Career Readiness of The Office Technology and Management Students in Polytechnics in Anambra, Ebonyi and Enugu States, Nigeria

CAREER READINESS OF THE OFFICE TECHNOLOGY AND
MANAGEMENT STUDENTS IN POLYTECHNICS IN ANAMBRA,

EBONYI AND ENUGU STATES, NIGERIA
By
IFEJIKA, LYNDA CHINEZE

PG/M.Ed/12/62836
DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL TEACHER

EDUCATION, BUSINESS EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA
SUPERVISOR: PROF E.E AGOMUO
JULY 2015
2
APPROVAL PAGE
This thesis has been read and approved by the Department of Vocational Teacher Education,
University of Nigeria.
By
Prof. E.E. Agomuo

Thesis Supervisor
External Examiner Prof. C. A Igbo

Head of Department
Prof. C.U. Umo

Dean, Faculty of Education
CERTIFICATION
Ifejika, Lynda Chineze, a Post-graduate student in the Department of Vocational Teacher
Education, with Registration Number PG/M.Ed/12/62836 has satisfactorily completed the
requirements for research work for the degree of Masters of Education (M.Ed) in Business
Education. The work embodied in this thesis is original and has not been submitted in part or
full for any other diploma or degree of this or any other University.
Ifejika, Lynda Chineze Prof. E.E

Agomuo (Student) (Supervisor)
DEDICATION
This research work is dedicated to my parents
Sir and Lady Nso Ifejika
And my siblings;
Ikechukwu Ifejika, Queen Ifejika, Prince Ifejika, Chukwuka Ifejika, Chukwudi

Ifejika and Nkiruka Ifejika,
I love you all

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to acknowledge and appreciate my supervisor Prof E. E Agomuo for his consistent,
unerring support and contribution in bringing out the best in this work. He was more than a
supervisor, his fatherly heart helped resolve the administrative issues that should have
truncated this programme. My sincere thanks to Olelewe, C. J. whose meaningful input has
contributed immensely to the success of this thesis and to all my lecturers in business
education unit who have inspired me in my academics. My gratitude also goes to Mr. and
Mrs. Olaolu, M. and Mrs. Okute A. L. for proof reading the work and their encouraging
words in the course of the research work. I also appreciate my brother, Arowolo, A. A. who
did the statistical analysis for this work, his work on the e-readiness of technical colleges in
teaching and learning gave direction to this research work. I am also thankful to my content
and design readers Dr. E. Ugwoke and Dr. A. Chukwuone for their criticisms and
suggestions that has greatly improve this work.
I greatly acknowledge my parents, Sir and Lady Nso Ifejika, and my siblings:
Ikechukwu Ifejika, Queen Ifejika, Prince Ifejika, Chukwuka Ifejika, Chukwudi Ifejika and
Nkiruka Ifejika, who did all they could to help me successfully complete this program. My
prayer for you all is that God will keep you to reap the full blessings of your labours and to
fulfill the purpose of God for your lives. I also acknowledge the care and support of my
disciplers Sis. Ijeoma Ewerem, Dr. and Mrs. J. A. Alhassan for their great support spiritually
and otherwise, which words cannot express, may the Lord who saw all your labour over me
in secret reward you greatly in the open. To Mr. and Mrs. Epundu Micheal for their financial
support and encouraging words towards the success of this work. I am grateful also to
Ezechukwu Chiemekam, whose printer I used for virtually all my work and who have been a
brother indeed.
My thanks also go to my 2012/2013 course mates in the department of Vocational
Teacher Education (Business option) whose suggestion helped improve the quality of this
work. I wish to also acknowledge the moral support from the following groups of colleagues
and friends of mine, The Graduate Students Fellowship (GSF), Christ Church Chapel Franco
Outreach, Discipleship Family and my Roommates (Room 316 Odili Hall), God bless you
all.
Now unto the Almighty King, eternal, immortal, invisible, the only wise God and to
my Lord Jesus, who is the heir of all things, the brightness of God’s glory and the express
image of His person, who love me and gave Himself for me, and without whom I have no
life, hope, peace or joy, be all the glory, honour, power, majesty, adoration forever and ever.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE i
APPROVAL PAGE ii
CERTIFICATION iii
DEDICATION iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT v
TABLE OF CONTENTS vii
LIST OF TABLES ix
LIST OF FIGURES x
ABSTRACT xi
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study 1
Statement of the Problem 9
Purpose of the Study 11
Significance of the Study 11
Research questions 12
Hypotheses 13
Scope of the Study 14
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
Conceptual Framework 15
Career and career readiness. 15
Career education a requisite for career readiness. 18
Office Technology and Management. 20
Office skills required by the professional secretary. 21
Managerial skills required for career by secretaries. 23

Entrepreneurial skills as a tool for career development. 26
Information and Communication Technology skills required for career in OTM 27
Communication skills required for career in today’s workplace. 29
Socio-psychological skills required for career in today’s workplace 37
Theoretical framework 44
Theory of work adjustment (TWA) 44
Parson’s Matching Theory (PMT) 45
Related Empirical Studies 46
Summary of literature reviewed 52
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY 55
Design of the Study 55
Area of the Study 55
Population for the Study 56
Sample and sampling technique 56
Instrument for Data Collection 56
Validation of the Instrument 57
Reliability of the Instrument 57
Method of Data Collection 58
Method of Data Analysis 58
CHAPTER FOUR: PRESENTATION OF DATA ANALYSIS 60
Presentation and Analysis of Data 60
Discussion of Findings 75
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 81
Re-statement of the problem 81
Summary of Procedures Used 82
Summary of Findings 83
Implication of the study 84
Conclusions 86
Limitations 87
Recommendations 87
Suggestion for Further Studies 87
REFERENCES 89
APPENDICES
Appendix I Request for validation of instrument 96
Appendix II Questionnaire 97
Appendix III SPSS Analysis
Appendix IV Analysis of formulae for computing career readiness index

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Office skills possessed by OTM graduating students 61
Table 2: Managerial skills possessed by OTM graduating students 63
Table 3: Entrepreneurial skills possessed by OTM graduating students 65
Table 4: ICT skills possessed by OTM graduating students 66
Table 5: Communication skills possessed by OTM graduating students 68
Table 6: Socio psychological skills possessed by graduating OTM students 70
Table 7: career readiness index value of the OTM graduating students 72
Table 8: Hypothesis 1: t-test analysis of male and female polytechnic students 76
Table 9: Hypothesis 2: t-test analysis of federal and state polytechnic students 76
Table 10: Hypothesis 3: summary of ANOVA of the polytechnic students in the states 77
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig 1: Management function (Yalokwu, 2006) 25
Fig 2: Indicators showing ICT skills needed in the workplace. (Arowolo & Ede) 30
Fig 3: The linear model of communication (Wood, 2009) 31
Fig 4: Shannon & weaver (1949) model of communication 32
Fig 5: The interactive model (CBI, 2009) 33
Fig 6: Transactional model of communication (CBI, 2009) 34
Fig 7: Framework showing the skills involved in communication (CBI, 2009) 35
Fig 8: Indicators of intrapersonal skills. National Research Council (2010) 42
Fig 9: Conceptual framework for the analysis of career readiness 44
Fig 10: Theory of Work Adjustment (TWA) and Career readiness 35

Abstract
This study seeks to assess the career readiness of Office Technology and Management
students in polytechnics in Anambra, Ebonyi and Enugu state. Career readiness is a measure
of the extent to which the OTM students possess the skills and attitudes needed for advancing
in their career path. The career readiness of the students was measured using six indicators;
office skills, managerial skills, entrepreneurial skills, ICT skills, communication skills and
socio-psychological skills. The study employed a survey research design and polytechnics
offering OTM in Anambra, Ebonyi and Enugu state were selected for the study. Seven
research questions and three hypotheses guided the study, 179 HND II students offering
OTM constituted the population, and no sample was taken because of the manageable size of
the population. Structured questionnaire was used for data collection. The instrument was
structured on a five point scale, type in line with the indicators for measuring the career
readiness of the OTM students. The instrument was face validated and trial tested on 35
OTM students from Imo State Polytechnic, Umuagwo and a reliability coefficient of 0.95 was
obtained. The instrument was administered to the respondents and data collected was
analysed accordingly. Mean was used to answer research question 1 to 6 while research
question 7 was computed using the Arowolo & Ede (2012) modified formula for computing
readiness index. Hypothesis 1 and 2 were tested using t-test at .05 level of significance while
hypothesis 3 was tested using ANOVA at .05 level of significance. The findings of the study
showed a low career readiness index of 2.43 for the OTM students in the Polytechnics in
Anambra, Ebonyi and Enugu State. The indicators for measuring career readiness showed
that the students are lacking in office skills, managerial skills, entrepreneurial skills and
communication skills but rated very high in ICT skills and socio-psychological skills. The
low career readiness index has great implication for OTM programme in south east Nigeria
and it justifies the opinion in many researches that graduates of the Nigerian higher
education institutions are not employable. The study reveals that much of what is done in the
classroom are mere theoretical rather than practical. It was therefore recommended among
others that the polytechnics should strengthen their partnership with industry for work based
training of their students and a re-evaluation of the programme should be conducted to
ascertain the possible strategies for effective teaching and learning of office technology and
management courses.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study
Career choice has been the major content of vocational advocacy. However,
preparedness to take advantage of the openings in the area of career choice is more important
than the mere choice of a career. To develop a career is a lifetime process encompassing the
growth and change processes of childhood, through formal education at school throughout a
person’s working adulthood and into retirement. Career development occurs through life and
it is enhanced by lifelong learning. The term career as defined by Herr, Cramer and Niles
(2004) is a sequence of interaction of individuals with society, education and organisations
throughout their lifespan. A career can be defined as a pattern of work experiences
comprising the entire life span of a person and which is generally seen with regard to a
number of phases or stages reflecting the transition from one stage of life to the next
(Weinert, 2001). Similarly, Collin (1998) explains that the term career arises from the
interaction of individuals with organisations and society. This interaction, as Savickas (2009)
proposes, is no longer merely just a sequence of jobs but is now a story or an identity that
working people build about themselves.
Developing a career is as complex as personality development, which is not just a one
shot event. Developing a career is not just a decision that takes place at the entry point to a
job, but it involves the totality of an individual’s psychological, sociological, and educational
events which eventually results into occupational choice and other life roles. The quality of
this career development significantly determines the nature and quality of individuals’ lives:
the kind of people they become, the sense of purpose they have, the income at their disposal.
It also determines the social and economic contribution they make to the communities and
societies of which they are part. Car eer

1 d evelopment requires specialised training in a
particular direction or path, and this makes the role of education prominent in preparation for
a career.
Career education plays a prominent role in preparing an individual to make and
advance in a career path and this justifies why the role of school in career readiness is
absolutely unavoidable. Career education is seen as an aspect of education and training which
helps an individual to develop his fullest capacity and their potentialities in order to utilize
their capacities for the benefit of society. Career education is a comprehensive educational
programme that focuses on an individual and prepares a person for industrial or commercial
occupations. Morgan (2003) defined career education as concerned with the development of
knowledge, skills and attitudes through a planned programme of learning experiences, which
will assist students to make informed choices about school, and post-school options and
enable effective participation in working life. Career education focuses more on preparing
people for the transition within school and the transition from school to work. This goes
beyond choice of subjects, but includes the acquisition of skills necessary for performing the
roles along ones career path (Abdulkadir, 2002). Career education would help in the
restructuring of Nigeria educational system to a more job and vocational oriented education
system. Career education for the Office Technology and Management (OTM) students in the
polytechnics is to effectively prepare them for smooth transition from school to work. This
basically, is to ensure that the OTM graduate is career ready, because he has the requisite
knowledge, skills and experiences needed for transition from school to work.
Office Technology and Management (OTM) formerly referred to as Secretarial
Studies in Nigeria evolved out of a need to meet the technological and managerial demands
of today’s workplace. The new name OTM was approved by the supervising body for
Nigerian Polytechnics, National Board for Technical Education (NBTE) in 2004. According
to Adelakin (2009), the OTM programme was designed for two major reasons: first, as a
response to the yearnings of the secretarial studies students and practitioners on the need to
change the name of the programme as the former contents are only suitable for the traditional
office environment. Secondly, and most importantly, as a result of the change in curriculum
with more emphasis on Information and Communication Technology (ICT), managerial and
entrepreneurial competencies so as to enrich the knowledge of the students and equip them
with necessary skills needed in today’s modern office environment. Udo (2008) noted that
OTM is a comprehensive activity-based educational programme that is concerned with the
acquisition of office technology and management skills, understandings, attitudes, work
habits and competencies that are requisite for success in secretarial and office management
occupations. The OTM programme is a career training or education to ensure that an
individual is career ready with the right skills and attitudes needed for transition from school
to work and for advancement in the OTM career path.
Career readiness as described by Integration of College and Career Readiness
(ICCR), (2012) means that an individual has the requisite knowledge, skills and experiences
in the academic, workplace and social domains to successfully complete an economically
viable career pathway in the 21st century economy. Association for Career and Technical
Education (ACTE), (2012) described career readiness as involving a rigorous blend of
academic, technical and employability skills. Career readiness for the graduating OTM
students is a measure of the extent to which the graduating students possess the skills and
attitudes needed for advancing in OTM career path and for a smooth transition from school to
work. The National Board for Technical Education (NBTE) in the curriculum document for
OTM in FRN (2004) outlined some core skills which the OTM programme seeks to impact
on the students so as to make them fit for a career in OTM. These skills include office skills,
managerial skills, entrepreneurial skills, ICT skills, communication skills and socio-
psychological skills. These skills could be acquired from the courses offered by the OTM
students (Ojukwu, 2009).
Office skills are all the technical skills which are specific to carrying out the core
duties of a secretary in the office. The technical skills associated with OTM include
keyboarding skills, and shorthand skills. The graduates of office technology and management
according to FGN (2004) should possess the office skills such as shorthand, typing and
bookkeeping. They are expected to be able to write in shorthand for three minutes varied
materials of 1.4 syllabic intensity dictated at 100 words per minute (WPM) and transcribed
on the typewriter with a minimum of 95% accuracy. The students should be able to type
effectively various office jobs and acquire a copying rate of 50 WPM on passages not below
1.30 syllabic intensity with 98% accuracy. Over the years the office skills required as a
secretary were mainly to take dictations in shorthand, type business letters, answer the phone
calls and book-keeping. With more sophistication of today's modern office, technology has
reshaped the way offices are run and have also reshaped the skills required for practicing as a
secretary. Today's offices requires more than the basic office skills of typing and shorthand to
knowledge and skills in Information and Communication Technologies (ICT).
Technology has reshaped the way information is created, stored and disseminated. As
a result of changes in technology, the role of secretaries has changed tremendously from that
of typewriting and shorthand, answering phone calls and processing of mails to information
and communication technology. ICT is the technology required for information processing,
in particular, the use of electronic computers, communication devices and software
applications to convert, store, protect, process, transmit and retrieve information from
anywhere, and at any time. According to Okute and Agomuo (2010), Information
Communication Technology is concerned with the managing and processing of information
through the use of electronic computers and computer software to convert, store, protect,
process, transmit and retrieve information. It is the handling and processing of information
for use by means of electronic and communication gadgets such as computers, cameras,
telephones among others (Atakpa, 2010). The advent of the internet and computer
technologies has changed the role of secretaries, which has resulted in the loss of jobs of
most secretaries. Individuals preparing for a career path in OTM should possess skills on how
to use the internet to facilitate communication in the office, should be able to use current
computer software in word processing and spread sheets, software presentation, desktop
publishing packages, computer packages in managing information, perform electronic
inventory control, data management software, webpage design, etc. The review of the
secretarial studies curriculum to OTM is not only to incorporate technology in the training of
secretaries but also to provide training needed for building managerial competencies needed
as secretaries in today’s offices because the role of OTM graduates in today’s organizational
framework goes beyond discharge of secretarial duties but involve managerial and
administrative functions.
Management is essentially the organization and coordination of the activities of a
business to achieve defined objectives. Management skills are not just innate they can be
developed through training. It is very difficult to give a precise definition of the term
management, different scholars from different disciplines view and interpret management
from their own angles. Lundy (2007) defined management as the task of planning,
coordinating, motivating and controlling the efforts of others towards a specific objective,
Gupta (2007) described management as a social science and technical process which utilizes
resources efficiently for the attainment of specified goals. Management consists in guiding
human and physical resources into dynamic, hard-hitting organization unit that attains its
objectives to the satisfaction of those served and with a high degree of morale and sense of
attainment on the part of those rendering the service. Papula (1995) identified management
skills needful for managers to include creativity, intuition, goal-oriented, responsibility, self-
confidence, initiative, independence, cautiousness, scrupulosity, discipline, self-control and
regulation of own behavior, persistence and optimism. The National Board for Technical
Education (NBTE) in the curriculum document for OTM in FRN (2004) emphasized on
managerial competencies. The students of OTM should have the basic skills in planning for
the realization of the goals of an organization. They should have skills in keeping inventories,
organizing office layout for effectiveness, skills for placement, induction and training of
staffs among others. The secretary in today’s office does not only type and take shorthand
notes, but also serves as the engine room of the organization in management. The secretary in
addition to managerial skills should have good communication skills.
Communication is the essence of human interaction and learning. The nature of
communication is dependent on interaction between two or more individuals and
understanding is constructed through such interaction. Communication skill is a core
requirement of a professional secretary for effectiveness. Communication is the process of
transmitting information from one person or place to another. Niederhauser (2008) posited
that communication plays an invaluable role both within and outside the organization
towards goal accomplishment to facilitate achievement or furtherance of an organization's
objectives. Communication can be categorized into oral, written, sign and electronic.
Agboola and Ademiluyi (2011) observed that communication is more than passing
information to a receiver and involves dialogue and social exchange. Communication can
only be effective when the intended message is received, correctly interpreted and
understood, accepted and appropriately acted upon by the receiver and confirmed by a
feedback. Communication skills required by secretaries include the ability to use oral
communication effectively, ability to effectively use written communication, ability to spell
words correctly in written communication, ability to pronounce words correctly and clearly
in oral communication, ability to use suitable gestures to communicate, ability to
communicate with facial expressions, ability to communicate orally with a friendly tone and
ability to write legibly and logically in written communication, among others. Socio-
psychological competence is an integral personal characteristic which helps in human
relations and interactions. OTM graduates are expected to not only speak and write clearly
but also possess socio-psychological skills that would enhance their interactivity in the
workplace.
Socio-psychological skills include personal maturity, professional efficiency and
social success of the secretary in the organisation. Shageeva, Kraysman, Gorodetskaya, and
Ivanov (2013) noted that socio-psychological skills are to be developed in the course of the
educational process. This skill is necessary in solving problems in human resource
management, conflict resolution, information processing among others. Social skills are skills
that facilitate interaction and communication with others. Socio-psychological skills are
human relationship skills which help in the interaction among people in an environment in
spite of conflicts or cooperative behaviours. Socio-psychological skills focus attention mostly
on human interaction in the work environment with the hope of understanding fellow
workers and clients; relating and dealing harmoniously with them and adapting to
environments or situations as they come so as to facilitate the achievement of the goals of
individual employees and the organization. Secretarial functions go beyond book keeping,
answering calls, treating mail and managing office equipments to involve working with
people, being a good team leader, ability to collaborate effectively with staff and clients of
the organisation and demonstrating entrepreneurship.
Entrepreneurship, according to Esene (2010), is the willingness and ability of an
individual to seek out investment opportunities, establish and run an enterprise successfully.
The concept of entrepreneurship has been associated with several activities concerned with
the establishment and operation of business enterprises. The activities include identification
of investment opportunities, decision-making as to the opportunities to exploit, promotion
and establishment of the business enterprises, aggregation of the scarce resources required for
production and distribution, organization and management of the human and material
resources for the attainment of the objectives of the enterprises, risk bearing, and innovation.
Esene (2010) further noted that the OTM graduates need entrepreneurial qualities such as
self-reliance, ability to identify and exploit opportunities, creativity; willingness to take
chances, even if it means to expose oneself to risk and finally, personal drive. The assessment
of the career readiness of the OTM graduating students of the polytechnics is assessing the
extent to which the students possess these six core skills; Office skills, managerial skills,
entrepreneurial skills, ICT skills, Communication skills and socio-psychological skills.
The area of this study: Anambra, Ebonyi and Enugu States are located in the south
eastern zone of Nigeria. South-eastern Nigeria is one of the six geopolitical zones in Nigeria
mainly occupied by Igbo speaking Nigerian. The south-east has boundaries with south-south
(Edo and Delta) in the east, south-south (Rivers and Akwa Ibom) in the south, north central
(Kogi and Benue) in the north and south-south (Cross River) in the west. Similarly, gender
and location of institution in these states can be a strong determining factor or have strong
influence on the level at which the students possesses the required skills for career readiness
(Savickas, 2009). Esene (2008) stated that Polytechnic students who have successfully passed
through their course-programme must have acquired the relevant knowledge, skills and
competencies required for career readiness. This will help them occupy various positions
such as; Office Supervisors, Office Managers, Administrative Managers, Administrative
Assistants, Administrative Secretaries, Computer Operators, Computer Analysts, Computer
Programmers, Sales Managers, Sales Supervisors, Sales Representations, etc. Based on the
foregoing, however, the researcher deems it necessary to determine the level of skill
possessed by the students.
Statement of Problem
Studies in Nigeria evolved out of the need to meet the technological and managerial demands
of today’s workplace, which was birthed out of the yearning of the secretaries in occupying
not just the position of secretary but to be managers in organizations as well. The rapid
growth and affordability of Information and Communication Technologies have also resulted
to a change in the role of a secretary in today’s workplace. The roles of secretaries are no
longer limited to typing, taking shorthand dictations, answering of telephone calls and
processing of mails, but are now expected to be skilled in usage of more sophisticated
technologies that could make work easier. Career choice is not a one shot event, it’s not just a
decision that takes place at the entry point to a job, but it involves the totality of an
individual’s psychological, sociological, and educational events which eventually results into
occupational choice and other life roles (Her, 2003). This career choice includes
remunerating or non remunerating positions occupied by a person from adolescent to
retirement of which occupation is one. Career education plays a prominent role in preparing
an individual to make and advance in a career path and this justifies why the role of school in
career readiness is absolutely unavoidable.
There is a great concern on the gap that exists between the school and the workplace.
Graduates have been seen, by a group of researchers (Adelakin et al 2009), to have so much
difficulty making transition from academic life to work even though the school is suppose to
provide the experiences and trainings which will help an individual make intelligent
occupational choices that will advance him in his career path. Adelakin et al (2009) further
noted that the change from secretarial studies to Office Technology and Management (OTM)
is mainly because graduates of secretarial studies are not able to make a career in their
chosen vocation, due to a mismatch in the self identity of the students after graduation and
that which is required for secretarial studies professionals in today’s offices. The government
reviewed the curriculum of secretarial studies and introduced the managerial, entrepreneurial
and ICT component that was lacking in the former secretarial studies so that the schools can
produce graduates in OTM who are prepared and fit to make a career of their chosen
vocation.
Soludo (2012) describing the Nigerian situation said unemployment is not a problem
in Nigeria rather Nigerian graduates are not employable and they are misfit for today’s
workplace. Secretarial studies was changed to OTM so as to bridge that gap by providing a
functional training that would help the graduates of OTM make a career in office
management. Therefore, this study seeks to find out if the government investment in
provision of ICT facilities and review of secretarial studies curriculum to meet today’s
workplace need is worth the investment. The study seeks to know if the inclusion of ICT,
entrepreneurial and managerial components in the new OTM curriculum has any significant
effect on the readiness of the OTM students in making a career in office technology and
management. The study thus seeks to determine the career readiness of OTM graduating
students in polytechnics in Anambra, Ebonyi and Enugu state.
Purpose of the Study
The major purpose of this study is to determine the career readiness of graduating Office
Technology and Management students in Anambra, Ebonyi and Enugu State Polytechnics.
Specifically, the study seeks to:

1. determine the office skills possessed by the Office Technology and Management
graduating students for career readiness
2. determine the managerial skills possessed by the Office Technology and Management
3. determine the entrepreneurial skills possessed by the Office Technology and
Management graduating students for career readiness
4. determine the ICT skills possessed by the Office Technology and Management
5. determine the communication skills possessed by the Office Technology and
6. determine the socio-psychological skills possessed by the Office Technology and
7. determine the career readiness index value of the Office Technology and
Management graduating students
Significance of the Study
The finding of this study will provide information that would be of immense benefit
to the following: National Board for Technical Education (NBTE), Ministry of Labour and
Productivity, Students and Researchers.
Information provided on the various indicators of career readiness would help
National Board for Technical Education (NBTE) in improving the curriculum and other
general policies guiding the study of OTM in Nigerian Polytechnics. Information provided
will also help the government appraise the effectiveness of their response in changing
secretarial studies to office technology and management.

This research work will be of benefit to the Ministry of Labour and Productivity. This
is the ministry that is responsible for relations between workers and employers as well as also
assisting in work and career education. The results of this research will provide adequate
information on the readiness of graduating students of Office Technology and Management
to make a career out of their vocation. This information will be useful to the ministry as it
carries out her sensitization and career advocacy programmes. It will help them know which
of the indicators of career readiness need to be strengthened in the course of workers’
education and career sensitizations. It will also help the ministry in facilitating or creating
jobs that matches the skills of the graduating students.
This research work will also benefit the students immensely as the findings of this
research work will provide information on the extent of play of OTM students in each of the
indicators used for measuring career readiness. This will therefore help the students focus
their effort in developing areas of their identity that are yet to be suited for making a career
out of their vocation.
Finally, the findings of this Research will be of benefit to intending researchers who
wish to carry out further research work on the readiness of graduating students and the skills
required of them to be career ready. The information provided will be a benchmark upon
which further research in career readiness can be carried out.
Research Questions:
The following research questions were formulated to guide the study:
1. what are the office skills possessed by the Office Technology and Management
graduating students for career readiness?

2. what are the managerial skills possessed by the Office Technology and Management
3. what are the entrepreneurial skills possessed by the Office Technology and
Management graduating students for career readiness?
4. what are the ICT skills possessed by the Office Technology and Management
5. what are the communication skills possessed by the Office Technology and
6. what are the socio-psychological skills possessed by the Office Technology and
7. what is career readiness index value of the Office Technology and Management
graduating students?
Hypotheses
The following null hypotheses will guide the study.
HO1: There is no significant difference between the mean ratings of male and female
polytechnic students on the office skills possessed by them.
HO2: There is no significant difference between the mean ratings of Federal and State
Polytechnic students on the managerial skills possessed by them.
HO3: There is no significant difference in the mean ratings of the Polytechnic students in
Anambra, Ebonyi and Enugu state on the entrepreneurial skills possessed by them.
Scope of the Study
There are several areas of research on students’ readiness, but this study is focused on
determining the readiness of graduating Office Technology and Management students in

making a career in there vocation. Specifically, some career indicators; (office skills,
managerial skills, entrepreneurial skills, ICT skills, communication skills and socio-
psychological skills) will be used to determine the student’s career readiness in Office
Technology and Management in the Polytechnics. Only the public Polytechnics in Anambra,
Ebonyi and Enugu that offers Office Technology and Managements program will be used for
the study.
28
CHAPTER TWO
RELATED LITERATURE
The review of related literature to the study is presented under the following sub-
headings:
Conceptual Framework
 Career and career readiness.
 Career education a requisite for career readiness.
 Office Technology and Management.
 Office skills required by the professional secretary.
 Managerial skills required for career by Secretaries.
 Entrepreneurial skills as a tool for career development.
 ICT Skills required for career in OTM.
 Communication Skills required for career in today’s workplace.
 Socio-psychological skills required for career in today’s workplace.
Theoretical framework
 Theory of work adjustment (TWA).
 Person’s Matching Theory (PMT)
Related Empirical Studies
Summary of Literature Reviewed
Career and Career Readiness
Career is central to every individual’s journey through life, it has long been
investigated in the social sciences, and have been seen to be the sequence and variety of
occupations (paid and unpaid) which one

15 und ertakes throughout a lifetime. More broadly,
29
career includes life roles, leisure activities, learning and work (Patton, 2001). A career can be
defined as a pattern of work experiences comprising the entire life of a person and which is
generally seen with regard to a number of phases or stages reflecting the transition from one
stage of life to the next (Weinert, 2001). The term career arises from the interaction of
individuals with organisations and society. This interaction, as Savickas (2009) proposes, is
no longer merely just a sequence of jobs but is now a story that working people build about
themselves. It includes a variety of occupation, skills and knowledge that one acquires along
a lifetime journey. The term career is viewed by many researchers as a sequence of
interaction of individuals with society, education and organisations throughout their lifespan
(Beukes, 2009; Herr et al., 2004). Careers are not merely chosen but constructed. It is built
brick by brick throughout life and through the series of choices about learning and work. It is
necessary, however, to emphasise that the majority of the responsibility for ones career
progression rests on the individual (Beukes, 2009; Herr et al., 2004).
Career in Office Technology and Management is one that begins with series of
progressive trainings from secondary schools through higher education institutions with the
aim of equipping individuals with skills, knowledge and experiences required for practice in
industries. Office Technology and Management (OTM) formerly referred to as secretarial
studies in Nigeria evolved out of a need to meet the technological and managerial demands of
today’s workplace. The new name OTM was approved by the supervising body for Nigerian
polytechnics, National Board for Technical Education (NBTE) in 2004. According to
Adelakin (2009), the OTM programme was designed for two major reasons; first, to respond
to the yearnings of the secretarial studies students and practitioners on the need to change the
name of the programme as their products (otm graduates) are only suitable for the traditional
office environment. And to change the curriculum with more emphasis on Information and
Communication Technology (ICT), managerial and entrepreneurial competencies, so as to
enrich the knowledge of the students and equip them with necessary skills needed in today’s
modern office environment. Udo (2008) noted that OTM is a comprehensive activity-based
educational programme that is concerned with the acquisition of office technology and
management skills, understandings, attitudes, work habits and competencies that are requisite
to success in secretarial and office management occupations. Career in OTM requires that an
individual receives training in area that would give him proficiency in using technologies
involved in the day to day running of an office. The individual is prepared for proficiency in
office, management, entrepreneurial, ICT, communication and socio-psychological skills. To
make a career in office technology and management, it is imperative that the individual has
undergone the required training to be career ready.
Career readiness includes mastery of rigorous content knowledge and the abilities to
apply that knowledge through higher order skills to demonstrate success in ones career path.
This includes the ability to think critically and solve problems, communicate effectively,
work collaboratively, and be self-directed in the learning process. Force (2012) defined
career readiness as individual having the requisite knowledge, skills and experiences in the
academic, workplace readiness and personal/social domains to successfully navigate to
completion an economically viable career pathway in a 21st century economy.. More
specifically, a student who is career-ready should be able to identify potential career goal(s)
and understand the steps involved in achieving them; and be skilled enough in
communication to seek assistance as needed, including student financial assistance. Career
readiness as described by Integration of College and Career Readiness (ICCR) (2012) means
that an individual has the requisite knowledge, skills and experiences in the academic,
workplace, personal and social domains to successfully navigate to complete an

economically viable career pathway. Association for Career and Technical Education
(ACTE) (2012) described career readiness as involving a rigorous blend of academic,
technical and employability skills. Career readiness for the graduating OTM students is a
measure to which the students possess the skills and attitudes needed for advancing in OTM
career path and for a smooth transition from school to work. The National Board for
Technical Education (NBTE) in the curriculum document for OTM, FRN (2004) outlined
some core skills which the OTM programme seeks to impact on the students so as to make
them fit for a career in OTM. These skills include Office skills, managerial skills,
entrepreneurial skills, ICT skills, Communication skills and socio-psychological skills. These
skills could be inferred from the courses put together to be offered by the OTM students even
though a course may impact more than one skill (Ojukwu, 2009).
Career Education a Requisite for Career Readiness
Career education plays a prominent role in preparing an individual to make and
advance in a career path, and this justifies why the role of school in career readiness is
absolutely unavoidable. Career education is seen as an aspect of education and training which
helps individuals to develop to the fullest capacity their potentialities in order to utilize their
capacities for the benefit of society. Career education is a comprehensive educational
programme that focuses on an individual and prepares a person for industrial or commercial
occupations. Morgan (2003) defined career education as concerned with the development of
knowledge, skills and attitudes through a planned programme of learning experiences, which
will assist students to make informed choices about school, and post-school options and
enable effective participation in working life. Career education focuses more on preparing
people for the transition within school and the transition from school to work. This goes
beyond choice of subjects, but includes acquisition of skills necessary for performing the
roles along ones career path (Abdulkadir, 2002). The need for career education is part of the
reasons, the Nigerian Educational System was restructured to a more job and vocation
oriented 9-3-4 system. Career education for the Office Technology and Management (OTM)
students in the polytechnics is to effectively prepare them for smooth transition from school
to work. This, basically, is to ensure that the OTM graduate is career ready, in the sense that
he has the requisite knowledge, skills and experiences needed for transition from school to
work.
Career education is a description of the totality of experience by which a person
acquires knowledge and attitudes about self, work and the skills by which to identify, choose,
plan and prepare for work and other life options. Career education helps all students to gain
the knowledge, skills, and behaviours to interact with others, set goals, and make decisions
related to career, college and citizenship. Abdulkadir (2002) noted that every individual has
certain abilities, interests, personality traits and other characteristics which need to be
properly developed and addressed. This he said, is a general consensus among career expert
that when these characteristics are properly identified and related to job markets, their values
can be put into appropriate use and the individual is more likely to become a happier person.
The National Policy on Education (FRN, 2004) reiterated the need for career education in
schools. The document stated that in view of the apparent ignorance of many young people
about career prospects and in view of the personality maladjustment among students, career
officers and counsellors will be appointed and posted to institutions of learning, to provide
career education to the students which will in-turn, enhance their students readiness to make
a career in their chosen vocation. Career education in schools is predicated on the rationale
that nobody can choose what he knows nothing about. Denga (2001) is of the view that
students should be properly guided to make appropriate decisions. Career education should
cover occupational opportunities, job descriptions, project job demands, future prospects and
current career manpower needs if it would enhance the readiness of the individual to make a
career of his chosen vocation.
Office Technology and Management
Office technology and management is a synergy of three distinct words, office,
technology and management. The word office is a description of a place in which business,
clerical, or professional activities are conducted. Amos (2005) noted that the historical
evolution of the office is as old as the ancient civilization and the evolution of man because
human brain itself has been functioning not only as think-tank but also as the reservoir of
knowledge, innovation, skills and information. The author stated that human brain has long
being recognized as a channel for processing, storing, dissemination and retrieval of
information. An office simply means a professional place for work. Technology enables an
organization to manage its operations efficiently and create a competitive advantage.
Technology is the application of scientific knowledge for practical purposes. It involves the
use of machineries and devices developed from scientific knowledge to make work easier
and faster (Microsoft, 2008). The management component refers to the art of getting things
done through people.
Office technology and management, according to Eneche and Audu (2014), is the
planning, organizing, directing and controlling of office activities to ensure that various
resources (human and materials) are put into optimal utilization so as to achieve the aim of
the organisation. Amos (2005) also sees office technology and management as the branch of
management which is concerned with services of obtaining, recording and analyzing
information. Office Technology and Management (OTM) is formerly referred to as
secretarial studies in Nigeria. It evolved out of the need to meet the technological and
managerial demands of today’s workplace. The name OTM was approved by National Board
for Technical Education (NBTE) in 2004.
Office technology and management (OTM) programme was designed for two major
reasons. As stated by Adelakin (2009), first, as a response to the yearnings of the secretarial
studies students and practitioners on the need to change the name of the programme as their
products are only suitable for the traditional office environment. Secondly, as a result of the
change in curriculum with more emphasis on Information and Communication Technology
(ICT), managerial and entrepreneurial competencies so as to enrich the knowledge of the
students and equip them with necessary skills needed in today’s modern office environment.
Udo (2008) noted that OTM is a comprehensive activity-based educational programme that is
concerned with the acquisition of office technology and management skills, understandings,
attitudes, work habits and competencies that are requisite to success in secretarial and office
management occupations. The OTM programme is a career training or education to ensure
that an individual is career ready with the right skills and attitudes needed for transition from
school to work or for advancement in the OTM career path.
Office Skills Required by the Professional Secretary
Office skills are technical skills which are specific for carrying out the core duties of a
secretary in the office. Secretaries are ubiquitous office workers needed in every type of
office (big or small) to assist their supervisors or executives in carrying out their
responsibilities. Adebayo and Akinyele (2010) described a secretary as an executive assistant
who has the mastery of office skills, demonstrates the ability to assume responsibility without
direct supervision, exercises initiative and judgement and makes decisions within the scope
of assigned authority. The secretarial function, though a supportive function, requires a large
amount of initiative, tact and resourcefulness to succeed (Igbinedion, 2010). Adebayo and
Akinyele (2010) further noted that a professional Secretary performs tasks similar to an
executive or administrative assistant. Generally, a Professional Secretary coordinates the
daily routines of an office and organizes the office schedules and paper work. A secretary’s
duties require analysis of the situation, judgement, technical knowledge and creativity. Over
the years various nomenclatures have been used to describe a modern professional secretary.
Modern professional secretaries are now referred to as office managers by some people
because of their activities, education, skill acquisition, knowledge and even expectations
from their bosses, customers, clients and even the general public. Office management is now
more concerned with office occupations or the exhibition or use of skills, aptitudes, attitudes
and knowledge for carrying out successfully the functions of the office. Ohakwe (2001)
stated that the office manager who is at the centre of information has the duty of providing
comprehensive, accurate and up-to-date information promptly to enable them take quality
management decisions.
Over the years, the office skills required by the secretary were mainly to take
dictations in shorthand, type business letters, answer phone calls and book-keeping. But with
more sophistication of today's modern office, technology has reshaped the way offices are
run and have also reshaped the skills required for practice as a secretary. Akpomi and Ordu
(2009) noted that the changes in technology has brought about a tremendous change in the
role of secretaries in business from that of typewriting and shorthand dictation, answering of
telephone calls and processing of mails, to office technology including the internet that
makes work much easier and knowledge more accessible. Although with the increasing
sophistication in today's modern office, the very core office skills of typewriting, taking
dictations (shorthand), answering of phone calls, processing of mails, receiving of clients and
other visitors are yet indispensable. Despite the technological inclination of today's modern
offices, the core office skills of typing, taking dictations and many other old duties and
activities are still part of the running of today's office. The core technical skills associated
with OTM include keyboarding skills, and shorthand skills. The graduates of office
technology and management, according to FGN (2004), should possess the office skills of
shorthand and typing. They are expected to be able to write in shorthand for three minutes
varied materials of 1.4 syllabic intensity dictated at 100 word per minute (WPM) and
transcribed on the typewriter with a minimum of 95% accuracy. The students should be able
to type effectively various office jobs and acquire a copying rate of 50 WPM on passages not
below 1.30 syllabic intensity with 98% accuracy. Akpomi and Ordu (2009) described the
secretary as an office-staff who combines the mastery of secretarial skills of typewriting and
shorthand with other office routine functions. He is an executive assistant who possesses a
mastery of office skills, demonstrates the ability to assume responsibility with or without
supervision, he is versatile in the inside working of each of the departments in the
organisation. Akpomi and Ordu noted that, the professional secretary will not be productive,
if all he possesses are the technical skills of typewriting, shorthand and other basic office
skills, he must inure himself into the world of automation and have hands-on skills in the
usage of the office equipment. He must have functional knowledge on how technologies can
influence his/her productivity as a secretary.
Managerial Skills Required for Career by Secretaries
The role of the secretary has changed over the past decade as management
philosophies in the business world have changed. Technical advances, new business
procedures, and global markets are also part of the forces which have contributed to the new
demands on today's secretary. Office Technology and Management (OTM) formerly referred
to as secretarial studies in Nigeria evolved out of the need to meet the technological and
managerial demands of today’s workplace. The managerial component in the expected role
of today’s secretaries is enormous. It involves problem solving, planning, organizing,
reminding, multi-tasking, managing people, managing machines etc. Eneche and Audu
(2014) noted that management functions of planning, organizing, directing and controlling
are very significant to the effective functioning of a secretary in an office hence, while office
is perceived as the soul of an organization, management could be likened to the spirit of an
organization. The managerial skills required in office technology and management includes
the ability to plan, organize, staff, direct and control the activities of the organisation so as to
achieve set goals. Etonyeaku (2011) stated that managerial skills are needed for planning,
decision making, human relationship, innovative changes, visionary leadership and ability to
manage change.
Fig 1 Management Function (Yalokwu, 2006)
Planning is the basic function of management. It deals with checking out a future
course of action and deciding in advance the most appropriate course of actions for
achievement of pre-determined goals. Planning, according to Nwachukwu (2006), means a
blueprint for action. Thus, it entails determination of control, direction and methods of
accomplishing the overall organizational objective. Planning according to Yalokwu (2006), is
a process that involves the establishment of objectives, strategies to achieve organizational
objectives. Planning is deciding in advance what to do, when to do and how to do a thing. It
bridges the gap from where the organisation is and where the organisation wants to be. The
secretary must be equipped with the basic skills involved in planning the day to day running
of the activities of the organisation. The secretary must be able to determine a course of
action for achieving set goals of the organisation. Planning is a systematic process about
ways in which to ensure proper utilization of human and non-human resources in the
organisation. Planning is all pervasive, it is an intellectual activity and it also helps in
avoiding confusion, uncertainties, risks and wastages among others.
Organizing on the other hand is the process of bringing together physical, financial
and human resources and developing productive relationship amongst them for achievement
of organizational goals. It involves providing the organisation with everything useful for its
functioning i.e. raw material, tools, capital and personnel. The role of the secretary in
organizing, according to Bartol and Martin (1991), is to create a formal pattern of working
relationships and coordinating the management design to link the activities of individual and
groups so as to accomplish the organization’s objectives. Directing means actuating,
motivating and inducing the employees to work enthusiastically without coercion
(Nwachukwu, 2006). The concept of controlling is defined as that phase of the management
process which maintains organizational activities within allowable limits as measured from
expectations. The techniques discussed above were not exhaustive however, these are the
basic meanings and they perform pivotal role to the survival of office management even
though they have not gained prominence in terms of financing the functionality of office
largely relied on the techniques since that is the only way continuity of an office can survive
in organizations.
Entrepreneurial Skills as a Tool for Career Development
The concept of entrepreneurship was first established in the 1700s and the meaning
has evolved ever since. Many simply equate it with starting one’s own business. Most
economists believe it is more than that. To some economists, the entrepreneur is one who is
willing to bear the risk of a new venture if there is a significant chance for profit. Others
emphasize the entrepreneur’s role as an innovator who markets his innovation. Still other
economists say that entrepreneurs develop new goods or processes that the market demands
and are not currently being supplied. The concept of entrepreneurship has been defined by
academics according to their orientation and understanding of the subject matter. Osbourne
(2000) defined entrepreneurship as a process of creating new systems, processes, mobilizing
men, materials, machines and financial resources in order to produce new products or serve
new materials. Jain (2013) defined entrepreneurship as behaviour, attitude and an approach to
the way people create new values in the market, technology consumption, habits and build
sustainable institutions and organizations. Anyakoha (2009) defined an entrepreneur as a
person who chooses or assumes risks, identifies business opportunity, gathers resources,
initiates actions and establishes an organization or enterprise to meet such market
opportunities.
Entrepreneurial skills are essential skills needful to perform the role of today’s
secretary. Akunnaya, (2012) defines entrepreneurship skills as those skills that will enable
the individual to maximise the resources around him within the limits of his capabilities.
Entrepreneurial skills are those activity skills that will enable an entrepreneur to manage his
own enterprise. Entrepreneurial skills are the knowledge, attitudes and behaviours a secretary
should possess to enable him identify business opportunities, stimulate creativity and
transform ideas into practical and economic activities in his organisation. Entrepreneurial
skills are simply vocational business skills, which an individual acquires to enable him
function effectively in business environment (Ubulum, 2003). Creativity is the spark that
drives entrepreneurial development, and passion is what gets entrepreneurs started. The
author further noted that secretaries must possess entrepreneurial skills so as to be able to
guide their organization quickly in response to changing market needs.
Information and Communication Technology Skills Required for Career in OTM
The Secretary plays a very important role in the efficiency of an organization. The
effectiveness of these functions depends largely on the extent to which the secretary
possesses the needed competencies and skills required for the smooth running of the
organisation. Several changes have taken place in private and public offices as regard the
roles and functions of the secretary. The type of machines and gadgets that were used to
produce, duplicate and store information has undergone a great transformation to cope with
the fast growing world of technology. Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is
concerned with managing and processing information. This is made possible through the use
of electronic computers and computer software to manage information (Okute and Agomuo,
2010). According to Atakpa (2010), secretarial functions the world over have undergone
tremendous technical transformations. They further noted that secretarial functions which
were previously done manually have been mechanized.
The introduction of sophisticated office technology equipment like computers, word
processors and other information technology resources coupled with new management
techniques have completely changed old work habits in the office and triggered off a new
business orientation thus making moribund the older methods of business transaction.
According to Okute and Agomuo (2010), Information Communication Technology is
concerned with the aspect of managing and processing information through the use of
electronic computers and computer software to convert, store, protect, process, transmit and
retrieve information. It is the handling and processing of information for use by means of
electronic and communication gadgets such as computers, cameras, telephones etc. As a
result, modern office equipment which gives the secretary the opportunity to increase her
efficiency abound. Many office functions and secretarial duties which were previously done
manually have been mechanized. Thus, the diversities of the office technologies require the
secretary to possess new skills and sub-skills to enable him/her to be relevant in the modern
office. ICT has changed the equipment and work groups. So, the mechanized office is
gradually given way to the automated office. Investment in networks of computer based
workstations and other automated equipment is transforming traditional manual office
methods and paper communications media. This transformation has resulted in the
development of automated systems that rely on electronic collaboration and communication
networks, text processing, image processing and other information and communication
technologies. Agomuo (2005) also noted that the designing of documents, filling of forms,
retrieving information and finally printing which were strenuous jobs before have now
become simplified tasks with the use of word processors. The demand on today's secretary
makes it highly imperative that secretaries are equipped with the relevant ICT skills needful
for the job.
ICT skills, according to Smart (2001), is the ability to use computer to retrieve,
access, store, produce, present and exchange information and to communicate and participate
in collaborative networking via internet. Ugwuanyi and Eze (2009) stressed that ICT skills
involve having the basic understanding of what computer and other ICT tools are, and how
they can be used as resource materials. Today's secretaries should be able to use ICT
innovations such as computer appreciation (word processing and data processing) internet
facilities (networking, e-mail and listserv), information and office technologies (computer,
multi-media projector, blackboard and interactive whiteboard and software). Cheung (1998)
expressed the view that ICT is fast revoluntionalizing the way people live and work and, in
fact, every aspect of life and life style. The assessment of the extent of ICT skills possessed
by the graduating students of OTM will be based on their skills in the use of computer and
internet.
ICT skills
Computer skills Internet skills

Fig 2: Indicators showing ICT skills needed in the workplace. Arowolo and Ede (2012)
Communication Skills Required for Career in Today’s Workplace.
Communication is the essence of human interaction and learning. The nature of
communication is dependent on interaction between two or more individuals in which
understanding is constructed through that interaction. Communication is a basic human right
and essential to our quality of life as social species. As human beings, we use communication
to: relate with others, socially connect, greet, call attention, share feelings, express an
opinion, agree, disagree, explain, share information, question, answer, tease, bargain,
negotiate, argue, manipulate, compliment, comment, protest, complain, describe, encourage,
instruct, provide feedback, show humor, discuss interests, be polite, make friends, express
interest or disinterest. Barker and Barker (1993) stated that understanding is the essence of
communication. This only happens when there is an intention of understanding or being
understood by those involved in a communication situation. Interaction with the purpose of
sharing involves the exchange of the signs and symbols (i.e. words). Communication is not
only what is said verbally or non-verbally, but also includes what is understood. Human
communication process can be described in terms of conceptual models. This models
attempts to capture the fundamental interaction of language, medium and message that
enables communication. The purpose of a communication model is to offer a visual
representation of the concept of communication so as to enhance the understanding of it.
Traditionally speaking, there are three standard models of communication process: Linear,
Interactive, and Transactional, and each offers a slightly different perspective on the
communication process.
Linear Model of Communication: Wood (2009) described the linear model
communication as a one-way or linear process in which the speaker speaks and the listener
listens. Lasswell’s (1948) linear model was based on five questions describing how
communication works:
Fig 3: The linear model of communication, (Wood, 2009)
Meghi (2010) described linear communication as a one way model to communicate with
others, it consists of the sender encoding a message and channelling it to the receiver in the
presence of noise. The linear model assumes that there is a clear cut beginning and end to
communication. It also displays no feedback from the receiver. For example; a letter, email,
text message, lectures. There are two main linear models which are used to explain the
human communication process. They are Shannon and Weaver Model (1949)
Source Transmitter Receiver Destination
Signal Received
Message Signal
Message
Noise source
Fig 4: Shannon and Weaver (1949) Model of Communication.
Shannon and Weaver's Communication Model has five basic factors, arranged in a
linear format, which are: source, transmitter, receiver, destination and noise source. The
source is the origin of the message, the message is then sent through a transmitter where the
message is changed into a signal that is sent over the communication channel to the receiver.
The receiver is a sort of inverse transmitter, changing the transmitted signal back into a
message, and interpreting this message and then the message is sent to the destination. The
destination may be another receiver (i.e., the message is passed on to someone else), or the
message may rest with the initial receiver, and the transmission is achieved.
In the process of transmitting a message, certain information that was not intended by
the information source is unavoidably added to the signal (or message). This "noise" can be
internal (i.e., coming from the receiver's own knowledge, attitudes, or beliefs) or external
(i.e., coming from other sources). Such internal or external "noise" can either strengthen the
intended effect of a message (if the information confirms the message), or weaken the
intended effect (if the information in the "noise" contradicts the original message).
Interactive Communication Model: the Interactive Model takes the Linear Model
and multiplies it twice with a quick flip of the return message. It now allows for a feedback
element because after a message is encoded and sent to the decoding receiver, the roles then
reverse and the receiver encodes and sends a response to the original sender who has now
turned receiver. It sounds more confusing than it is. Envision an exchange of text messages
whereby your friend sends you a message and you respond to it. The same thing happens
during a telephone call, or even an email exchange. A message is sent and received, and then
the roles reverse.
Fig 5: The interactive model. (CBI,2009).
Transactional Communication Model: The transactional model becomes more
sophisticated yet this model depicts face-to-face interaction, or “transaction” as a dynamic
and changeable process that is not limited to simple definition. In the Transactional Model,
receiver and sender can play the same roles simultaneously, as sometimes happens, as
messages can be sent back and forth simultaneously. It appears chaotic and ineffective, but
sometimes communication happens in this manner.

Fig 6: Transactional Model of Communication, (CBI, 2009)
Communication is a matter of effectiveness and it is dependent on the interlocutors’
communication competency. The ability to communicate through reading, writing, speaking,
and listening makes humans unique. These means of communication allow us to learn from
the experiences of others through the messages they impart. Writing, speaking and listening
are communication skills that are important in the world of work. OTM graduating students
are required to be able to communicate effectively in writing, speaking and listening.
Confederation of British Industry (CBI), (2009) noted that a key issue in employability is
raising the level of employability of our graduating students by ensuring they have the
important generic skills in communication which includes, writing, speaking, reading and
listening.
Communication Skills
Writing Reading
Speaking Listening
Fig 7: Framework Showing the Skills Involved in Communication, (CBI, 2009).
Writing: Writing has been with us for several thousand years, and nowadays is more
important than ever. Having spread steadily over the centuries from clay tablets to computer
chips, it is poised for further dramatic advances. Collier (2002) defined writing as a method
of representing language in visual or tactile form. Writing systems use sets of symbols to
represent the sounds of speech, and may also have symbols for such things as punctuation
and numerals. Although hundreds of millions of people are still unable to read and write,
humanity relies on writing to an unprecedented extent. It is quite possible that, today, more
communication takes place in the written form than in the oral mode. Graduating OTM
students must possess excellent writing skills if they would be effective in the world of work.
Today’s business world is a networked village, where communication is carried out between
organizations separated by great geographical distance but connected by technology.
Business organizations need to send mails, memos, letters, etc to partners, allies and staffs
and it becomes necessary that the secretary is skilled in writing. Richardson (2010) noted that
as the job market becomes increasingly competitive and the skills grow more diverse,
recruiters are more selective in their choices, since poor recruiting decisions can produce
long-term negative effects, such as Poor performance and high labour turnover which, in
turn, impact on staff morale.
Effective communication in writing has become a major requirement for career as an
office manager. Writing skills are an important part of communication. Good writing skills
allow you to communicate your message with clarity and ease to a far larger audience than
through face-to-face or telephone conversations. OTM workers may be called upon to write a
report, plan or strategy at work; write a grant application or press release etc The better your
writing skills are, the better the impression you'll make on the people around you including
your boss, your colleagues, and your clients. Writing skills include, ability to use the right
grammar, correct spelling and punctuation. It also involves knowing how to write having the
level and type of audience in mind. This knowledge will help to decide whether you need to
write in a formal style or a more informal one and will also help you to decide on a suitable
structure.
Reading: Reading is making meaning from print. It requires the ability to identify
words in print, a process called word recognition, Construct an understanding from them, a
process called comprehension, Coordinate identifying words and making meaning so that
reading is automatic and accurate , which is referred to as fluency. Reading is a description of
the ability to recognize word, comprehend and fluently articulate the words in sound.
Powling, Gavin, Pullman, Fine, and Ashley (2003) described reading as a complex cognitive
process of decoding symbols in order to construct or derive meaning (reading
comprehension). It is a means of language acquisition, of communication, and of sharing
information and ideas. Like all language, it is a complex interaction between the text and the
reader which is shaped by the reader’s prior knowledge, experiences, attitude, and language
community which is culturally and socially situated. The world of work requires high level of
cognition in decoding and deriving meaning from written text. Students of OTM must be
well equipped in the skills of reading; they must be able to interpret written text without
destroying the intent of the writer.
Speaking: An activity that many of us view with concern is that of speaking,
particularly in the public. Few people feel entirely comfortable standing in front of an
audience to speak; even fewer actually enjoy it. In fact, a survey carried out in America on
common fears, suggested that fear of speaking in front of a group was rated higher than fear
of death (Rasberry & Lemoine, 1986). The reasons behind this are simple- people fear that
public speaking may result in humiliation, embarrassment or loss of dignity. Even the most
adept speakers recognize feelings of fear in anticipation of and during delivery of a
presentation. In a very general sense, varying the tone, pitch, rate and other vocal features
can communicate enthusiasm and can create a sense of interest in the listener. This can be of
importance when giving a presentation. The world of work will require prospective OTM
employees to represent their organizations in meetings, public functions etc. this would
require that the employee is articulate enough to present his points in a coherent form without
fear of audience.
Listening: Effective listening is a specific skill that can be consciously developed and
practised in various workplace situations, whether a meeting, supervision session, telephone
conversation or chance meeting in the corridor. Listening is not simply a matter of hearing, it
is an active psychological process which enables us to attach meaning to all the information
we receive. Hartley and Bruckman (2002) identified two specific steps in active listening,
which are to develop the ability to recognize and deal with barriers that prevents an
individual from listening with full attention, to develop and use behaviours which help in
listening. Such behaviours can also help to let others know that you are giving them your full
attention. Hartley and Bruckman (2002), further stated that careful analysis of skills that are
used by people who are recognized as good listeners show that they use a variety of
techniques such as, listening openly to the other persons while they are speaking, removing
distractions, maintain rapt attention, eye contact, etc.
Socio-Psychological Skills Required for Career in Today’s Workplace
Socio-psychological skills are integral personal characteristics in relations and
interactions between an individual with other people which helps in resolving social
situations efficiently. Socio-psychological skills, according to Shageeva, Kraysman,
Gorodetskaye and Ivanov (2013), allow successful achievement of several significant
professional goals. It helps to adapt to new environment, be ready for inner and international
professional mobility, work in teams, efficiently collaborate with peers, be a good team-
leader, manage people and innovations, be self-aware, know personal strengths and
weaknesses, manage self-development and life-long learning process. It is evident that
today's secretary has to possess these characteristics to successfully perform in the
challenging innovative environment. Socio-psychological skills involves how an individual
perceive, influence, and relate to others, in a systematic way, using scientific methods,
constructed with the awareness of possible error. Social and cognitive processes have
intimate connections, and operate together to influence our thoughts, feelings, and
behaviours. Socio-psychological skills can be basically classified as interpersonal and
intrapersonal skills.
Interpersonal Skills: Interpersonal skill is the ability of an individual to relate with
co-workers, inspire others to participate, and mitigate conflict with co-workers (Etonyeaku,
2009). This skill is essential given the amount of time spent at work each day. Interpersonal
skills are life skills we use every day to relate and interact with other people, both
individually and in groups. Employers often seek to hire staff with strong interpersonal skills,
they want people who will work well in a team and be able to relate effectively with
customers, colleagues and clients. Owing to global competitions, cultural diversity, latest
technologies and process of new management, interpersonal skills is critical in the workplace
if meaningful interaction and business must take place. Cameron and Pickering (2012) noted
that Interpersonal skills in a professional setting are individuals’ ability to get along with
others while getting the job done. Good interpersonal skills are prerequisites for many
positions in an organization. It is how people express their confidence, ability to listen, and
understand, solve problem, decision making, personal stress management etc. Developing
good interpersonal skills socially and at work begins with looking outwards: Personal
appearance, non-verbal communication, verbal communication, clarifying, reflection,
decision making and thinking are core interpersonal skills
a. Personal Appearance: Image management is the ongoing process of evaluating and
controlling the impact of your appearance and the resulting response on you and
others (Judith, 2014). It is creating an authentic, appropriate, attractive, and affordable
image. Intelligence, knowledge, ability, initiative, and effort are vital to success of
any kind, but regardless of who you are, how old, and what your role or goal, ongoing
image management can give you the personal/professional presence you need. OTM
graduates must come to terms with the need of the industry in terms of personal
appearance. They must be prepared to create an image that is in conformity with the
need of the industry. OTM students must dress appropriately, attractively and in an
affordable manner.
b. Non-Verbal Cues: Non-verbal cues as described by Hall (2012) in the encyclopaedia
of social-psychology are potentially informative behaviors that are not purely

linguistic in content. It include facial expressions, head movements, posture, body and
hand movements, self and other-touching, leg positions and movements, interpersonal
gaze, directness of interpersonal orientation, interpersonal distance, and synchrony or
mimicry between people. Rush (2013) noted that nonverbal communication
encompasses numerous modes such as posture, gesture, eye contact, touch etc. They
further stated that the knowledge of nonverbal skills in business plays two roles.
Managers use nonverbal communication to effectively lead other employee and team
members. And team members in the business, whether they realize it or not also use
non verbal cues to communicate information to individuals within and outside the
business. OTM graduating students must be fully equipped with necessary nonverbal
cues that project them as positive and ready for the world of work. Nonverbal
communication in business occurs on a daily basis. He further noted that cross legs or
folded arms during a business meeting may signify relaxation or resistance to the idea
being presented, eye contact with the speaker during a business meeting
communicates interest, and a manager in a company may maintain eye contact more
than a subordinate employee does. A firm handshake might be interpreted as
confidence while other physical touches such as a lingering touch on the shoulder
might be seen as invasive of personal space. OTM graduating students must be
familiar with various non-verbal cues so as not to present themselves as offensive
before their potential employers.
c. Verbal Communication: An activity that many of us view with concern is that of
speaking, particularly in the public. Few people feel entirely comfortable standing in
front of an audience to speak; even fewer actually enjoy it. In fact, a survey carried
out in America on common fears, suggested that fear of speaking in front of a group
was rated higher than fear of death (Rasberry and Lemoine, 1986), The reasons
behind this are simple, people fear that public speaking may result in humiliation,
embarrassment or loss of dignity. Even the most adept speakers recognize feelings of
fear in anticipation of and during delivery of a presentation. In a very general sense,
varying the tone, pitch, rate and other vocal features can communicate enthusiasm
and can create a sense of interest in the listener. This can be of importance when
giving a presentation. The world of work will require secretaries to represent their
organizations in meetings, public functions etc. this would require that the employee
is articulate enough to present his points in a coherent form without fear of audience.
d. Listening Skills: Effective listening is a specific skill that can be consciously
developed and practiced in various workplace situations, whether a meeting,
supervision session, telephone conversation or chance meeting in the corridor.
Listening is not simply a matter of hearing, it is an active psychological process
which enables us to attach meaning to all the information we receive. A good
secretary must master the skills of listening.
Intrapersonal: Intra-personal skills are the foundations of a successful career.
Kowald (2014), described intrapersonal as another term for self-awareness or introspection.
Intrapersonal skills are talents or abilities that reside within the individual and aid him or her
in problem solving. National Research Council (2010) identified two broad skills that fall
within this cluster

Intrapersonal skills
Adaptability Self management
 Handling work stress,

 Adapting Plan fullness,
to different
Self-discipline,
personalities, communication style and cultures and
Delay of gratification,
Physical adaptability to various indoor or outdoor work environments.
Adjustment of strategy to suit need
Fig 8: Indicators of intrapersonal skills. National Research Council (2010)
Adaptability: This is the ability and willingness to cope with uncertain, new, and
rapidly changing conditions on the job, including responding effectively to emergencies or
crisis situations and learning new tasks, technologies, and procedures. Adaptability also
includes handling work stress, adapting to different personalities, communication style and
cultures and physical adaptability to various indoor or outdoor work environments.
Self-Management/Self-Development: The ability to work remotely, in virtual teams;
to work autonomously and to be self-motivating and self-monitoring. One aspect of self-
management is the willingness and ability to acquire new information and skills related to
work (Houston, 2007). Intrapersonal skills include attributes such as planfullness, self-
discipline, delay of gratification and ability to adjust one’s strategy or approach as needed.
Intrapersonal skills, according to Fitzsimons and Bargh (2004), are the capacity of
individuals to guide themselves in any way possible, toward important goal states. OTM
graduating students must develop intrapersonal skills because it is impossible to sustain
momentum toward accomplishing set goals if one lacks self-regulation. Changes in the nature
of work and workplaces have shown that what counts as a ‘skill’ has also evolved. This
means that formal knowledge may play only a small portion of what enables graduating
students of OTM to successfully confront the ambiguities of work place practice (Statz,
2001). To make a career in OTM, the individual must be able to manage self properly so as
to manage others. A professional secretary must have strong values for time, for rest, for
recreation etc.
The schema below shows the career readiness of the graduating OTM students in the
public polytechnics in Anambra, Ebonyi and Enugu states. It further indicates the skills,
showing that graduating students are ready to make a career in OTM. These indicators are the
office skills, the managerial skills, the communication skills, the entrepreneurial skills, the
ICT skills and the socio-psychological skills. Under these skill indicators, the specific skills a
student must possess are shown. The specific skills for the office include: the typewriting,
shorthand, answering phone calls and bookkeeping. The specific managerial skills include:
planning, organising, staffing, directing and controlling. The specific skills for
communication include: reading, writing, speaking and listening. The specific entrepreneurial
skills include: self-reliance, ability to identify and exploit opportunities, creativity and
personal drive. The specific skills for ICT include: computer skills, internet skills, database
managerial skills and hardware maintenance skills. And the specific socio-psychological
skills include: interpersonal and intrapersonal skills.
Finally, it shows the readiness index of the graduating Office Technology and
Management students in each polytechnic, which shows their various levels of readiness to
make a career. The readiness index value will be computed using the modified version of
Arowolo and Ede (2012) formula.
∑ , , , , ,
C =
Career Readiness Indicators
OTM graduating students in the public polytechnics in Anam
Typewriting
Reading Shorthand
Writing Answering phone calls
Speaking Book- keeping
Listening Office skills
Managerial skills
Readiness Index
Self-reliance
Communication
Ability to identify and exploit opportunities,
skills Planning
= ∑,, , , ,
Organizing C
Creativity
Staffing
Personal drive
Directing Very high career readiness index 4.50-5.00
Entrepreneurial skills Control High career readiness index 3.50- 4.49
Averagecareerreadinessindex 2.50-3.49
Low career readiness index 1.50- 2.49
Very low career readiness index
ICT skills 1.00-1.49
Computer skills Interpersonal skills
Internet skills Intrapersonal skills
Database management skills Socio- Psychological skills
Hardware maintenance skills
Fig 9: Conceptual framework for the analysis of career readiness of OTM graduating students in Anambra, Enugu and Ebonyi states
adapted from Arowolo & Ede (2012)
57
Theoretical Framework
Theory of work adjustment
The theory of work adjustment is sometimes referred to as the Person–
Environment Correspondence Theory (PECT). It was originally developed by Dawis
Rene, George England and Lloyd Lofquist from the University of Minnesota in 1964.
The theory described work adjustment in terms of individuals fit with work environment.
The more closely a person’s abilities (skills, knowledge, experience, attitude, behaviours
among others) correspond with the requirements of the role or the organization, the more
likely it is that they will perform the job well and be perceived as satisfactory by the
employer. Similarly, the more closely the rein forcers (rewards) of the role or
organization correspond to the values that a person seeks to satisfy through their work,
the more likely it is that the person will perceive the job as satisfying. The theory of
Work Adjustment (TWA) posits that individuals and environments impose requirements
on one another and that “successful work relations are the result of adjustments intended
to create a state of correspondence between individual and environmental characteristics
(Dawis and Lofquost, 1984). Caplan (1987) noted that organizations would prefer to
select persons who will best meet the demands of the job, adapt to training and changes
in job demands, and remain loyal and committed to the organization. Prospective
employees want to find organizations which make use of their particular abilities and
meet their specific needs.
Career readiness of graduating students of OTM is a description of the extent to
which the students are prepared to fit for a career in the world of work. The preparedness
of the students is evident in their development of the required abilities needed in the
world of work. According to the theory of Work Adjustment (TWA), job selection is
basically about fit. Dawis and Lofquist (1984) carefully stated that TWA is primarily
concerned with occupation fit for a person. The theory provides framework upon which
to assess if an individual has an ability fit or matching to a particular work environment.
The Theory of work adjustment implies that, Job selection and satisfactoriness is when
the abilities of an individual match the requirement of an organization. These abilities are
the indicators of a person’s career readiness, and until such ability matches the
requirement of prospective workplace, the possibility of job selection is slim.
Job Selection/Satisfactoriness
Requirements
Abilities
Career Ready
Communication skills Environment

Person Interpersonal skills
Intra personal skills
Academic performance Reinforce
Values ICT skills
Job retention/Satisfaction
Fig 10: Theory of Work Adjustment and Career readiness, Adapted from Dawis and
Lofquist (1984).
Parson’s Matching Theory
The matching theory also known as the Trait and Factor Theory was developed in
1908 by Frank Parson. The Theory states that occupational decision making occurs when
people have achieved an accurate understanding of their individual traits (aptitudes,
interests, and personal abilities), knowledge of jobs and the labour market, rational and
objective judgment about the relationship between their individual traits, and the labour
market. Parsons (1908) is regarded as the founder of the vocational guidance movement.
He developed the ‘talent matching’ approach which was subsequently developed into the
trait and factor theory of occupational choice within the evolving discipline of
differential psychology. Parsons’ core concept was that of ‘matching’. A key assumption
is that it is possible to measure both individual skills and the attributes required in
particular jobs, which can then be matched to achieve a `good fit’. It is when individuals
are in jobs best suited to their abilities, they perform best and productivity is highest.
Parson (1908) stated that each individual gains the ability to make certain career choices
as he/she develops. First each person must understand his or her own characteristic and
traits, that is, what are the person’s interest aptitudes, personal skills and abilities.
In an age of economic globalization, all individuals are affected by an array of
work related concerns. The search for life purposes and meanings, the journey to
actualize oneself through various life and work related roles, and the efforts by nations to
deal with problems of employment and unemployment, are examples of universal issues
that seem to affect many individuals in diverse professions (Richardson, 1993; Lips-
Wiersma and McMorland, 2006). Parsons (1909) presented the first theoretical
framework for understanding individuals' career decision processes, his approach assisted
individuals in identifying their aptitudes, abilities, and interests, and developed their
understanding of the world of work. He believed that matching an individual’s attributes
with the conditions for success in selected fields would result in greater work satisfaction
and success. Trait and Factor theory has much relevance in the assessment of career
readiness of OTM graduating students, in the sense that, these students are expected to
possess certain attributes required for placement and productivity in the world of work.
Parsons theory helps to put a peg on the extent to which the attributes and abilities
possess by the OTM students matches the requirements of the world of work.
Related Empirical Studies
The related empirical studies that have some relationship with the present study
were discussed in this section.
Olelewe (2014) carried out a research on the employable skills required by
graduating students for gainful employment in Enugu State. The research work focused
on identifying the employability skills required by graduating students in Enugu State for
gainful employment. He noted in the work that graduate unemployment in Nigeria has
been attributed to the fact that employees’ education and skills acquired are inadequate to
meet the demands of modern day jobs. The study adopted descriptive survey research
design and purposeful sample technique was used to select 510 employers of labour
(Proprietors, Managers and Entrepreneurs) out of the 1905 registered companies in
Enugu State Ministry of Commerce and Industry. Four research questions and two null
hypotheses guided the study. The instrument used for data collection was structured
questionnaire. Mean and Standard deviation were used to analyze the data for answering
the research questions while One-way ANOVA was used to test the null hypotheses at
0.05 level of significance. The study revealed that employers of labour require graduates
who possess ICT skills, entrepreneurial skills, interpersonal skills, management and
leadership skills. It was therefore recommended among others that the curriculum of
Nigerian tertiary institutions should review their programme of studies to reflect courses
in ICT competence needs, entrepreneurship development skills, management and
leadership skills, technical and vocational education so as to prepare graduates in
readiness for the world of work. This study is related to the present study, because it has
great implication on the assessment of the career readiness of OTM graduating students.
However, the study has its focus on the employability skills required by graduating
students for gainful employment in Enugu state. The present study is interested in
analysing the career readiness of OTM graduating students in Anambra Ebonyi and
Enugu State.
Similarly, Idris and Rajuddin (2012) conducted an assessment of employability
skills among technical and vocational education students in Nigeria. The research was
conducted to investigate the level of importance as well as the competence among the
students of technical and vocational education in terms of employability skills in Nigeria.
There are 233 final year students that constituted the sample for the study in Kano State.
The respondents were picked from mechanical, electronic, electrical installation and
automobile departments in technical colleges in the state. The data was collected using
questionnaire which was adapted from Employability skills for Australian small and
medium sized enterprises. The analysis was done using descriptive statistics such as
mean and standard deviation. The findings of the study showed that all the respondents
perceived the employability skills components as high and rated their competency as low.
A significant difference was found among the students in terms of their ages while no
significant difference was found between the respondents in the area of competency. The
study concluded that there is still an opportunity for technical and vocational institutions
in Nigeria to focus and redouble their efforts towards equipping the students with
employability skills. Quality education and training enhances productivity, therefore,
students of technical and vocational education in Nigeria need a better education that will
help in accomplish the national goals. This study is related to the present study because it
investigated the competence among the students of technical and vocational education in
terms of skills required for career, but differs significantly in scope. However, the study
has its focus on technical and vocational education students which is a broad area having
office technology management as a subset. The present study is focussed mainly on the
OTM graduating students.

Also, Oluyomi and Adedeji (2012) carried out a research on skills mismatch
among university graduates in the Nigeria labour market. The research was based on the
premise that literature have shown that university graduates in Nigeria are poorly
prepared for work and this has great implications on the relevance of university education
to the employability and productivity of university graduates. The study examined the
problem of skills mismatch and its prevalence in the Nigeria labour market. The study
adopted the descriptive survey research design of “ex-post facto” type. The research was
carried out in all the six geo-political zones of the country. Purposive sampling technique
was used to select one town per geo-political zone. A total of 600 management staffs
were randomly selected for the study. A set of questionnaire titled “Labour Market
Demands and Employers Assessment Questionnaire” (r= 0.83) was utilized to elicit
relevant information from employers of labour on the current labour market skill
demands and their assessment of the performance of recently employed university
graduates in 300 organizations (from both private and public sectors). Three research
questions were answered and two hypotheses were tested at the significant level of 0.05.
The data collected was analyzed using descriptive statistics, ANOVA (analysis of
variance) and t-tests. There was a significant negative relationship between skills demand
and supply (r= -0.485; p< 0.05). The extent of skills mismatch was 60.6% with major
weaknesses found in communication, IT (information technology), decision-making,
critical thinking and entrepreneurial skills. Analytical skill was the most required skill by
the labour market and critical thinking the least. The mean for each of the skills demand
was significantly different from its supply. The study is related to the present study
because it was based on the premise that literature have shown that graduates in Nigeria
are poorly prepared for work, but differs significantly in scope. However, the study
focussed on skills mismatch among university students in Nigeria. The present study is
concerned with the career readiness of OTM students in Anambra, Ebonyi and Enugu
state.
Agbonna, Yusuf, Ajidigba and Olumorin (2009) conducted a research on
assessment of the employability of Nigerian graduates using Employer-Based
Assessments. The study is a survey of the perceptions of employers across fields of work
on the employability of Nigerian graduates and reasons why employers will rather
declare a Nigerian graduates they observed at work as unemployable. The target
population for the study included all Nigerian graduates of polytechnics and universities.
A purposive sampling technique was used to select 516 administrative personnel who
had administered job on Nigerian graduates posted for NYSC programme. To elicit the
needed data from the respondents, a questionnaire titled Employability of Nigerian
Graduates was used. The collected data were analyzed using percentages and chi-squire
statistics. The findings revealed that substantial percentage of the sampled respondents
believed that the graduates were employable. However, this depends on the field of work
within which they are to be assessed as employable or not. The highest percentage of
sample with this opinion were in the education sector while those seen them as
unemployable were in the business sector. In addition, findings revealed that the majority
of the employers having the later opinion attributed the graduates’ unemployability to
their inadequate exposure to job-training schemes prior to graduation and to poor
academic orientation impacted on the graduates. It was therefore recommended among
other things that Nigerian higher institutions needs to intensify exposing Nigerian
undergraduates to job- training schemes, practical trainings and entrepreneurship
education. The findings of the research carried out by Agbonna, Yusuf, Ajidigba and
Olumorin (2009) created a lacuna upon which it becomes imperative to do an analysis of
the career readiness of graduating students of OTM. The study is related to the present
study because the research findings revealed that substantial percentage of the graduates
are unskilled for the work place, but differs significantly in scope. The study focuses on
employers’ perception on the employability of Nigerian graduates. The present study is
concerned with the career readiness of OTM students in Anambra, Ebonyi and Enugu
state.
Similarly, Nwaoga and Omeke (2012) conducted a research on the
Entrepreneurship and Employability among Nigerian graduates. Over 80% of graduates
in Nigeria are unemployed, in spite of their qualifications, they are employable yet they
are not employed. The inability of the higher educational institutions to meet the needs of
these graduates as well as promotion of economic self-reliance and self-sufficiency has
resulted into youth’s joblessness (unemployment). These, they said, have increased
restiveness among Nigerian youths. The research is therefore undergone to investigate
the relationship between entrepreneurship and employability among Nigerian graduates
and discussed the concept of entrepreneurship and employability. The research also
looked at the basic skills that can make one employable and at the same time becoming
self-reliant. Also discussed, are ways forward in promoting entrepreneurship among
Nigerian youths and how teaching of creativity and problem solving skills can help
reposition Nigerian graduates. This research work has great impact on the analysis of
career readiness of OTM graduating students because, it provides information on the
Entrepreneurship and Employability among Nigerian graduates and the basic skills that
can make one employable and becoming self-reliant. The study is related with the present
study in context but differs significantly. However, the study is concerned about
entrepreneurship and employability. The present study focuses on the readiness of OTM
students in making a career.

Lastly, Olofintoye and Aladegbola (2013) conducted a research on the
Employability of graduates of private tertiary institutions into Nigerian public services.
The study investigated the perception of Nigerian parents in Ekiti state towards the
employability of their wards in private tertiary institutions into the public service after
graduation. Multi stage sampling technique was used to select the sample of 250
respondents for the study. A self-designed questionnaire titled Private Tertiary
Institutions and Employment (PTIE) was used as an instrument for gathering the data
used for the study. The face and content validities of the instrument were ensured while
the reliability was ascertained at r=87.2, using test re test method. Frequency counts and
percentages were used in answering the research question raised, while t- test statistics
were used in testing the three hypotheses formulated. The study revealed that parents in
Ekiti State had negative perceptions towards the employability of their wards into the
public services after graduation. However, the study focuses on the Employability of
graduates of private tertiary institutions into Nigerian public services. The present study
focuses on public polytechnics and only seeks to determine the career readiness of the
graduating students offering OTM in Anambra, Ebonyi and Enugu state.
Summary of Literature Reviewed
Increasing competitiveness in the job market demands that students must possess
knowledge, skills and relevant experiences that will help to set them apart from other job
applicants. Career choice has been the major content of vocational advocacy in this clime
but preparedness to take advantage of the openings in the area of career choice is more
important than the mere choice of a career. Office technology and management
programme designed by the National Board for Technical Education (NBTE) in
November 2004, was to replace secretarial studies which had been in existence in Nigeria
polytechnics since 1989. The review of secretarial studies to office technology and
management was necessitated in order to keep pace with the recent global development
in Information and communication technology (ICT). Introduction of OTM is in response
to meet the demand of the increasing dynamics and computerization of the workplace. It
is aimed at the production of highly proficient breeds of administrative personnel that
would coordinate high office information systems, and provide technical skills with core
career line functions. The rapid advancement of technology and new innovations in
careers have created various career needs, wants, challenges and has opened new
opportunities like e-business, e-communication, e-purchasing, e-marketing, e-finance, e-
learning, e-service etc. All these make use of electronic devices to conduct business
practices on-line. These new opportunities pose enormous challenges to office
technology and management graduates on the need to be career ready, graduates who
want to fit into the contemporary office technology and management careers, needs to
possess the competencies required by employers of labor to have competitive edge over
others.
Career readiness is a description of the extent to which an individual possess
requisite knowledge, skills and experiences that would enable him successfully navigate
to completion an economically viable career pathway in a 21st century economy. Career
readiness includes mastery of rigorous content knowledge and the abilities to apply that
knowledge through higher order skills to demonstrate success in careers. This includes
the ability to think critically and solve problems, communicate effectively, work
collaboratively, and be self-directed in the learning process. A career ready student
possesses both the necessary knowledge and technical skills needed to make a career in
his vocation. For example, a student who is ready to pick up a career in Office
Technology and Management must possess basic secretarial skills such as office skills,
managerial skills, entrepreneurial skills, ICT skills, and socio-psychological skills.

Ultimately, career readiness demands that OTM students know more than just content,
but demonstrate that they know how to learn and build upon that content to solve
problems and by such, prepare to make a career of their chosen vocation. They must
develop versatile communication skills, work collaboratively, work competitively and be
versatile with information and communication technologies.
The literature reviewed also highlighted the theory underlying the present study.
This theory has great implication for the analysis of career-readiness of graduating
students of OTM. The Theory of Work Adjustment (TWA) in connection with the
Parson’s matching theory; strongly suggest the need for students to fit in to the
requirements of the workplace in terms of abilities and attitude for them to be
employable in the career area they have chosen. Though there is no existing literature on
career-readiness analysis of OTM graduating students, related studies were reviewed.
The related studies reviewed showed that the review of the curriculum for secretarial
studies to embrace managerial component, entrepreneurial component and recent
technologies were all in line with the aspirations of the employers of labour. Although
government was proactive in responding to the labour demand for professional
secretaries in the nation by reviewing the curriculum and changing the nomenclature of
secretarial studies to office technology management. However, research have shown that,
it is not certain if this investment has yielded positive result by providing OTM graduates
who are able to make a career in their chosen vocation. Therefore, this work seeks to fill
that gap by providing information that will help find out the career readiness of
graduating OTM students in the polytechnics in Anambra, Ebonyi and Enugu states.
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
This chapter presents the procedure that would be used to carry out this study
under the following sub-headings: design of the study, area of the study, population for
the study, sample and sampling technique, instrument for data collection, validation of
instrument, reliability of instrument, method of data collection, and method of data
analysis.
Design of the Study
This study adopted a descriptive survey design as the most appropriate design
because it is directed towards people, their opinions, attitude and behaviour. The design
is also appropriate because it is a design that a group of people are studied by collecting
and analyzing data from such a group of people who are considered to be a representative
of the population (Okwori, 2011).
Area of the Study
The study was carried out in Anambra, Ebonyi and Enugu States of south eastern
zone of Nigeria. South-eastern Nigeria is one of the six geopolitical zones in Nigeria
mainly occupied by Igbo speaking Nigerian. South-east has boundaries with south-south
(Edo and Delta) in the east, south-south (Rivers and Akwa Ibom) in the south, north
central (Kogi and Benue) in the north and south-south (Cross River) in the west. The
choice of the area of the study was informed by high value and quest for education
among the people of south eastern Nigeria, as well as their high level of economic
activities. Although the level of industrial and economic activities available in Ebonyi
state is low in comparison to Anambra and Enugu, the inclusion of Ebonyi is to check the
influence of location on the career readiness of the graduating students. The study
covered all the federal and state polytechnics that offer Office Technology and
Management courses. The polytechnics offering OTM in these states include; Akanu
Ibiam Federal Polytechnic, Unwana, Ebonyi state, Federal Polytechnic, Oko, Anambra
state and Institute of Management and Technology, Enugu, Enugu state.
Population for the Study
The population for this study is 179 HND II students offering office technology
and management, in the three (3) polytechnics in Anambra, Ebonyi and Enugu states for
the 2014/2015 academic session. HND II students were used because, they are the final
year students who have acquired the required skills for career readiness, and can indicate
the measure to which they possess such skills. The population was made up of 45 OTM
students from Akanu Ibiam Federal Polytechnic, Unwana, Afikpo, Ebonyi State, 85
OTM students from Federal Polytechnic, Oko, Anambra State and 49 OTM students
from Institute of Management and Technology, Enugu State. The population size was
gotten from the student’s registry office of the respective schools for the 2014/2015
academic session.
Sample and Sampling Technique
No sample was taken because of the manageable size of the population. Hence,
the entire population was used for the study.
Instrument for Data Collection
A structured Questionnaire was used as instrument for data collection. The
questionnaire was used to collect data pertaining to research question 1,2,3,4, 5 and 6.
The questionnaire has 90 items and was designed in line with the six research questions,
which are sections A, B, C.D, E, F and G. Section A collected demographic data of the
respondents such as name of school, gender, occupation of parent and location. While
section B, C, D, E, F and G were structured on a five point likert rating scale, designed to
measure the extent of skills possessed by the students. Section B has 12 items which
address research question one on the office skills possessed by the students. Section C
has 15 items and it addresses research question two on the managerial skills possessed by
the OTM students, Section D has 11 items and addressed research question three on the
entrepreneurial skills possessed by the OTM students, Section E has 12 items and
addressed research question four on the ICT skills possessed by the OTM students.
Section F has 15 items and addressed research question five on the communication skills
possessed by the OTM graduating students, while section G has 14 items and addressed
research question six on the socio-psychological skills possessed by the OTM graduating
students. The responses are structured on a five point Likert-type rating scale of Very
Highly Possessed, Highly Possessed, Possessed, Slightly Possessed and Not Possessed
for section B, C, D, E, F and G.
Validation of the Instrument
To ascertain the validity of the research instrument which is the extent to which
the instrument measures what it intend to measure. The research question, purpose of the
study, hypothesis and ninety six items questionnaire was given to three experts from the
Department of Vocational Teacher Education, University of Nigeria, Nsukka in order to
establish the face and content validity of the instrument. These authorities were asked to
validate the instrument with reference to the appropriateness of the items, suitability of
the items, wordings and content coverage. The opinion of the validates helped in
restructuring the questions and it’s numbers, so as to appropriately ascertain the level of
skill possessed. Other comments of the validates were taken into consideration in drafting
the final copy of the instrument
Reliability of the Instrument
In order to determine the internal consistency, the instrument was administered to
35 OTM students of Imo state Polytechnic, Umuagwo, Imo state, which is outside the
study area. The questionnaire administered was retrieved and analysed. The Cronbach
alpha reliability method was adopted to determine the internal consistency of the
instrument. A reliability coefficient of 0.948 was obtained. (See appendix II for SPSS
analysis).
Method of Data Collection
The researcher administered the copies of the questionnaire to the respondents
with the help of one research assistants. A total number of 197 copies of questionnaire
was distributed to the respondents and all of them retrieved for the statistical analysis.
The questionnaires were on the spot and in the case where it was not possible a return
visit was made.
Method of Data Analysis
The data collected was analysed using mean and standard deviation to answer the six
research questions. Table of real limit was used to rate the extent of skills possessed for
each of the indicators for career readiness.
Very highly possessed 4.50-5.00
Highly possessed 3.50-4.49
Possessed 2.50-3.49
Slightly possessed 1.50-2.49
Not possessed 1.00-1.49
Research question seven (7) which seeks to find out the career readiness index
value of the graduating Office Technology and Management students in each polytechnic
was computed using the modified version of Arowolo and Ede (2012) formula.
∑ , , , , ,
C =
Where:
CRP = Career readiness of the polytechnics.

OS = Mean score in office skills
MS = Mean score in managerial skills
ES = Mean score in entrepreneurial skills
IS = Mean score in ICT skills
CS = Mean score in communication skills
SS = Mean score in socio-psychological skills
N = Total number of measures
The career readiness index was rated based on their real limits
Very High career readiness index 4.50-5.00
High career readiness index 3.50-4.49
Average career readiness index 2.50-3.49
Low career readiness index 1.50-2.49
Very low career readiness index 1.00-1.49
Hypothesis 1 and II were tested using t-test at 0.5 percent level of significance.
As a basis for decision, the null hypothesis was calculated t-value exceeds the tabulated
value. Hypothesis III was tested using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) at .05 level of
significance.
CHAPTER FOUR
PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA
This Chapter presents the results and discussions of the data analyses for the
study. The presentations were organized according to the research questions and null
hypotheses that guided the study.
Research Question 1:
What are the office skills possessed by the Office Technology and Management
Table 1:
Mean and standard deviation on the Office skills possessed by OTM graduating
students
X Std.
S/No Item Remarks
1 Ability to write shorthand consonants correctly 3.83 1.11 Highly possessed
2 Ability to use stylus keyboard to do shorthand writing 1.53 .71 Slightly Possessed
3 Ability to write shorthand at a minimum speed of 80wpm 2.55 .85 Possessed
4 Ability to apply the principles of vocalization position in 1.84 .87 Slightly possessed
shorthand writing
5 Ability to read back fluently dictated passages at the rate 2.60 1.16 Possessed
of 100wpm to 120wpm.
6 Ability to use the keyboard without fixing my eyes on 1.82 .84 Slightly possessed
the keys
7 Ability to create word document on the computer 3.66 1.64 Highly possessed
8 Ability to open, save and close word document on the 2.37 .64 Possessed
Microsoft office.
9 Ability to use the cutting, copying and pasting function 2.03 .80 Possessed
when working on Microsoft word
10 Ability to set paragraph and align text on the Microsoft 2.54 .72 Possessed
office word
11 Book keeping ability 2.36 .80 Possessed
12 Ability to keep detail record of accounts 2.84 1.22 Possessed
Overall mean 2.50 .70 Possessed

Table 1 shows the office skills possessed by the OTM graduating students with remarks
based on the table of real limit. The overall mean score of the office skills rated is 2.50.
This indicates that the OTM students possess office skills. The table further revealed that
the students highly possess skills in writing shorthand consonants, and creating of word
documents with mean scores of 3.83 and 3.66 respectively while they slightly possess
skills in usage of stylus keyboard for shorthand writing, applying the principles of
vocalization position in shorthand writing and also typing with eyes off the keyboard
with a mean score of 1.53, 1.84 and 1.82 respectively. The standard deviation of the
items ranges from 0.64 - 1.64 showing that respondents' are not too far from one another
in their opinions.
What are the managerial skills possessed by the Office Technology and
Table 2:
Mean and standard deviation on the Managerial skills possessed by OTM

graduating students
S/no Item X Std. Remarks
1 Ability to lead a team Slightly possessed
2.15 .66
2 Ability to encourage others express them self freely 2.19 .74 Slightly possessed
3 Ability to be confined in by People easily 2.03 .64 Slightly possessed
4 Ability to inspire others to achieve their goals 2.26 .59 Slightly possessed
5 Ability to listen and respect opinion of others when 1.81 .69 Slightly possessed
deliberating in a team
6 Ability to run an effective and productive meeting 4.13 .92 Highly possessed
7 Ability to understand how and when to effectively 1.65 .62 Slightly possessed
delegate a function
8 Ability to confidently engage people or team members 2.05 .66 Slightly possessed
in difficult conversation
9 Ability to inform people about their duties and 2.27 .68 Slightly possessed
responsibilities, clarify rules and policies.
10 Ability to set specific and challenging but realistic 2.63 .85 Possessed
performance goals.
11 Ability to handle stress without transferring my mood to 2.30 .78 Slightly possessed
others
12 Ability to set goals and establish a long-term vision. 2.32 1.01 Slightly possessed
13 Ability to accept criticism 2.28 .77 Slightly possessed
14 Ability to manage human and material resources 2.45 .97 Slightly possessed
15 Ability to work with people of different ethnic group, 2.07 .85 Slightly possessed
tribe or religion
Overall Mean 2.31 .60 Slightly
possessed
Table 2 shows the managerial skills possessed by the OTM students. Data
presented in table 2 reveals that the OTM students slightly possess (SP) managerial skills
with an overall mean of 2.31. The students slightly possess (SP) skills in leading a team,
encouraging others to express themselves freely, inspiring others, respecting the
opinions of others, understanding how and when to delegate a function, handling of
stress, setting of long term goals, accepting criticism, managing human and material
resources, and working with people of different ethnic group, tribe or religion with a
mean score of 2.15, 2.19, 2.03, 2.26, 1.81, 1.65, 2.05, 2.27, 2.30, 2.32, 2.28, 2.45 and
2.07 respectively. The table 2 also showed that the OTM students highly possess (HP)
skills in running effective and productive meeting with a mean score of 4.13. The
standard deviation of the items ranges from 0.59 - 1.01 showing that respondents' are not
too far from one another in their opinions.

What are the entrepreneurial skills possessed by the Office Technology and
Table 3:
Mean and standard deviation on the Entrepreneurial skills possessed by OTM

graduating students
S/No Item X Std. Remarks
1 Ability to constantly see business opportunities or 1.72 Slightly
.70 possessed
ideas that have commercial values
Ability to grow or build businesses Slightly
2 2.48 .66
possessed
3 Ability to be creative and regularly come up with 3.13 .64 Possessed
new ideas
4 Ability to proffer solutions to business problems 3.45 1.11 Possessed
5 Ability to convert my lectures to marketable 3.40 1.11 Possessed
ideas
6 Ability to stand my ground even in difficult n 3.04 .82 Possessed
decisio
7 Ability to come up with more than one way to so lve 3.13 1.11 Possessed
a problem
8 Ability to be decisive when making import ant 2.99 1.16 Possessed
decisions in business
9 Ability to look at business problems from all ang les 2.77 .95 Possessed
to find the best solution
10 Ability to be active, have functional skills and id eas 2.96 .84 Possessed
to create jobs
11 Ability to explore government programmes for 2.70 1.01 Possessed
entrepreneurship like the (YOUWIN project)
Overall mean .48
2.89 Possessed
Table 3 shows the entrepreneurial skills possessed by the OTM students. From the table,
the OTM students have an overall mean of 2.89 which is rated as possessed (P). The
students slightly possess (SP) skills in seeing business opportunities as well as in
regularly coming up with creative ideas with a mean score of 1.72 and 2.48 respectively.
The standard deviation of the items ranges from 0.64 - 1.16 showing that responses were
close to one another in their opinion.

Research question 4:
What are the ICT skills possessed by the Office Technology and Management
Table 4:
Mean and standard deviation on the ICT skills possessed by OTM graduating
students
S/No Item X Std. Remarks
Ability to access and navigate the computer on my own Highly
1 4.49 .85 Possessed
Ability to use Microsoft word for word processing Very Highly
2 4.70 .65 Possessed
3 Ability to prepare a slideshow using Microsoft power Highly
Possessed
4.17 1.06
point
4 Ability to use Microsoft Excel to analyse information, do 4.34 Highly
.93 Possessed
basic calculations and view data in spread sheet.
5 Ability to use Microsoft groove and one note to 3.20 1.34 Possessed
share notes for team projects
6 Ability to make simple design of flyers, memos etc on 4.00 Highly
1.09 Possessed
Microsoft publisher
7 Ability to organize my emails, contacts, schedules 3.52 Highly
1.36 Possessed
using Microsoft outlook
8 Ability to use search engines to search information 3.84 Highly
1.33 Possessed
9 Ability to download material and save effectively on my Highly

4.31 1.00 Possessed
computer or external storage device
10 Ability to upload my notes, research work, discoveries etc 3.55 Highly
1.28 Possessed
on the cyberspace
11 Ability to do online video conferencing using Skype, 3.17 1.49 Possessed
Google hangout, Yahoo messenger etc
12 Highly
Ability to chat with my family or friends etc
Possessed
using (yahoo chat, Google chat, face book, 4.26 1.12
Skype etc)
3.97 0.51 Highly

Overall mean Possessed
Table 5 shows that the OTM students have an overall mean score of 3.97 in ICT skills
which is implies that they highly possess (HP) skills in ICT. The table also revealed that
the students are very proficient in the usage of Microsoft word with a mean score of
4.70 which implies that the skill is very highly possessed (VHP). The standard deviation
of the items ranges from 0.65-1.49 thus indicating that the respondents’ responses were
close to one another in their opinion.
What are the communication skills possessed by the Office Technology and
Table 5:
Mean and standard deviation on the Communication skills possessed by OTM

graduating students
S/No Items X Std. Remarks
Slightly
1 Ability to take notes during lectures 2.44 .75 possessed
Slightly
2 Ability to use the dictionary. 2.46 .73 possessed
Slightly
3 Ability to logically organize my ideas when 2.40 .66 possessed
writing.
Slightly
4 Ability to write an accurate paraphrase of 1.68 .75 possessed
information that I have read
5 Ability to speak clearly without mumbling 2.79 .99 Possessed
6 Ability to use metaphors appropriately 2.79 .90 Possessed
7 Ability to sustain a discussion for a long time 2.75 .99 Possessed
8 Ability to tailor conversation to suit varying 2.89 .97 Possessed

audience
9 Ability to introduce self confidently and 2.79 .91 Possessed
appropriately to others
10 Ability to listen beyond subject content for the 3.72 Highly
1.20 possessed
speakers emotional meaning
3.51 Highly
11 Ability to listen patiently to people without 1.34 possessed
interruption
12 Ability to reflect on the speaker’s body language 3.58 Highly
1.25 possessed
Highly
13 Ability to read other books aside of my school 3.54 1.27 possessed
books
3.96 Highly
14 Ability to understanding words when reading 1.04 possessed
Highly
15 Ability to use my leisure time for reading 3.74 1.17 possessed
Overall mean 2.87 .64 Possessed
Table 5 shows communication skills possessed by the OTM students. The students have
an overall mean score of 2.87. Although the table showed that the OTM students highly
possess (HP) skills in listening beyond subject content, reflecting on speakers body
language, read other books aside from school books, understand when reading and use
their leisure for reading with mean scores of 3.72, 3.51, 3.58, 3.54, 3.96 and 3.74
respectively the table also revealed that they slightly possess (SP) skills in taking notes
during lectures, usage of the dictionary, logically organize ideas when writing and in
making accurate paraphrase of information they have read with mean scores of
2.44,2.46, 2.40 and 1.68 respectively. The standard deviation of the items ranges from
0.66-1.34 thus indicating that the respondents’ responses were close to one another in
their opinion.
What are the socio-psychological skills possessed by the Office Technology and
Table 6:
Mean and standard deviation on the Socio psychological skills possessed by

graduating OTM students
S/No Items X Std. Remarks
Ability to relate freely with people from a variety of Highly
1 3.96 1.01 possessed
background
2 Ability to negotiate my terms with others 4.14 Highly
.85 possessed
Ability to contribute my best to the success of group work, 4.37 Highly
3 .80 possessed
projects, assignments etc.
4 Ability to take leadership role in the class, church, 3.89 Highly
1.21 possessed
community meetings etc.
5 3.50 Highly
Ability of taking different kind of food (especially those 1.28 possessed
from other cultures)
6 Ability to make important decisions on my own without 4.32 Highly
.85 possessed
consulting people
7 Ability to be dedicated to highest quality of work in my 4.15 Highly
1.01 possessed
assignments, projects, tests, exams etc
8 Ability of always been conscious of time 3.77 Highly
1.26 possessed
Highly
9 Ability to have clearly written out long term plan for life 4.03 2.33 possessed
Highly
10 Ability to have a clearly written down “to do” list each day 3.30 1.18 possessed
Highly
11 Ability to ensure that my daily “to do” list is fulfilled every 3.46 1.26 possessed
day
12 Ability to give my undivided attention to one task at a time 3.20 Highly
1.31 possessed
Highly
13 Ability of planning my day, to make out rest time every 3.49 1.39 possessed
day
14 Ability of knowing what I want 3.49 1.39 Possessed
Overall mean 3.79 Highly

0.39 Possessed
Table 6 shows the socio-psychological skills possessed by the OTM students. The table
revealed that the OTM students have an overall mean score of 3.79 which implies that
socio psychological is highly possessed (HP). All the items related to socio psychological
skills were all ranked highly possessed except item measuring the ability to know what I
want which has a mean score of 3.49. The standard deviation of the items ranges from 0.80-
2.33 showing that respondents' are not very far from one another in their opinions.
What is career readiness index value of the Office Technology and Management
graduating students?
Table 7:
Career readiness index value of the Office Technology and Management graduating
students
Career-readiness Indicator (j) Indicator index Career-readiness index
∑ , , , , ,
C =
Office skills 2.50
Managerial skills 2.31
Entrepreneurial skills 2.89 3.09
ICT Skills 3.97
Communication skills 2.87
Socio-Psychological skills 3.79
Table 7 shows the indicators for the computing of the career readiness index and
the contributing parameters for each of the indicators. Office skills has a score of 2.50,
managerial skills has a score of 2.51, entrepreneurial skills has a score of 2.89, ICT skills
has a score of 3.97, communication skills has a score of 2.87, while socio-psychological
skills has a score of 3.79. The overall career readiness index of the OTM students was
computed using the modified version of Arowolo and Ede (2012) formula.
∑ , , , , ,
C =
Therefore, CR = 2.50+2.51+2.89+3.97+2.87+3.79/6
CR = 3.09
The career readiness index of the OTM student is computed to be 3.09. Based on the
table of real limit describing the career readiness index, the OTM students are found to
have an average career readiness index.

Hypothesis 1: There is no significant difference between the mean ratings of male and
female polytechnic students on the office skills possessed by them.
Table 8:
The mean ratings of male and female polytechnic students on the office skills
possessed by them
Gender X Std. t-value P-value REMARKS

Office skills Male 4.11 .49 .428 .673 Not Significant
Female 4.01 .57
Table 8 shows the comparison of means of office skills possessed by OTM students with
respect to gender. The t-test presented the result of the p-value not to be significant at .05
level of significance. The p-value of .673 is above the probability level of .05. The null
hypothesis was therefore accepted as postulated, that there is no significant difference in
the office skills possessed by the OTM students with respect to their gender.
Hypothesis: 2: There is no significant difference between the mean ratings of Federal
and State Polytechnic students on the managerial skills possessed by them.
Table 9:
The mean ratings of Federal and State Polytechnic students on the managerial skills
possessed by them.
School Type X Std. t- P- Remarks

value
value
Managerial skills State polytechnic 4.23 .27 1.270 .214 Not
Significant
Federal polytechnic 4.11 .23
Table 9 shows the comparison of means of managerial skills possessed by OTM students
with respect to their school type. The t-test presented the result of the p-value not to be
significant at .05 level of significance. The p-value of .214 is above the probability level
of .05. The null hypothesis was therefore accepted as postulated, that there is no
significant difference in the managerial skills possessed by the OTM students with
respect to their school type (Federal and State polytechnic).
Hypothesis 3: There is no significant difference in the mean ratings of the Polytechnic
students in Anambra, Ebonyi and Enugu state on the entrepreneurial skills possessed by
them.
Table 10:
The mean ratings of the Polytechnic students in Anambra, Ebonyi and Enugu state
on the entrepreneurial skills possessed by them.
Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig. Remarks

Between Groups .273 2 .137 1.915 .182
Within Groups 1.071 15 .071
Total 1.344 17
Table 10 presented the ANOVA result of the mean ratings of polytechnic students in
entrepreneurial skills across the states where the polytechnics are located. The result
showed that the p-value of .182 is not significant at .05 level of significance. The null
hypothesis was therefore accepted as postulated that there is no significant difference in
the mean ratings of the Polytechnic students in Anambra, Ebonyi and Enugu state on the
entrepreneurial skills possessed by them.
Findings:
The following are the findings of the study listed according to the indicators for career
readiness assessment of the OTM students.

A. Office skills:
i. OTM students are found to exhibit low proficiency in the use of stylus
keyboard for shorthand writing, although they highly possess skills in the
writing of shorthand consonants
ii. OTM students are not able to type without fixing their eyes on the keyboard
though they exhibit high skills in the use of computer in creating word
documents as well as performing other actions such as saving, copying,
pasting of documents on Microsoft word.
B. Managerial skills
i. The study found out that OTM students lacks skills in leading a team
ii. The OTM students lacks confidence in engaging people or members of
their team in difficult conversation
iii. The students lack skills in setting long term goals
iv. The study also showed that the students find it difficult working with
people from different ethnic, or religious group
C. Entrepreneurial skills
i. The study that the OTM students are skill deficient in creating and seeing
of business opportunities
ii. The study also showed that the students lack skills in growing or building
business.
D. Information and Communication Technology skills
i. The study revealed that the students highly possess skills in usage of
computer and the Microsoft office related tools
ii. The OTM students highly possess skills in organization of emails,
contacts, and schedules using the Microsoft outlook

iii. The students are also highly skilled in technologies used for social
interaction, such as, Skype, hangout, yahoo messenger, facebook etc
E. Communication skills
i. The studies revealed that students lack skills in note taking and use of
dictionary
ii. The OTM students lack skills in logically organizing ideas when writing
iii. The students are also lacking in skills involved in making accurate
paraphrase
F. Socio-psychological skills
i. The study revealed that the students highly possess socio-psychological
skills
G. Career readiness of the OTM students
i. The OTM students from the three polytechnics studied have an average
career-readiness index of 3.09 based on the career readiness scale.
ii. The OTM students lack office skills but highly possess skills in ICT.
H. Hypothesis
i. Findings on the hypothesis 1 shows that there is no significant relationship
in the office skills possessed by the OTM students based on their gender
ii. Hypothesis II also shows no significant relationship in the managerial
skills possessed by students based on their school type
iii. Hypothesis III shows that there is no significant relationship in the mean
responses of the OTM students to entrepreneurial skills possessed based
on their states in which the polytechnics are located.

Discussion of Findings
The findings on Table 1 provided answer to research question one. The Table
showed the office skills possessed by the OTM students. OTM students are found to
highly possess skills in the writing of shorthand consonants. The possession of skills
among the students can be attributed partly to the much emphasis given to shorthand
writing in the polytechnics. Emeti (2009) noted that shorthand writing is a key course or
subject in the study of Office Technology Management and Ahukannah and
Chukwumezie (2008) also noted that much priority is given to learning shorthand in the
polytechnics.
Although the students were found to be proficient in taking shorthand dictations
on their notepads, the findings on the table also revealed that the students lack skills in
using modern technologies like the stylus pad in taking shorthand dictations. The lack of
skills in using stylus pads in taking shorthand dictations could be attributed to lack of
such facilities in teaching of shorthand in the institutions. This agrees with Igboke (2006)
who aptly highlighted the place of instructional resources in the teaching of shorthand. In
the study conducted by Ubulom, Enyekit and Egwe (2010), they noted that instructional
materials and equipment help to add stimulus to teaching and learning skill subjects such
as shorthand and typewriting. As a result of the lack of skills in using technologies such
as stylus pad, we concluded by saying that students’ inability to co-ordinate the head, the
heart and the hand, when using new technologies such as stylus pad in taking shorthand
dictations is due to non-utilization of such as instructional materials for teaching of the
subjects in office technology and management.
The findings on Table 1 also revealed that OTM students are not able to type
without fixing their eyes on the keyboard though they exhibit high skills in the use of
computer in creating word documents as well as performing other actions such as saving,
copying, pasting of documents on Microsoft word. This finding agrees with Udo (2014),
who noted that many students are only able to operate the typewriter or computer
keyboards with two or three fingers instead of their nine fingers and can hardly take their
eyes off the keyboard when performing typing tasks.
The result on Table 2 provided information on the managerial skills possessed by
the OTM students. The finding on the table showed that the OTM students lacks skills in
leading a team and they also lack confidence in engaging people or members of their
team in difficult conversation. This finding according to Udo (2014) explains why most
employers of labour in this nation consider the products of office technology and
management (OTM) as half-baked and unusable without further training. With the
growing demand for organisations to compete favourably in a global economy, the need
for graduates who have high managerial competencies becomes inevitable. Soludo
(2012) making a case for the need for graduates to possess more than just technical skills
in their field of study described the Nigerian graduates as a misfit for today’s workplace.
The finding on Table 2 also showed that students lack skills in setting long term goals
and find it difficult working with people from different ethnic, or religious group
The finding on Table 3 provided information on entrepreneurial skills possessed
by the OTM students. The study showed that OTM students are skill deficient in creating
and seeing of business opportunities and lack skills in growing or building business.
Although, entrepreneurship studies has been included in the curriculum for OTM in
Nigeria, this study still found out that the students are lacking in skills needed for
creating businesses. programmes prepares or equips learners with the skills that make
them not just capable but also willing to undertake and run a small business of any kind
with the sole aim of making profit. This they can achieve because they have the acquired
skills that are required for that task. Such business ventures could be in the area of
product or service business. This thus implies that the aim of entrepreneurship education
as stated in NBTE (2007) to prepare the OTM students with enterprising skills is not
achieved.
The finding on Table 4 on ICT skills revealed that the students highly possess
skills in usage of computer and the Microsoft office related tools, the OTM students
highly possess skills in organization of emails, contacts, and schedules using the
Microsoft outlook, the students are also highly skilled in technologies used for social
interaction, such as, Skype, hangout, yahoo messenger, facebook etc. This agrees with
Prensky (2001) that today’s student have a natural inclination to get acquainted with ICT
skills. He opined that today’s students are better referred to as digital natives. This
generation of students have spent their lives surrounded by and using computers, video
games, digital music players, video cams, cell phones and all other toys of the digital age.
Computer games, email, the Internet, cell phones and instant messaging are integral parts
of their lives. This finding has great implication on the career readiness of the OTM
students in the sense that ICT has changed the way businesses are carried out and skills
in ICT are prerequisite for effectiveness in today's world of work.
Table 5 presented the result on the communication skills possessed by the OTM
students. The findings on the table revealed that students lack skills in note taking and
use of dictionary, skills in logically organizing ideas when writing as well as skills
involved in making accurate paraphrase. Communication is central to keeping people
together and it is a core skills needed to make a career in OTM. It has intellectual, socio-
cultural, psychological, technological and linguistic dimensions. Onifade (2010) ranks
communication skills as imperative for secretaries as the one who represents the
organization. The finding on this table has great implication for making a career in OTM.
A professional secretary must be able to logically organize ideas in writing and
communicate with clients and colleagues effectively.
The finding on Table 6 presented the result on the socio-psychological skills
possessed by the OTM students. The study revealed that the students highly possess socio-
psychological skills. This finding justifies the essence for the inclusion of the socio-
psychology in the OTM programme. The students of OTM are expected to possess
interpersonal and intrapersonal competencies that would enhance their effectiveness of
the workplace.
Table 7 presented the finding on the career readiness of the OTM students. The
table revealed that the OTM students from the three polytechnics studied have an average
career-readiness index of 3.09 based on the career readiness scale. Considering the
indicators and parameters that contributed to the overall index of the OTM students, the
students had an average index in office skills, managerial skills, entrepreneurial skills and
communication skills with index of 2.50, 2.51, 2.89 and 2.87 respectively. The OTM
students had a high index ICT skills and socio psychological skills with index of 3.97 and
3.79 respectively. The high index in ICT skills can be attributed to what Prensky (2001)
noted as the natural inclination of today’s students to acquaint themselves with
technologies. This generation of students according to Prensky (2001) have spent their
lives surrounded by and using computers, video games, digital music players, video
cams, cell phones and all other toys of the digital age. Computer games, email, the
Internet, cell phones and instant messaging are integral parts of their lives. This can also
be said to have influenced their strong socio psychological skills. Today’s students
functions in a networked digital society where there is a continual chain of interaction
with people from different spheres and religious background via social media. This
interaction according to Davis (2001), impacts greatly on the socio psychology of an
individual.
However, the overall career readiness index revealed that the students have an
average index of 3.09 and indicators such as office skills, managerial skills,
entrepreneurial skills and communication skills contributed majorly to the average index.
Onifade (2010) concluded that there can be no indispensable secretary without office
skills such as keyboarding, book keeping, taking minute of meetings etc. He further
emphasized the imperativeness of communication skills in the effectiveness of the
indispensable secretary. OTM formerly referred to as secretarial studies was lacking in
the managerial component and this informed the curriculum review. Onifade (2010)
outlined that a professional secretary must proficient as a manager, communicate
effectively, possess core technical skills and must be verse in the use of current
technologies used in today’s office.
Findings on the Hypotheses
The finding on Table 8 showed that there is no significant relationship between
gender and office skills possessed by the OTM students. This agrees with Blattman,
Fiala, and Martinez (2014) that acquisition of technical skills are similar across genders.
Findings on the hypothesis 1 shows that there is no significant relationship in the office
skills possessed by the OTM students based on their gender. This also disagreed with
Gambari & Okoli (2007) who found a difference in level of competence in office skills
possessed as a result of gender
Table 9 presented the result on Hypothesis II. The finding of the table revealed
that there is no significant relationship in the managerial skills possessed by students
based on their school type. The findings of this study disagreed with the assumption that
federal institutions like the federal polytechnics are better than the state owned
institutions. Table 10 also revealed that there is no significant relationship in the mean
response of the OTM students to entrepreneurial skills possessed based on the state
where their school is located.

CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Re-Statement of the Problem
Studies in Nigeria evolved out of the need to meet the technological and managerial
demands of today’s workplace, which was birthed out of the yearning of the secretaries
in occupying not just the position of secretary but to be managers in organizations as
well. Graduates have been seen to have so much difficulty making transition from
academic life to work even though the school is suppose to provide the experiences and
trainings which will help an individual make intelligent occupational choices that will
advance him in his career path. The government then reviewed the curriculum of
secretarial studies and introduced the managerial, entrepreneurial and ICT component
that was lacking in the former secretarial studies so that the schools can produce
graduates in OTM who are prepared and fit to make a career of their chosen vocation.
This study seeks to know if the inclusion of ICT, entrepreneurial and managerial
components in the new OTM curriculum has any significant effect on the readiness of the
OTM students in making a career in office technology and management. The study thus
seeks to determine the career readiness of OTM graduating students in polytechnics in
Anambra, Ebonyi and Enugu state.
The study was conducted in polytechnics offering Office Technology and
Management in Anambra, Ebonyi and Enugu state. The purpose of the study was to
assess the career readiness of the OTM students. In specific, the study seeks to determine
the following;
1. determine the office skills possessed by the Office Technology and Management

2. determine the managerial skills possessed by the Office Technology and
3. determine the entrepreneurial skills possessed by the Office Technology and
4. determine the ICT skills possessed by the Office Technology and Management
5. determine the communication skills possessed by the Office Technology and
6. determine the socio-psychological skills possessed by the Office Technology and
7. determine the career readiness index value of the Office Technology and
Management graduating students
Summary of Procedures Used
To achieve these seven purposes, a survey research design was used. Structured
questionnaire with 79 items was administered to the respondents to collect information
on the career readiness of the OTM students. The questionnaire was divided in to seven
sections. Section A collected demographic data of the respondents while section B to G
were arranged in line with the indicators for career readiness assessment. The
respondents consist of 179 HND II students in the polytechnics in Anambra, Ebonyi and
Enugu state. 85 respondents from Federal polytechnic Oko, 45 from Federal polytechnic
Unwana, Ebonyi state and 49 respondents from Institute of Management Technology,
Enugu. The instrument was face validated by three experts from the department of
Vocational Teacher Education, University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
The questionnaire was trial-tested on 35 OTM students from Imo state
Polytechnic, Umuagwo, the results of the test obtained from the questionnaire showed a
reliability coefficient of 0.95. The researcher with the help of one research assistant
administered and collected copies of the questionnaire from the subjects and the entire
questionnaire was returned. Mean (x), T-Test and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) were
used in analyzing data for the study. In particular t-test and ANOVA was used to test the
null hypothesis at 0.5 probability level. Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS-
Version 16) was used for the analysis.
Summary of Findings
The following are the major findings of the study:
1. OTM students are not proficient in the usage of modern technologies such as
stylus pad in taking shorthand dictation
2. Students lack skills in team leading and confidence in engaging people or
members of their team in difficult conversation
3. OTM students are skill deficient in creating and seeing of business
opportunities and lack skills in growing or building business
4. The OTM students possess high skills in ICT
5. OTM students lack skills in note taking and use of dictionary, skills in
logically organizing ideas when writing as well as skills involved in making
accurate paraphrase.
6. OTM students have a high socio-psychological skills
7. The career readiness of the OTM student is low and as such lack the requisite
skills for a career in OTM
8. Office skill acquisition is not influenced by gender of students
9. School type (federal or state polytechnic) is not a determinant of managerial
skills possessed by the students

10. Location of school (Anambra, Ebonyi and Enugu state) was found to have no
effect on the rating of entrepreneurship skills possessed by the OTM students
Implications of the Study
Findings on office skills possessed by the OTM students revealed that students
rated high in shorthand skills, typing skills and book keeping skills but they rated low in
the use of modern technology such as the stylus pad in writing in shorthand. The
implication of this finding is that, such technologies used in today’s offices in taking
dictations or minutes of meetings such as stylus pad is yet to be part of the teaching and
learning of shorthand in Nigerian polytechnics. Although some researchers argue that
shorthand writing is obsolete in these days where voice recorders are available and
affordable but shorthand skill is still a requisite for an indispensable secretary.
The finding on the extent of managerial skills possessed by the students revealed
that the students lack skills in leading a team and they also lack confidence in engaging
people or members of their team in difficult conversation. This finding has great
implication and significance for the policy makers. Among the reasons for reviewing the
curriculum of secretarial studies and changing the nomenclature to Office Technology
and Management (OTM) is to inculcate in the students the managerial component
lacking in the earlier curriculum. With the high level of competition between business
organisations to control large business share it is a big need for these organisations to
employ only graduates who have high managerial competencies.
The finding on entrepreneurial skills possessed by the OTM students showed that
OTM students are skill deficient in creating and seeing of business opportunities and lack
skills in growing or building business. Although, entrepreneurship studies has been
included in the curriculum for OTM in Nigeria, this study still found out that the students
are lacking in skills needed for creating businesses. This implies that the aim of
entrepreneurship education as stated in NBTE (2007) to prepare the OTM students with
enterprising skills is not achieved and policy makers must look appropriately to the
possible cause of this deficiency
The finding on ICT skills revealed that the students highly possess skills in usage
of computer and the Microsoft office related tools, the OTM students highly possess
skills in organization of emails, contacts, and schedules using the Microsoft outlook, the
students are also highly skilled in technologies used for social interaction, such as,
Skype, hangout, yahoo messenger, facebook etc. The high ICT skills possessed by the
students is an asset to the nation. With the constant dynamism brought in by technology
to the day to day running of the office, it is imperative that OTM students highly possess
skills in ICT. This finding has great implication on the career readiness of the OTM
students in the sense that ICT has changed the way businesses are carried out and skills
in ICT are prerequisite for effectiveness in today's world of work.
The finding on the communication skills possessed by the OTM students revealed
that students lack skills in note taking and use of dictionary, skills in logically organizing
ideas when writing as well as skills involved in making accurate paraphrase.
Communication is central to keeping people together and it is a core skills needed to
make a career in OTM. It has intellectual, socio-cultural, psychological, technological
and linguistic dimensions. This has implication in the possibility of making a carrer in
OTM because, a professional secretary must be able to logically organize ideas in writing
and communicate with clients and colleagues effectively.
The finding on the socio-psychological skills possessed by the OTM students
revealed that the students highly possess socio-psychological skills. This finding justifies
the essence for the inclusion of the socio-psychology in the OTM programme. The
students of OTM are expected to possess interpersonal and intrapersonal competencies
that would enhance their effectiveness of the workplace.
Moreover, one of the important findings emerged from this study is in the career
readiness of the OTM students which showed an average career readiness index. This
justifies researchers who concluded that Nigerian graduates are unemployable due to the
mismatch of skills required for work. A professional secretary must be proficient as a
manager, communicate effectively, possess core technical skills and must be verse in the
use of current technologies used in today’s office.
The findings on the hypothesis revealed that there is no significant relationship
between gender and office skills possessed by the OTM students. This agrees with
existing literature that acquisition of technical skills are similar across genders and level
of competence in office skills is not based on gender. Furthermore, the study showed that
there is no significant relationship in the managerial skills possessed by students based on
their school type. This finding has great significance for parents and students who think
federal institutions are better than state owned educational institutions. Finally the study
revealed that there is also no significant relationship in the mean response of the OTM
students to entrepreneurial skills possessed based on the state where the school is located.
Although the students in Anambra state rated higher in entrepreneurial skills implying
that certain skills are not attained mainly in the classroom but the environment plays a
significant role in the learning of such skills. Anambra state compared to the other three
states under study is more of a commercial state this could be assumed to justify why the
OTM students in that states rated higher in entrepreneurial skills.
Conclusions
The career readiness index of the OTM students in Anambra, Ebonyi and Enugu
state have far reaching implication on OTM programme in other states in south east
Nigeria. If OTM students rated low in these three states, it is easier to imply same for
Imo state and Abia state. From the result on the career readiness of these three
polytechnics it can be inferred that much of what is done in the classroom are mere
theoretical. Students are not exposed or prepared towards skill acquisition.
Limitations
A major limitation of this study is the fact that the respondents in the study were
drawn from three polytechnics in Anambra, Ebonyi and Enugu states. A more elaborate
study covering all the states in Nigeria or major cities in each geo-political zone in
Nigeria is needed for a wider generalization. career readiness assessment is a broad field
of study, but limiting the study to OTM limits the extent to which the result can be
generalize to other field of study.
Recommendations
Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations are made:
1. The body regulating polytechnic programmes in Nigeria (NBTE), should conduct
re-evaluation of the programme to ascertain the possible strategies for effective
teaching and learning of office technology and management courses.
2. The polytechnics must strengthen their partnership with industry for work based
training of their students
3. The government should improve on provision of modern facilities for teaching of
shorthand in the polytechnics
4. Periodic workshops, awareness campaign and regular retraining should be
organized for OTM lecturers on how best to impart skills on the students
Suggestion for Further Studies
The researcher suggests the following areas for further study:
5. Replication of this study in other geo-political zones in Nigeria

6. Strategies for utilization of facilities for effective teaching and learning of office
technology and management courses.
7. Evaluation of the programme to ascertain possible cause of skill deficiency in
students undertaking the programme.
8. Partnership with industry for work based training of office technology and
management students.
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CAREER READINESS OF THE OFFICE TECHNOLOGY AND

MANAGEMENT STUDENTS IN POLYTECHNICS IN ANAMBRA,

IFEJIKA, LYNDA CHINEZE

DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL TEACHER

SUPERVISOR: PROF E.E AGOMUO

Prof. E.E. Agomuo

External Examiner Prof. C. A Igbo

Prof. C.U. Umo

Ifejika, Lynda Chineze, a Post-graduate student in the Department of Vocational Teacher

Education, with Registration Number PG/M.Ed/12/62836 has satisfactorily completed the

Ifejika, Lynda Chineze Prof. E.E

This research work is dedicated to my parents

Sir and Lady Nso Ifejika

Ikechukwu Ifejika, Queen Ifejika, Prince Ifejika, Chukwuka Ifejika, Chukwudi

I love you all

suggestions that has greatly improve this work.

TABLE OF CONTENTS vii

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study 1

Statement of the Problem 9

Purpose of the Study 11

Significance of the Study 11

Scope of the Study 14

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

Career and career readiness. 15

Career education a requisite for career readiness. 18

Office Technology and Management. 20

Office skills required by the professional secretary. 21

Managerial skills required for career by secretaries. 23

Information and Communication Technology skills required for career in OTM 27

Communication skills required for career in today’s workplace. 29

Socio-psychological skills required for career in today’s workplace 37

Theory of work adjustment (TWA) 44

Parson’s Matching Theory (PMT) 45

Related Empirical Studies 46

Summary of literature reviewed 52

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY 55

Design of the Study 55

Area of the Study 55

Population for the Study 56

Sample and sampling technique 56

Instrument for Data Collection 56

Validation of the Instrument 57

Reliability of the Instrument 57

Method of Data Collection 58

Method of Data Analysis 58

CHAPTER FOUR: PRESENTATION OF DATA ANALYSIS 60

Presentation and Analysis of Data 60

CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 81

Re-statement of the problem 81

Summary of Procedures Used 82

Suggestion for Further Studies 87

Appendix I Request for validation of instrument 96

Appendix III SPSS Analysis

Appendix IV Analysis of formulae for computing career readiness index

Table 1: Office skills possessed by OTM graduating students 61

Table 2: Managerial skills possessed by OTM graduating students 63

Table 3: Entrepreneurial skills possessed by OTM graduating students 65

Table 4: ICT skills possessed by OTM graduating students 66