Geometrical and magnetic neutral axis:

1- The geometrical neutral axis (G.N.A.) is the axis that bisects the angle between
the center line of adjacent poles

2- The magnetic neutral axis (M.N.A.) is the axis drawn perpendicular to the mean
direction of the flux passing through the center of the armature. Clearly, no
e.m.f. is produced in the armature conductors along this axis because they cut
no flux. With no current in the armature conductors, the M.N.A. coincides with
G.M.A as shown in figure above. In order to achieve sparkles commutation, the
brushes must lie along M.N.A.

Methods of improving commutation:

Improving commutation means to make current reversal in the short-circuited coil as

sparkles as possible. The following are the two principle methods of improving
commutation:

1- Resistance commutation
2- E.M.F. commutation

1- Resistance commutation:
The reversal of current in a coil ( i.e. commutation) takes place while the coil is
short-circuited by the brush. Therefore, there are two parallel paths for the
current as long as the short circuit exists. If the contact resistance between the
brush and the commutator is made large, then current would divide in the

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inverse ratio of contact resistances (as for any two resistance in parallel). This
the key point in improving commutation. This is achieved by using carbon
brushes ( instead of Cu brushes) which have high contact resistance. This
method of improving commutation is called resistance commutation.

In the (2) figure resistance R2 has three times the resistance of resistor R1.
E. M. F. commutation
In this method, an arrangement is made to neutralize the reactance voltage by
producing a reversal voltage in the coil undergoing vommutation. The reversing
voltage acts in opposition to the reactance voltage and neutralizes it. If the
reversing voltage is equal to the reactance voltage, the effect of the latter is
completely wiped out and we get sparkles commutation. The reversing voltage
may be produced in the following two ways:
1- By brush shifting

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2- By using interpoles or compoles (commutating poles)
1- By brush shifting: in this method, the brushes are given sufficient forward
lead ( for a generator) to bring the short-circuited coil (i.e. coil under going
commutation) under the influence of the next pole of opposite polarity. Since
the short-circuited coil is now in the reversing field, the reversing voltage
produced cancels the reactance voltage. This method suffers from the
following drawbacks:
a- The reactance voltage depends upon armature current. Therefore, the
brush shift will depend on the magnitude of armature current which keeps
on changing. This necessitates frequent shifting of brushes.
b- The greater the armature current, the greater must be the forward lead of
brushes for a generator. This increase the demagnetizing effect of
armature reaction and further weakens the main field.
2- By using interpoles or compoles:
The best way to produce reversing voltage to neutralize the reactance voltage
is by using interpoles or compoles. These are small poles fixed to the yoke
and spaced mid-way between the main poles as shown in the figure below.
they are wound with comparatively few turns and connected inseries with
the armature so that they carry armature current. Their polarity is the same as
the next main pole a head in the direction of rotation for a generator.

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Armature reaction:
Current flowing through armature conductors creates a magnetic flux ( called
armature flux) that distorts and weakens the flux coming from the poles.
This distortion and field weakening takes place in both generators and
motors. The action of armature flux on the main flux is known as armature
reaction.

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The unequal field distribution produces the following two effects:
1/ the main flux is distorted.
2/ due to higher flux density at pole tip B, saturation sets in. Consequently,
the increase in flux at pole tip B is less than the decrease in flux under pole
tip A. flux Ф3 at full load is, therefore, less than flux Ф1 at no-load.
With no current in armature conductors, the M. N. A. coinsides with G.N.A.
as shown in fig below:

When current flows in armature conductors, the combine action of main flux
and armature flux shifts the M.N.A. from G.N.A. In case of a generator, the
M.N.A. is shifted in the direction of rotation as shown in fig. below.

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In order to iachieve sparkles commutation, the brushes have to be moved along the
new M.N.A.

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Due to brushes Shift, the m.m.f. of the armature is also rotates through the same angle
. It is because some of the conductors which were earlier under N-pole now come
under S-pole and vice versa. The result is that armature m.m.f. FA will no longer be
vertically downward but will be rotated in the direction of rotation through an angle .
Now FA can be resolved into Fc and Fd

a. The component Fd is in direct opposition to Fm. it has a demagnetizing effect.

b. The component Fc is at right angle to Fm. it distorts the main field.

Conclusions

1- With brushes located along G.N.A. there is no demagnetizing component of

armature reaction (Fd = 0). There is only distorting or cross-magnetising effect
of armature reaction.
2- With brushes shifted from G.N.A., armature reaction will have both
demagnetizing and distorting effects.
3- The demagnetizing component of FA weakens the main flux. On the other hand,
the distorting component of FA distorts the main flux.

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Demagnetizing and cross-magnetizing conductors:
Consider a 2-pole generator with brushes shifted m mechanical degrees from
G.N.A.

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1. The armature conductors m on either side of G.N.A. produce flux in direct
opposition to main flux as shown in fig.1 above. Thus conductors lying
within angles 2 m at the top and bottom of the armature produce
demagnetizing effect.
2. The axis of magnetization of the remaining armature conductors lying
between angle AOD and COB is at right angles to the main flux as shown in
fig.2 above.
Total demagnetizing armature conductors = conductors in angles AOC and
BOD = 4 mZ/360

Since two conductors constitute one turn

total demagnetizing amper-turns = [ ]*I

These demagnetizing ampere-turns/pole =

The demagnetizing amper-turns reaction can be neutralized by putting extra
turns on each pole of the machine
No. of extra turns/pole = ATd/Ish for shunt machine
= ATd/Ia for series machine

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When a conductor passes a pair of poles, one cycle of voltage is generated. We say
one cycle contains 360 electrical degrees. Suppose there are 2p poles in a machine. In
one revolution, there are 360 mechanical degree and 360*p electrical degree

360o mechanical = 360*p electrical degree

= e/p

electrical ( e) = mechanical ( m)*p

⁄
Total armature reaction amper-turns per pole =

Demagnetizing amper-turns per pole = ATd/pole =

Cross-magnetizing amper-turns/pole are = ATc/pole =

= ZI( )

Example: 4-pole generator has a wave-wound armature with 722 conductors

and it delivers 100A on full-load. If the brush lead is 8o calculate the
armature demagnetizing and cross-magnetizing amper-turns per-pole.
Solution
Ic = Ia/2 = 100/2 = 50A

ATd/pole = ZIc = 722*50*8/360 = 802

ATc/pole = ZI( 722*50*( ) = 3710

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Compensating winding:

The cross-magnetizing effect of armature reaction may cause trouble in d.c. machines
subjected to large fluctuations in load. In order to neutralize the cross-magnetizing
effect of armature reaction, a compensating winding is used. A compensating winding
is an auxiliary winding embedded in slots in the pole faces as shown in the fig. below:
Compensating winding

It is connected in series with armature in a manner so that the direction of current

through the compensating conductors in any one pole face will be opposite to the
direction of the current through the adjacent armature conductors.

Zc*Ia=Za*Ia/2a

where

Zc=Za/2a

Za=No. of active armature conductors.

Zc=No. of compensating conductors/pole face.

Number of armature conductors/pole =Z/2p

Number of armature turns/pole=Z/(2*2p)

Number of armature turns under pole face=

AT/pole required for compensating winding=

Example:

A 500kW, 500V, 10 pole d.c. generator has a lap wound armature with 800
conductors. Calculate the number of pole face conductors in each pole of a
compensating winding if the pole face covers 75% of pole pitch.

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Solution:

Ia=500*103/500=1000A, Ic=Ia/2a=100A

AT/pole for compensating winding = = (

Turns per pole 3000/Ia=3000/1000 =3

The number of compensating conductors/pole =

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