprised to see the great sear-city of coffee- 35 36

them up is now and old affair. Each cafidji may

Bostandjis/bostancis were imperial guards.

Figure 2.9 Giuseppe Donizetti

Although most of Mahmud’s educational Bureaucratic Reforms

were created to plan and execute reforms. As the

Secularism is an ethical system independent of

important Misriya (Events of Egypt) was published in Egypt

A land survey was also held to register important

Shortcomings of Mahmud’s Reforms

Unlike the patrimonial one, a modern bureaucracy has an impersonal

Furthermore, among the civil servants, those who knew European

Towards Liberal Policies: The Anglo-Ottoman Convention of 1838

Figure 2.11 Figure 2.12 Miss. Julia Pardoe

In 1838, a British woman Julia Pardoe

Understand why the Ottoman Empire lost its

Explain how the reforms under Selim III and Mahmud

LO 3 See to what extent the west had impact on the

examine the steps taken towards modern state