Experiment 7: First Order RL and RC Circuits Ryan M. Morrison Buu ‘Truong February 25, 2013Objective ‘The purpose of this experiment is to observe responses for RC and RL cirenits with an oscilloscope. A method for measuring the time constant is applied to response observations, and results are compared to theoretical ones. A secondary purpose is to introduce and familiarize lab participants with the oscilloscope and the funetion generator. Theoretical Background The Natural Response of an RC Circuit ‘To derive the natural response of an RC circuit, consider the cireuit in Pigure 1 Figure 1: An RC circuit. It is assumed the switch is connected to a long enough for the leftmost loop to reach steady-state conditions. Tn the presence of constant voltage, the capacitor behaves as an open circuit. Thus, current does not flow, and the terminal voltage of the eapacitor is equal to that of the souree voltage. So when the switch transitions to b at 1 =0, the circuit is reduced to that in Figure 2. i@) v0) = Vo Figure : RC circuit aller switch transition, for ¢ > 0. KVL is applied to the cirenit in Figure 2: v-iR = 0 ay‘The vi characteristic equation for a capacitor is noted as 2) Substituting Eq. 2 into Bq. 1 gives (3) Equation 3 is a variable separable ODE which is solved for v dv 1 T - f-met Info] = 1 t Info| = pate le] ennette Jv] eo nets jo} = v = the-aot v = ke @ Where v(0) = Vi and constant & = Vo, Eq. 4 becomes the natural response of an RC circuit vi) =e me 20 (5) From v(t) and Ohm’s law, the expression for i(t) is derived: 0) R a) Me ot or i) = oe 120! 6) It should be noted that Equations 5 and 6 are both decreasing exponentials. The speed at. which, they decrease depends upon the product RC, which is referred to as the time constant. As the time constant increases, response decay is suppressed; as the time constant decreases, response decayvit) Vo v(t) =Vye™ v() = Vo- Volt Figure 3: ‘The natural response of an RC ireuit and graphical depiction of the time constant. ‘The Time Constant As noted above, the time constant is the time it takes for v or i to decrease by a factor of I/e. The time constant is expressed by + = RC for RC circuits, and r= L/R for RL circuits, ‘The units for + are seconds. The graph in Figure 3 depicts a line tangent to the natural response curve that starts from the time of steady-state 1(0) and extends to the time axis. The point at which this tangent intersects the time axis is equal to the time constant, This snethod for measuring the is feasible only when a graph of the response curve is available. ime constant An alter tive method for measuring the time e experiment, is ealled the 63.22% decay n for each time constant can be eal response nstant, and the one which will be used im this hod. This states that the response decays by 63.22% nterval. By observing the response on an oscilloscope, the time constant lated by multiplying Vp by 63.22%, extending a horizontal line from Va(.6322) to the turve, and calculating the distance, time, between Vj(.6822) and the intersection at the response curve, This method is also applicable to RL circuits, and is graphically depicted in the figure below. v0} Time Constant a t Figure 4: The 63.22% method illustrated.‘The Natural Response of an RL Circuit ‘To derive the natural response of an RE circuit, consider the cireuit in Fig) L | . WY RS boo Ree Figure 5: An RI cireuit It is assumed that the switch has been closed for a sullicient amount of time for only constant the cireuit prior to the switeh being open. Hence, the inductor behaves as a short tive branch, and no current flowing current to exist cireuit. The short means that there is zero voltage in the indi through either of the resistors. When the switch is opened at {(0), the inductor begins to release energy, and the circuit is reduced to the one depicted in Figure 6, + u nm WN ot 1 Figure 6: RL circuit after opened switeh, for 1 > 0KVL is applied to the cirenit in Figure 6: wR = 0 we ik ca i R a Fu po fe R infil - —2ebe fl =e Bter li] = kent i = theft i= he tt @ Where i(0) = Ip and constant k = Jy, Eq. 7 becomes the natural response of an RL circuit (= he Ht 120 (8) Next, voltage is found: (9) 6‘The natural response is depicted graphically in Figure 7 below. 0 Figure 7: The natural response of an RL cireuit, ‘The Step Response of RC and RL Circuits A step response is classilied as the circuit response to the sudden application of a constant vollage or current, The step responses exhibit how the circuit reacts when energy is being stored in the capacitor or inductor. Consider the RC circuit in Figure 8 of an RC circuit, Figure 8 Circuit used to illustrate the step respe ‘The step response for an RC circuit is given by ve(t) =LR+(Vo—IR)e PO L>0 (19) and the equation for eurrent is given by = (1, -%) ene) a= (+ 9) Yj is the initial value of ve whieh is equal to 0 at = 0. Voltage for the capacitor can not change instantanoously, therefore Eq. 10 shows that after the switch is closed, capacitor voltage increases exponentially from 0 to the final value I, ft. Conversely, current: in the capacitor branch changes instantaneously from 0) at ¢ = 0" to I, ~Vo/R at t= 0". The current then decays exponentially to 0, ot ayFor step response of an RL cireuit, consider Figure 9 R pW Figure 9: Circuit used to ill of an RL circuit. ‘The step response for an RL circuit is given by iw=Ke(o Bem eso w When the initial energy in the induetor is zero, Ip is zero. Thus, Equation 12 reduces to ve V. 1 4 y= %—Bewm (us) and the equation for voltage is given by v(t) = (Ve FoR F/O" t> oF (14) Equation 13 shows that after the switch is closed, the current increases exponentially from 0 to the final value V,/R. ‘The time constant determines the rate of increase, and, after one time constant the current reaches © 63% of the final value. Conversely, noting that voltage across the inductor is O before the switch is closed, Eq. 1M shows that inductor voltage instantaneously jumps to V;— oR wh the switeh is closed—th tor voltage then decays exponentially to 0. There is a mnilarity observed between the step response equations for RC and RL cireuits, which leads to the ability to generalize the process for finding a step response. Describing the general form, in English, we have the unknown the final the initial the final variable asa = value of the +/ value of the — value ofthe | x function of time variable variable variable = [t= (time of switching)} Where a = Where (time constant) ‘Thus, the generalized equation for a stop response is given by x(t) =, + [x (to) —ry]e er (15)Duty Cycle Duty cycle is defined for a pulse as the ratio of the active interval to the total period. Active time, Period Figure 10: Duty cycle of a square pulse. Active Time Duly Cyele = “TF ‘The Oscilloscope ‘This experiment uses the oscilloscope to observe res onses ina given circuit. ‘This experiment utilizes oscilloscope probes of type 1X. This distinction of probe type refers to the attenuation level of a given probe. The 1X type provides a 1:1 attenuation ratio basieally, it does not attenuate the incoming voltage and is suited for low frequency applications. In contrast, a 10X probe may be used when increased accuracy is desired and frequencies are higher. The 10X probes provide a 10:1 attenuation by using a series 9 MO resistor. The attenuation of the probes results in a reduced signal entering the scope, therefore scales on the scope may need to be adjusted accordingly. ‘The process for adjusting the time and voltage scales on the scope may vary depending upon the particular scope used. First, the frequency and amplitude are adjusted on the signal generator. Some scopes have a button labeled “auto-scale”, as is the case with this experiment, which will provide the time and voltage scale adjustment automatically, The other method is to manually adjust the scales. To do this, two knobs labeled “Volts/Div” and “Time/Div” are used to set. the desired amount of voltage and time per division. The divisions are represented on the scope screen by a grid. ‘These adjustments allow for the response being observed to be viewed on a range from granular to many frequencies at a time. Channel calibration of this sort. must be performed in order for a response to be properly observed Waveforms Waveforms are periodie shapes that model a signal. Examples of signals appropriate for representa- tion by a waveform are current and voltage. Oscilloscopes are used to display waveforms as a given quantity such as voltage ve e. The waveforms observed in this experiment closely resemble sawtooth shapes, while the signals generated are square. Other types of waveforms are sine and triangle.Current Measuring Resistor This experiment, requires the use of a 102 current measuring resistor. The purpose of this resistor is to draw current through the cireuit in order to observe current response in the circuit. A 109 resistor is used because the resistance value is small, therefore having negligible effect on measurements. Procedure ‘The RC Circuit An RC cireuit is constructed as in Figure 11. The current measuring resistor is 1002 and the variable resistor is 510 and 250 ar ATV Vollage 0. uF Curent Current measuring <2 resistor <= Figure 11: Experimental RC eireuit, ‘The time constant is calculated for both the 5100 and 2500 resistor values: RC + = (5109) (10 10" pF) Theo. = 5L.0p8 (16) r (250) (10 x 10" pF) Theo. = 25.08 a) The function generator is set to produce a square pulse. To allow for the capacitor to reach steady- state, the source period is adjusted to at least 20% the calculated time constant: period = 20(51.0ps) period = 1.02ms (as) 10Frequency is calculated: 1 foe 1 f 1.02 ns J = 98012 (19) Amplitude is set to 5.0V and duty eyele is set to 50.0%. A 1X probe is connected to oscilloscope 1 in Figure 12 is observed and tapped into circuit at the points indicated in Figure 11. The wavefo from the oscilloscope. =580us=t Figure 12: 5100 RC response as observed from oscilloscope. in Figure 12. Yp is when the ‘The following calculations are made from analysis of the respon: capacitor has reached steady-state charging, and Y; is when it has discharged. y 4.9V (20) Yi —5.025V (21) AY is the total voltage in the eapacitor from fully charged state to fully discharged state AY = %-%i AY = 4.945.025 AY = 9925V (22) u‘The 63.22% method is applied, where ~ 63% of the response decays afler one t (63 AY = (63) 9.925 (03) AY = 6.2575 (23) 8% is remaining is calculated by subtracting Bq. 22 from ‘The point ou the response, ¥J, where Eq. 19: = Y2—(.63) AY 196 =1.35V) (24) A vertical lino, X2, is extended through the point: where YJ and the response intersect. X1 represents the time at which decay begins. The difference betwoen Xp and X; is the time constant: X= Xy = 1.57520ms Teas, = X2— Tmeas, = 1.6338 — 1.5752 Treas, = 58.0 4s (25) Current is measured with the oscilloscope, and it’s response is compared to the voltage response in the figure below. = Figure 13: Comparison of voltage and current responses for 5100 RC eireuit. 2‘The variable resistor is chs iged to 2500 in the cireuit in Figure 11. All computations follow the same procedure as for the 5100 configuration—steps are omitted for space and results are reported below Table 1: Summary of Calculations for 2500 RC Cireuit Period | Frea Ya AY | (oxyay | ¥y 500ns | 2000 We | 4.9250 G.950V | 6.2085 V | LBV Xe w AX | Titco | tmons GARI ys | ABSAMOS | BLApS | 25.08 | BLAS I+ x0 46484 ps X= 43344 us|] Figure 14: 250 RC respouse as observed from oscilloscope. 1BA comparison of current and voltage responses for the 2500 RC circuit: Figure 15: Comparison of voliage and current responses for 25082 RC circuit. ‘The RL Cireuit An RU circuit is constructed as in Figure 16. The current measuring resistor is 10. and the variable resistor is 5002. DAV Wy “Voltage Current measuring resistor < Figure 16: Experimental RL cireuit, All calculations follow just as those for the 5100 RC circuit, For space considerations, the remaining values are tabulated. Table 2: Summary of Calculations for 5009 RL Circuit Period in CayaY |_¥y 2.0 ms. 148.75 mV 455.17 mV | 416.08 mV Xe Tuheo. Times 124s 0.2ms: 12 us uFigure 18: Comparison of voltage and current responses for 5000 RL cireuit ‘The resistor in the circuit in Figure 16 is replaced with a 2500 resistor. All calculation results are tabulated below. Table 3: Summary of Calculations for 2500 RL Circuit Period | Freq. Ye Yi AY | (oxyAY [vs ZO ms | 250 Hz | S03. 75miV | 2STSMV | F8.0mV | 368.55 mV | 35.2 m x; x AX Ttheo. meas. TsO | 004s | 18048 | O4ms | 180s 16Yo= 803.75 mV 435.2 mV Y= 218.75 mv Figure 19: 25002 RL response as observed from oscilloscope, 02 RL circuit of voltage and current responses for 16Analysis ‘The RC Circuit ation of the response for RC circuit. is given below. A generalized graphic repn vt i Step Response v(t)=Voett} — Tnterval ‘Natural Response Interval Figure 21: Step and natural responses for the RC circuit. Figure 21 shows the distinction between the step and natural responses. For the step response, a sudden application of voltage causes the capacitor to charge exponentially until it reaches steady- state, In the absence of voltage, the capacitor discharges in the natural response interval. Current in the capacitor is allowed to flow instantaneously upon voltage being applied, therefore the cur- rent, depicted as the yellow curve in Figure 13, decays exponentially in the step response interval. Measured time constants for the RC circuit are summarized below. T10 = 58.0 ps (26) ro = 31Aps (27)‘The RL Circuit A alized graphic representation of the response for RL cirenit is given below FO) Step Response Natural Response (t) Interval (VR) 2") Figure 22: Step and natural responses for the RL circuit Figure 22 shows the distinction between the step and natural respouses for the RL circuit. For the step response, sudden application of energy causes the inductor Lo charge with eurrent exponentially until it reaches steady-state, Tn the absence of energy, the inductor discharges current in the natural response interval. Voltage, like current for the capacitor, appears instantaneously and ized below. decays exponentially. Measured time constants for the RL circuit are su T50 = 124 ps (28) 50 = 180 ps (29) Conclusion Response behaviors observed are in agreement. with what, theoretical equations imply. The 63.22% method for measuring the time constant proves more effective for the RC circuit than for the RL. cireuit, The reason for this is the internal resistance in the inductor. ‘Thus, when caleulating the time constant, the internal resistance of the inductor must be considered. 1s