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Functions

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Functions

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8

8.1 Functions and Their

Introduction to Functions
Representations
8.2 Linear Functions
8.3 Compound Inequalities
8.4 Other Functions and
Their Properties
8.5 Absolute Value
Equations and
Inequalities

“Our competitive
advantage is our math
skills, which is probably
not something you
E very day millions of people create trillions of bytes of information. The only way
we can make sense out of these data and determine what is occurring within society is
to use mathematics. One of the most important mathematical concepts used to discover
would expect of a trends and patterns is that of a function. A function typically receives an input (or ques-
media company.” tion), performs a computation, and gives the output (or answer).
—MAX LEVCHIN, Functions have been used in science and engineering for centuries to answer ques-
tions related to things like eclipses, communication, and transportation. However, today
CEO OF SLIDE
(Slide is the number one company
functions are also being used to describe human behavior and to design social networks.
for writing Facebook applications.) (See Section 8.1, Exercise 75.) In fact, you may have noticed that new features available
on Twitter and Facebook are sometimes referred to as applications or functions. People
are creating thousands of new functions every day. Math skills are essential for writing
successful applications and functions. ISBN 1-256-49082-2

502
Beginning and Intermediate Algebra with Applications & Visualization, Third edition, by Gary K. Rockswold and Terry A. Krieger. Published by Addison Wesley.
Copyright © 2013 by Pearson Education, Inc.
8.1 FUNCTIONS AND THEIR REPRESENTATIONS 503

8.1 Functions and Their Representations

Basic Concepts ● Representations of a Function ● Definition of a Function ●
Identifying a Function ● Graphing Calculators (Optional)

A LOOK INTO MATH N In earlier chapters we showed how to use numbers to describe data. For example, instead
of simply saying that there are a lot of people on Twitter, we might say that there are about
50 million tweets per day. A number helps explain what “a lot” means. We also showed
that data can be summarized with formulas and graphs. Formulas and graphs are some-
times used to represent functions, which are essential in mathematics. In this section we
introduce functions and their representations.

Basic Concepts
N REAL-WORLD CONNECTION Functions are used to calculate many important quantities. For
example, suppose that a person works for $7 per hour. Then we could use a function named
f to calculate the amount of money the person earned after working x hours simply by mul-
NEW VOCABULARY tiplying the input x by 7. The result y is called the output. This concept is shown visually in
the following diagram.
n Function
n Function notation
n Input/Output
Input x Function f Output y = f (x)
n Name of the function
n Dependent variable
n Independent variable
Uses input x to
n Verbal representation compute a value of y
n Numerical representation
n Symbolic representation For each valid input x, a function computes exactly one output y, which may be repre-
n Graphical representation sented by the ordered pair (x, y). If the input is 5 hours, f outputs 7 # 5 = $35; if the input
n Diagrams/Diagrammatic is 8 hours, f outputs 7 # 8 = $56. These results can be represented by the ordered pairs
representation (5, 35) and (8, 56). Sometimes an input may not be valid. For example, if x = - 3, there is
n Relation
no reasonable output because a person cannot work - 3 hours.
n Domain/Range
We say that y is a function of x because the output y is determined by and depends on
n Nonlinear functions
n Vertical line test
the input x. As a result, y is called the dependent variable and x is the independent variable.
To emphasize that y is a function of x, we use the notation y = f (x). The symbol f (x) does
not represent multiplication of a variable f and a variable x. The notation y = f (x) is called
function notation, is read “y equals f of x,” and means that function f with input x produces
output y. For example, if x = 3 hours, y = f (3) = $21.

FUNCTION NOTATION
The notation y = f (x) is called function notation. The input is x, the output is y,
and the name of the function is f.
Name
Q

y = f(x)
Q

Output Input
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The variable y is called the dependent variable and the variable x is called the inde-
pendent variable. The expression f (4) = 28 is read “f of 4 equals 28” and indicates
that f outputs 28 when the input is 4. A function computes exactly one output for each
valid input. The letters f, g, and h are often used to denote names of functions.

Beginning and Intermediate Algebra with Applications & Visualization, Third edition, by Gary K. Rockswold and Terry A. Krieger. Published by Addison Wesley.
Copyright © 2013 by Pearson Education, Inc.
504 CHAPTER 8 INTRODUCTION TO FUNCTIONS

NOTE: Functions can be given meaningful names and variables. For example, function f
could have been defined by P(h) = 7h, where function P calculates the pay after working
h hours for $7 per hour.

N REAL-WORLD CONNECTION Functions can be used to compute a variety of quantities. For

example, suppose that a boy has a sister who is exactly 5 years older than he is. If the age
of the boy is x, then a function g can calculate the age of his sister by adding 5 to x. Thus
g(4) = 4 + 5 = 9, g(10) = 10 + 5 = 15, and in general g(x) = x + 5. That is, func-
tion g adds 5 to input x to obtain the output y = g(x).
Functions can be represented by an input–output machine, as illustrated in Figure 8.1.
This machine represents function g and receives input x = 4, adds 5 to this value, and then
outputs g(4) = 4 + 5 = 9.
Function Machine
for g(x) ⴝ x ⴙ 5
4 (Input x)

Input x 4

Add 5 4+5

9 = g(4)
Output g(x)
(Output y)

Figure 8.1

Representations of a Function
N REAL-WORLD CONNECTION A function f forms a relation between inputs x and outputs y that
can be represented verbally, numerically, symbolically, and graphically. Functions can also be
represented with diagrams. We begin by considering a function f that converts yards to feet.

VERBAL REPRESENTATION (WORDS) To convert x yards to y feet we multiply x by 3.

Therefore, if function f computes the number of feet in x yards, a verbal representation
of f is “Multiply the input x in yards by 3 to obtain the output y in feet.”

TABLE 8.1 NUMERICAL REPRESENTATION (TABLE OF VALUES) A function f that converts

x (yards) y (feet) yards to feet is shown in Table 8.1, where y = f (x).
A table of values is called a numerical representation of a function. Many times it is impos-
1 3 sible to list all valid inputs x in a table. On the one hand, if a table does not contain every x-input,
2 6 it is a partial numerical representation. On the other hand, a complete numerical representation
includes all valid inputs. Table 8.1 is a partial numerical representation of f because many valid
3 9 inputs, such as x = 10 or x = 5.3, are not shown in it. Note that for each valid input x there is
4 12 exactly one output y. For a function, inputs are not listed more than once in a table.
5 15
SYMBOLIC REPRESENTATION (FORMULA) A formula provides a symbolic repre-
6 18 sentation of a function. The computation performed by f to convert x yards to y feet is
expressed by y = 3x. A formula for f is f (x) = 3x, where y = f (x). We say that function
f is defined by or given by f (x) = 3x. Thus f (2) = 3 # 2 = 6.
7 21
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GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION (GRAPH) A graphical representation, or graph,

visually associates an x-input with a y-output. The ordered pairs
(1, 3), (2, 6), (3, 9), (4, 12), (5, 15), (6, 18), and (7, 21)

from Table 8.1 are plotted in Figure 8.2(a). This scatterplot suggests a line for the graph f.
For each real number x there is exactly one real number y determined by y = 3x. If we
restrict inputs to x Ú 0 and plot all ordered pairs (x, 3x), then a line with no breaks will
appear, as shown in Figure 8.2(b).

Yards to Feet
y y

24 24
20
(7, 21) 20
(6, 18)
16 (5, 15) 16

Feet
Feet
12 (4, 12) 12
y = 3x
8
(3, 9) 8
(2, 6)
4 (1, 3) 4
x x
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 0 4 8 12 16 20 24
Yards Yards
(a) (b)
Figure 8.2

Because f (1) = 3, it follows that the point (1, 3) lies on the graph of f, as shown in
Figure 8.3. Graphs can sometimes be used to define a function f. For example, because the
point (1, 3) lies on the graph of f in Figure 8.3, we can conclude that f (1) = 3. That is, each
point on the graph of f defines an input–output pair for f.

Evaluating f(1)
y
y = f(x)

f(1) = 3
(1, 3)

x
0 1

Figure 8.3

MAKING CONNECTIONS
Functions, Points, and Graphs
If f (a) = b, then the point (a, b) lies on the graph of f. Conversely, if the point (a, b) lies
on the graph of f, then f (a) = b. See Figure 8.4(a). Thus each point on the graph of f can be
written in the form (a, f (a)). See Figure 8.4(b).
Function f Defined by a Graph Points on Graph of f
y y

f(a) = b
b f(a)
(a, b) (a, f(a))

x x
a a
y = f(x)
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(a) (b)
Figure 8.4

Yards to Feet DIAGRAMMATIC REPRESENTATION (DIAGRAM) Functions may be represented by

f diagrams. Figure 8.5 is a diagram of a function where an arrow is used to identify the
1 3
output y associated with input x. For example, an arrow is drawn from input 2 to output 6,
2 6
which is written in function notation as f (2) = 6. That is, 2 yards are equivalent to 6 feet.
Figure 8.6(a) shows a (different) function f even though f (1) = 4 and f (2) = 4.
3 9 Although two inputs for f have the same output, each valid input has exactly one output.
In contrast, Figure 8.6(b) is not a function because input 2 results in two different outputs,
Function 5 and 6.
Figure 8.5
f
1 1 4
4
2 5
5
3 2 6

(a) Function (b) Not a Function

Figure 8.6

MAKING CONNECTIONS
Four Representations of a Function
Symbolic Representation f (x) = x + 1
STUDY TIP
Numerical Representation Graphical Representation
Be sure that you understand
y
what verbal, numerical,
x y
graphical, and symbolic
representations are. -2 -1 3
2
-1 0 1
y=x+1

0 1 –3 –2 1 2 3
x
–1
1 2 –2
2 3 –3

Verbal Representation f adds 1 to an input x to produce an output y.

EXAMPLE 1 Evaluating symbolic representations (formulas)

Evaluate each function f at the given value of x.
(a) f (x) = 3x - 7 x = -2
x
(b) f (x) = x = 0.5
x + 2
(c) f (x) = 2x - 1 x = 10
Solution
(a) f ( ⴚ 2) = 3( ⴚ 2) - 7 = - 6 - 7 = ⴚ 13
0.5 0.5
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

(b) f (0.5) = = = 0.2

0.5 + 2 2.5
(c) f (10) = 210 - 1 = 29 = 3
Now Try Exercises 21, 23, 31

N REAL-WORLD CONNECTION In the next example we calculate sales tax by evaluating different
representations of a function.

EXAMPLE 2 Calculating sales tax

Let a function f compute a sales tax of 7% on a purchase of x dollars. Use the given repre-
sentation to evaluate f (2).
(a) Verbal Representation Multiply a purchase of x dollars by 0.07 to obtain a sales tax of
y dollars.
(b) Numerical Representation (partial) Shown in Table 8.2
(c) Symbolic Representation f (x) = 0.07x
(d) Graphical Representation Shown in Figure 8.7
(e) Diagrammatic Representation Shown in Figure 8.8
Sales Tax of 7%
y

0.4
TABLE 8.2

Sales Tax (dollars)

x f (x) 0.3

$1.00 $0.07 0.2

f
$2.00 $0.14 0.1 1 0.07
2 0.14
$3.00 $0.21 x 0.21
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
3
$4.00 $0.28 4 0.28
Purchase (dollars)

Figure 8.7 Figure 8.8

Solution
(a) Verbal Multiply the input 2 by 0.07 to obtain 0.14. The sales tax on a $2.00 purchase
is $0.14.
(b) Numerical From Table 8.2, f (2) = $0.14.
(c) Symbolic Because f (x) = 0.07x, f (2) = 0.07(2) = 0.14, or $0.14.
(d) Graphical To evaluate f (2) with a graph, first find 2 on the x-axis in Figure 8.9. Then
move vertically upward until you reach the graph of f. The point on the graph may be
estimated as (2, 0.14), meaning that f (2) = 0.14. Note that it may not be possible to
find the exact answer from a graph. For example, one might estimate f (2) to be 0.13 or
0.15 instead of 0.14.
Evaluating a Function
y

0.4

0.3
f (2) = 0.14
0.2
Output 0.14 (2, 0.14)
0.1

x
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Input
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

Figure 8.9

(e) Diagrammatic In Figure 8.8, follow the arrow from 2 to 0.14. Thus f (2) = 0.14.
Now Try Exercises 25, 33, 53, 59, 61

N REAL-WORLD CONNECTION There are many examples of functions. To give more meaning
to a function, sometimes we change both its name and its input variable. For instance, if we
know the radius r of a circle, we can calculate its circumference by using C(r) = 2pr. The
next example illustrates how functions are used in physical therapy.

EXAMPLE 3 Computing crutch length

People who sustain leg injuries often require crutches. A proper crutch length can be esti-
mated without using trial and error. The function L, given by L(t) = 0.72t + 2, outputs an
appropriate crutch length L in inches for a person t inches tall. (Source: Journal of the American Physi-
cal Therapy Association.)
(a) Find L(60) and interpret the result.
(b) If one person is 70 inches tall and another person is 71 inches tall, what should be the
difference in their crutch lengths?

t Solution
(a) L(60) = 0.72(60) + 2 = 45.2. Thus a person 60 inches tall needs crutches that are
L
about 45.2 inches long.
(b) From the formula L(t) = 0.72t + 2, we can see that each 1-inch increase in t results in
a 0.72-inch increase in L(t). For example,
L(71) - L(70) = 53.12 - 52.4 = 0.72.
Now Try Exercise 75

In the next example we find a formula and then sketch a graph of a function.

EXAMPLE 4 Finding representations of a function

Let function f square the input x and then subtract 1 to obtain the output y.
(a) Write a formula, or symbolic representation, for f.
(b) Make a table of values, or numerical representation, for f. Use x = - 2, - 1, 0, 1, 2.
(c) Sketch a graph, or graphical representation, of f.
Solution
(a) Symbolic Representation If we square x and then subtract 1, we obtain x 2 - 1. Thus a
formula for f is f (x) = x 2 - 1.
(b) Numerical Representation Make a table of values for f (x), as shown in Table 8.3. For
example,
f ( ⴚ 2) = ( ⴚ 2)2 - 1 = 4 - 1 = 3.
(c) Graphical Representation To obtain a graph of f(x) = x 2 - 1, plot the points from
Table 8.3 and then connect them with a smooth curve, as shown in Figure 8.10. Note that
we need to plot enough points so that we can determine the overall shape of the graph.
TABLE 8.3 y

x f (x)
3
READING CHECK ⴚ2 3 2

Give a verbal, numerical, -1 0 1

symbolic, and graphical x

–3 –2 –1 2 3
representation of a function 0 -1
–2
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

that calculates the number 1 0 y = x2 – 1

–3
of days in a given number
of weeks. Choose meaning- 2 3
Figure 8.10
ful variables.
Now Try Exercise 63

Definition of a Function
A function is a fundamental concept in mathematics. Its definition should allow for all rep-
resentations of a function. A function receives an input x and produces exactly one output y,
which can be expressed as an ordered pair:
(x, y).

Q
Q
Input Output
A relation is a set of ordered pairs, and a function is a special type of relation.

FUNCTION
A function f is a set of ordered pairs (x, y) where each x-value corresponds to exactly
one y-value.

The domain of f is the set of all x-values, and the range of f is the set of all y-values.
For example, a function f that converts 1, 2, 3, and 4 yards to feet could be expressed as
f = {(1, 3), (2, 6), (3, 9), (4, 12)}.
The domain of f is D = {1, 2, 3, 4}, and the range of f is R = {3, 6, 9, 12}.

MAKING CONNECTIONS
Relations and Functions
A relation can be thought of as a set of input–output pairs. A function is a special type of
relation whereby each input results in exactly one output.

N REAL-WORLD CONNECTION In the next example, we see how education can improve a per-
son’s chances for earning a higher income.

EXAMPLE 5 Computing average income

A function f computes the average individual income in dollars in relation to educational
attainment. This function is defined by f (N) = 21,484, f (H) = 31,286, f (B) = 57,181,
and f (M) = 70,181, where N denotes no diploma, H a high school diploma, B a bachelor’s
degree, and M a master’s degree. (Source: 2010 Statistical Abstract.)
(a) Write f as a set of ordered pairs.
(b) Give the domain and range of f.
(c) Discuss the relationship between education and income.

Solution
(a) f = {(N, 21484), (H, 31286), (B, 57181), (M, 70181)}
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(b) The domain of function f is given by D = {N, H, B, M}, and the range of function f is
given by R = {21484, 31286, 57181, 70181}.
(c) Education pays—the greater the educational attainment, the greater are annual earnings.
Now Try Exercise 101

EXAMPLE 6 Finding the domain and range graphically

Use the graphs of f shown in Figures 8.11 and 8.12 to find each function’s domain and
range.
(a) y (b) y

2
1 1
x x
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3 –4 –2 1 2 3 4
–1 –1
y = f(x) –2
–2
–3
–3 y = f(x)
–4

Figure 8.11 Figure 8.12

Solution
READING CHECK (a) The domain is the set of all x-values that correspond to points on the graph of f.
Use the graph in Figure 8.13 shows that the domain D includes all x-values satisfying ⴚ 3 " x " 3.
Figure 8.12 to evaluate f (3). (Recall that the symbol … is read “less than or equal to.”) Because the graph is a semi-
circle with no breaks, the domain includes all real numbers between and including - 3
and 3. The range R is the set of y-values that correspond to points on the graph of f.
Thus R includes all y-values satisfying 0 " y " 3.

y y

2 Range
Range
1 1
x x
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3 –4 –2 1 2 3 4
–1 –1
–2
–2 Domain
–3
–3
Domain
Figure 8.13 Figure 8.14

(b) The arrows on the ends of the graph in Figure 8.12 indicate that the graph extends
indefinitely left and right, as well as upward. Thus D includes all real numbers.
See Figure 8.14. The smallest y-value on the graph is y = - 3, which occurs when
x = 2. Thus the range R is y # ⴚ 3. (Recall that the symbol Ú is read “greater
than or equal to.”)
Now Try Exercises 77, 81

CRITICAL THINKING
Suppose that a car travels at 50 miles per hour to a city that is 250 miles away. Sketch a graph of
a function f that gives the distance y traveled after x hours. Identify the domain and range of f.

The domain of a function is the set of all valid inputs. To determine the domain of a func-
tion from a formula, we must find x-values for which the formula is defined. To do this, we
must determine if we can substitute any real number in the formula for f (x). If we can, then
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

the domain of f is all real numbers. However, there are situations in which we must limit the
domain of f. For example, the domain must often be limited when there is either division or a
square root in the formula for f. When division occurs, we must be careful to avoid values of
the variable that result in division by 0, which is undefined. When a square root occurs, we

must be careful to avoid values of the variable that result in the square root of a negative num-
ber, which is not a real number. This concept is demonstrated in the next example.

EXAMPLE 7 Finding the domain of a function

Use f(x) to find the domain of f.
1
(a) f (x) = 5x (b) f (x) = (c) f (x) = 1x
x - 2
Solution
(a) Because we can always multiply a real number x by 5, f(x) = 5x is defined for all real
numbers. Thus the domain of f includes all real numbers.
(b) Because we cannot divide by 0, input x = 2 is not valid for f (x) = x -1 2. The expres-
sion for f (x) is defined for all other values of x. Thus the domain of f includes all real
numbers except 2, or x ⬆ 2.
(c) Because square roots of negative numbers are not real numbers, the inputs for
f (x) = 1x cannot be negative. Thus the domain of f includes all nonnegative num-
bers, or x Ú 0.
Now Try Exercises 87, 91, 95

Symbolic, numerical, and graphical representations of three common functions are

shown in Figure 8.15. Note that their graphs are not lines. For this reason they are called
nonlinear functions. Use the graphs to find the domain and range of each function.
Absolute value: f (x) ⴝ 兩 x 兩 Square: f (x) ⴝ x 2 Square root: f (x) ⴝ 1x
x -2 -1 0 1 2 x -2 -1 0 1 2 x 0 1 4 9
兩 x兩 2 1 0 1 2 x2 4 1 0 1 4 1x 0 1 2 3

y y y

5
2 8
4
1 3 6
y = |x| y = √x
x 2 y = x2 4
–2 –1 1 2
–1 2
x
–2 -3 -2 1 2 3 x
-1 2 4 6 8

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 8.15 D: all real numbers D: all real numbers D: x Ú 0
R: y Ú 0 R: y Ú 0 R: y Ú 0

Identifying a Function
Recall that for a function each valid input x produces exactly one output y. In the next three
examples we demonstrate techniques for identifying a function.

EXAMPLE 8 Determining whether a set of ordered pairs is a function

The set S of ordered pairs (x, y) represents the number of mergers and acquisitions y in
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

2010 for selected technology companies x.

S = 5 (IBM, 12), (HP, 7), (Oracle, 5), (Apple, 5), (Microsoft, 0) 6
Determine if S is a function. (Source: cbinsights.)

Solution
The input x is the name of the technology company, and the output y is the number of
mergers and acquisitions associated with that company. The set S is a function because
each company x is associated with exactly one number y. Note that even though there
were 5 mergers and acquisitions corresonding to both Oracle and Apple, S is nonetheless
a function.
Now Try Exercise 123

EXAMPLE 9 Determining whether a table of values represents a function

TABLE 8.4 Determine whether Table 8.4 represents a function.
x y
Solution
1 -4 The table does not represent a function because input x = 1 produces two outputs: - 4 and 5.
2 8 That is, the following two ordered pairs both belong to this relation.

3 2 Same input x

Q
Q
1 5 (1, ⴚ 4) (1, 5) Q Not a function

Q
4 -6
Different outputs y

Now Try Exercise 125

VERTICAL LINE TEST To determine whether a graph represents a function, we must be

convinced that it is impossible for an input x to have two or more outputs y. If two distinct
points have the same x-coordinate on a graph, then the graph cannot represent a function. For
example, the ordered pairs ( ⴚ 1, 1) and (ⴚ 1, - 1) could not lie on the graph of a function
because input ⴚ 1 results in two outputs: 1 and - 1. When the points (- 1, 1) and ( - 1, - 1)
are plotted, they lie on the same vertical line, as shown in Figure 8.16(a). A graph passing
through these points intersects the vertical line twice, as illustrated in Figure 8.16(b).
y y
Two or more
points lie on the
2 2 same vertical line:
not a function
(–1, 1) 1 (–1, 1) 1
x x
1 2 1 2
(–1, –1) –1 (–1, –1) –1

–2 –2

(a) (b)
Figure 8.16

To determine whether a graph represents a function, visualize vertical lines moving

across the xy-plane. If each vertical line intersects the graph at most once, then it is a graph
of a function. This test is called the vertical line test. Note that the graph in Figure 8.16(b)
fails the vertical line test and therefore does not represent a function.

READING CHECK
VERTICAL LINE TEST
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What is the vertical line test

used for? If every vertical line intersects a graph at no more than one point, then the graph
represents a function.

EXAMPLE 10 Determining whether a graph represents a function

Determine whether the graphs shown in Figure 8.17 represent functions.

y y y

2
4
2 1
1
x x x
–4 4 –3 1 3 –2 –1 1 2
–1
–2
–2 –1
–4
–2
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 8.17

Solution
(a) Visualize vertical lines moving across the x y-plane from left to right. Any (red) vertical
line will intersect the graph at most once, as depicted in Figure 8.18(a). Therefore the
graph does represent a function.

Passes Vertical Line Test Fails Vertical Line Test Fails Vertical Line Test
y y
y
2
4
2 1
1
x x x
–4 4 –3 –1 1 3 –2 –1 2
–2
–2 –1
–4
–2

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 8.18

(b) Visualize vertical lines moving across the x y-plane from left to right. The graph does
not represent a function because there exist (red) vertical lines that can intersect the
graph twice. One such line is shown in Figure 8.18(b).
(c) Visualize vertical lines moving across the x y-plane from left to right. The graph is a
scatterplot and does not represent a function because there exists one (red) vertical line
that intersects two points: (1, 1) and (1, - 2) with the same x-coordinate, as shown in
Figure 8.18(c).
Now Try Exercises 111, 113, 119

Graphing Calculators (Optional)

Graphing calculators provide several features beyond those found on scientific calculators.
Graphing calculators have additional keys that can be used to create tables, scatterplots, and
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

graphs.

N REAL-WORLD CONNECTION The viewing rectangle, or window, on a graphing calculator

is similar to the viewfinder in a camera. A camera cannot take a picture of an entire scene.

The camera must be centered on some object and can photograph only a portion of the
available scenery. A camera can capture different views of the same scene by zooming
in and out, as can graphing calculators. The xy-plane is infinite, but the calculator screen
can show only a finite, rectangular region of the xy-plane. The viewing rectangle must be
specified by setting minimum and maximum values for both the x- and y-axes before a
graph can be drawn.

Ymax We use the following terminology regarding the size of a viewing rectangle. Xmin
is the minimum x-value along the x-axis, and Xmax is the maximum x-value. Similarly,
冧 Yscl
Ymin is the minimum y-value along the y-axis, and Ymax is the maximum y-value. Most
Xmin Xmax
graphs show an x-scale and a y-scale with tick marks on the respective axes. Sometimes
冧

Xscl
the distance between consecutive tick marks is 1 unit, but at other times it might be 5 or
Ymin 10 units. The distance represented by consecutive tick marks on the x-axis is called Xscl,
and the distance represented by consecutive tick marks on the y-axis is called Yscl (see
Figure 8.19
Figure 8.19).
This information about the viewing rectangle can be written as [Xmin, Xmax, Xscl] by
[Ymin, Ymax, Yscl]. For example, [ - 10, 10, 1] by [ - 10, 10, 1] means that Xmin = - 10,
Xmax = 10, Xscl = 1, Ymin = - 10, Ymax = 10, and Yscl = 1. This setting is
referred to as the standard viewing rectangle. The window in Figure 8.19 is [ - 3, 3, 1] by
[ - 3, 3, 1].

EXAMPLE 11 Setting the viewing rectangle

Show the viewing rectangle [ - 2, 3, 0.5] by [ - 100, 200, 50] on your calculator.

Solution
The window setting and viewing rectangle are displayed in Figure 8.20. Note that in
Figure 8.20(b) there are 6 tick marks on the positive x-axis because its length is 3 units and
the distance between consecutive tick marks is 0.5 unit.
CALCULATOR HELP [-2, 3, 0.5] by [-100, 200, 50]
To set a viewing rectangle, see WINDOW
Appendix A (page AP-3). Xm i n ⫽᎑2
X max⫽ 3
X s c l ⫽.5
Y m i n ⫽ ᎑100
Y max⫽ 200
Y s c l ⫽50
X r e s ⫽1
(a) (b)
Figure 8.20
Now Try Exercise 133
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

SCATTERPLOTS Many graphing calculators have the capability to create scatterplots

and line graphs. The next example illustrates how to make a scatterplot with a graphing
calculator.

EXAMPLE 12 Making a scatterplot with a graphing calculator

Plot the points ( - 2, - 2), ( - 1, 3), (1, 2), and (2, - 3) in [ - 4, 4, 1] by [ - 4, 4, 1].

Solution
We entered the points ( - 2, - 2), ( - 1, 3), (1, 2), and (2, - 3) shown in Figure 8.21(a), using
the STAT EDIT feature. The variable L1 represents the list of x-values, and the variable L2
represents the list of y-values. In Figure 8.21(b) we set the graphing calculator to make a
scatterplot with the STATPLOT feature, and in Figure 8.21(c) the points have been plotted.
If you have a different model of calculator you may need to consult your owner’s manual.
[-4, 4, 1] by [-4, 4, 1]

L1 L2 L3 2 Plot1 Plot2 Plot3

CALCULATOR HELP ᎑2 ᎑2 ------ On Off
᎑1 3 Type:
To make a scatterplot, 1 2
2 ᎑3
see Appendix A ------ ------ X l i s t : L1
(pages AP-3 and AP-4). Y l i s t : L2
Mark: +
L2 ( 5 ) ⫽
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 8.21

Now Try Exercise 137

GRAPHS AND TABLES We can use graphing calculators to create graphs and tables, usu-
ally more efficiently and reliably than with pencil-and-paper techniques. However, a graph-
ing calculator uses the same techniques that we might use to sketch a graph. For example,
one way to sketch a graph of y = 2 x - 1 is first to make a table of values, as shown in
Table 8.5.
We can plot these points in the x y-plane, as shown in Figure 8.22. Next we might con-
nect the points, as shown in Figure 8.23.
Plotting Points Graphing a Line
y y
TABLE 8.5
x y 3 3

-1 -3 2 2
1 1
0 -1 x x
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3
–1 –1
1 1 –2
y = 2x – 1

2 3 –3

Figure 8.22 Figure 8.23

In a similar manner, a graphing calculator plots numerous points and connects them to
make a graph. To create a similar graph with a graphing calculator, we enter the formula
Y1 = 2X - 1, set an appropriate viewing rectangle, and graph as shown in Figures 8.24
and 8.25. A table of values can also be generated as illustrated in Figure 8.26.
[-10, 10, 1] by [ -10, 10, 1]
CALCULATOR HELP Plot1 Plot2 Plot3 X Y1
\Y 1 ⫽2X⫺1 y = 2x – 1 ᎑1 ᎑3
To make a graph, see Appendix A \Y 2 ⫽ 0 ᎑1
\Y 3 ⫽ 1 1
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

(page AP-5). To make a table, see 2 3

Appendix A (pages AP-2 and AP-3). \Y 4 ⫽ 3 5
\Y 5 ⫽ 4 7
\Y 6 ⫽ 5 9
\Y 7 ⫽ Y 1 ⫽2X⫺1
Figure 8.24 Figure 8.25 Figure 8.26

8.1 Putting It All Together

A function calculates exactly one output for each valid input and produces input–output
ordered pairs in the form (x, y). A function typically computes something such as area,
speed, or sales tax.

CONCEPT EXPLANATION EXAMPLES

Function A set of ordered pairs (x, y), where f = {(1, 3), (2, 3), (3, 1)}
each x-value corresponds to exactly f (x) = 2 x
one y-value A graph of y = x + 2
A table of values for y = 4x
Independent Variable The input variable for a function Function Independent Variable
f (x) = 2 x x
A(r) = pr 2 r
V(s) = s 3 s
Dependent Variable The output variable of a function Function Dependent Variable
y = f (x) y
There is exactly one output for each T = F(r) T
valid input. V = g(r) V
Domain and Range The domain D is the set of all valid For S = {( - 1, 0), (3, 4), (5, 0)},
of a Function inputs. The range R is the set of all D = { - 1, 3, 5} and R = {0, 4}.
outputs. For f (x) = 1x the domain includes all
real numbers except 0, or x ⬆ 0.
Vertical Line Test If every vertical line intersects a graph This graph does not pass this test and
at no more than one point, the graph thus does not represent a function.
represents a function. y

Two points lie on the

same vertical line:
not a function

A function can be represented verbally, symbolically, numerically, and graphically.

REPRESENTATION EXPLANATION COMMENTS

Verbal Precise word description of what is May be oral or written
computed Must be stated precisely

Symbolic Mathematical formula Efficient and concise way of represent-

ing a function (e.g., f (x) = 2 x - 3)

Numerical List of specific inputs and their May be in the form of a table or an
outputs explicit set of ordered pairs
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

Graphical, diagrammatic Shows inputs and outputs No words, formulas, or tables

visually Many types of graphs and diagrams are
possible.

8.1 Exercises
CONCEPTS AND VOCABULARY
1. The notation y = f (x) is called notation. 23. f (x) = 1x x = 0, 94 0; 32
function
2. The notation y = f (x) is read . y equals f of x 24. f (x) = 2x
3
x = - 1, 27 -1; 3
3. The notation f (x) = x + 1 is a(n)
2
representa- 25. f (x) = x 2 x = - 5, 32 25; 94
tion of a function. symbolic
26. f (x) = x 3 x = - 2, 0.1 -8; 0.001
4. A table of values is a(n) representation of a
function. numerical 27. f (x) = 3 x = - 8, 73 3; 3

5. The set of valid inputs for a function is the . 28. f (x) = 100 x = - p, 13 100; 100
domain
6. The set of outputs for a function is the range . 29. f (x) = 5 - x 3 x = - 2, 3 13; -22

7. A function computes one output for each valid input. 30. f (x) = x 2 + 5 x = - 12, 6 21
4; 41

2
8. (True or False?) The vertical line test is used to iden- 31. f (x) = x = - 5, 4 - 12; 25
tify graphs of relations. F x + 1
x
9. (True or False?) Four ways to represent functions are 32. f (x) = x = - 3, 1 37; - 13
verbal, numerical, symbolic, and graphical. T x - 4
Exercises 33–38: Do the following.
10. If f (3) = 4, the point (3, 4) is on the graph of f. If
(3, 6) is on the graph of f, then f ( 3 ) = 6 . (a) Write a formula for the function described.
(b) Evaluate the function for input 10 and interpret
11. Thinking Generally If f (a) = b, the point (a, b) is the result.*
on the graph of f.
33. Function I computes the number of inches in x yards.
12. Thinking Generally If (c, d) is on the graph of g, (a) I(x) = 36 x (b) I(10) = 360
then g(c) = d . 34. Function A computes the area of a circle with radius r.
(a) A(r) = pr 2 (b) A(10) = 100p ⬇ 314.2
13. Thinking Generally If a is in the domain of f, then 35. Function M computes the number of miles in x feet.
x 10
(a) M(x) = 5280 (b) M(10) = 5280 ⬇ 0.0019
f (a) represents how many outputs? 1
36. Function C computes the circumference of a circle
14. Thinking Generally If f (x) = x for every x in the with radius r. (a) C(r) = 2pr (b) C(10) = 20p ⬇ 62.8
domain of f, then the domain and range of f are equal .
37. Function A computes the square feet in x acres. (Hint:
There are 43,560 square feet in one acre.)
Exercises 15–20: Determine whether the phrase describes (a) A(x) = 43,560x (b) A(10) = 435,600
a function. 38. Function K computes the number of kilograms in x
pounds. (Hint: There are about 2.2 pounds in one
15. Calculating the square of a number Yes x 10
kilogram.) (a) K(x) = 2.2 (b) K(10) = 2.2 = 4.54
16. Calculating the low temperature for a day Yes
Exercises 39–42: Write each function f as a set of ordered
17. Listing the students who passed a given math exam No pairs. Give the domain and range of f.
18. Listing the children of parent x No 39. f (1) = 3, f (2) = - 4, f (3) = 0
f = {(1, 3), (2, -4), (3, 0)}; D = {1, 2, 3}, R = { -4, 0, 3}
19. Finding sales tax on a purchase Yes 40. f ( - 1) = 4, f (0) = 6, f (1) = 4
f = {(-1, 4), (0, 6), (1, 4)}; D = { -1, 0, 1}, R = {4, 6}
20. Naming the people in your class No 41. f (a) = b, f (c) = d, f (e) = a, f (d) = b
f = {(a, b), (c, d), (e, a), (d, b)}; D = {a, c, d, e}, R = {a, b, d}
42. f (a) = 7, f (b) = 7, f (c) = 7, f (d) = 7
REPRESENTING AND EVALUATING FUNCTIONS f = {(a, 7), (b, 7), (c, 7), (d, 7)}; D = {a, b, c, d}, R = {7}
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

Exercises 21–32: Evaluate f (x) at the given values of x. Exercises 43–52: Sketch a graph of f.*
21. f (x) = 4x - 2 x = - 1, 0 -6; -2 43. f (x) = - x + 3 44. f (x) = - 2 x + 1
22. f (x) = 5 - 3x x = - 4, 2 17; -1 45. f (x) = 2 x 46. f (x) = 12 x - 2

47. f (x) = 4 - x 48. f (x) = 6 - 3x Exercises 61 and 62: Use the diagram to evaluate f(1990).
Interpret your answer.
49. f (x) = x 2 50. f (x) = 1x
61. The function f computes average fuel efficiency of
51. f (x) = 1x + 1 52. f (x) = 12 x 2 - 1 new U.S. passenger cars in miles per gallon during
year x. (Source: Department of Transportation.) 26.9
Exercises 53–58: Use the graph of f to evaluate the given f
In 1990 average
expressions. fuel efficiency
1970 14.1
was 26.9 mpg.
53. f (0) and f (2) 3; -1 54. f ( - 2) and f (2) -2; 0 1980 22.6
1990 26.9
y y
2000 28.5
2010 32.6
3
2
2
1 1
62. The function f computes average cost of tuition at
x x
-3 -2 -1
-1
1 3 -2 -1 2 public colleges and universities during academic year x.
-2 (Source: The College Board.)
-2 $1809
-3
f In 1990, the average
1980 804 cost of tuition was
$1809.
55. f ( - 2) and f (1) 0; 2 56. f ( - 1) and f (0) 1; 0
1990 1809
y y
2000 3510

3 2010 7020
2
2
1 1
x x
-3 -1 1 3 -2 -1 1 2
-1
Exercises 63–66: Express the verbal representation for
the function f numerically, symbolically, and graphically.
-2
-3 Let x = - 3, - 2, - 1, p , 3 for the numerical represen-
tation (table), and let - 3 … x … 3 for the graph.*
57. f (1) and f (2) -4; -3 58. f ( - 1) and f (4) 3; 2
63. Add 5 to the input x to obtain the output y. y = x + 5
y y
64. Square the input x to obtain the output y. y = x 2
4 5
3
4
65. Multiply the input x by 5 and then subtract 2 to obtain
2
1 3 the output y. y = 5x - 2
x
-4 -2 1 2 4
1 66. Divide the input x by 2 and then add 3 to obtain the
-3 -1 1 2 3 4 5
x output y. y = 2x + 3
-4 -1
Exercises 67–72: Give a verbal representation for f (x).*
Exercises 59 and 60: Use the table to evaluate the given 67. f (x) = x - 12 68. f (x) = 34 x
expressions.
x
59. f (0) and f (2) 5.5; 3.7 69. f (x) = 70. f (x) = x 2 + 1
3
x 0 1 2 3 4
71. f (x) = 1x - 1 72. f (x) = 1 - 3x
f (x) 5.5 4.3 3.7 2.5 1.9
73. Cost of Driving In 2010, the average cost of driving a
60. f ( - 10) and f (5) 23; -33 new car in the United States was about 50 cents per mile.
Symbolically, graphically, and numerically represent
- 10 -5
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

x 0 5 10 a function f that computes the cost in dollars of driv-

ing x miles. For the numerical representation (table) let
f (x) 23 96 - 45 - 33 23
x = 10, 20, 30, p , 70. (Source: Associated Press.)
f (x) = 0.50x; *

y y
74. Federal Income Taxes In 2010, the lowest U.S. 83. 84.
income tax rate was 10 percent. Symbolically, graphi-
cally, and numerically represent a function f that com- 3 6
2 4
putes the tax on a taxable income of x dollars. For the
1 2
numerical representation (table) let x = 1000, 2000, x x
3000, p ,7000, and for the graphical representation -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 -6 -4 -2
-2
2 4 6

let 0 … x … 10,000. (Source: Internal Revenue Service.) -2

f (x) = 0.10x; * -3 -6
75. Global Web Searches The number of World Wide
D: -3 … x … 3 D = { -6, -4, -2, 2, 4, 6}
Web searches S in billions during year x can be R: -3 … y … 2 R = { -4, -2, 2, 4, 6}
approximated by S(x) = 225x - 450,650 from 2009
to 2012. Evaluate S(2011) and interpret the result. Exercises 85 and 86: Use the diagram to find the domain
(Source: RBC Capital Markets Corp.)*
and range of f.
76. Cost of Smartphones The average cost difference 85. f 86. f
1
D in dollars between smartphones and all other 12 26
5
types of phones during year x can be approximated 2
13 32
by D(x) = - 23.5x + 47,275 from 2005 to 2009. 6
3
Evaluate D(2009) and interpret the result. (Source: 7
15 9
Business Insider.)* 4
D = {1, 2, 3, 4} D = {12, 13, 15}
IDENTIFYING DOMAINS AND RANGES R = {5, 6, 7} R = {9, 26, 32}

Exercises 77–84: Use the graph of f to identify its domain Exercises 87–100: Find the domain.
and range.
y y 87. f (x) = 10x 88. f (x) = 5 - x
77. 78. All real numbers All real numbers

3 3
89. f (x) = x - 3 2
90. f (x) = 12 x 2
All real numbers All real numbers
2 x
3 92. f (x) =
1 1 91. f (x) = x + 1
x x x - 5
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 -3 -1 1 2 3 x ⬆ 5 x ⬆ -1
-1 2x 6
93. f (x) = 2 94. f (x) =
-2 x + 1 1 - x
-3 -3 All real numbers x ⬆ 1
95. f (x) = 1x - 1 96. f (x) = 0 x 0
D: -2 … x … 2 D: -2 … x … 2 x Ú 1 All real numbers
R: 0 … y … 2 R: -3 … y … 3
y y 97. f (x) = 0 x - 5 0 98. f (x) = 12 - x
79. 80. All real numbers x … 2
1
4 99. f (x) = 100. f (x) = 1 - 3x 2
3
3 x ⬆ 0 x
2
All real numbers
2
1 1 101. Humpback Whales The number of humpback
–2 –1 1 2 3 4
x
-4 -2 1 2 3 4
x whales W sighted in Maui’s annual whale census
–1 for year x is given by W(2005) = 649, W(2006) =
-3 1265, W(2007) = 959, W(2008) = 1726, and
–3 -4
W(2009) = 1010. (Source: Pacific Whale Foundation.)
D: -2 … x … 4 D: All real numbers (a) Evaluate W(2008) and interpret the result.* 1726
R: -2 … y … 2 R: All real numbers
(b) Identify the domain and range of W.*
81. y 82. y
(c) Describe the pattern in the data.*

3
2
2
1 1
x x
-2 2 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

-2
-3

D: All real numbers D: -1 … x … 3

R: y Ú -1 R: -3 … y … -1

102. Digital Music Downloads The percentage of x (month) 1 2 3 4 5 6

digital music D that was purchased through down-
loads during year x is given by D(2004) = 0.9, W (mph) 10.4 12.7 10.4 10.4 8.1 8.1
D(2005) = 5.7, D(2006) = 6.7, D(2007) = 11.2,
and D(2008) = 12.8. (Source: The Recording Industry x (month) 7 8 9 10 11 12
Association of America.) W (mph) 6.9 6.9 6.9 8.1 9.2 9.2
(a) Evaluate D(2006) and interpret the result.* 6.7% Source: J. Williams.
(b) Identify the domain and range of D.*
(a) Determine the month with the highest average
(c) Describe the pattern in the data. Increased rapidly
wind speed. February
103. Cost of Tuition Suppose that a student can take (b) Is W a function of x? Explain.*
from 1 to 20 credits at a college and that each credit (c) If W = 6.9, find x. 7, 8, 9
costs $200. If function C calculates the cost of taking
x credits, determine the domain and range of C. Exercises 111–122: Determine whether the graph repre-
D = 5 1, 2, 3, p , 20 6 ; R = 5 200, 400, 600, p , 4000 6 sents a function. If it does, identify the domain and range.*
104. Falling Ball Suppose that a ball is dropped from a
window that is 64 feet above the ground and that the 111. y 112. y
ball strikes the ground after 2 seconds. If function
H calculates the height of the ball after t seconds, 4 4 (2, 4)
determine a domain and range for H, while the ball 3 3
2 2
is falling. D: 0 … t … 2; R: 0 … H … 64 1 1
x x
IDENTIFYING A FUNCTION -4 -1 1 2 3 4 -4 -2 1 2 3 4
-2 -2
Exercises 105–108: Determine whether the diagram -3
-4 (–2, –4) -4
could represent a function.
105. 4
No 106. 1
Yes
114. y
113. y
1
5 2 8
2 4 4
6 3 3
3
2 2
1 1
107. Yes 108. No x x
-4 -2 -1 2 3 4 -4 -1 1 2 3 4
a d 6
-2 -2
-3 -3
b e 5 10
-4 -4

c f 11
115. y 116. y
109. Average Precipitation The table lists the monthly
(−4, 4) (4, 4)
average precipitation P in Las Vegas, Nevada, 4
where x = 1 corresponds to January and x = 12 3
2
2
corresponds to December. 1 1
x x
-4 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 -2 1 2
x (month) 1 2 3 4 5 6 -1
-2
-2
-3
P (inches) 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.1 -4

x (month) 7 8 9 10 11 12
117. y 118. y
P (inches) 0.4 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.4 0.3
Source: J. Williams.
4
2
(a) Determine the value of P during May. 0.2 1
(b) Is P a function of x? Explain.* x x
(c) If P = 0.4, find x. 2, 3, 7, 11 -3 -2
-1
1 2 3 -4 -2
-2
2 4
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

-2
110. Wind Speeds The table at the top of the next col- -4
-3
umn lists the monthly average wind speed W in
Louisville, Kentucky, where x = 1 corresponds to
January and x = 12 corresponds to December.

119. y 120. y 129. Texting The average 18- to 24-year-old person texts
about 1500 messages per month. Sketch a graph that
3 6 shows the total number of text messages sent over a
2 4 period of 4 months. Assume that the same number
1 2 of texts is sent each day. (Source: The Nielsen Company.)*
x x
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 -6 -4 -2 2 4 6
-1 -2
130. Computer Viruses In 2000 there were about
-2 -4
-3
50 thousand computer viruses. In 2010 there were
about 1.6 million computer viruses. Sketch a graph
of this increase from 2000 to 2010. Answers may
121. y 122. y vary. (Source: Symantec.)*

6 3 GRAPHING CALCULATORS
4 2
2 1 Exercises 131–136: Show the given viewing rectangle
x x on your graphing calculator. Predict the number of tick
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3
-2 -1
marks on the positive x-axis and the positive y-axis.*
-4 -2
-6 -3
. 131. Standard viewing rectangle 10; 10

132. [ - 12, 12, 2] by [ - 8, 8, 2] 6; 4

Exercises 123–126: Determine whether S is a function.
133. [0, 100, 10] by [ - 50, 50, 10] 10; 5
123. S = {(1, 2), (4, 5), (7, 8), (5, 4), (2, 2)} Yes
134. [ - 30, 30, 5] by [ - 20, 20, 5] 6; 4
124. S = {(4, 7), ( - 2, 1), (3, 8), (4, 9)} No
135. [1980, 1995, 1] by [12000, 16000, 1000] 16; 5
125. S is given by the table. No
136. [1900, 1990, 10] by [1700, 2800, 100] 10; 12
x 5 10 5
y 2 1 0
Exercises 137–142: Use your calculator to make a scat-
terplot of the relation after determining an appropriate
126. S is given by the table. Yes viewing rectangle.*
x -3 -2 -1 137. {(4, 3), ( - 2, 1), ( - 3, - 3), (5, - 2)}
y 10 10 10
138. {(5, 5), (2, 0), ( - 2, 7), (2, - 8), ( - 1, - 5)}

GRAPHICAL INTERPRETATION 139. {(20, 40), ( - 25, - 15), ( - 20, 25), (15, - 25)}

Exercises 127 and 128: The graph represents the distance 140. {( - 13, 12), (3, 10), ( - 15, - 4), (12, - 9)}
that a person is from home while walking on a straight
path. The x-axis represents time and the y-axis represents 141. {(100, - 100), (50, 200), ( - 150, - 140), ( - 30, 80)}
distance. Interpret the graph.*
142. {( - 125, 75), (45, 65), ( - 53, - 67), (150, - 80)}
127. 128.
y y
Exercises 143–146: Make a table and graph of y = f (x).
Let x = - 3, - 2, - 1, p , 3 for your table and use the stan-
dard window for your graph.*

143. f (x) = 1x + 3 144. f (x) = x 3 - 12x 2

5 - x
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

146. f (x) = 0 2 - x 0 + 2
3
145. f (x) = x
5 + x
x x

WRITING ABOUT MATHEMATICS 149. Explain how to evaluate a function by using a graph.
147. Give an example of a function. Identify the domain Give an example.
and range of your function. 150. Give one difficulty that may occur when you use a
148. Explain in your own words what a function is. How table of values to evaluate a function.
is a function different from other relations?

Group Activity Working with Real Data

Directions: Form a group of 2 to 4 people. Select someone to record the group’s responses
for this activity. All members should work cooperatively to answer the questions. If your
instructor asks for the results, each member of the group should be prepared to respond.
U.S. Craigslist Visitors The following table lists the (b) Estimate the slope of a line that could be used to
average number of unique visitors to Craigslist for model the data. m ⬇ 112,000 (answers may vary)
selected years.
(c) Find an equation of a line y = mx + b that models
Year 2006 2007 2008 the data. y = 112,000x + 180,000 (answers may vary)

Visitors 180,000 288,000 420,000 (d) Interpret the slope as a rate of change. Numbers of
unique visitors increased by 112,000 per year on average.
Year 2009 2010 (e) Use your results to estimate the number of unique
visitors to Craigslist in 2012.
Visitors 516,000 624,000 About 852,000 (answers may vary)
Source: Citi Investment Research and Analysis.

(a) Make a scatterplot of the data. Let x represent the

number of years after 2006. Discuss any trend in
numbers of visitors to Craigslist.*

8.2 Linear Functions

Basic Concepts ● Representations of Linear Functions ●
Modeling Data with Linear Functions ● The Midpoint Formula (Optional)

A LOOK INTO MATH N Functions are frequently used to model, or describe, the real world. For example, people
are becoming more energy conscious. As a result, there is an increase in the number of
green buildings that are being constructed. Table 8.6 lists estimated U.S. sales of green
building material. Because sales increase by $5 billion each year, a linear function can be
used to model these data. (See Example 7.) In this section we discuss this important type
of function.

TABLE 8.6 Green Material Sales ($ billions)

NEW VOCABULARY
Year 2010 2011 2012 2013
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

n Linear function
n Rate of change Sales 65 70 75 80
n Constant function Source: Freedonia Group, Green Building Material.
n Midpoint

Basic Concepts
N REAL-WORLD CONNECTION Suppose that the air conditioner is turned on when the tempera-
ture inside a house is 80⬚ F. The resulting temperatures are listed in Table 8.7 for various
elapsed times. Note that for each 1-hour increase in elapsed time, the temperature decreases
by 2⬚ F.

1-hour increase
TABLE 8.7 House Temperature

Q
Elapsed Time (hours) 0 1 2 3 4 5
Temperature (⬚ F) 80 78 76 74 72 70

Q
2⬚ F decrease

We want to determine a function f that models, or calculates, the house temperature

after x hours. To do this, we will find numerical, graphical, verbal, and symbolic representa-
STUDY TIP
tions of f .
Be sure you understand what
representations of a function
are. NUMERICAL REPRESENTATION (TABLE OF VALUES) We can think of Table 8.7 as
a numerical representation (table of values) for the function f . A similar numerical repre-
sentation that uses x and f (x) is shown in Table 8.8.

TABLE 8.8 Numerical Representation of f(x)

x 0 1 2 3 4 5
f (x) 80 78 76 74 72 70

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION (GRAPH) To graph y = f (x), we begin by plot-

ting the points in Table 8.8, as shown in Figure 8.27. This scatterplot suggests that a line
models these data, as shown in Figure 8.28. We call f a linear function because its graph
is a line.

House Temperature Graphical Representation of f (x)

y y

100 100
Temperature (°F )
Temperature (°F )

90 90

80 80

70 70
y = f(x)
60 60

x x
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Elapsed Time (hours) Elapsed Time (hours)

Figure 8.27 A Scatterplot Figure 8.28 A Linear Function

ISBN 1-256-49082-2

Another graph of y = f (x) with a different y-scale is shown in Figure 8.29 on the next
page. Because the y-values always decrease by the same amount for each 1-hour increase
on the x-axis, we say that function f has a constant rate of change. In this example, the con-
stant rate of change is - 2⬚ F per hour.

Constant Rate of Change

y y-values decrease by 2°
for each 1-hour increase
80
in the x-values.

Temperature (°F)
78
76
–2 y = f(x)
74
1
72
–2
70
1
x
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Elapsed Time (hours)

Figure 8.29

VERBAL REPRESENTATION (WORDS) Over a 5-hour period, the air conditioner low-
ers the initial temperature of 80°F by 2°F for each elapsed hour x. Thus a description of how
to calculate the temperature is:
“Multiply x by - 2⬚F and then add 80⬚F.” Verbal representation of f (x)

SYMBOLIC REPRESENTATION (FORMULA) Our verbal representation of f (x) makes

it straightforward for us to write a formula.

Elapsed Hours

f (x) = ⴚ 2 x + 80 Symbolic representation of f (x)

Rate of Change Initial Temperature

For example,

f (2.5) = - 2(2.5) + 80 = 75

means that the temperature is 75°F after the air conditioner has run for 2.5 hours. In this
instance, it might be appropriate to limit the domain of f to x-values between 0 and 5,
inclusive.

LINEAR FUNCTION
A function f defined by f (x) = m x + b, where m and b are constants, is a linear
function.

For f (x) = ⴚ 2 x + 80, we have m = ⴚ 2 and b = 80. The constant m represents the
rate at which the air conditioner cools the building, and the constant b represents the initial
temperature.

NOTE: The value of m represents the slope of the graph of f (x) = mx + b, and b is the
y-intercept.

N REAL-WORLD CONNECTION In general, a linear function defined by f (x) = mx + b changes

by m units for each unit increase in x. This rate of change is an increase if m 7 0 and a
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

decrease if m 6 0. For example, if new carpet costs $20 per square yard, then the linear
function defined by C(x) = 20 x gives the cost of buying x square yards of carpet. The
value of m = 20 gives the cost (rate of change) for each additional square yard of carpet.
For function C, the value of b is 0 because it costs $0 to buy 0 square yards of carpet.

READING CHECK
Explain what a linear function is and what its graph looks like.

NOTE: If f is a linear function, then f (0) = m(0) + b = b. Thus b can be found by evalu-
ating f (x) at x = 0.

EXAMPLE 1 Identifying linear functions

Determine whether f is a linear function. If f is a linear function, find values for m and b so
that f (x) = mx + b.
(a) f (x) = 4 - 3x (b) f (x) = 8 (c) f (x) = 2 x 2 + 8

Solution
(a) Let m = - 3 and b = 4. Then f (x) = - 3x + 4, and f is a linear function.
(b) Let m = 0 and b = 8. Then f (x) = 0x + 8, and f is a linear function.
(c) Function f is not linear because its formula contains x 2. The formula for a linear func-
tion cannot contain an x with an exponent other than 1.
Now Try Exercises 11, 13, 15

EXAMPLE 2 Determining linear functions

Use each table of values to determine whether f (x) could represent a linear function. If f
could be linear, write a formula for f in the form f (x) = mx + b.
(a) (b)
x 0 1 2 3 x -2 0 2 4
f (x) 10 15 20 25 f (x) 4 2 0 -2

Solution
(a) For each unit increase in x, f (x) increases by 5 units, so f (x) could be linear with
m = 5. Because f (0) = 10, b = 10. Thus f(x) = 5x + 10.
(b) For each 2-unit increase in x, f (x) decreases by 2 units. Equivalently, each unit increase
in x results in a 1-unit decrease in f (x), so f (x) could be linear with m = - 1. Because
f (0) = 2, b = 2. Thus f (x) = - x + 2.
(c) Each unit increase in x does not result in a constant change in f (x). Thus f (x) does not
represent a linear function.
(d) For any change in x, f (x) does not change, so f (x) could be linear with m = 0. Because
f (0) = 7, let b = 7. Thus f (x) = 0x + 7, or f (x) = 7. (When m = 0, we say that f
is a constant function. See Example 8.)
Now Try Exercises 23, 25, 27, 31
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

Representations of Linear Functions

The graph of a linear function is a line. To graph a linear function f we can start by making
a table of values and then plotting three or more points. We can then sketch the graph of f
by drawing a line through these points, as demonstrated in the next example.

EXAMPLE 3 Graphing a linear function by hand

Sketch a graph of f (x) = x - 1. Use the graph to evaluate f ( - 2).

Solution
Begin by making a table of values containing at least three points. Pick convenient values of
x, such as x = ⴚ 1, 0, 1.
f ( ⴚ 1) = ⴚ 1 - 1 = ⴚ 2
f (0) = 0 - 1 = ⴚ 1
f (1) = 1 - 1 = 0
Display the results, as shown in Table 8.9.
Plot the points ( ⴚ 1, ⴚ 2), (0, ⴚ 1), and (1, 0). Sketch a line through these points to
obtain the graph of f. A graph of a line results when infinitely many points are plotted, as
shown in Figure 8.30.
To evaluate f ( - 2), first find x = ⴚ 2 on the x-axis. See Figure 8.31. Then move
downward to the graph of f. By moving across to the y-axis, we see that the corresponding
y-value is ⴚ 3. Thus f ( ⴚ 2) = ⴚ 3.
y y

TABLE 8.9 3 3
y=x–1 y=x–1
x y
1 1
ⴚ1 ⴚ2 (1, 0)
x
–2
x
–3 3
0 ⴚ1 (–1, –2) (0, –1) f(–2) = –3

1 0 –3 –3

Figure 8.30 Figure 8.31

Now Try Exercises 39, 57

In the next example a graphing calculator is used to create a graph and table.

EXAMPLE 4 Using a graphing calculator

Give numerical and graphical representations of f (x) = 12 x - 2.

Solution
Numerical Representation To make a numerical representation, construct the table for
Y1 = .5X - 2, starting at x = - 3 and incrementing by 1, as shown in Figure 8.32(a).
(Other tables are possible.)
Graphical Representation Graph Y1 in the standard viewing rectangle, as shown in
Figure 8.32(b). (Other viewing rectangles may be used.)
[-10, 10, 1] by [-10, 10, 1]

X Y1
CALCULATOR HELP ᎑3 ᎑3.5
y = 12 x – 2
᎑2 ᎑3
To make a table, see Appendix A ᎑1 ᎑2.5
(pages AP-2 and AP-3). To 0 ᎑2
1 ᎑1.5
make a graph, see Appendix A 2 ᎑1
3 ᎑.5
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

(page AP-5).
Y 1 ⫽.5X⫺2
(a) (b)
Figure 8.32
Now Try Exercise 75

CRITICAL THINKING
Two points determine a line. Why is it a good idea to plot at least three points when graphing a
linear function by hand?

EXAMPLE 5 Representing a linear function

A linear function is given by f (x) = - 3x + 2.
(a) Give a verbal representation of f.
(b) Make a numerical representation (table) of f by letting x = - 1, 0, 1.
(c) Plot the points listed in the table from part (b). Then sketch a graph of y = f (x).

Solution
(a) Verbal Representation Multiply the input x by - 3 and add 2 to obtain the output.
(b) Numerical Representation Evaluate the formula f (x) = - 3x + 2 at x = - 1, 0, 1,
which results in Table 8.10. Note that f ( - 1) = 5, f (0) = 2, and f (1) = - 1.
(c) Graphical Representation To make a graph of f by hand without a graphing calculator,
plot the points ( - 1, 5), (0, 2), and (1, - 1) from Table 8.10. Then draw a line passing
through these points, as shown in Figure 8.33.

TABLE 8.10 6

x f (x) (–1, 5) y = –3x + 2

-1 5 (0, 2)
1
0 2 x
–4 –2
1 -1 –2
(1, –1)

Figure 8.33

Now Try Exercise 71

NOTE: To graph y = - 3x + 2 in Example 5, we could also graph a line with slope ⫺3

and y-intercept 2.

MAKING CONNECTIONS
Mathematics in Newspapers
Think of the mathematics that you see
in newspapers or in online publications.
Often, percentages are described ver-
bally, numbers are displayed in tables,
and data are shown in graphs. Seldom
are formulas given, which is an impor-
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

tant reason to study verbal, numerical,

and graphical representations.

Modeling Data with Linear Functions

N REAL-WORLD CONNECTION A distinguishing feature of a linear function is that when the
input x increases by 1 unit, the output f (x) = mx + b always changes by an amount equal
to m. For example, the percentage of wireless households during year x from 2005 to 2010
can be modeled by the linear function
f (x) = 4x - 8013,
where x is the year. The value of m = 4 indicates that the percentage of wireless house-
holds has increased, on average, by 4% per year. (Source: National Center for Health Statistics.)
The following are other examples of quantities that are modeled by linear functions.
Try to determine the value of the constant m.
• The wages earned by an individual working x hours at $8 per hour m = 8
• The distance traveled by a jet airliner in x hours if its speed is 500 miles per hour m = 500
• The cost of tuition and fees when registering for x credits if each credit costs $200 and
the fees are fixed at $300 m = 200
When we are modeling data with a linear function defined by f (x) = mx + b, the fol-
lowing concepts are helpful to determine m and b.

MODELING DATA WITH A LINEAR FUNCTION

The formula f (x) = mx + b may be interpreted as follows.
f (x) = mx + b
(New amount) = (Change) + (Fixed amount)
When x represents time, change equals (rate of change) * (time).
f (x) = m * x + b
(Future amount) = (Rate of change) * (Time) + (Initial amount)

N REAL-WORLD CONNECTION These concepts are applied in the next three examples.

EXAMPLE 6 Modeling growth of bamboo

Bamboo is gaining popularity as a green building material because of its fast-growing, regen-
erative characteristics. Under ideal conditions, some species of bamboo grow at an astonish-
ing 2 inches per hour. Suppose a bamboo plant is initially 6 inches tall. (Source: Cali Bamboo.)
(a) Find a function H that models the plant’s height in inches under ideal conditions after t hours.
(b) Find H(3) and interpret the result.

Solution
(a) The initial height is 6 inches and the rate of change is 2 inches per hour.
H(t) = 2 * t + 6,
(Future height) = (Rate of change) * (Time) + (Initial height)
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

or H(t) = 2t + 6.
(b) H(3) = 2(3) + 6 = 12. After 3 hours the bamboo plant is 12 inches tall.
Now Try Exercise 117

EXAMPLE 7 Modeling demand for building green

Table 8.11 lists estimated sales of green building material in billions of dollars. (Refer to A
Look Into Math at the beginning of this section.)

TABLE 8.11 Green Material Sales ($ billions)

Year 2010 2011 2012 2013
Sales 65 70 75 80
Source: Freedonia Group, Green Building Material.

(a) Make a scatterplot of the data and sketch the graph of a function f that models these
data. Let x represent years after 2010. That is, let x = 0 correspond to 2010, x = 1 to
2011, and so on.
(b) What were the sales in 2010? What was the annual increase in sales each year?
(c) Find a formula for f (x).
(d) Use your formula to estimate sales in 2014.

Solution
(a) In Figure 8.34 the scatterplot suggests that a linear function models the data. A line has
been sketched with the data.
READING CHECK
Green Building Material Sales
How can you determine
y
whether data in a table can
be modeled by a linear
function? 80
Sales ($ billions)

70
y = f(x)

x
0 1 2 3 4
Year (0 2010)

Figure 8.34 A Linear Model

(b) From Table 8.11, sales for green material were $65 billion in 2010, with sales increas-
ing at a constant rate of $5 billion per year.
(c) From part (b) initial sales (x = 0) were $65 billion, and sales increased by $5 billion
per year. Thus
f (x) = 5 * x + 65,
(Future sales) = (Rate of change in sales) * (Time) + (Initial sales)
or f (x) = 5x + 65.
(d) Because x = 4 corresponds to 2014, evaluate f (4).
f (4) = 5(4) + 65 = 85
This model estimates sales of green building material to be $85 billion in 2014.
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

Now Try Exercise 119

In the next example, we consider a simple function that models the speed of a car.

EXAMPLE 8 Modeling with a constant function

A car travels on a freeway with its speed recorded at regular intervals, as listed in Table 8.12.

TABLE 8.12 Speed of a Car

Elapsed Time (hours) 0 1 2 3 4
Speed (miles per hour) 70 70 70 70 70

(a) Discuss the speed of the car during this time interval.
(b) Find a formula for a function f that models these data.
(c) Sketch a graph of f together with the data.
Solution
(a) The speed of the car appears to be constant at 70 miles per hour.
(b) Because the speed is constant, the rate of change is 0. Thus
f (x) = 0x + 70
(Future speed) = (Change in speed) + (Initial speed)
and f (x) = 70. We call f a constant function.
(c) Because y = f (x), graph y = 70 with the data points
(0, 70), (1, 70), (2, 70), (3, 70), and (4, 70)
to obtain Figure 8.35.

Constant Function
y

80
70
60
Speed (mph)

y = 70
50
40
30
20
10
x
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (hours)

Figure 8.35 Speed of a Car

Now Try Exercise 113

The function defined by f (x) = 70 is an example of a constant function. A

constant function is a linear function with m = 0 and can be written as f (x) = b.
Regardless of the input, a constant function always outputs the same value, b. Its graph
CRITICAL THINKING is a horizontal line. Its domain is all real numbers and its range is R = {b}.
Find a formula for a func-
tion D that calculates the N REAL-WORLD CONNECTION The following are three applications of constant functions.
distance traveled by the car
• A thermostat calculates a constant function regardless of the weather outside by main-
in Example 8 after x hours.
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

What is the rate of change taining a set temperature.

for D(x)? • A cruise control in a car calculates a constant function by maintaining a fixed speed,
regardless of the type of road or terrain.
• A constant function calculates the 1250-foot height of the Empire State Building.

The Midpoint Formula (Optional)

N REAL-WORLD CONNECTION A common way to make estimations is to average data items.
For example, in 2000 the average tuition and fees at public two-year colleges were about
$1700, and in 2010 they were about $2700. (Source: The College Board.) To estimate tuition and
fees in 2005, we could average the 2000 and 2010 amounts.
1700 + 2700
= +2200 Finding the average
2
This technique predicts that tuition and fees were $2200 in 2005 and is referred to as find-
ing the midpoint.

MIDPOINT FORMULA ON THE REAL NUMBER LINE The midpoint of a line seg-
ment is the unique point on the line segment that is an equal distance from the endpoints.
For example, in Figure 8.36 the midpoint M of ⴚ 3 and 5 on the real number line is 1.
M
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Figure 8.36

We can calculate the value of M as follows.

x1 + x2 ⴚ3 + 5
M = = = 1
2 2

Q
Average the x-values
to find the midpoint.

MIDPOINT FORMULA IN THE xy-PLANE The midpoint of a line segment in the

xy-plane can be found in a similar way. Figure 8.37(a) shows the midpoint on the line
segment connecting the points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2). The x-coordinate of M is equal to the
average of x1 and x2 , and the y-coordinate of M is equal to the average of y1 and y2 . For
example, the line segment with endpoints ( ⴚ 2, 1) and (4, ⴚ 3) is shown in Figure 8.37(b).
The coordinates of the midpoint are
ⴚ 2 + 4 1 + ( ⴚ 3)
M = a , b = (1, ⴚ 1).
2 2
y y

(x2, y2) y2 3
2
M y1 + y2 (–2, 1)
1
2
(x1, y1) x
y1 –2 –1 1 2 3 4
–1
M = (1, –1)
x –2
x1 x1 + x2 x2
–3
2 (4, –3)
(a) (b)
Figure 8.37

This discussion is summarized as follows.

MIDPOINT FORMULA IN THE xy-PLANE

The midpoint of the line segment with endpoints (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) in the xy-plane is
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

x 1 + x 2 y1 + y 2
a , b.
2 2

EXAMPLE 9 Finding the midpoint

Find the midpoint of the line segment connecting the points (⫺3, ⫺2) and (4, 1).

Solution
In the midpoint formula let ( ⴚ 3, ⴚ 2) be (x1, y1) and (4, 1) be (x2, y2).

x1 + x2 y1 + y2
M = a , b Midpoint formula
2 2

ⴚ3 + 4 ⴚ2 + 1
= a , b Substitute.
2 2

1 1
= a ,ⴚ b Simplify.
2 2

The midpoint of the line segment is 1 12, - 12 2.

Now Try Exercise 93

N REAL-WORLD CONNECTION In the next example we use the midpoint formula to estimate
the divorce rate in the United States in 2005.

EXAMPLE 10 Estimating the U.S. divorce rate

The divorce rate per 1000 people in 2000 was 4.2, and in 2010 it was 3.4. (Source: Statistical
Abstract of the United States.)
(a) Use the midpoint formula to estimate the divorce rate in 2005.
(b) Could the midpoint formula be used to estimate the divorce rate in 2003? Explain.

Solution
(a) In the midpoint formula, let (2000, 4.2) be (x1, y1) and let (2010, 3.4) be (x2, y2).

x1 + x2 y1 + y2
M = a , b Midpoint formula
2 2

2000 + 2010 4.2 + 3.4

= a , b Substitute.
2 2

= (2005, 3.8) Simplify.

The midpoint formula estimates that the divorce rate was 3.8 per 1000 people in 2005.
(Note that the actual rate was 3.6.)
(b) No, the midpoint formula can only be used to estimate data that are exactly halfway
between two given data points. Because the year 2003 is not exactly halfway between
2000 and 2010, the midpoint formula cannot be used.
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

Now Try Exercise 107

NOTE: An estimate obtained from the midpoint formula is equal to an estimate obtained
from a linear function whose graph passes through the endpoints of the line segment. This
fact is illustrated in the next example.

EXAMPLE 11 Relating midpoints to linear functions

The graph of a linear function f shown in Figure 8.38 passes through the points (⫺1, 3)
and (2, ⫺3).
y

4
y ⫽ f(x)
(–1, 3)

1
M
x
–4 –2 2 4

–2
(2, –3)
–4

Figure 8.38

(a) Find a formula for f (x).

(b) Evaluate f 1 12 2. Does your answer agree with the graph?
(c) Find the midpoint M of the line segment connecting the points (⫺1, 3) and (2, ⫺3).
Comment on your result.

Solution
(a) The graph of f is a line that passes through (⫺1, 3) and (2, ⫺3). The slope m of the line is
-3 - 3 6
m = = - = ⴚ 2,
2 - ( - 1) 3
and from the graph, the y-intercept is 1. Thus f (x) = ⴚ 2x + 1.
(b) f 1 12 2 = - 2 1 12 2 + 1 = 0. Yes, they agree because the point 1 12, 0 2 lies on the graph
of y = f (x) in Figure 8.38.
(c) The midpoint of the line segment connecting ( ⴚ 1, 3) and (2, ⴚ 3) is
ⴚ 1 + 2 3 + ( ⴚ 3) 1
M = a , b = a , 0b .
2 2 2
Finding the midpoint M = 1 12, 0 2 of the line segment with endpoints (⫺1, 3) and
(2, ⫺3) is equivalent to evaluating the linear function f, whose graph passes through
(⫺1, 3) and (2, ⫺3), at x = 12 .
Now Try Exercise 103

8.2 Putting It All Together

CONCEPT EXPLANATION EXAMPLES
Linear Function Can be represented by f (x) = mx + b f (x) = 2 x - 6, m = 2 and b = - 6
Its graph is a line with slope m and f (x) = 10, m = 0 and b = 10
y-intercept b.
Constant Function Can be represented by f (x) = b f (x) = - 7, b = - 7
Its graph is a horizontal line. f (x) = 22, b = 22
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

Rate of Change for a The output of a linear function f (x) = - 3x + 8 decreases 3 units for
Linear Function changes by a constant amount for each unit increase in x.
each unit increase in the input. f (x) = 5 neither increases nor decreases.
The rate of change is 0.
continued on next page

continued from previous page

CONCEPT EXPLANATION EXAMPLES

Midpoint Formula The midpoint of the line segment The midpoint of the line segment
connecting (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) is connecting (⫺2, 3) and (4, 5) is
x 1 + x 2 y1 + y 2 -2 + 4 3 + 5
a , b. a , b = (1, 4).
2 2 2 2

REPRESENTATION COMMENTS EXAMPLE

Symbolic Mathematical formula in the form f (x) = 2 x + 1,
f (x) = mx + b where m = 2 and b = 1

Verbal Multiply the input x by m and add b. Multiply the input x by 2 and then add 1
to obtain the output.
Numerical (table of For each unit increase in x in the 1-unit increase
table, the output of f (x) = mx + b

Q
values)
changes by an amount equal to m. x 0 1 2
f (x) 1 3 5

Q
2-unit increase

Graphical The graph of a linear function is a y

line. Plot at least 3 points and then
sketch the line. 5

If f (x) = mx + b, then the graph of f 4

3
has slope m and y-intercept b. 2
y = 2x + 1

1
x
–2 1 2 3 4
–1

8.2 Exercises
CONCEPTS AND VOCABULARY 6. If f (x) = 5, each time x increases by 1 unit, f (x)
1. The formula for a linear function is f (x) = . increases by 0 units.
mx + b
2. The formula for a constant function is f (x) = b . 7. (True or False?) Every constant function is a linear
function. T
3. The graph of a linear function is a(n) line .
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

8. (True or False?) Every linear function is a constant

4. The graph of a constant function is a(n) line. function. F
horizontal
5. If f (x) = 7x + 5, each time x increases by 1 unit,
f (x) increases by 7 units.

9. If C (x) = 2 x calculates the cost in dollars of buying Exercises 23–32: (Refer to Example 2.) Use the table to
x square feet of carpet, what does 2 represent in the determine whether f (x) could represent a linear func-
formula? Interpret the fact that the point (10, 20) lies tion. If it could, write f (x) in the form f (x) = mx + b.
on the graph of C.*
23. Yes; f (x) = 3x - 6
x 0 1 2 3
10. If G (x) = 100 - 4x calculates the number of gal-
lons of water in a tank after x minutes, what does - 4 f (x) -6 -3 0 3
represent in the formula? Interpret the fact that the
point (5, 80) lies on the graph of G.* 24. Yes; f (x) = 2 x - 2
x 0 2 4 6

IDENTIFYING LINEAR FUNCTIONS f (x) -2 2 6 10

Exercises 11–18: Determine whether f is a linear func-

25. Yes; f (x) = - 32 x + 3
tion. If f is linear, give values for m and b so that f may be x -2 0 2 4
expressed as f (x) = mx + b.
f (x) 6 3 0 -3
1
11. f (x) = x - 6 Yes; m = 12, b = -6
2 26. No
x 0 3 6 9
12. f (x) = x Yes; m = 1, b = 0
f (x) 8 4 2 1
5
13. f (x) = - x 2 No
2 27. x -2 -1 0 1 No

14. f (x) = 1x + 3 No f (x) -5 0 20 40

15. f (x) = - 9 Yes; m = 0, b = -9
28. Yes; f (x) = -3x
16. f (x) = 1.5 - 7.3x Yes; m = -7.3, b = 1.5 x -2 -1 0 1
f (x) 6 3 0 -3
17. f (x) = - 9x Yes; m = -9, b = 0
1 29. Yes; f (x) = 2 x
18. f (x) = No x 0 2 3 4
x
f (x) 0 4 6 8
Exercises 19–22: Determine whether the graph repre-
sents a linear function. 30. x 1 2 3 4 No

19. Yes 20. No f (x) 0 1 3 7

y y

31. Yes; f (x) = -4

4 4
x -1 0 1 2
2 2 f (x) -4 -4 -4 -4
x x
-4 -2 2 4 -4 -2 2 4
-2
32. Yes; f (x) = 5
-4 -4
x 2 5 6 8
f (x) 5 5 5 5

21. No 22. Yes

y y EVALUATING LINEAR FUNCTIONS
Exercises 33–38: Evaluate f (x) at the given values of x.
4 4
33. f (x) = 4 x x = - 4, 5 -16; 20
2 2
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

x x 34. f (x) = - 2 x + 1 x = - 2, 3 5; -5
-4 -2 2 4 -4 -2 2 4
-2
35. f (x) = 5 - x x = - 23, 3 17
3; 2
-4 -4

36. f (x) = 12 x - 14 x = 0, 12 - 14; 0

37. f (x) = - 22 x = - 34, 13 -22; -22 51. f (x) = x - 2 b. 52. f (x) = 2 x + 1 a.

a. b.
38. f (x) = 9x - 7 x = - 1.2, 2.8 -17.8; 18.2 y y
Exercises 39–44: Use the graph of f to evaluate the given
expressions. 4 4

39. f ( - 1) and f (0) -2; 0 40. f ( - 2) and f (2) 4; 0 2 2

y y x x
-4 -2 2 4 -4 -2 2 4
-2

4 -4 -4
2
2
1
1
x x c. d.
-2 -1 1 2 -4 -2 -1 1 2 4
y y
-2
-2 -3
-4
4 4
2
41. f ( - 2) and f (4) -1; -4 42. f (0) and f (3) -1; 1 x x
-4 -2 2 4 -4 -2 2 4
y y -2
-4
4 3
3
2 2
1 1

-4 -1 1 2 3 4
x
-3 -2 -1 2 3
x Exercises 53–62: Sketch a graph of y = f (x).*
-2 53. f (x) = 2 54. f (x) = - 1
-3
-4 -3
55. f (x) = - 12 x 56. f (x) = 2 x

43. f ( - 3) and f (1) 44. f (1.5) and f (0.5p) 57. f (x) = x + 1 58. f (x) = x - 2
1; 1 -2; -2
y y 59. f (x) = 3x - 3 60. f (x) = - 2 x + 1

61. f (x) = 3 - x 62. f (x) = 14 x + 2

2 2
1
Exercises 63–68: Write a symbolic representation (for-
x x
–2 –1 1 2 –2 –1 1 2 mula) for a linear function f that calculates the following.
–1 –1
1
–2
63. The number of pounds in x ounces f (x) = 16 x

64. The number of dimes in x dollars f (x) = 10x

Exercises 45–48: Use the verbal description to write a
65. The distance traveled by a car moving at 65 miles per
formula for f (x). Then evaluate f (3).
hour for t hours f (t) = 65t
45. Multiply the input by 6. f (x) = 6 x; 18
66. The long-distance phone bill in dollars for calling
46. Multiply the input by - 3 and add 7. f (x) = -3x + 7; -2 t minutes at 10 cents per minute and a fixed fee of
$4.95 f (t) = 0.10t + 4.95
47. Divide the input by 6 and subtract 12 . f (x) = x
6 - 12; 0
67. The total number of hours in a day during day x
f (x) = 24
48. Output 8.7 for every input. f (x) = 8.7; 8.7
68. The total cost of downhill skiing x times with a $500
season pass f (x) = 500
REPRESENTING LINEAR FUNCTIONS
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

69. Thinking Generally For each 1-unit increase in x with

Exercises 49–52: Match f (x) with its graph (a.–d.) at the y = ax + b and a 7 0, y increases by a units.
top of the next column.
70. Thinking Generally For each 1-unit decrease in x with
49. f (x) = 3x d. 50. f (x) = - 2 x c. y = cx + d and c 6 0, y increases by -c units.

Exercises 71–74: Do the following.* (b) If the cost of gasoline is $3 per gallon, find func-
tion C that calculates the cost of fuel to travel x
(a) Give a verbal representation of f.
miles. C(x) = 3xE
(b) Make a numerical representation (table) of f for
x = - 2, 0, 2.
(c) Plot the points listed in the table from part (b),
then sketch a graph of f.
71. f (x) = - 2 x + 1 72. f (x) = 1 - x
73. f (x) = 12x - 1 74. f (x) = 34x
Exercises 75–78: Do the following.*
(a) Make a numerical representation (table) of f for 84. Online Exploration Suppose that you would like to
x = - 3, - 2, - 1, p , 3. drive to Miami for spring break (if it is possible) in the
(b) Graph f in the window [ - 6, 6, 1] by [ - 4, 4, 1]. car that you chose in Exercise 83. Calculate the gal-
75. f (x) = 13x + 22 76. f (x) = - 23x - 23 lons of gasoline needed for the trip. Answers will vary.
x + 2 2 - 3x
77. f (x) = 78. f (x) = MIDPOINT FORMULA
5 7
MODELING Exercises 85–92: Find the midpoint of the line segment
shown.
Exercises 79–82: Match the situation with the graph
(a.–d.) that models it best, where x-values represent time 85. ⫺1
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
from 2000 to 2010.
79. The cost of college tuition b. 86. - 12
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
80. The cost of 1 gigabyte of computer memory d. 87. y 88. y

81. The distance between Chicago and Denver c. 4

3 3
82. The total distance traveled by a satellite that is orbit- 2 2
ing Earth if the satellite was launched in 2000 a. 1 1
x
a. b. x –4 –3 1 2 3 4
–3 –2 1 2 3
–1
y y
–2 –3
–4
–3

(-1, 0) (-1, -1)

89. y 90. y

4 3
3
x x 2
1
c. d. x x
y y –4 –3 –2 –1 3 4 –3 –2 1 2 3
–1
–2
–2
–3
–4 –3

1 - 12, 12 2 1 - 12, 2 2
91. y 92. y

30
x x 20
20
10 10
83. Online Exploration Look up the fuel efficiency
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

x x
E in miles per gallon for one of your favorite cars. –30 –20 10 30 –20 10 20
–10
(Answers will vary.) –20
–10

(a) Find a function G that calculates the number of –30 –20

gallons required to travel x miles. G(x) = Ex
(20, 0) (-5, 5)

Exercises 93–102: Find the midpoint of the line segment 111. U.S. Median Income In 1999 the median family
connecting the given points. income was $40,700, and in 2009 it was $49,800.
Estimate the median family income in 2004. $45,250
93. ( - 9, - 3), ( - 7, 1) 94. (7, - 2), ( - 5, 8)
(-8, -1) (1, 3)
112. Estimating Fish Populations In 2008 there were
95. 1 12, 13 2 , 1- 52, - 23 2 96. 1- 35, - 14 2, 1 101 , 12 2 approximately 3200 large-mouth bass in a lake.
1-1, - 16 2 1- 14, 18 2 This number increased to 3800 in 2012. Estimate
97. ( - 0.3, 0.1), (0.7, 0.4) (0.2, 0.25) the number of large-mouth bass in the lake in
2010. 3500
98. (0.8, - 0.4), (0.9, - 0.1) (0.85, -0.25)
APPLICATIONS
99. (2000, 5), (2010, 13) 100. (2005, 9), (2011, 3)
(2005, 9) (2008, 6) 113. Thermostat Let y = f (x) describe the temperature
101. Thinking Generally (a, - b), (3a, 5b) (2a, 2b) y of a room that is kept at 70⬚ F for x hours.
(a) Represent f symbolically and graphically over a
102. Thinking Generally ( - a, b), (a, - b) (0, 0) 24-hour period for 0 … x … 24. f (x) = 70;*
(b) Construct a table of f for x = 0, 4, 8, 12, p , 24.*
(c) What type of function is f ? Constant
Exercises 103–106: (Refer to Example 11.) The graph of
a linear function f passes through the two given points. 114. Cruise Control Let y = f (x) describe the speed y
(a) Find a formula for f (x). Determine f (2). of an automobile after x minutes if the cruise control
(b) Determine f (2) by finding the midpoint of the line is set at 60 miles per hour.
segment connecting the given points. (a) Represent f symbolically and graphically over a
(c) Compare your answers for parts (a) and (b). 15-minute period for 0 … x … 15. f (x) = 60; *
(b) Construct a table of f for x = 0, 1, 2, p , 6.*
103. (0, 5), (4, - 3) (a) f (x) = -2x + 5; 1 (b) 1 (c) Equal (c) What type of function is f ? Constant
104. (0, 2), (4, 10) (a) f (x) = 2x + 2; 6 (b) 6 (c) Equal 115. Distance A car is initially 50 miles south of the
Minnesota–Iowa border, traveling south on Inter-
105. ( - 3, - 1), (7, 3) (a) f (x) = 25 x + 15; 1 (b) 1 (c) Equal state 35. Distances D between the car and the bor-
106. (⫺1, 3), (5, ⫺5) (a) f (x) = - 43 x + 53; -1 (b) -1
der are recorded in the table for various elapsed
(c) Equal times t. Find a linear function D that models these
data. D(t) = 60t + 50
Exercises 107–112: Use the midpoint formula to make the
requested estimation. t (hours) 0 2 3 5
107. U.S. Life Expectancy The life expectancy of D (miles) 50 170 230 350
a female born in 1990 was 78.8 years, and the
116. Estimating the Weight of a Bass Sometimes the
life expectancy of a female born in 2010 rose to
weight of a fish can be estimated by measuring its
80.8 years. Estimate the life expectancy of a female
length. The table lists typical weights of bass having
born in 2000. (Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.)
79.8 years various lengths.
108. U.S. Life Expectancy The life expectancy of a male
born in 1990 was 71.8 years, and the life expec- Length 12 14 16 18 20 22
tancy of a male born in 2010 rose to 75.6 years. (inches)
Estimate the life expectancy of a male born in 2000. Weight 1.0 1.7 2.5 3.6 5.0 6.6
(Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.) 73.7 years (pounds)
109. U.S. Population The population of the United Source: Minnesota Department of Natural Resources.

States in 1970 was 205 million, and in 2010 it was (a) Let x be the length and y be the weight. Make a
308 million. Estimate the population in 1990. (Source: line graph of the data.*
U.S. Census Bureau.) 256.5 million (b) Could the data be modeled accurately with a
linear function? Explain your answer.
110. Distance Traveled A car is moving at a constant No. The data do not form a straight line.
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

speed on an interstate highway. After 1 hour the car 117. Texting In 2010, the average American under age
passes the 103-mile marker and after 5 hours the car 18 sent approximately 93 texts per day, whereas the
passes the 391-mile marker. What mile marker does average adult over age 65 sent approximately 1 text
the car pass after 3 hours? 247 per day.

(a) Find a formula for a function K that calculates by 0.5 cubic centimeter for every 1⬚ C increase in
the number of texts sent in x days by the average temperature T. (a) V (T) = 0.5T + 137
person under age 18. K(x) = 93x (a) Write a formula V (T ) = aT + b that gives the
(b) Find a formula for a function A that calculates volume of the gas at temperature T.
the number of texts sent in x days by the average (b) Find the 3volume of the gas when T = 50⬚ C.
(b) 162 cm
person over age 65. A(x) = x
(c) Evaluate K(365) and A(365). Interpret your 124. Cost To make a music video it costs $750 to rent a
results. 33,945; 365; on average, someone under 18 sends studio plus $5 for each copy produced.
33,945 texts in 1 year, while someone over 65 sends 365 texts. (a) Write a formula C (x) = ax + b that calculates
118. Rain Forests Rain forests are forests that grow in the cost of producing x videos. C (x) = 5x + 750
regions receiving more than 70 inches of rain per (b) Find the cost of producing 2500 videos. $13,250
year. The world is losing about 49 million acres of
rain forest each year. (Source: New York Times Almanac.) 125. Weight Lifting Lifting weights can increase a person’s
(a) Find a linear function f that calculates the change muscle mass. Each additional pound of muscle burns
in the acres of rain forest in millions in x years. f (x) = -49x an extra 40 calories per day. Write a linear function
(b) Evaluate f (7) and interpret the result. -343; in that models the number of calories burned each day by
7 years the world loses 343 million acres of rain forest. x pounds of muscle. By burning an extra 3500 calories
119. Car Sales The table shows the number of U.S. Toyota a person can lose 1 pound of fat. How many pounds of
vehicles sold in millions for past years. muscle are needed to burn 1 pound of fat in 30 days?
(Source: Runner’s World.) f (x) = 40 x; about 2.92 lb
Year 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004
126. Wireless Households The percentage P of wireless
Vehicles 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 households x years after 2005 can be modeled by
Source: Autodata. the formula P(x) = 4 x + 7, where 0 … x … 7.*
(a) Evaluate P(0) and P(3). Interpret your results.
(a) What were the sales in 2000? 1.6 million (b) Explain the meaning of 4 and 7 in the formula.
(b) What was the annual increase in sales? 0.1 million
(c) Find a linear function f that models these data. 127. Mobile Data Penetration The table lists the per-
Let x = 0 correspond to 2000, x = 1 to 2001, centage P of people with cell phones who also
and so on. f (x) = 0.1x + 1.6 subscribed to a data package during year x. (For
(d) Use f to estimate sales in 2006. 2.2 million example, with a data package one can surf the Web
and check email.)
120. Tuition and Fees Suppose tuition costs $300 per
credit and that student fees are fixed at $100.* Year 2007 2008 2009
(a) Find a formula for a linear function T that Percentage 55% 59% 63%
models the cost of tuition and fees for x credits.
(b) Evaluate T(16) and interpret the result. (a) What was this percentage in 2007? 55%
121. Skype Users The number of Skype users S in (b) By how much did this percentage change each
millions x years after 2006 can be modeled by the year? 4%.
formula S(x) = 110x + 123. (c) Write a function P that models these data. Let x
(a) How many users were there in 2010? 563 million be years after 2007. P(x) = 4 x + 55
(b) What does the number 123 indicate in the formula?* (d) Estimate this percentage in 2010. 67%
(c) What does the number 110 indicate in the formula? 128. Wal-Mart Sales The table shows Wal-Mart’s share
Users increased, on average, by 110 million per year.
122. Temperature and Volume If a sample of a gas such as a percentage of overall U.S. retail sales for past
as helium is heated, it will expand. The formula years. (This percentage excludes restaurants and
V (T ) = 0.147T + 40 calculates the volume V in motor vehicles.)
cubic inches of a sample of gas at temperature T in Year 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
degrees Celsius.
(a) Evaluate V (0) and interpret the result.* Share (%) 6 6.5 7 7.5 8
(b) If the temperature increases by 10⬚ C, by how Source: Commerce Department, Wal-Mart.
much does the volume increase? 1.47 in3 (a) What was Wal-Mart’s share in 1998? 6%
(c) What is the volume of the gas when the temper- (b) By how much (percent) did Wal-Mart’s share
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

ature is 100⬚ C? 54.7 in3 increase each year? 0.5%

123. Temperature and Volume (Refer to the preceding (c) Find a linear function f that models these data.
exercise.) A sample of gas at 0⬚ C has a volume V Let x = 0 correspond to 1998. f (x) = 0.5x + 6
of 137 cubic centimeters, which increases in volume (d) Use f to estimate Wal-Mart’s share in 2005. 9.5%

WRITING ABOUT MATHEMATICS 130. Describe one way to determine whether data can be
129. Explain how you can determine whether a function modeled by a linear function.
is linear by using its
(a) symbolic representation,
(b) graphical representation, and
(c) numerical representation.

SECTIONS
8.1 and 8.2 Checking Basic Concepts
1. Find a formula and sketch a graph for a function 4. Graph f (x) = 4 - 3x. Evaluate f ( - 2).
that squares the input x and then subtracts 1.
5. Find a formula for a linear function that models
2. Use the graph of f to do the following. the data.
(a) Find the domain and range of f.
(b) Evaluate f (0) and f (2). x 0 1 2 3 4
(c) Is f a linear function? Explain.
f (x) -1 - 12 0 1
2 1
y

6. The median age in the United States from 1970 to

4
3 2010 can be approximated by
2
1 f (x) = 0.225x + 27.7,
–4 –2 1 2 3 4
x where x = 0 corresponds to 1970, x = 1 to
1971, and so on.
y = f(x)
(a) Evaluate f (20) and interpret the result.
–4
(b) Interpret the numbers 0.225 and 27.7.
3. Determine whether f is a linear function. 7. Find the midpoint of the line segment connecting
(a) f (x) = 4x - 2 the points (⫺3, 4) and (5, ⫺6).
(b) f (x) = 21x - 5
(c) f (x) = - 7
(d) f (x) = 9 - 2 x + 5x

8.3 Compound Inequalities

Basic Concepts ● Symbolic Solutions and Number Lines ●
Numerical and Graphical Solutions ● Interval Notation

A LOOK INTO MATH N A person weighing 143 pounds and needing to purchase a life vest for white-water rafting is
not likely to find one designed exactly for this weight. Life vests are manufactured to support
a range of body weights. A vest approved for weights between 100 and 160 pounds might
be appropriate for this person. In other words, if a person’s weight is w, this life vest is safe if
w Ú 100 and w … 160. This example illustrates the concept of a compound inequality.

Basic Concepts
A compound inequality consists of two inequalities joined by the words and or or. The
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

following are two examples of compound inequalities.

1. 2 x Ú - 3 and 2 x 6 5 2. x + 2 Ú 3 or x - 1 6 -5
First compound inequality Second compound inequality

NEW VOCABULARY If a compound inequality contains the word and, a solution must satisfy both
n Compound inequality
inequalities. For example, 1 is a solution to the first compound inequality because
n Intersection 2(1) # - 3 and 2(1) * 5 First compound inequality
n Three-part inequality with x = 1
n Union True True
n Interval notation are both true statements.
n Infinity If a compound inequality contains the word or, a solution must satisfy at least one of
n Negative infinity the two inequalities. Thus 5 is a solution to the second compound inequality, because the
first statement is true.

5 + 2 # 3 or 5 - 1 * -5 Second compound inequality

with x = 5
True False
Note that 5 does not need to satisfy both statements for this compound inequality to be true.

EXAMPLE 1 Determining solutions to compound inequalities

Determine whether the given x-values are solutions to the compound inequalities.
(a) x + 1 6 9 and 2 x - 1 7 8 x = 5, - 5
(b) 5 - 2 x … - 4 or 5 - 2 x Ú 4 x = 2, - 3

Solution
(a) Substitute x = 5 in the compound inequality x + 1 6 9 and 2 x - 1 7 8.
5 + 1 * 9 and 2(5) - 1 + 8
True True
Both inequalities are true, so 5 is a solution. Now substitute x = ⴚ 5.
ⴚ 5 + 1 * 9 and 2( ⴚ 5) - 1 + 8
True False
To be a solution both inequalities must be true, so - 5 is not a solution.
(b) Substitute x = 2 into the compound inequality 5 - 2 x … - 4 or 5 - 2 x Ú 4.

5 - 2(2) " - 4 or 5 - 2(2) # 4

False False
Neither inequality is true, so 2 is not a solution. Now substitute x = ⴚ 3.

5 - 2( ⴚ 3) " - 4 or 5 - 2( ⴚ 3) # 4
False True
At least one of the two inequalities is true, so - 3 is a solution.
Now Try Exercises 7, 9

Symbolic Solutions and Number Lines

We can use a number line to graph solutions to compound inequalities, such as

x " 6 and x + ⴚ 4.

The solution set for x … 6 is shaded to the left of 6, with a bracket placed at x = 6, as
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

shown in Figure 8.39 on the next page. The solution set for x 7 - 4 can be shown by
shading a different number line to the right of - 4 and placing a left parenthesis at - 4.
Because the inequalities are connected by and, the solution set consists of all numbers that
are shaded on both number lines. The final number line represents the intersection of the

STUDY TIP two solution sets. That is, the solution set includes real numbers where the graphs “over-
To review set-builder nota- lap.” For any two sets A and B, the intersection of A and B, denoted A 傽 B, is defined by
tion, refer to page 142.
A 僕 B ⴝ {x 円 x is an element of A and an element of B}.

Graphing a Compound Inequality

x … 6
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8

x 7 -4
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8

x … 6 and x 7 -4
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8

Figure 8.39

NOTE: A bracket, either [ or ], is used when an inequality contains " or # . A parenthesis,

either ( or ), is used when an inequality contains * or + . This notation makes clear
whether an endpoint is included in the inequality.

EXAMPLE 2 Solving a compound inequality containing “and”

Solve 2 x + 4 7 8 and 5 - x 6 9. Graph the solution set.

Solution
First solve each linear inequality separately.
2 x + 4 7 8 and 5 - x 6 9
2 x 7 4 and -x * 4
x 7 2 and x + -4
Graph x 7 2 and x 7 - 4 on two different number lines. On a third number line, shade
solutions that appear on both of the first two number lines. As shown in Figure 8.40, the
solution set is {x 兩 x 7 2}.

x 7 2
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6

x 7 -4
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6

x 7 2 and x 7 -4 Solution set

-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6

Figure 8.40
Now Try Exercise 43

Sometimes a compound inequality containing the word and can be combined into a
three-part inequality. For example, rather than writing
READING CHECK
x 7 5 and x … 10,
What is a three-part
inequality?
we could write the three-part inequality
5 6 x … 10.
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

This three-part inequality is represented by the number line shown in Figure 8.41.
5 6 x … 10
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Figure 8.41

EXAMPLE 3 Solving three-part inequalities

Solve each inequality. Graph each solution set. Write the solution set in set-builder nota-
tion. (To review set-builder notation, see page 142.)
5 1 - m
(a) 4 6 t + 2 … 8 (b) - 3 … 3z … 6 (c) - 6 6 4
2 2
Solution
(a) To solve a three-part inequality, isolate the variable by applying properties of inequali-
ties to each part of the inequality.
4 6 t + 2 … 8 Given three-part inequality
4 - 2 6 t + 2 - 2 … 8 - 2 Subtract 2 from each part.
2 6 t … 6 Simplify each part.
The solution set is {t 兩 2 6 t … 6}. See Figure 8.42.
2 6 t … 6 Solution set
–1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Figure 8.42
CRITICAL THINKING
(b) To simplify, divide each part by 3.
Graph the following
inequalities and discuss - 3 … 3z … 6 Given three-part inequality
your results. -3 3z 6
1. x 6 2 and x 7 5 … … Divide each part by 3.
3 3 3
2. x 7 2 or x 6 5
-1 … z … 2 Simplify each part.

The solution set is {z 兩 - 1 … z … 2}. See Figure 8.43.

-1 … z … 2 Solution set
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
Figure 8.43

(c) Multiply each part by 2 to clear (eliminate) fractions.

5 1 - m
- 6 6 4 Given three-part inequality
2 2

2 # a- b 6 2 # a
5 1 - m
b 6 2#4 Multiply each part by 2.
2 2
-5 6 1 - m 6 8 Simplify each part.
-5 - 1 6 1 - m - 1 6 8 - 1 Subtract 1 from each part.
-6 * -m * 7 Simplify each part.
ⴚ 1 # ( - 6) + ⴚ 1 # ( - m) + ⴚ 1 # 7 Multiply each part by -1;
reverse inequality symbols.
6 7 m 7 -7 Simplify each part.
-7 6 m 6 6 Rewrite inequality.
The solution set is {m 兩 - 7 6 m 6 6}. See Figure 8.44.

-7 6 m 6 6 Solution set
–8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8
STUDY TIP Figure 8.44
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

When simplifying a three-

NOTE: Either 6 7 m 7 - 7 or - 7 6 m 6 6 is a correct way to write a three-part
part inequality, be sure to
perform the same step on inequality. However, we usually write the smaller number on the left side and the larger
each of the three parts. number on the right side.
Now Try Exercises 59, 63, 79

N REAL-WORLD CONNECTION Three-part inequalities occur frequently in applications. In the

next example we find altitudes at which the air temperature is within a certain range.

EXAMPLE 4 Solving a three-part inequality

If the ground-level temperature is 80⬚F, the air temperature x miles above Earth’s surface
is cooler and can be modeled by T(x) = 80 - 19x. Find the altitudes at which the air tem-
perature ranges from 42⬚ F down to 23⬚F. (Source: A. Miller and R. Anthes, Meteorology.)

Solution
We write and solve the three-part inequality 23 … T(x) … 42.
23 … 80 ⴚ 19x … 42 Substitute for T (x).
- 57 " - 19x " - 38 Subtract 80 from each part.
- 57 - 38
# x # Divide by -19; reverse inequality symbols.
- 19 - 19
3 Ú x Ú 2 Simplify.
2 … x … 3 Rewrite inequality.
The air temperature ranges from 42⬚ F to 23⬚F for altitudes between 2 and 3 miles.
Now Try Exercise 113

MAKING CONNECTIONS
Writing Three-Part Inequalities
The inequality - 2 6 x 6 1 means that x 7 - 2 and x 6 1. A three-part inequality
should not be used when or connects a compound inequality. Writing x 6 - 2 or x 7 1
as 1 6 x 6 - 2 is incorrect because it states that x must be both greater than 1 and less
than - 2. It is impossible for any value of x to satisfy this statement.

We can also solve compound inequalities containing the word or. To write the solution
to such an inequality we sometimes use union notation. For any two sets A and B, the union
of A and B, denoted A h B, is defined by

A 僔 B ⴝ {x 円 x is an element of A or an element of B}.

If the solution to an inequality is {x 兩 x 6 1} or {x 兩 x Ú 3}, then it can also be written as

{x 兩 x 6 1} h {x 兩 x Ú 3}.

That is, we can replace the word or with the h symbol.

EXAMPLE 5 Solving a compound inequality containing “or”

Solve x + 2 6 - 1 or x + 2 7 1. Graph the solution set.

Solution
We first solve each linear inequality.
x + 2 6 - 1 or x + 2 7 1
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

Given compound inequality

x 6 - 3 or x 7 -1 Subtract 2.
We can graph the simplified inequalities on different number lines, as shown in Figure 8.45.
A solution must satisfy at least one of the two inequalities. Thus the solution set for the

compound inequality results from taking the union of the first two number lines. We can
write the solution, using set-builder notation, as {x 兩 x 6 - 3} h {x 兩 x 7 - 1} or as
{x 兩 x 6 - 3 or x 7 - 1}.
x 6 -3
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

x 7 -1
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

x 6 -3 or x 7 -1 Solution set
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

Figure 8.45

Now Try Exercise 47

CRITICAL THINKING
Carbon dioxide is emitted when human beings breathe. In one study of college students, the
amount of carbon dioxide exhaled in grams per hour was measured during both lectures and
exams. The average amount exhaled during lectures L satisfied 25.33 … L … 28.17, whereas
the average amount exhaled during exams E satisfied 36.58 … E … 40.92. What do these
results indicate? Explain. (Source: T. Wang, ASHRAE Trans.)

Numerical and Graphical Solutions

Compound inequalities can also be solved graphically and numerically, as illustrated in the
next example.

EXAMPLE 6 Estimating numbers of Internet users

The number of U.S. Internet users in millions during year x can be modeled by the formula
f (x) = 11.6(x - 2000) + 124. Estimate the years when the number of users is expected to
be between 240 and 275 million. (Source: The Nielsen Company.)

Solution
Numerical Solution Let y1 = 11.6(x - 2000) + 124. Make a table of values, as shown in
Figure 8.46(a). In 2010 the number of Internet users was 240 million, and in 2013 this
number is about 275 million. Thus from 2010 to about 2013 the number of Internet users is
expected to be between 240 million and 275 million.
Graphical Solution The graph of y1 = 11.6(x - 2000) + 124 is shown between the graphs
of y2 = 240 and y3 = 275 in Figures 8.46(b) and 8.46(c) from 2010 to about 2013, or
when 2010 … x … 2013.
[2006, 2015, 1] by [150, 350, 50] [2006, 2015, 1] by [150, 300, 50]

CALCULATOR HELP X Y1 y1 y1
2009 228.4 y3 ⴝ 275 y3 ⴝ 275
To find a point of intersection, 2010 240
see Appendix A (page AP-6). 2011 251.6 ⫻
2012 263.2 ⫻
2013 274.8
2014 286.4 y2 ⴝ 240 y2 ⴝ 240
2015 298 Intersection Intersection
X⫽2010 X⫽2010 Y⫽240 X⫽2013.0172 Y⫽275
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 8.46

Now Try Exercise 107(a) and (b)

Interval Notation
The solution set in Example 4 was {x 兩 2 … x … 3}. This solution set can be graphed on a
0 1 2 3 number line, as shown in Figure 8.47.
Figure 8.47 A convenient notation for number line graphs is called interval notation. Instead
of drawing the entire number line as in Figure 8.47, the solution set can be expressed as
[2, 3] in interval notation. Because the solution set includes the endpoints 2 and 3, brackets
are used. A solution set that includes all real numbers satisfying ⴚ 2 6 x 6 3 can be
expressed as ( ⴚ 2, 3). Parentheses indicate that the endpoints are not included. The interval
0 … x 6 4 is represented by [0, 4).

MAKING CONNECTIONS
Points and Intervals
The expression (1, 2) may represent a point in the xy-plane or the interval 1 6 x 6 2. To
alleviate confusion, phrases such as “the point (1, 2)” or “the interval (1, 2)” are used.

Table 8.13 provides examples of interval notation. The symbol ⬁ refers to infinity,
and it does not represent a real number. The interval (5, ⬁) represents x 7 5, which has no
maximum x-value, so ⬁ is used for the right endpoint. The symbol - ⬁ may be used simi-
larly and denotes negative infinity. Real numbers are denoted ( - ⬁, ⬁).

TABLE 8.13 Interval Notation

Inequality Interval Notation Number Line Graph
-1 * x * 3 ( - 1, 3)
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

-3 * x " 2 ( - 3, 2]
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

-2 " x " 2 [ - 2, 2]
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

x * - 1 or x + 2 ( - ⬁, - 1) h (2, ⬁)
( h is the union symbol.) -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

x + -1 ( - 1, ⬁)
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

x " 2 ( - ⬁, 2]
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

EXAMPLE 7 Writing inequalities in interval notation

Write each expression in interval notation.
(a) - 2 … x 6 5 (b) x Ú 3 (c) x 6 - 5 or x Ú 2
(d) {x 兩 x 7 0 and x … 3} (e) {x 兩 x … 1 or x Ú 3}

Solution
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

(a) [ - 2, 5) (b) [3, ⬁) (c) ( - ⬁, - 5) h [2, ⬁)

(d) (0, 3] (e) ( - ⬁, 1] h [3, ⬁)

Now Try Exercises 13, 17, 23, 27, 37

EXAMPLE 8 Solving an inequality

Solve 2 x + 1 … - 1 or 2 x + 1 Ú 3. Write the solution set in interval notation.

Solution
First solve each inequality.

2x + 1 … - 1 or 2x + 1 Ú 3 Given compound inequality

2x … - 2 or 2x Ú 2 Subtract 1.

x … - 1 or x Ú 1 Divide by 2.

The solution set may be written as ( - ⬁, - 1] h [1, ⬁).

Now Try Exercise 55

8.3 Putting It All Together

CONCEPT EXPLANATION EXAMPLES
Compound Inequality Two inequalities joined by and or or 2 x Ú 10 and x + 2 6 16;
x 6 - 1 or x 7 2
Three-Part Inequality Can be used to write some types of x 7 - 2 and x … 3 is equivalent to
compound inequalities involving and
- 2 6 x … 3.

Interval Notation Notation used to write sets of real - 2 … z … 4 is equivalent to [ - 2, 4].

numbers rather than using number x 6 4 is equivalent to ( - ⬁, 4).
lines or inequalities x … - 2 or x 7 0 is equivalent to
( - ⬁, - 2] h (0, ⬁).

TYPE OF INEQUALITY METHOD TO SOLVE THE INEQUALITY

Solving a Compound STEP 1: First solve each inequality individually.
Inequality Containing STEP 2: The solution set includes values that satisfy
and both inequalities from Step 1.
Solving a Compound STEP 1: First solve each inequality individually.
Inequality Containing STEP 2: The solution set includes values that satisfy at
or least one of the inequalities from Step 1.
Solving a Three-Part Work on all three parts at the same time. Be sure to
Inequality perform the same step on each part. Continue until the
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

variable is isolated in the middle part.

8.3 Exercises
CONCEPTS AND VOCABULARY 34. [-4, 4]
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
1. Give an example of a compound inequality containing
the word and. x 7 1 and x … 7 (answers may vary) 35. {x 兩 x 6 4} 36. {x 兩 - 1 … x 6 4}
(- ⬁ , 4) [-1, 4)
2. Give an example of a compound inequality containing 37. {x 兩 x 6 1 or x 7 2} 38. {x 兩 - ⬁ 6 x 6 ⬁}
the word or. x … 3 or x 7 5 (answers may vary) (- ⬁ , 1) h (2, ⬁ ) (- ⬁ , ⬁ )

3. Is 1 a solution to x 7 3 and x … 5? No SYMBOLIC SOLUTIONS

4. Is 1 a solution to x 6 3 or x Ú 5? Yes Exercises 39–48: Solve the compound inequality. Graph

the solution set on a number line.*
5. Is the compound inequality x Ú - 5 and x … 5
39. x … 3 and x Ú - 1 40. x Ú 5 and x 7 6
equivalent to - 5 … x … 5? Yes {x 兩 -1 … x … 3} {x 兩 x 7 6}
41. 2 x 6 5 and 2x 7 - 4 {x 兩 -2 6 x 6 2.5}
6. Name three ways to solve a compound inequality.
Numerically, graphically, symbolically
42. 2 x + 1 6 3 and x - 1 Ú - 5 {x 兩 -4 … x 6 1}
Exercises 7–12: Determine whether the given values of x 43. x + 2 7 5 and 3 - x 6 10 {x 兩 x 7 3}
are solutions to the compound inequality.
44. x + 2 7 5 or 3 - x 6 10 {x 兩 x 7 -7}
7. x - 1 6 5 and 2x 7 3 x = 2, x = 6
Yes, no
45. x … - 1 or x Ú 2 {x 兩 x … -1 or x Ú 2}
8. 2 x + 1 Ú 4 and 1 - x … 3 x = - 2, x = 3
No, yes
46. 2 x … - 6 or x Ú 6 {x 兩 x … -3 or x Ú 6}
9. 3x 6 - 5 or 2 x Ú 3 x = 0, x = 3
No, yes
47. 5 - x 7 1 or x + 3 Ú - 1 All real numbers
10. x + 1 … - 4 or x + 1 Ú 4 x = - 5, x = 2
Yes, no
48. 1 - 2 x 7 3 or 2 x - 4 Ú 4 {x 兩 x 6 -1 or x Ú 4}
11. 2 - x 7 - 5 and 2 - x … 4 x = - 3, x = 0
No, yes
12. x + 5 Ú 6 or 3x … 3 x = - 1, x = 1 Exercises 49–58: Solve the compound inequality. Write
Yes, yes your answer in interval notation.
INTERVAL NOTATION
49. x - 3 … 4 and x + 5 Ú - 1 [-6, 7]
Exercises 13–38: Write the inequality in interval notation.
50. 2z Ú - 10 and z 6 8 [-5, 8)
13. 2 … x … 10 [2, 10] 14. - 1 6 x 6 5 (-1, 5)
51. 3t - 1 7 - 1 and 2t - 12 7 6 1 134, ⬁ 2
15. 5 6 x … 8 (5, 8] 16. - 12 … x … 56 3 - 12, 56 4
52. 2(x + 1) 6 8 and - 2(x - 4) 7 - 2 (- ⬁ , 3)
17. x 6 4 (- ⬁ , 4) 18. x … - 3 (- ⬁ , -3]
53. x - 4 Ú - 3 or x - 4 … 3 (- ⬁ , ⬁ )
19. x 7 - 2 (-2, ⬁ ) 20. x Ú 6 [6, ⬁ )
54. 1 - 3n Ú 6 or 1 - 3n … - 4 1 - ⬁ , - 53 4 h 3 53, ⬁ 2
21. x Ú - 2 and x 6 5 22. x … 6 and x Ú 2
[-2, 5) [2, 6]
55. - x 6 1 or 5x + 1 6 - 10 1 - ⬁ , - 115 2 h (-1, ⬁ )
23. x … 8 and x 7 - 8 24. x Ú - 4 and x 6 3
(-8, 8] [-4, 3)
56. 7x - 6 7 0 or - 12 x … 6 [-12, ⬁ )
25. x Ú 6 or x 7 3 26. x … - 4 or x 6 - 3
(3, ⬁ ) (- ⬁ , -3)
57. 1 - 7x 6 - 48 and 3x + 1 … - 9 No solutions
27. x … - 2 or x Ú 4 28. x … - 1 or x 7 6
(- ⬁ , -2] h [4, ⬁ ) (- ⬁ , -1] h (6, ⬁ )
58. 3x - 4 … 8 or 4x - 1 … 13 (- ⬁ , 4]
29. x 6 1 or x Ú 5 30. x 6 - 3 or x 7 3
(- ⬁ , 1) h [5, ⬁ ) (- ⬁ , -3) h (3, ⬁ )
31. (-3, 5] Exercises 59–80: Solve the three-part inequality. Write
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 your answer in interval notation.
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

32. [2, ⬁ )
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
59. - 2 … t + 4 6 5 60. 5 6 t - 7 6 10
[-6, 1) (12, 17)
33. (- ⬁ , -2) 61. - 58 … y - 38 6 1 62. - 12 6 y - 32 6 12
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 3 - 14, 1182 (1, 2)

63. - 27 … 3x … 9 64. - 4 6 2y 6 22 87. y1 6 - 2 or y1 7 2 88. y1 … - 2 or y1 Ú 4

[-9, 3] (-2, 11) y y
1
65. 2 6 - 2y … 8 66. - 16 … - 4x … 8
3-4, - 142 [-2, 4]
3
67. - 4 6 5z + 1 … 6 68. - 3 … 3z + 6 6 9 y1
(-1, 1] [-3, 1) y1
69. 3 … 4 - n … 6 70. - 1 6 3 - n … 1 x 1
[-2, 1] [2, 4) -3 -2 1 2 3
-1 x
71. - 1 6 2z - 1 6 3 72. 2 … 4z + 5 … 6 3 - 34, 14 4 -3 -2 -1
-1
1 2 3
(0, 2) -3
73. - 2 … 5 - 13 m 6 2 74. - 32 6 4 - 2m 6 72
(9, 21] 1 14, 114 2 (- ⬁ , -2) h (0, ⬁ ) (- ⬁ , -1] h [1, ⬁ )
75. 100 … 10(5x - 2) … 200 3 5 , 5 4
12 22
89. Distance The function f, shown in the figure, gives
the distance y in miles between a car and Omaha,
76. - 15 6 5(x - 1990) 6 30 (1987, 1996) Nebraska, after x hours, where 0 … x … 6.
3z + 1 z - 1 (a) Is the car moving toward or away from Omaha?
77. - 3 6 6 1 78. - 3 6 6 5
1 - 133, 1 2 4 (-5, 11) 2 Explain. Toward because distance is decreasing.
5 2 - m 1 (b) Determine the times when the car is 100 miles or
79. - … … [0, 12] 200 miles from Omaha. 4 hr, 2 hr
2 4 2
(c) When is the car from 100 to 200 miles from
4 4 - 2m
80. … … 2 [-8, -2] Omaha? From 2 to 4 hr
5 10 (d) When is the car’s distance from Omaha greater
NUMERICAL AND GRAPHICAL SOLUTIONS than or equal to 200 miles? During the first 2 hr
y
Exercises 81–84: Use the table to solve the three-part
350
inequality. Write your answer in interval notation.
300
y = f (x)

Distance (miles)
81. - 3 … 3x … 6 82. - 5 … 2x - 1 … 1 250

X Y1 X Y1 200
᎑2 ᎑6 ᎑4 ᎑9
᎑1 ᎑3 ᎑3 ᎑7 150
0 0 ᎑2 ᎑5
1 3 ᎑1 ᎑3 100
2 6 0 ᎑1
3 9 1 1 50
4 12 2 3
Y 1 ⫽3X Y 1 ⫽2X⫺1 x
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
[-1, 2] [-2, 1]
Time (hours)
83. - 1 6 1 - x 6 2 84. - 2 … - 2x 6 4
X Y1 X Y1 90. Distance The function g, shown in the figure, gives
᎑2 3 ᎑3 6
᎑1 2 ᎑2 4 the distance y in miles between a train and Seattle
0 1 ᎑1 2
1
2
0
᎑1
0
1
0
᎑2
after x hours, where 0 … x … 5.
3 ᎑2 2 ᎑4 y
4 ᎑3 3 ᎑6
Y 1 ⫽1⫺X Y 1 ⫽ ᎑2X
400
(-1, 2) (-2, 1] y = g(x)
Distance (miles)

300

Exercises 85–88: Use the graph to solve the compound

200
inequality. Write your answer in interval notation.
85. - 2 … y1 … 2 [-3, 1] 86. 1 … y1 6 3 (-2, 0] 100

y y
x
0 1 2 3 4 5
y1 Time (hours)
3
2 (a) Is the train moving toward or away from Seattle?
1
Explain. Away because distance is increasing.
x x
-3 -2
-1
1 2 3 -3 -2 -1
-1
1 2 3 (b) Determine the times when the train is 150 miles
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

-2 y1 or 300 miles from Seattle. 2 hr, 4 hr

-3 -3
(continued on next page)

(c) When is the train from 150 to 300 miles from 104. 3 - x … 4 or 3 - x 7 8 (- ⬁ , -5) h [-1, ⬁ )
Seattle? From 2 hr to 4 hr
(d) When is the train’s distance from Seattle less than 105. Thinking Generally Solve c 6 x + b … d for x.
(c - b, d - b]
or equal to 150 miles? During the first 2 hr 106. Thinking Generally Solve c … ax + b … d for x,
91. Use the figure to solve each equation or inequality. if a 6 0. 3 d -a b, c -a b 4
Let the domains of y1, y2, and y3 be 0 … x … 8.
(a) y1 = y2 2 (b) y2 = y3 4 APPLICATIONS
(c) y1 … y2 … y3 (d) y2 6 y1
5x 兩 2 … x … 4 6 5x 兩 0 … x 6 2 6 107. Online Betting Global online betting losses in
y billions can be modeled by L(x) = 2.5x - 5000,
where x is a year from 2006 to 2011. Use each method
8
7 to estimate when losses ranged from $15 billion to
y3
6 $20 billion. (Source: Christiansen Capital Advisors.)
5
y2 (a) Numerical From 2006 to 2008
4
(b) Graphical From 2006 to 2008
3
y1 (c) Symbolic From 2006 to 2008
2
1
x
108. College Tuition From 1980 to 2000, college tuition
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 and fees at private colleges could be modeled by the
92. Use the figure to solve each equation or inequality. linear function f (x) = 575(x - 1980) + 3600. Use
Let the domains of y1, y2, and y3 be 0 … x … 5. each method to estimate when the average tuition
(a) y1 = y2 1 (b) y2 = y3 3 and fees ranged from $8200 to $10,500. (Source: The
(c) y1 … y2 … y3 (d) y2 6 y3 College Board.)
{x 兩 1 … x … 3} {x 兩 0 … x 6 3} (a) Numerical From 1988 to 1992
y
(b) Graphical From 1988 to 1992
500 (c) Symbolic From 1988 to 1992
y3
400 109. Altitude and Dew Point If the dew point D on the
300
ground is 60⬚F, then the dew point x miles high is
y2
given by D(x) = 60 - 5.8x. Find the altitudes where
200
y1 the dew point ranges from 57.1⬚F to 51.3⬚F. (Source:
100 A. Miller.) From 0.5 to 1.5 miles

x 110. Cigarette Consumption Worldwide cigarette con-

0 1 2 3 4 5
sumption in trillions from 1950 to 2010 can be mod-
Exercises 93–98: Solve numerically or graphically. Write eled by C(x) = 0.09x - 173.8, where x is the year.
your answer in interval notation. Estimate the years when cigarette consumption was
between 5.3 and 6.2 trillion. (Source: Department of Agriculture.)
93. - 2 … 2 x - 4 … 4 94. - 1 … 1 - x … 3 From 1990 to 2000
[1, 4] [-2, 2]
111. Geometry For what values of x is the perimeter of
95. x + 1 6 - 1 or x + 1 7 1 (- ⬁ , -2) h (0, ⬁ )
the rectangle from 40 to 60 feet? From 5.6 to 9 ft
96. 2 x - 1 6 - 3 or 2 x - 1 7 5 (- ⬁ , -1) h (3, ⬁ )
97. 95 … 25(x - 2000) + 45 … 295 [2002, 2010] x+3

98. 42 … - 13(x - 2005) + 120 … 94 [2007, 2011]

2x
USING MORE THAN ONE METHOD
Exercises 99–104: Solve symbolically, graphically, and 112. Geometry A rectangle is three times as long as it is
numerically. Write the solution set in interval notation. wide. If the perimeter ranges from 100 to 160 inches,
what values for the width are possible?
99. 4 … 5x - 1 … 14 100. - 4 6 2x 6 4 From 12.5 to 20 in.
[1, 3] (-2, 2) 113. Altitude and Temperature If the air temperature
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

101. 4 - x Ú 1 or 4 - x 6 3 (- ⬁ , ⬁ ) at ground level is 70⬚ F, the air temperature x miles

102. x + 3 Ú - 2 or x + 3 … 1 (- ⬁ , ⬁ ) high is given by T(x) = 70 - 19x. Determine the
altitudes at which the air temperature is from 41.5⬚ F
103. 2 x + 1 6 3 or 2 x + 1 Ú 7 (- ⬁ , 1) h [3, ⬁ ) to 22.5° F. (Source: A. Miller and R. Anthes, Meteorology.)
From 1.5 to 2.5 miles

114. Distance A car’s distance in miles from a rest stop (b) The greatest temperature ranges on Earth are
after x hours is given by f (x) = 70x + 50. recorded in Siberia, where temperature has
(a) Make a table for f (x) for x = 4, 5, 6, p , 10 varied from about –70° C to 35° C. Find this tem-
and use the table to solve the inequality perature range in Fahrenheit. From –94°F to 95°F
470 … f (x) … 680. Explain your result.*
(b) Solve the inequality in part (a) symbolically. [6, 9] WRITING ABOUT MATHEMATICS

115. Medicare Costs In 2000 Medicare cost taxpayers 117. Suppose that the solution set for a compound
$250 billion, and in 2010 it cost $500 billion. (Source: inequality can be written as x 6 - 3 or x 7 2.
Department of Health and Human Services.)
A student writes it as 2 6 x 6 - 3. Is the student’s
(a) Find a linear function M that models these data three-part inequality correct? Explain your answer.
x years after 2000. M(x) = 25x + 250 118. How can you determine whether an x-value is a solu-
(b) Estimate when Medicare costs were from tion to a compound inequality containing the word
$300 billion to $400 billion. From 2002 to 2006 and? Give an example. Repeat the question for a
116. Temperature Conversion Water freezes at 32° F, or compound inequality containing the word or.
0° C, and boils at 212° F, or 100° C. (a) C(F) = 59(F - 32)
(a) Find a linear function C(F ) that converts
Fahrenheit temperature to Celsius temperature.

8.4 Other Functions and Their Properties

Expressing Domain and Range in Interval Notation ● Absolute Value Function ●
Polynomial Functions ● Rational Functions (Optional) ● Operations on Functions

A LOOK INTO MATH N Many quantities in applications cannot be modeled with linear functions and equations.
If data points do not lie on a line, we say that the data are nonlinear. For example, a scat-
terplot of the cumulative number of AIDS deaths from 1981 through 2007 is nonlinear,
as shown in Figure 8.48. To model such data, we often use nonlinear functions, whose
graphs are not a line. Because scatterplots of nonlinear data can have a variety of shapes,
mathematicians use many different types of nonlinear functions, such as polynomial func-
tions, which we discuss in this section. See Exercise 121. (Source: U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services.)

U.S. AIDS Deaths

NEW VOCABULARY y
n Absolute value function
600,000
n Polynomial function of one
variable 500,000
Deaths from AIDS

n Linear function
400,000
n Quadratic function
n Cubic function 300,000
n Rational function
200,000

100,000
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

0 x
’80 ’85 ’90 ’95 ’00 ’05 ’10
Year
Figure 8.48

Expressing Domain and Range in Interval Notation

The set of all valid inputs for a function is called the domain, and the set of all outputs from
a function is called the range. For example, all real numbers are valid inputs for f (x) = x 2 .
Rather than writing “the set of all real numbers” for the domain of f, we can use interval
notation to express the domain as ( - ⬁, ⬁). The symbol ⬁ represents infinity and is not a
real number. Because x 2 Ú 0 for every real number x, the output from f (x) = x 2 is never
negative. Therefore the range of f is [0, ⬁), which denotes all nonnegative real numbers, or
x Ú 0. Note that 0 is in the range of f because f (0) = 0, and a bracket “[” is used to indi-
cate that 0 is included in the range of f.

EXAMPLE 1 Writing domains in interval notation

Write the domain for each function in interval notation. 1
(a) f (x) = 4x (b) g(t) = 1t - 1 (c) h(v) =
v + 3
Solution
(a) The expression 4x is defined for all real numbers x. Thus the domain of f is ( - ⬁, ⬁).
(b) The square root 1t - 1 is defined only when t - 1 is not negative. Thus the domain
of g includes all real numbers satisfying t - 1 Ú 0 or t Ú 1. In interval notation this
inequality is written as [1, ⬁).
(c) The expression v +1 3 is defined except when v + 3 = 0 or v = - 3. Thus the domain
of h includes all real numbers except - 3 and can be written as ( - ⬁, - 3) h ( - 3, ⬁).
Parentheses are used because - 3 is not included in the domain of h.
Now Try Exercises 13, 21, 25

In the next example, we determine the domain and range of a function from its graph.
Note that dots placed at each end of a graph indicate that the endpoints are included.

EXAMPLE 2 Writing the domain and range in interval notation

Use the graph of f in Figure 8.49 to write its domain and range in interval notation.
y

x
–2 –1 1
–2

–4

Figure 8.49
Solution
Because dots are placed at (0, 0) and (2, - 4), the endpoints are included in the graph of f.
Thus the graph in Figure 8.49 includes x-values from x = 0 to x = 2. In interval notation,
the domain of f is [0, 2]. The range of f includes y-values from - 4 to 4 and can be expressed
in interval notation as [ - 4, 4].
Now Try Exercise 39

Absolute Value Function

ISBN 1-256-49082-2

In Chapter 1 we discussed the absolute value of a number. We can define a function called
the absolute value function as f (x) = 0 x 0 . We evaluate f as follows.
f (11) = 0 11 0 = 11, f ( - 4) = 0 - 4 0 = 4, and f ( - p) = 0 - p 0 = p

To graph y = 0 x 0 we begin by making a table of values, as shown in Table 8.14. Next

we plot these points and sketch the graph, as shown in Figure 8.50. Note that the graph is
V-shaped and never lies below the x-axis because the absolute value of a number cannot
be negative.

TABLE 8.14 Absolute Value Function

y
x 兩x兩
y = |x|
-2 2 3
(–2, 2) (2, 2)
-1 1 Domain: (- ⬁, ⬁ )
(–1, 1) (1, 1)
x Range: [0, ⬁)
0 0 –3 (0, 0) 3

1 1
–3
2 2
Figure 8.50

Because the input for f (x) = 兩 x 兩 is any real number, the domain of f is all real
numbers, or ( - ⬁, ⬁). The graph of the absolute value function shows that the output y
(range) is any real number greater than or equal to 0. That is, the range is [0, ⬁).

Polynomial Functions
In Chapter 5 we introduced polynomials and defined their degrees. The following expres-
sions are examples of polynomials of one variable.

1 ⴚ 5x, 3t 2 ⴚ 5t ⴙ 1, and z3 ⴙ 5

(The exponents on variables in polynomials must be nonnegative integers.) Recall that the
degree of a polynomial of one variable equals the largest exponent on the variable. Thus the
degree of 1 ⴚ 5x is 1, the degree of 3t 2 ⴚ 5t ⴙ 1 is 2, and the degree of z3 ⴙ 5 is 3.
The equations

f (x) ⴝ 1 ⴚ 5x, g(t) ⴝ 3t 2 ⴚ 5t ⴙ 1, and h(z) ⴝ z3 ⴙ 5

define three polynomial functions of one variable. Function f is a linear function because
it has degree 1, function g is a quadratic function because it has degree 2, and function h is
a cubic function because it has degree 3.
NOTE: The domain of every polynomial function is all real numbers.

EXAMPLE 3 Identifying polynomial functions

Determine whether f (x) represents a polynomial function. If possible, identify the type of
polynomial function and its degree.
(a) f (x) = 5x 3 - x + 10
(b) f (x) = x-2.5 + 1
(c) f (x) = 1 - 2 x
3
(d) f (x) =
x - 1
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

Solution
(a) The expression 5x 3 - x + 10 is a cubic polynomial, so f (x) represents a cubic poly-
nomial function. It has degree 3.

(b) f (x) = x -2.5 + 1 does not represent a polynomial function because the variables in a
polynomial must have nonnegative integer exponents.
(c) f (x) = 1 - 2 x represents a polynomial function that is linear. It has degree 1.
(d) f (x) = x -3 1 does not represent a polynomial function because x -3 1 is not a polynomial.

Now Try Exercises 43, 45, 47, 51

Frequently, polynomials represent functions or formulas that can be evaluated. This

situation is illustrated in the next two examples.

EXAMPLE 4 Evaluating a polynomial function graphically and symbolically

y A graph of f (x) = 4 x - x 3 is shown in Figure 8.51, where y = f(x). Evaluate f ( - 1)
graphically and check your result symbolically.
y = 4x – x3
3
2
1
Solution
x Graphical Evaluation To evaluate f ( - 1) graphically, find ⴚ 1 on the x-axis and move
–3 –1 1 3
down until the graph of f is reached. Then move horizontally to the y-axis, as shown in
Figure 8.52. Thus when x = ⴚ 1, y = ⴚ 3 and f ( ⴚ 1) = ⴚ 3.
–3
Symbolic Evaluation When x = - 1, evaluation of f (x) = 4 x - x 3 is performed as follows.
Figure 8.51
f ( ⴚ 1) = 4( ⴚ 1) - ( ⴚ 1)3 = - 4 - ( - 1) = ⴚ 3
Evaluating f (ⴚ 1) ⴝ ⴚ 3
y

y = 4x – x3
3
2
1
–1
x
–3 1 3

f(–1)
–3

Figure 8.52

Now Try Exercises 59, 73

EXAMPLE 5 Evaluating a polynomial function symbolically

Evaluate f (x) at the given value of x.
(a) f (x) = - 3x4 - 2, x = 2 (b) f (x) = - 2 x 3 - 4 x 2 + 5, x = - 3

Solution
(a) Be sure to evaluate exponents before multiplying.
f (2) = - 3(2)4 - 2 = - 3 # 16 - 2 = ⴚ 50
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

(b) f ( ⴚ 3) = - 2( ⴚ 3)3 - 4( ⴚ 3)2 + 5 = - 2( - 27) - 4(9) + 5 = 23

Now Try Exercises 61, 63

N REAL-WORLD CONNECTION A well-conditioned athlete’s heart rate can reach 200 beats per
minute during strenuous physical activity. Upon quitting, a typical heart rate decreases rap-
idly at first and then more gradually after a few minutes, as illustrated in the next example.

EXAMPLE 6 Modeling heart rate of an athlete

Let P(t) = 1.875t 2 - 30t + 200 model an athlete’s heart rate (or pulse P) in beats per
minute (bpm) t minutes after strenuous exercise has stopped, where 0 … t … 8. (Source:
V. Thomas, Science and Sport.)

(a) What is the initial heart rate when the athlete stops exercising?
(b) What is the heart rate after 8 minutes?
(c) A graph of P is shown in Figure 8.53. Interpret this graph.
Athlete’s Heart Rate
P

250
P(t) = 1.875t2 – 30t + 200

Heart Rate (bpm)

200

150

100

t
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time (minutes)

Figure 8.53

Solution
(a) To find the initial heart rate, evaluate P(t) at t = 0, or
P(0) = 1.875(0)2 - 30(0) + 200 = 200.
When the athlete stops exercising, the heart rate is 200 beats per minute. (This result
agrees with the graph.)
(b) P(8) = 1.875(8)2 - 30(8) + 200 = 80 beats per minute.
(c) The heart rate does not drop at a constant rate; rather, it drops rapidly at first and then
gradually begins to level off.
Now Try Exercise 115

Rational Functions (Optional)

A rational expression is formed when a polynomial is divided by a polynomial. For exam-
ple, the expressions
2x ⴚ 1 5 2x ⴚ 5
, , and
x x ⴚ 1
2
x2 ⴚ 9
are rational expressions. Rational expressions can be used to define rational functions.

RATIONAL FUNCTIONS
Let p(x) and q(x) be polynomials. Then a rational function is given by
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

p(x)
f (x) = .
q(x)
The domain of f includes all x-values such that q(x) ⬆ 0.

From this definition, it follows that

2x ⴚ 1 5 2x ⴚ 5
f (x) = , g(x) = 2 , and h(x) = 2
x x ⴙ 1 x ⴚ 9
define rational functions. The domain of f includes all real numbers except 0, the domain
of g includes all real numbers because x 2 + 1 ⬆ 0 for any x-value, and the domain of h
includes all real numbers except { 3.
Formulas for linear and polynomial functions are defined for all x-values. However,
formulas for a rational function are undefined for x-values that make the denominator equal
to 0. (Division by 0 is undefined.) For example, if f (x) = x -1 2, then f (2) = 2 -1 2 = 10
is undefined because the denominator equals 0. A graph of y = f (x) is shown in Figure 8.54.
READING CHECK The graph does not cross the dashed vertical line x = 2, because f (x) is undefined at x = 2.
The red vertical dashed line x = 2 is called a vertical asymptote, and is used as an aid for
How can you determine the
sketching a graph of f. It is not actually part of the graph of the function.
domain of a rational function?
A Rational Function
y

Vertical 1
f(x) =
asymptote x–2
1

x
1 3 4 5

–2
Undefined
–3 at x = 2
Figure 8.54

EXAMPLE 7 Identifying the domains of rational functions

Write the domain of each function in interval notation.
1 2x 4
(a) f (x) = (b) g(x) = 2 (c) h(t) = 3
x + 2 x - 3x + 2 t - t
Solution
(a) The domain of f includes all x-values except when the denominator equals 0.
x + 2 = 0 Set the denominator equal to 0.
x = -2 Subtract 2.
Thus f ( - 2) is undefined and - 2 must be excluded from the domain of f. In interval
notation the domain of f is ( - ⬁, - 2) h ( - 2, ⬁).
(b) The domain of g includes all real numbers except when x 2 - 3x + 2 = 0.
x 2 - 3x + 2 = 0 Set the denominator equal to 0.
(x - 1)(x - 2) = 0 Factor.
x = 1 or x = 2 Zero-product property
Because g(1) and g(2) are both undefined, 1 and 2 must be excluded from the domain
of g. In interval notation the domain of g is ( - ⬁, 1) h (1, 2) h (2, ⬁).
(c) The domain of h includes all real numbers except when t 3 - t = 0.
t3 - t = 0 Set the denominator equal to 0.
t(t 2 - 1) = 0 Factor out t.
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

t(t - 1)(t + 1) = 0 Difference of squares

t = 0 or t = 1 or t = -1 Zero-product property
In interval notation the domain of h is ( - ⬁, - 1) h ( - 1, 0) h (0, 1) h (1, ⬁).
Now Try Exercises 27, 33, 35

To graph a rational function by hand, we usually start by making a table of values, as

demonstrated in the next example. Because the graphs of rational functions are typically
nonlinear, it is a good idea to plot at least 3 points on each side of an x-value where the for-
mula is undefined—that is, where the denominator equals 0.

EXAMPLE 8 Graphing a rational function

1
Graph f (x) = . State the domain of f.
x
Solution
Make a table of values for f (x) = 1x , as shown in Table 8.15. Notice that x = 0 is not in the
domain of f, and a dash can be used to denote this undefined value. The domain of f is all
real numbers such that x ⬆ 0. Start by picking three x-values on each side of 0.

TABLE 8.15

x -2 -1 - 12 0 1
2 1 2
1
x - 12 -1 -2 — 2 1 1
2

Q
Undefined

Plot the points shown in Table 8.15 and then connect the points with a smooth curve, as
shown in Figure 8.55. Because f (0) is undefined, the graph of f (x) = 1x does not cross the
line x = 0 (the y-axis). The line x = 0 is a vertical asymptote.
y

2 y = 1x
1

x
–1 1 2
–1

Figure 8.55
Now Try Exercise 89

In the next example we evaluate a rational function in three ways.

EXAMPLE 9 Evaluating a rational function

Use Table 8.16, the formula for f (x), and Figure 8.56 to evaluate f ( - 1), f (1), and f (2).
2x
(a) TABLE 8.16 (b) f (x) =
x - 1
x f (x)
(c) y
3
-3 2
4
4
-2 3
3
2
-1 1
x
–4 –3 –2 –1 2 3 4
0 0
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

–2 y = f (x)
–3
1 — –4
2 4
Figure 8.56
3 3

TABLE 8.16 Solution

(repeated) (a) Numerical Evaluation Table 8.16 (repeated in the margin) shows that
x f (x) f ( - 1) = 1,
f (1) is undefined, and f (2) = 4.
3 2x
-3 2 (b) Symbolic Evaluation Let f (x) = .
4 x - 1
-2 3 2( ⴚ 1)
f ( ⴚ 1) = = 1
-1 1 ⴚ1 - 1
0 0 2(1) 2
f (1) = = , which is undefined. Input 1 is not in the domain of f.
1 — 1 - 1 0
2(2)
2 4 f (2) = = 4
2 - 1
3 3
(c) Graphical Evaluation To evaluate f ( - 1) graphically, find x = ⴚ 1 on the x-axis and
move upward to the graph of f. The y-value is 1 at the point of intersection, so
f ( ⴚ 1) ⴝ 1, as shown in Figure 8.57(a). In Figure 8.57(b) the red, dashed vertical line
x = 1 is a vertical asymptote. Because the graph of f does not intersect this line, f (1) is
undefined. Figure 8.57(c) reveals that f (2) ⴝ 4.
Evaluating a Rational Function Graphically
y y y

f(–1) = 1 f(1) is f(2) = 4

4 undefined 4 4
3 3
2 2 2
1
x x x
–4 –3 –1 1 2 3 4 –4 –3 –2 –1 2 3 4 –4 –3 –2 –1 2 4
–2 Vertical –2
–3 –3 asymptote –3
–4 –4 –4
x=1

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 8.57

Now Try Exercises 67, 77, 79

y
MAKING CONNECTIONS

3 1 Asymptotes and Graphs of Rational Functions

y-values y=–
become x+1 A vertical asymptote often occurs at x-values in the graph of a rational function y = f (x)
large Undefined where the denominator equals 0. A vertical asymptote can be used as an aid to sketch the
at x = –1 graph of a rational function. However, the graph of a rational function never crosses a verti-
x
–3 cal asymptote, so a vertical asymptote is not part of the graph of f.
–1
y-values On either side of a vertical asymptote, the y-values on the graph of a rational function
become typically become either very large (approach ⬁ ) or very small (approach - ⬁ ). See the
small figure in the margin.

N REAL-WORLD CONNECTION You may have noticed that a relatively small percentage of peo-
ple do the vast majority of postings on social networks, such as Facebook and Twitter. This
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

phenomenon is called participation inequality. That is, a vast majority of the population
falls under the category of “lurkers,” who are on the network but are not posting material.
This characteristic of a social network can be modeled approximately by a rational function,
as illustrated in the next example. (Source: Wu, Michael, The Economics of 90–9–1.)

EXAMPLE 10 Modeling social network participation

The rational function given by
100
f (x) = , 5 … x … 100,
101 - x
models participation inequality in a social network. In this formula, f (x) outputs the
percentage of the postings done by the least active (bottom) x percent of the population.
(a) Evaluate f (95). Interpret your answer.
(b) A graph of y = f (x) is shown in Figure 8.58. Interpret the graph.
Participation in a Social Network
y

The graph increases

Percentage of Postings
rapidly near x = 100%,
because the most active
60 100
f(x) = 2% of the participants
101 – x contribute almost all of
40
the postings.
20

x
0 20 40 60 80 100
Percentage of Population
(least active to most active)

Figure 8.58 Participation Inequality

(c) Solve the rational equation 101100- x = 9. Interpret your answer.

Solution
100 100
(a) f (95) = = ⬇ 16.7% Let x = 95.
101 - 95 6
This means that the least active 95% of the population contributes only 16.7% of the
postings, so the most active 5% of the population is responsible for the remaining
83.3% of the postings.
CRITICAL THINKING (b) The graph shows participation inequality visually. The graph remains at a relatively
Suppose that a social low percentage until x = 90%. This means that the bottom 90% of the population does
network had participation very few postings. For x Ú 90% the graph rises rapidly because the top 10% contrib-
equality, in which every utes a vast majority of the postings.
member contributed an (c) To solve this equation, we begin by multiplying each side by (101 ⴚ x).
equal number of postings.
100
Sketch a graph like = 9 Given equation
Figure 8.58 that describes 101 - x
this social network.
(101 ⴚ x) # 100
= 9(101 ⴚ x) Multiply by (101 - x).
101 ⴚ x
100 = 9(101 - x) Simplify left side.
100 = 909 - 9x Distributive property
9x + 100 ⴚ 100 = 909 ⴚ 100 + 9x - 9x Add 9x. Subtract 100.
9x = 809 Simplify.
809
⬇ 90% x =
Simplify.
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

9
This result indicates that the least active 90% of the population contributes only 9% of
the postings.
Now Try Exercise 117

TECHNOLOGY NOTE
Asymptotes, Dot Mode, and Decimal Windows
When a rational function is graphed on a graphing calculator in connected mode, pseudo-
asymptotes often occur because the calculator is simply connecting dots to draw a graph. The
accompanying figures show the graph of y = x -2 2 in connected mode, in dot mode, and with
a decimal, or friendly, window. In dot mode, pixels in the calculator screen are not connected.
With dot mode (and sometimes with a decimal window) pseudo-asymptotes do not appear. To
learn more about these features, consult your owner’s manual.
[-6, 6, 1] by [-4, 4, 1] [-6, 6, 1] by [-4, 4, 1] [-4.7, 4.7, 1] by [-3.1, 3.1, 1]

2 2 2
CALCULATOR HELP y= y= y=
x–2 x–2 x–2
To set a calculator in dot mode or
to set a decimal window, see Pseudo-asymptote
Appendix A (page AP-11).

Connected Mode Dot Mode Decimal Window

Operations on Functions
N REAL-WORLD CONNECTION A business incurs a cost to make its product and then it receives
revenue from selling this product. For example, suppose a small business reconditions
motorcycles. The graphs of its cost and of its revenue for reconditioning and selling x
motorcycles are shown in Figure 8.59.

Profit, Revenue, and Cost

Revenue
500

400
$ Thousands

300
Profit = Revenue – Cost

200
Cost
100

x
0 10 20 30 40 50
Motorcycles Reconditioned

Figure 8.59

In general, profit equals revenue minus cost. In Figure 8.59, profit is shown visually
as the length of the vertical green arrow between the graphs of revenue and cost. For any
x-value, the distance by which revenue is above cost is called the profit for reconditioning
and selling x motorcycles. Maximum profit for the company occurs at the x-value where
the length of the vertical green arrow is greatest.
If we let C(x), R(x), and P(x) be functions that calculate the cost, revenue, and profit,
respectively, for reconditioning and selling x motorcycles, then

v P(x) = R(x) - C(x).

v
h

ISBN 1-256-49082-2

Profit equals Revenue minus Cost.

This example helps explain why we subtract functions in the real world. Functions can be
added, multiplied, and divided in a similar manner.

Given two functions f and g, we define the sum f + g, difference f - g, product f g, and
f
quotient g , as follows.

OPERATIONS ON FUNCTIONS
If f (x) and g(x) are both defined, then the sum, difference, product, and quotient of
two functions f and g are defined by
( f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x) Sum
( f - g)(x) = f (x) - g(x) Difference
( f g)(x) = f (x) # g(x) Product
f f (x)
a b (x) = , where g(x) ⬆ 0. Quotient
g g(x)

EXAMPLE 11 Performing arithmetic on functions

Use f (x) = x 2 and g(x) = 2 x - 4 to evaluate each of the following.
f
(a) ( f + g)(3) (b) ( f g)( - 1) (c) a b (0) (d) ( f>g)(2)
g
Solution
(a) ( f + g)(3) = f (3) + g(3) = 32 + (2 # 3 - 4) = 9 + 2 = 11
(b) ( f g)( ⴚ 1) = f ( ⴚ 1) # g( ⴚ 1) = ( ⴚ 1)2 # (2 # ( ⴚ 1) - 4) = 1 # ( - 6) = - 6
f f (0) 02 0
(c) ¢ ≤(0) = = # = = 0
g g(0) 2 0 - 4 -4

(d) Note that ( f>g)(2) is equivalent to 1 g 2 (2).

f (2) 22 4
( f>g)(2) = = # = ,
g(2) 2 2 - 4 0
which is not possible because division by 0 is undefined. Thus ( f>g)(2) is undefined.
Now Try Exercise 101

In the next example, we find the sum, difference, product, and quotient of two func-
tions for a general x.

EXAMPLE 12 Performing arithmetic on functions

Use f (x) = 4 x - 5 and g(x) = 3x + 1 to evaluate each of the following.
f
(a) ( f + g)(x) (b) ( f - g)(x) (c) ( f g)(x) (d) ¢ ≤(x)
g
Solution
(a) ( f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x) = (4 x ⴚ 5) + (3x ⴙ 1) = 7x - 4
(b) ( f - g)(x) = f (x) - g(x) = (4 x - 5) - (3x + 1) = x - 6
(c) ( f g)(x) = f (x) # g(x) = (4 x - 5)(3x + 1) = 12 x 2 - 11x - 5
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

f f (x) 4x - 5
(d) ¢ ≤(x) = =
g g(x) 3x + 1

Now Try Exercise 105

8.4 Putting It All Together

CONCEPT COMMENTS EXAMPLES
Writing Domain and Interval notation can be used to specify the If f (x) = x 2 + 1, the domain of f is
Range in Interval domain and range of a function. ( - ⬁, ⬁), and the range of f is [1, ⬁).
Notation
Absolute Value Defined by f ( - 5) = 0 - 5 0 = 5
Function f (x) = 0 x 0 f (0) = 0 0 0 = 0
and has a V-shaped graph f (4) = 0 4 0 = 4

Polynomial Function Can be defined by a polynomial; its degree Because x 3 - 4x 2 + 6 is a

of One Variable equals the largest exponent of the variable. polynomial with degree 3,
f (x) = x 3 - 4x 2 + 6
defines a polynomial function of
degree 3 and is called a cubic function.
Rational Function A rational function can be written as Because 2x - 3 and x + 1 are
p(x) polynomials,
f (x) = , 2x - 3
q(x) f (x) =
where p(x) and q(x) are polynomials. x + 1
defines a rational function. Because
Note that q(x) ⬆ 0.
f (x) is undefined at x = - 1, the
domain of f is ( - ⬁, - 1) h ( - 1, ⬁).

Operations on ( f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x) Sum Let f (x) = x 2 and g(x) = 1 - x 2 .

Functions ( f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x)
( f - g)(x) = f (x) - g(x) Difference
= x 2 + (1 - x 2)
( f g)(x) = f (x)g(x) Product
= 1
f f (x)
a b (x) = , g(x) ⬆ 0 Quotient ( f - g)(x) = f (x) - g(x)
g g(x)
= x 2 - (1 - x 2)
= 2x 2 - 1
( f g)(x) = f (x)g(x)
= x 2(1 - x 2)
= x2 - x4
f f (x)
a b (x) =
g g(x)
x2
= , x ⬆ - 1, x ⬆ 1
1 - x2
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

8.4 Exercises

CONCEPTS AND VOCABULARY Exercises 25–36: Write the domain of the rational func-
1. The set of all valid inputs for a function is called its tion in interval notation.
1 6
. domain 25. f (x) = 26. f (x) =
x - 1 x
2. The set of all outputs for a function is called its . (- ⬁ , 1) h (1, ⬁ ) (- ⬁ , 0) h (0, ⬁ )
range x 3x
27. f (x) = 28. f (x) =
3. The set of all real numbers can be written in interval 6 - 3x 2x - 4
notation as . (- ⬁ , ⬁ ) (- ⬁ , 2) h (2, ⬁ ) (- ⬁ , 2) h (2, ⬁ )
2 5
29. g(t) = 2 30. g(t) =
4. If the domain of a function includes all real numbers t - 4 1 - t2
(- ⬁ , -2) h (-2, 2) h (2, ⬁ ) (- ⬁ , -1) h (-1, 1) h (1, ⬁ )
except 5, then its domain can be written in interval
notation as . (- ⬁ , 5) h (5, ⬁ ) 5t -t
31. g(t) = 2 32. g(t) =
t - 2t 2t - 3t 2
5. The graph of the function is V-shaped. (- ⬁ , 0) h (0, 2) h (2, ⬁ ) (- ⬁ , 0) h 1 0, 32 2 h 1 32, ⬁ 2
absolute value 2 - z z + 1
6. The degree of a polynomial of one variable equals the 33. h(z) = 34. h(z) = 3
z3 - 1 z - z2
largest of the variable. exponent (- ⬁ , 1) h (1, ⬁ ) (- ⬁ , 0) h (0, 1) h (1, ⬁ )
4
7. A quadratic function has degree 2 . 35. f (x) = 2 (- ⬁ , -1) h (-1, 3) h (3, ⬁ )
x - 2x - 3
8. If a function is linear, then its degree is 1 .
1
x 36. f (x) = (- ⬁ , -5) h (-5, 1) h (1, ⬁ )
9. If f (x) = 2x + 1 , then f is a(n) function. rational x + 4x - 5
2

10. If f (x) = 2x x+ 1, then the domain of f includes all Exercises 37–42: A graph of a function is shown. Write
real numbers except . - 12 the domain and range of the function in interval notation.
37. y 38. y
11. Which of the following expressions (a.–d.) is not a
rational function? c.
3 3
1
a. f (x) = b. f (x) = x 2 + 1 2 2
x 1
2x2 x x
c. f (x) = 2x d. f (x) = –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 –3 –2 –1 1 3
x - 1 –1 –1
–2
2x
12. Which (a.–d.) is the domain of f (x) = ? a. –3
2x - 1
D = (- ⬁ , ⬁ ); R = (- ⬁ , ⬁ ) D = [-2, 2]; R = [-1, 3]
a. 5 x 兩 x ⬆ 12 6 b. 5 x 兩 x ⬆ 1 6
39. y 40. y
c. 5 x 兩 x ⬆ 0 6 d. 5 x 兩 x = 1 6
3 3
DOMAIN AND RANGE 2
1 1
Exercises 13–24: Write the domain and the range of the –3 –2 1 2 3
x
–3 –2 –1 2 3
x
function in interval notation. (Hint: You may want to –1 –1
–2 –2
consider the graph of the function.)
–3
13. f (x) = - 2x 14. f (x) = - 14 x + 1
D = (- ⬁ ,⬁ ); R = (- ⬁ , ⬁ ) D = (- ⬁ ,⬁ ); R = (- ⬁ ,⬁ ) D = [-2, 2]; R = [-2, 2] D = [-2, 1]; R = [-3, 1]
41. y 42. y
15. g(t) = 23 t - 3 16. g(t) = 9t
D = (- ⬁ , ⬁ ); R = (- ⬁ , ⬁ ) D = (- ⬁ , ⬁ ); R = (- ⬁ , ⬁ )
17. h(z) = z 2 + 2 18. h(z) = z 2 - 1 3 3
D = (- ⬁ , ⬁ ); R = [2, ⬁ ) D = (- ⬁ , ⬁ ); R = [-1, ⬁ ) 2 2
19. f (z) = - z 2
f (z) = - 14 z 2
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

20. 1 1
D = (- ⬁ , ⬁ ); R = (- ⬁ , 0] D = (- ⬁ , ⬁ ); R = (- ⬁ , 0] x x
–3 –2 3 –3 –2 –1 1 2
21. g(x) = 2x + 1 22. g(x) = 2x - 2 –2
D = [-1, ⬁ ); R = [0, ⬁ ) D = [2, ⬁ ); R = [0, ⬁ )
–3
23. h(x) = 0 x - 1 0 24. h(x) = 0 2x 0
–3
D = (- ⬁ , ⬁ ); R = [0, ⬁ ) D = (- ⬁ , ⬁ ); R = [0, ⬁ ) D = [-2, 3]; R = [-2, 2] D = (- ⬁ , ⬁ ); R = [-3, ⬁ )

IDENTIFYING POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS 71. f (0) and f (1) 1; -1 72. f ( - 1) and f (2) -2; 1
y y
Exercises 43–54: Determine whether f (x) represents a
polynomial function. If possible, identify the degree and
type of polynomial function. 3
2
43. f (x) = 5x - 11 44. f (x) = 9 - x 1 f (x) = 1 – 2x 1
Yes; 1; linear Yes; 1; linear x x
–3 –2 –1 2 3 –3 –2 1 3
45. f (x) = x 3 46. f (x) = x 2 + 3 –1 –1
Yes; 3; cubic Yes; 2; quadratic –2
6
47. f (x) = No 48. f (x) = 0 x 0 No
–3
f (x) = x2 – 3
x + 5
49. f (x) = 1 + 2x - x 2 50. f(x) = 14 x 3 - x 73. f ( - 1) and f (2) -2; -2 74. f (0) and f ( - 2) 0; -2
Yes; 2; quadratic Yes; 3; cubic
y y
51. f (x) = 5x -2 No 52. f (x) = x 2 + x -1 No

53. f (x) = x 4 + 2x 2 54. f (x) = x 5 - 3x 3 3

f (x) = 3x – x3
3
Yes; 4; fourth degree Yes; 5; fifth degree 2 2
1 1
x x
–3 –2 1 3 –3 –2 1 2 3
EVALUATING FUNCTIONS –1
1 3
–2 f (x) = 4 x
Exercises 55–70: If possible, evaluate g(t) for the given –3 –3
values of t.
55. g(t) = 0 4t 0 t = 3, t = 0 12; 0 75. f ( - 2) and f (2) 76. f ( - 1) and f (0)
y y
56. g(t) = 0 t + 12 0 t = 18, t = - 15 30; 3
f (x) = x – 12 x2
1
57. g(t) = 0 t - 2 0 t = 1, t = - 34 1; 11 f (x) = 1x 2
4 x
–2 –1 1 3 4 1
58. g(t) = 0 2t + 1 0 t = 2, t = - 12 5; 0 –2 x
–1 1 2
–3
–1
59. g(t) = t 2 - t - 6 t = 3, t = - 3 0; 6 –4
–5
60. g(t) = 3t 2 - 2t t = - 2, t = 4 16; 40 -4; 0 -1; undefined
77. f ( - 3) and f ( - 1) 78. f (0) and f (1)
61. g(t) = - 2t3 + t t = 2, t = - 2 -14; 14 y y
1 3
62. g(t) = 3t t = 1, t = - 3 1
3; -9
2
f (x) = 3
x+1
63. g(t) = t 2 - 2t - 6 t = 0, t = - 3 -6; 9 2
1 1
64. g(t) = 2t 3 - t 2 + 4 t = 2, t = - 1 16; 1 –3 –2 1 2 3
x
–3 –2 2 3
x
–1 –1 f (x) = 2 2
1 –2 x –1
65. g(t) = t = 11, t = - 7 1
11 ; - 17
–3
t
2 -1; undefined -2; undefined
66. g(t) = t = 10, t = 3 - 27; undefined
3 - t Exercises 79 and 80: Complete the table. Then evaluate f(1).
t
67. g(t) = - t = 5, t = - 1 - 56; undefined 79.
t + 1 x -2 -1 0 1 2
2 - t
68. g(t) = - t = 4, t = - 1 1 3
8; 4 f (x) = x -1 1 - 13 - 12 -1 — 1
4t
t2 Undefined
69. g(t) = 2 t = - 5, t = 1 56; undefined
t - t 80.
x -2 -1 0 1 2
t - 3
70. g(t) = 2 t = - 2, t = 1 5
- 12 ; undefined
f (x) = x 2+x 2 -2 2
t - 3t + 2 — 0 1
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

3
2
3
Exercises 71–78: If possible, use the graph to evaluate Exercises 81–100: Graph y = f (x).*
each expression. Then use the formula for f (x) to check
your results. 81. f (x) = 0 2x 0 82. f (x) = @ 12x @

83. f (x) = 0 x + 2 0 84. f (x) = 0 x - 2 0 112. An insect population that dies out b.
85. f (x) = 1 - 2x 86. f (x) = 12x + 1 113. The length of a ticket line as the rate at which peo-
ple arrive in line increases d.
87. f (x) = 12x 2 88. f (x) = x 2 - 2
1 1 114. The wind speed during a day that is initially calm,
89. f (x) = 90. f (x) =
x - 1 x + 1 becomes windy, and then is calm again a.
1 2
91. f (x) = 92. f (x) = a. y b. y
2x x
1 1
93. f (x) = 94. f (x) =
x + 2 x - 2
4 6
95. f (x) = 2 96. f (x) = 2
x + 1 x + 2
3 1
97. f (x) = 98. f (x) =
2x - 3 3x + 2 x x
1 4
99. f (x) = 2 100. f (x) =
x - 1 4 - x2 c. y d. y
OPERATIONS ON FUNCTIONS
Exercises 101–104: Use f(x) and g(x) to evaluate each of
the following.
(a) ( f + g)(3) (b) ( f - g)( - 2)
(c) ( f g)(5) (d) ( f>g)(0)
x x
101. f (x) = 5x, g(x) = x + 1
(a) 19 (b) -9 (c) 150 (d) 0
102. f (x) = x 2 + 2, g(x) = - 2 x 115. Heart Rate of an Athlete The following table lists
(a) 5 (b) 2 (c) -270 (d) Undefined the heart rate of an athlete running a 100-meter race.
103. f (x) = 2 x - 1, g(x) = 4 x 2 The race lasts 10 seconds.
(a) 41 (b) -21 (c) 900 (d) Undefined
104. f (x) = x 2 - 1, g(x) = x + 2
(a) 13 (b) 3 (c) 168 (d) - 12 Time (seconds) 0 2 4 6 8 10
Exercises 105–108: Use f(x) and g(x) to find each of the Heart Rate (bpm) 90 100 113 127 143 160
following.
(a) ( f + g)(x) (b) ( f - g)(x) (a) Does P(t) = 0.2t 2 + 5t + 90 model the data
(c) ( f g)(x) (d) ( f>g)(x) in the table exactly? Explain. No; answers may vary.
(b) Does P provide a reasonable model for the ath-
105. f (x) = x + 1, g(x) = x + 2 lete’s heart rate? Yes
+ 1
(a) 2 x + 3 (b) -1 (c) x 2 + 3x + 2 (d) xx + 2
106. f (x) = - 3x, g(x) = x - 1 (c) Does P(12) have significance in this situation?
(a) -2 x - 1 (b) -4 x + 1 (c) -3x 2 + 3x (d) x --3x1 What should be the domain of P? No; 0 … t … 10
107. f (x) = 1 - x, g(x) = x 2
- x
(a) x 2 - x + 1 (b) 1 - x - x 2 (c) x 2 - x 3 (d) 1 x2 116. Heart Rate of an Athlete The following table lists
108. f (x) = x + 4, g(x) = 6x
2
an athlete’s heart rate after the athlete finishes exer-
2
+ 4
(a) x 2 + 6 x + 4 (b) x 2 - 6 x + 4 (c) 6 x 3 + 24 x (d) x 6x
109. Thinking Generally If f (x) = x - 2 x, then it 2 cising strenuously.
follows that f (a) = . a 2 - 2a
Time (minutes) 0 2 4 6
110. Thinking Generally If f (x) = 2 x - 1, then it
follows that f (a + 2) = . 2a + 3 Heart Rate (bpm) 180 137 107 90

APPLICATIONS
(a) Does P(t) = 53t 2 - 25t + 180 model the data
Exercises 111–114: Graphical Interpretation Match the in the table exactly? Explain. No; answers may vary.
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

physical situation with the graph (a.–d.) of the rational (b) Does P provide a reasonable model for the ath-
function in the next column that models it best. lete’s heart rate? Yes
111. A population of fish that increases and then levels (c) Does P(12) have significance in this situation?
off c. What should be the domain of P? No; 0 … t … 6

117. Time Spent in Line If a parking lot attendant can every 100 feet of horizontal distance, it has an uphill
10
wait on 5 vehicles per minute and vehicles are leav- grade of x = 100 , or 10%, as illustrated in the figure.
ing the lot randomly at an average rate of x vehicles
per minute, then the average time T in minutes spent
waiting in line and paying the attendant is given by
1
T(x) = ,
5 - x 10 feet
where x 6 5. (Source: N. Garber.) 100 feet
(a) Evaluate T(4) and interpret the result.*
(b) A graph of T is shown in the figure. Interpret the The braking distance for a car traveling 30 miles per
graph as x increases from 0 to 5. Does this result hour on a wet, uphill grade x is given by
agree with your intuition? 900
As more cars try to exit, the waiting time increases; yes. D(x) = .
T 10.5 + 30x
(a) 75; the braking distance is 75 ft
6 (Source: N. Garber.)
when the uphill grade is 0.05.
5
(a) Evaluate D(0.05) and interpret the result.
Wait (minutes)

(b) If the braking distance for this car is 60 feet, find

4 T(x) = 1
5–x the uphill grade x. 0.15
3

2 120. Downhill Highway Grade (See Exercise 119.) The

1
braking distance for a car traveling 30 miles per
hour on a wet, downhill grade x is given by
x
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
900
Traffic Rate (vehicles per minute) S(x) = .
10.5 - 30x
(a) 100; the braking distance is 100 ft when the downhill grade is 0.05.
(c) Find x if the waiting time is 3 minutes. (a) Evaluate S(0.05) and interpret the result.
4.6 vehicles/min (b) Make a table for D(x) from Exercise 119 and S(x),
118. People Waiting in Line At a post office, workers starting at x = 0 and incrementing by 0.05.*
can wait on 50 people per hour. If people arrive ran- (c) How do the braking distances for uphill and
domly at an average rate of x per hour, then the aver- downhill grades compare? Does this result agree
age number of people N waiting in line is given by with your driving experience? The distances for
x2 downhill braking are farther than those for uphill braking; yes.
N(x) = , 121. U.S. AIDS Deaths The following scatterplot shows
2500 - 50x
the cumulative number of reported AIDS deaths.
where x 6 50. (Source: N. Garber.)
The data may be modeled x years after 1980 by
(a) Evaluate N(30) and interpret the result.*
f (x) = 2.4 x 2 - 14 x + 23, where the output is in
(b) A graph of N is shown in the figure. Interpret
thousands of deaths.
the graph as x increases from 0 to 50. Does this
result agree with your intuition? y
As people arrive at a faster rate, the length of the line increases; yes.
N 350
AIDS Deaths (thousands)

300
20 250
Number in Line

16 2 200
N(x) = x
2500 – 50x 150
12
100
8 50
0 x
4 1984 1988 1992 1996

x Year
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
(a) 123 thousand, which is close to the actual value.
Rate (people per hour)
(a) Use f (x) to estimate the cumulative total of
(c) Find x if N = 8. About 45 people/hr AIDS deaths in 1990. Compare it with the actual
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

value of 121.6 thousand.

119. Uphill Highway Grade The grade x of a hill is a (b) In 1997 the cumulative number of AIDS deaths
measure of its steepness and corresponds to the slope was 390 thousand. What estimate does f (x) give?
of the road. For example, if a road rises 10 feet for Discuss your result. 478.6 thousand, which is too high;
AIDS deaths did not continue to rise as rapidly as the model predicts.

122. A PC for All? Worldwide sales of computers have 124. If a student takes notes in class, these percentages
climbed as prices have continued to drop. The func- increase by 30% for 1 … x … 5. Write another func-
tion f (x) = 0.29x 2 + 8x + 19 models the number tion N(x) that models this result. Evaluate N(3).*
of personal computers sold in millions during year
x, where x = 0 corresponds to 1990, x = 1 corre- 125. Profit A company makes and sells notebook com-
sponds to 1991, and so on until x = 25 corresponds puters. The company’s cost function in thousands
to 2015. Estimate the number of personal computers of dollars is C(x) = 0.3x + 100, and the revenue
sold in 2010, using both the graph and the polyno- function in thousands of dollars is R(x) = 0.75x,
mial. (Source: eTForcasts.) About 295 million where x is the number of notebook computers.
(a) Evaluate and interpret C(100).
y
(b) Interpret the y-intercepts on the graphs of C and R.*
Worldwide Computer Sales (millions)

400 (c) Give the profit function P(x). P(x) = 0.45x - 100.
(d) How many computers need to be sold to make
300 a profit? 223 or more (a) 130; it costs $130 thousand to
make 100 notebook computers.
200 126. Profit A company makes and sells sailboats. The
company’s cost function in thousands of dollars
100 is C(x) = 2 x + 20, and the revenue function in
thousands of dollars is R(x) = 4 x, where x is the
0 x number of sailboats.
’90 ’95 ’00 ’05 ’10 ’15
(a) Evaluate and interpret C(5).
Year
(b) Interpret the y-intercepts on the graphs of C and R.*
(c) Give the profit function P(x). P(x) = 2 x - 20
Exercises 123 and 124: Remembering What You Learn (d) How many sailboats need to be sold to break
After a test students often forget what they learned. The even? 10 (a) 30; it costs $30 thousand to make 5 sailboats.
rational function
WRITING ABOUT MATHEMATICS
100
R(x) = , 0 … x … 5, 127. Name two functions. Give their formulas, sketch
1.2x + 1
their graphs, and state their domains and ranges.
gives an estimate of the percentage of the material a stu-
dent remembers x days after a test. 128. Explain the difference between the domain and the
range of a function.
123. Evaluate R(1) and R(3). Interpret your results.*

SECTIONS
8.3 and 8.4 Checking Basic Concepts
1. (a) Is 3 a solution to the compound inequality 4. Use the graph of f to do the following.
x + 2 6 4 or 2x - 1 Ú 3? (a) Write the domain and range of f in interval
(b) Is 3 a solution to the compound inequality notation.
x + 2 6 4 and 2x - 1 Ú 3? (b) Evaluate f (0) and f ( - 2).

2. Solve the following compound inequalities. Write y

your answer in interval notation.
(a) - 5 … 2x + 1 … 3 y = f (x)
(b) 1 - x … - 2 or 1 - x Ú 2
4 - 3x –2 2
x
(c) - 2 6 … 6 –1
2
–2
3. Write the domain of each function in interval
notation. –3

(a) f (x) = x 2
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

1
(b) g(t) = 5. Graph f (x) = 0 x - 3 0 .
t - 1
(c) h(z) = 2z

8.5 Absolute Value Equations and Inequalities

Absolute Value Equations ● Absolute Value Inequalities

A LOOK INTO MATH N Monthly average temperatures can vary greatly from one month to another, whereas
yearly average temperatures remain fairly constant from one year to the next. In Boston,
Massachusetts, the yearly average temperature is 50⬚ F, but monthly average temperatures
can vary from 28⬚ F to 72⬚ F. Because 50⬚F - 28⬚F = 22⬚F and 72⬚F - 50⬚F = 22⬚F, the
monthly average temperatures are always within 22⬚ F of the yearly average temperature.
If T represents a monthly average temperature, we can model this situation by using the
absolute value inequality

兩 T - 50 兩 … 22.
NEW VOCABULARY
The absolute value is necessary because a monthly average temperature T can be either
n Absolute value equation
greater than or less than 50⬚ F by as much as 22⬚ F. In this section we discuss absolute value
n Absolute value inequality
equations and inequalities. (Source: A. Miller and J. Thompson, Elements of Meteorology.)

Absolute Value Equations

An equation that contains an absolute value is an absolute value equation. Examples are
0 x 0 = 2, 0 2 x - 1 0 = 5, and 0 5 - 3x 0 - 3 = 1.
Consider the absolute value equation 兩 x 兩 = 2. This equation has two solutions, - 2 and 2,
because 兩 - 2 兩 = 2 and 兩 2 兩 = 2. We can also demonstrate this result with a table of val-
ues or a graph. In Table 8.17 兩 x 兩 = 2 when x = - 2 or x = 2. In Figure 8.60 the graph of
y1 = 兩 x 兩 intersects the graph of y2 = 2 at the points ( ⴚ 2, 2) and (2, 2). The x-values at
these points of intersection correspond to the solutions ⴚ 2 and 2.
Solving e x e ⴝ 2 Graphically
TABLE 8.17 y

x 兩x兩 y1 = |x|
3
v ⴚ2 2 (2, 2)
y2 = 2
-1 1 (–2, 2)

x
Solutions 0 0 –2 2

1 1 Solutions
v
2 2 –3

Figure 8.60

We generalize this discussion in the following manner.

SOLVING 兩 x 兩 ⴝ k
1. If k 7 0, then 兩 x 兩 = k is equivalent to x = k or x = - k.
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

2. If k = 0, then 兩 x 兩 = k is equivalent to x = 0.
3. If k 6 0, then 兩 x 兩 = k has no solutions.

EXAMPLE 1 Solving absolute value equations

Solve each equation.
(a) 兩 x 兩 = 20 (b) 兩 x 兩 = - 5

Solution
(a) The solutions are - 20 and 20. (b) There are no solutions because 兩 x 兩 is never negative.
Now Try Exercises 23, 25

EXAMPLE 2 Solving an absolute value equation

Solve 兩 2 x - 5 兩 = 3 symbolically.

Solution
If 兩 2 x - 5 兩 = 3, then either 2 x - 5 = 3 or 2 x - 5 = - 3. Solve each equation separately.
2 x ⴚ 5 = 3 or 2 x ⴚ 5 = ⴚ 3 Equations to be solved
2 x = 8 or 2x = 2 Add 5.
x = 4 or x = 1 Divide by 2.
The solutions are 1 and 4.
Now Try Exercise 31

A table of values can be used to solve the equation 兩 2 x - 5 兩 = 3 from Example 2.

Table 8.18 shows that 兩 2 x - 5 兩 = 3 when x = 1 or x = 4.

Numerical Solution Graphical Solution

y
TABLE 8.18 兩 2 x ⴚ 5 兩 ⴝ 3
x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 y1 = |2x – 5|
5

兩 2x - 5 兩 5 3 1 1 3 5 7 (1, 3)
Solutions are 1 and 4. y2 = 3 (4, 3)

1
x
1 4
–1
Solutions
Figure 8.61

The equation from Example 2 can also be solved by graphing y1 = 兩 2 x - 5 兩 and

y2 = 3. To graph y1, first plot some of the points from Table 8.18. Its graph is V-shaped, as
shown in Figure 8.61. Note that the x-coordinate of the “point” or vertex of the V can be found
by solving the equation 2 x - 5 = 0 to obtain 52. The graph of y1 intersects the graph of y2 at
the points (1, 3) and (4, 3), giving the solutions 1 and 4, so the graphical solutions agree with
the numerical and symbolic solutions.
This discussion leads to the following result.

ABSOLUTE VALUE EQUATIONS

If k 7 0, then
兩 ax + b 兩 = k
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

is equivalent to
ax + b = k or ax + b = - k.

EXAMPLE 3 Solving absolute value equations

Solve.
(a) 兩 5 - x 兩 - 2 = 8 (b) @ 12(x - 6) @ = 34

Solution
(a) Start by adding 2 to each side to obtain 兩 5 ⴚ x 兩 = 10. This new equation is satisfied
by the solution from either of the following equations.
5 ⴚ x = 10 or 5 ⴚ x = ⴚ 10 Equations to be solved
-x = 5 or - x = - 15 Subtract 5.
x = - 5 or x = 15 Multiply by -1.
The solutions are - 5 and 15.
(b) This equation is satisfied by the solution from either of the following equations.
1 3 1 3
(x - 6) = or (x - 6) = ⴚ Equations to be solved
2 4 2 4

4 # 1 (x - 6) = 4 # 3 or 4 # 1 (x - 6) = 4 a - 3 b Multiply by 4 to clear fractions.

2 4 2 4
2(x - 6) = 3 or 2(x - 6) = - 3 Simplify.
2 x - 12 = 3 or 2 x - 12 = - 3 Distributive property
2 x = 15 or 2x = 9 Add 12.
15 9
x = or x = Divide by 2.
2 2
The solutions are 92 and 15
2.
Now Try Exercises 33, 37

EXAMPLE 4 Solving absolute value equations with no solutions and one solution
y Solve.
(a) 兩 2 x - 1 兩 = - 2 (b) 兩 4 - 2 x 兩 = 0
3
Solution
1 y1 = |2x – 1| (a) Because an absolute value is never negative, there are no solutions. Figure 8.62 shows
–3 –1 2 3
x that the graph of y1 = 兩 2 x - 1 兩 never intersects the graph of y2 = - 2.
(b) If 兩 y 兩 = 0, then y = 0. Thus 兩 4 - 2 x 兩 = 0 when 4 - 2 x = 0 or when x = 2. The
y2 = –2
–3
only solution is 2.
Now Try Exercises 35, 39
Figure 8.62

Sometimes an equation can have an absolute value on each side. An example would
be 兩 2 x 兩 = 兩 x - 3 兩 . In this situation either 2 x = x - 3 (the two expressions are equal)
or 2 x = - (x - 3) (the two expressions are opposites).
These concepts are summarized as follows.
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

SOLVING 円 ax ⴙ b 円 ⴝ 円 cx ⴙ d 円
Let a, b, c, and d be constants. Then 兩 ax + b 兩 = 兩 cx + d 兩 is equivalent to
ax + b = cx + d or ax + b = - (cx + d ).

EXAMPLE 5 Solving an absolute value equation

Solve 兩 2 x 兩 = 兩 x - 3 兩 .

Solution
Solve the following equations.
2 x = x ⴚ 3 or 2 x = ⴚ (x ⴚ 3)
y x = -3 or 2x = - x + 3

y1 = |2x|
3x = 3
(–3, 6) x = 1
5
The solutions are - 3 and 1.
y2 = |x – 3|
(1, 2) Now Try Exercise 43

–3 1 3
x Example 5 is solved graphically in Figure 8.63. The graphs of y1 = 兩 2 x 兩 and
Solutions y2 = 兩 x - 3 兩 are V-shaped and intersect at ( ⴚ 3, 6) and (1, 2). The solutions are ⴚ 3 and 1.
Figure 8.63

Absolute Value Inequalities

We can solve absolute value inequalities graphically. For example, to solve 兩 x 兩 6 3, let
y1 = 兩 x 兩 and y2 = 3 (see Figure 8.64). Their graphs intersect at ( ⴚ 3, 3) and (3, 3). The
graph of y1 is below the graph of y2 for x-values between, but not including, x = ⴚ 3 and
x = 3. The solution set for 兩 x 兩 6 3 is {x 兩 ⴚ 3 6 x 6 3} and is shaded on the x-axis.
Other absolute value inequalities can be solved graphically in a similar way. In Figure 8.65
the solutions to 兩 2 x - 1 兩 = 3 are ⴚ 1 and 2. The V-shaped graph of y1 = 兩 2 x - 1 兩 is below
the horizontal line y2 = 3 when ⴚ 1 6 x 6 2. Thus 兩 2 x - 1 兩 6 3 whenever - 1 6 x 6 2.
The solution set is shaded on the x-axis.
円x円 * 3 y1 * y2 y1 + y2
y y y

y1 y1
4 y2 = 3 4 4
y2 = 3 y2 y2
(–3, 3) 2 (3, 3) (–1, 3) (2, 3) (–1, 3) (2, 3)
y1 = |x| y1 = 円2x – 1円
x x x
1 –4 4 –4
–3 3 –1 2 –1 2

Solution Set: (–3, 3) Solution Set: (–1, 2) Solution Set: (–ⴥ, –1) 傼 (2, ⴥ)
Figure 8.64 Figure 8.65 Figure 8.66

In Figure 8.66 the V-shaped graph of y1 = 兩 2 x - 1 兩 is above the horizontal line

y2 = 3 both to the left of x ⴝ ⴚ 1 and to the right of x ⴝ 2. That is, 兩 2x - 1 兩 7 3
whenever x * ⴚ 1 or x + 2. The solution set is shaded on the x-axis.

ABSOLUTE VALUE INEQUALITIES

Let the solutions to 兩 ax + b 兩 = k be c and d, where c 6 d and k 7 0.
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

1. 兩 ax + b 兩 6 k is equivalent to c 6 x 6 d.
2. 兩 ax + b 兩 7 k is equivalent to x 6 c or x 7 d.
Similar statements can be made for inequalities involving … or Ú .

EXAMPLE 6 Solving absolute value equations and inequalities

Solve each absolute value equation and inequality.
(a) 兩 2 - 3x 兩 = 4 (b) 兩 2 - 3x 兩 6 4 (c) 兩 2 - 3x 兩 7 4

Solution
(a) The given equation is equivalent to the following equations.
2 - 3x = 4 or 2 - 3x = - 4 Equations to be solved
- 3x = 2 or - 3x = - 6 Subtract 2.
2
x = - or x = 2 Divide by -3.
3
The solutions are ⴚ 23 and 2.
STUDY TIP (b) Solutions to 兩 2 - 3x 兩 * 4 include x-values between, but not including, ⴚ 23 and 2.
Thus the solution set is 5 x 兩 ⴚ 23 6 x 6 2 6 , or in interval notation, 1ⴚ 23, 2 2 .
Be sure you understand
how to write the solution (c) Solutions to 兩 2 - 3x 兩 + 4 include x-values to the left of x = ⴚ 23 or to the right
to Example 6(c). of x = 2. Thus the solution set is 5 x 兩 x 6 ⴚ 23 or x 7 2 6, or in interval notation,
1 - ⬁,ⴚ 23 2 h (2, ⬁).
Now Try Exercise 51

VISUALIZING SOLUTIONS Figure 8.67(a) can be used to visualize the solution to

兩 2 - 3x 兩 = 4 in Example 6(a). Similarly, Figures 8.67(b) and 8.67(c) can be used to visu-
alize the solutions to 兩 2 - 3x 兩 6 4 and 兩 2 - 3x 兩 7 4 in parts (b) and (c) of Example 6.

Visualizing Solutions to Equations and Inequalities

円 2 ⴚ 3x 円 ⴝ 4 円 2 ⴚ 3x 円 * 4 円 2 ⴚ 3x 円 + 4
y y y

y2 = 4 y2 = 4 y2 = 4

(– 23 , 4) (2, 4) (– 23 , 4) (2, 4) (– 23 , 4) (2, 4)

2 2 2
y1 = 円2 – 3x円 y1 = 円2 – 3x円 y1 = 円2 – 3x円
1 1 1

x x x
–1 1 3 –1 3

Solution Set: – 23 and 2 Solution Set: – 23, 2( ) (

Solution Set: –ⴥ, – 23 傼 (2, ⴥ) )
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 8.67

EXAMPLE 7 Solving an absolute value inequality

Solve @ 2 x 3- 5 @ 7 3. Write the solution set in interval notation.

Solution
Start by solving @ 2x 3- 5 @ = 3 as follows.
2x - 5 2x - 5
= 3 or = -3 Equations to be solved
3 3
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

2x - 5 = 9 or 2x - 5 = - 9 Multiply by 3.
2 x = 14 or 2x = - 4 Add 5.
x = 7 or x = -2 Divide by 2.

Because the inequality symbol is 7, the solution set is x 6 - 2 or x 7 7, or in interval

notation, ( - ⬁, - 2) h (7, ⬁).
Now Try Exercise 79

The results from Examples 6 and 7 can be generalized as follows.

CRITICAL THINKING
INEQUALITIES AND ABSOLUTE VALUES
How many solutions are
there to 兩 2x + 1 兩 6 4? How If k 7 0 and y = f (x), then
many solutions are there to
兩 2x + 1 兩 6 -4? 兩 y 兩 6 k is equivalent to - k 6 y 6 k and
兩 y 兩 7 k is equivalent to y 6 - k or y 7 k.
Similar statements can be made for inequalities involving … and Ú.

In the next example, we use the fact that - k … y … k is equivalent to 兩 y 兩 … k.

EXAMPLE 8 Analyzing error

An engineer is designing a circular cover for a container. The diameter d of the cover is to
be 4.25 inches and must be accurate to within 0.01 inch. Write an absolute value inequality
that gives acceptable values for d.

Solution
The diameter d must satisfy 4.24 … d … 4.26. Subtracting 4.25 from each part gives
- 0.01 … d - 4.25 … 0.01,
CALCULATOR HELP which is equivalent to 兩 d - 4.25 兩 … 0.01. The “distance” or difference between 4.25 and
To graph an absolute value, see the diameter is less than or equal to 0.01.
Appendix A (page AP-8).
Now Try Exercise 121

EXAMPLE 9 Modeling temperature in Boston

In A Look Into Math at the beginning of this section we discussed how the inequality
兩 T - 50 兩 … 22 models the range for the monthly average temperatures T in Boston.
(a) Solve this inequality and interpret the result.
[0, 100, 10] by [0, 70, 10] (b) Give graphical support for part (a).
y1 = 円x – 50円 y2 = 22
Solution
(a) Symbolic Solution Start by solving 兩 T - 50 兩 = 22.
⫻
Intersection T - 50 = 22 or T - 50 = - 22 Equations to be solved
X⫽28 Y⫽22

(a)
T = 72 or T = 28 Add 50 to each side.
[0, 100, 10] by [0, 70, 10] Thus the solution set to 兩 T - 50 兩 … 22 is {T 兩 28 … T … 72}. Monthly average tem-
y1 = 円x – 50円 y2 = 22 peratures in Boston vary from 28⬚ F to 72⬚ F.

(b) Graphical Solution The graphs of y1 = 兩 x - 50 兩 and y2 = 22 intersect at (28, 22)

ISBN 1-256-49082-2

⫻ and (72, 22), as shown in Figures 8.68(a) and (b). The V-shaped graph of y1 intersects
Intersection
X⫽72 Y⫽22 the horizontal graph of y2, or is below it, when 28 … x … 72. Thus the solution set is
(b) {T 兩 28 … T … 72}. This result agrees with the symbolic result.
Figure 8.68 Now Try Exercise 113

Sometimes the solution set to an absolute value inequality can be either empty or the
set of all real numbers. These two situations are illustrated in the next example.

EXAMPLE 10 Solving absolute value inequalities

Solve if possible.
(a) 兩 2 x - 5 兩 7 - 1 (b) 兩 5x - 1 兩 + 3 … 2

Solution
(a) Because the absolute value of an expression cannot be negative, 兩 2 x - 5 兩 is greater
than - 1 for every x-value. The solution set is all real numbers, or ( - ⬁, ⬁).
(b) Subtracting 3 from each side results in 兩 5x - 1 兩 … - 1. Because the absolute value
is always greater than or equal to 0, no x-values satisfy this inequality. There are no
solutions.
Now Try Exercises 75, 77

8.5 Putting It All Together

PROBLEM SYMBOLIC SOLUTION GRAPHICAL SOLUTION
兩 ax + b 兩 = k, k 7 0 Solve the equations Graph y1 = 兩 ax + b 兩 and y2 = k.
ax + b = k Find the x-values of the two points of
intersection.
and
ax + b = - k.

兩 ax + b 兩 6 k, k 7 0 If the solutions to Graph y1 = 兩 ax + b 兩 and y2 = k.

兩 ax + b 兩 = k Find the x-values of the two points of
intersection. The solutions are between
are c and d, c 6 d, then the solutions to these x-values on the number line,
兩 ax + b 兩 6 k where the graph of y1 lies below the
graph of y2.
satisfy
c 6 x 6 d.

兩 ax + b 兩 7 k, k 7 0 If the solutions to Graph y1 = 兩 ax + b 兩 and y2 = k.

兩 ax + b 兩 = k Find the x-values of the two points of
intersection. The solutions are “outside”
are c and d, c 6 d, then the solutions to (left or right of ) these x-values on the
兩 ax + b 兩 7 k number line, where the graph of y1 is
above the graph of y2.
satisfy
x 6 c or x 7 d.
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

8.5 Exercises
CONCEPTS AND VOCABULARY SYMBOLIC SOLUTIONS
1. Give an example of an absolute value equation. Exercises 23–48: Solve the absolute value equation.
兩 3x + 2 兩 = 6 (answers may vary)
2. Give an example of an absolute value inequality. 23. 兩 x 兩 = 7 -7, 7 24. 兩 x 兩 = 4 -4, 4
兩 2x - 1 兩 … 17 (answers may vary)
3. Is - 3 a solution to 兩 x 兩 = 3? Yes 25. 兩 x 兩 = - 6 26. 兩 x 兩 = 0 0
No solutions
4. Is - 4 a solution to 兩 x 兩 7 3? Yes 27. 兩 4 x 兩 = 9 - 94, 94 28. 兩 - 3x 兩 = 7 - 73, 73

5. Is the solution set to 兩 x 兩 = 5 equal to { - 5, 5}? Yes 29. 兩 - 2x 兩 - 6 = 2 30. 兩 5x 兩 + 1 = 5 - 45, 45

-4, 4
6. Is 兩 x 兩 6 3 equivalent to x 6 - 3 or x 7 3? Explain. 31. 兩 2 x + 1 兩 = 11 32. 兩 1 - 3x 兩 = 4 -1, 53
No, it is equivalent to -3 6 x 6 3. -6, 5
7. How many times does the graph of y = 兩 2x - 1 兩 33. 兩 - 2 x + 3 兩 + 3 = 4 1, 2
intersect the graph of y = 5? 2
34. 兩 6x + 2 兩 - 2 = 6 - 53, 1
8. How many times does the graph of y = 兩 2x - 1 兩
35. 兩 3 - 4x 兩 = 0 3
36. 兩 5x - 3 兩 = - 1
intersect the graph of y = - 5? 0 4
No solutions
37. @ 12 x - 1 @ = 5 38. @ 6 - 34 x @ = 3 4, 12
Exercises 9–14: Determine whether the given values of x -8, 12
are solutions to the absolute value equation or inequality. 39. 兩 2 x - 6 兩 = - 7 40. @ 1 - 23 x @ = 0 3
2
No solutions
9. 兩 2 x - 5 兩 = 1 x = - 3, x = 3 No, yes 41. @ 23 z - 1 @ - 3 = 8 42. 兩 1 - 2z 兩 + 5 = 10
-15, 18 -2, 3
10. 兩 5 - 6 x 兩 = 1 x = 1, x = 0 Yes, no 43. 兩 z - 1 兩 = 兩 2z 兩 44. 兩 2z + 3 兩 = 兩 2 - z 兩
-1, 13 -5, - 13
11. 兩 7 - 4 x 兩 … 5 x = - 2, x = 2 No, yes 45. 兩 3t + 1 兩 = 兩 2t - 4 兩 -5, 35

12. 兩 2 + x 兩 6 2 x = - 4, x = - 1 No, yes 46. @ 12t - 1 @ = @ 3 - 32t @ 47. @ 14 x @ = @ 3 + 14 x @ -6

2
13. 兩 7x + 4 兩 7 - 1 x = - 47, x = 2 Yes, yes 48. 兩 2 x - 1 兩 = 兩 2 x + 2 兩 - 14

14. 兩 12 x + 3 兩 Ú 3 x = - 14, x = 2 No, yes Exercises 49–52: Solve each equation or inequality.
49. (a) 兩 2x 兩 = 8 -4, 4 (b) 兩 2x 兩 6 8 {x 兩 -4 6 x 6 4}
Exercises 15 and 16: Use the graph to solve the equation.
(c) 兩 2x 兩 7 8 {x 兩 x 6 -4 or x 7 4}
15. 兩 x - 2 兩 = 2 0, 4 16. 兩 2 x + 1 兩 = 3 -2, 1
y y 50. (a) 兩 3x - 9 兩 = 6 1, 5
(b) 兩 3x - 9 兩 … 6 {x 兩 1 … x … 5}
4 4 (c) 兩 3x - 9 兩 Ú 6 {x 兩 x … 1 or x Ú 5}
3 y1 = |x – 2|
2 51. (a) 兩 5 - 4 x 兩 = 3 12, 2
y1 = |2x + 1|
1 (b) 兩 5 - 4 x 兩 … 3 5 x @ 12 … x … 2 6
x x
-2 1 2 3 4 -4 -2 1 2 (c) 兩 5 - 4 x 兩 Ú 3 5 x @ x … 12 or x Ú 2 6
-1
-2 -2
x - 5 x - 5
52. (a) ` ` = 2 1, 9 (b) ` ` 6 2 {x 兩 1 6 x 6 9}
2 2
Exercises 17–22: Solve each equation or inequality. x - 5
(c) ` ` 7 2 {x 兩 x 6 1 or x 7 9}
17. 兩 x 兩 = 3 -3, 3 18. 兩 x 兩 = 5 -5, 5 2
19. 兩 x 兩 6 3 (-3, 3) 20. 兩 x 兩 6 5 (-5, 5) Exercises 53–84: Solve the absolute value inequality.
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

Write your answer in interval notation.

21. 兩 x 兩 7 3 22. 兩 x 兩 7 5
(- ⬁ , -3) h (3, ⬁ ) (- ⬁ ,-5 ) h (5, ⬁ ) 53. 兩 x 兩 … 3 [-3, 3] 54. 兩 x 兩 6 2 (-2, 2)
55. 兩 k 兩 7 4 56. 兩 k 兩 Ú 5
(- ⬁ , -4) h (4, ⬁ ) (- ⬁ , -5] h [5, ⬁ )

57. 兩 t 兩 … - 3 No solutions 58. 兩 t 兩 6 - 1 No solutions y

59. 兩 z 兩 7 0 60. 兩 2z 兩 Ú 0 (- ⬁ , ⬁ )
(- ⬁ , 0) h (0, ⬁ ) 2
y1 = |2x + 1|
61. 兩 2x 兩 7 7 62. 兩 - 12 x 兩 6 30 1 - 52, 52 2
1 - ⬁ , - 72 2 h 1 72, ⬁ 2
63. 兩 - 4 x + 4 兩 6 16 64. 兩 - 5x - 8 兩 7 2 –2 –1 1 2
x
(-3, 5) (- ⬁ , -2) h 1 - 65, ⬁ 2 –1
65. 2 兩 x + 5 兩 Ú 8 66. - 3 兩 x - 1 兩 Ú - 9 –2
(- ⬁ , -9] h [-1, ⬁ ) [-2, 4]
2x
67. 兩 8 - 6x 兩 - 1 … 2 68. 4 - ` ` 6 - 7
3 88. (a) 兩 x - 1 兩 = 3 -2, 4 (b) 兩 x - 1 兩 6 3 (-2, 4)
3 56, 116 4 1 - ⬁ , - 332 2 h 1 33
2 , ⬁2
2 - x x + 3 (c) 兩 x - 1 兩 7 3 (- ⬁ , -2) h (4, ⬁ )
69. 5 + ` ` … 9 70. ` ` … 12 [-63, 57] y
3 5
[-10, 14]
71. 兩 2 x - 1 兩 … - 3 72. 兩 x + 6 兩 Ú - 5 (- ⬁ , ⬁ )
No solutions 2
73. 兩 x + 1 兩 - 1 7 - 3 74. - 2 兩 1 - 7x 兩 Ú 2 y1 = |x – 1|
(- ⬁ , ⬁ ) No solutions x
75. 兩 2z - 4 兩 + 2 … 1 76. 兩 4 - z 兩 … 0 4 –2
–1
1 2 3 4
No solutions –2
77. 兩 3z - 1 兩 7 - 3 78. 兩 2z 兩 Ú - 2 (- ⬁ , ⬁ ) –3
(- ⬁ , ⬁ )
2 - t 2t + 3
79. ` ` Ú 5 80. ` ` Ú 7 Exercises 89–98: Solve the inequality graphically. Write
3 5
(- ⬁ , -13] h [17, ⬁ ) (- ⬁ , -19] h [16, ⬁ ) your answer in interval notation.
81. 兩 t - 1 兩 … 0.1 [0.9, 1.1]
89. 兩 x 兩 Ú 1 90. 兩 x 兩 6 2
(- ⬁ , -1] h [1, ⬁ ) (-2, 2)
82. 兩 t - 2 兩 … 0.01 [1.99, 2.01]
91. 兩 x - 1 兩 … 3 [-2, 4] 92. 兩 x + 5 兩 Ú 2
83. 兩 b - 10 兩 7 0.5 (- ⬁ , 9.5) h (10.5, ⬁ ) (- ⬁ , -7] h [-3, ⬁ )
93. 兩 4 - 2 x 兩 7 2 94. 兩 1.5x - 3 兩 Ú 6
(- ⬁ , 1) h (3, ⬁ ) (- ⬁ , -2] h [6, ⬁ )
84. 兩 b - 25 兩 Ú 1 (- ⬁ , 24] h [26, ⬁ )
95. 兩 10 - 3x 兩 6 4 96. 兩 7 - 4 x 兩 … 2.5
(2, 4.6) [1.125, 2.375]
NUMERICAL AND GRAPHICAL SOLUTIONS 5x - 9
97. 兩 8.1 - x 兩 7 - 2 98. ` ` … -1
Exercises 85 and 86: Use the table of y = 兩 ax + b 兩 to 2
(- ⬁ , ⬁ ) No solutions
solve each equation or inequality. Write your answers in
interval notation for parts (b) and (c). USING MORE THAN ONE METHOD
85. (a) y = 2 (b) y 6 2 (c) y 7 2 Exercises 99–102: Solve the absolute value inequality
-1, 3 (-1, 3) (- ⬁ , -1) h (3, ⬁ ) (a) symbolically,
x -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 (b) graphically, and
y 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 (c) numerically.
Write your answer in set-builder notation.
86. (a) y = 6 (b) y … 6 (c) y Ú 6 99. 兩 3x 兩 … 9 100. 兩 5 - x 兩 Ú 3
-6, 18 [-6, 18] (- ⬁ , -6] h [18, ⬁ ) {x 兩 -3 … x … 3} {x 兩 x … 2 or x Ú 8}
x - 12 -6 0 6 12 18 24 101. 兩 2 x - 5 兩 7 1 102. 兩 - 8 - 4x 兩 6 6
{x 兩 x 6 2 or x 7 3} {x 兩 -3.5 6 x 6 -0.5}
y 9 6 3 0 3 6 9
WRITING ABSOLUTE VALUE INEQUALITIES
Exercises 87 and 88: Use the graph of y1 at the top of the Exercises 103–110: Write each compound inequality as
next column to solve each equation or inequality. Write an absolute value inequality. Do not simplify Exercises
your answers in interval notation for parts (b) and (c). 107–110.
87. (a) 兩 2 x + 1 兩 = 1 -1, 0 103. - 4 … x … 4 104. - 0.1 6 y 6 0.1
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

兩x兩 … 4 兩 y 兩 6 0.1
(b) 兩 2 x + 1 兩 … 1 [-1, 0] 105. y 6 - 2 or y 7 2 106. - 0.1 … x … 0.1
兩y兩 7 2 兩 x 兩 … 0.1
(c) 兩 2 x + 1 兩 Ú 1 (- ⬁ , -1] h [0, ⬁ )
107. - 0.3 … 2x + 1 … 0.3
兩 2x + 1 兩 … 0.3

108. 4x 6 - 5 or 4x 7 5 109. px … - 7 or px Ú 7 (a) If the two cars are initially 4 miles apart, sketch
兩 4x 兩 7 5 兩 px 兩 Ú 7
a graph of the distance between the two cars
110. - 0.9 … x - 22 … 0.9 兩 x - 22 兩 … 0.9
after x minutes, where 0 … x … 4. (Hint:
111. Thinking Generally If a ⬆ 0 and k 7 0, then 60 miles per hour = 1 mile per minute.)*
the graph of y = 兩 ax + b 兩 intersects the graph of (b) Write an absolute value equation whose solution
y = k at two points. gives the times when the cars are 2 miles apart.
(c) Solve your equation from part (b). 1, 3
112. Thinking Generally If a and k are positive, then the (b) 兩 -2x + 4 兩 = 2
solution set to 兩 ax + b 兩 6 k is . 1 - k a- b, k -a b 2 119. Error in Measurements (Refer to Example 8.)
The maximum error in the diameter of the can is
APPLICATIONS restricted to 0.002 inch, so an acceptable diameter d
must satisfy the absolute value inequality
Exercises 113–116: Average Temperatures (Refer to
Example 9.) The given inequality models the range for the 兩 d - 2.5 兩 … 0.002.
monthly average temperatures T in degrees Fahrenheit at Solve this inequality for d and interpret the result.
the location specified. {d 兩 2.498 … d … 2.502}; the diameter can vary from 2.498 to 2.502 in.
120. Error in Measurements Suppose that a person can
(a) Solve the inequality.
operate a stopwatch accurately to within 0.02 second.
(b) Give a possible interpretation of the inequality.*
If Byron Dyce’s time in the 800-meter race is
113. 兩 T - 43 兩 … 24, Marquette, Michigan recorded as 105.30 seconds, write an absolute value
(a) {T 兩 19 … T … 67} inequality that gives the possible values for the actual
114. 兩 T - 62 兩 … 19, Memphis, Tennessee time t. 兩 t - 105.30 兩 … 0.02
(a) {T 兩 43 … T … 81}
115. 兩 T - 10 兩 … 36, Chesterfield, Canada
(a) {T 兩 -26 … T … 46}
116. 兩 T - 61.5 兩 … 12.5, Buenos Aires, Argentina
(a) {T 兩 49 … T … 74}

117. Highest Elevations The table lists the highest ele-

vation in each continent.

Continent Elevation (feet)

Asia 29,028
121. Error in Measurements A circular lid is being
S. America 22,834 designed for a container. The diameter d of the lid is to
N. America 20,320 be 3.8 inches and must be accurate to within 0.03 inch.
Write an absolute value inequality that gives accept-
Africa 19,340
able values for d. 兩 d - 3.8 兩 … 0.03
Europe 18,510
122. Manufacturing a Tire An engineer is designing a
Antarctica 16,066 tire for a truck. The diameter d of the tire is to be
Australia 7,310 36 inches and the circumference must be accurate to
within 0.1 inch. Write an absolute value inequality
Source: National Geographic.
About 19,058 ft
that gives acceptable values for d. 兩 d - 36 兩 … 0.1
p

(a) Calculate the average A of these elevations. 123. Relative Error If a quantity is measured to be x
(b) Which continents have their highest elevations and the true value is t, then the relative error in the
within 1000 feet of A? Africa and Europe measurement is @ x -t t @ . If the true measurement is
(c) Which continents have their highest elevations t = 20 and you want the relative error to be less
within 5000 feet of A? than 0.05 (5%), what values for x are possible?
(d) Let E be an elevation. Write an absolute value Values between 19 and 21, exclusive
inequality that says that E is within 5000 feet 124. Relative Error (Refer to the preceding exercise.)
of A. 兩 E - A 兩 … 5000 The volume V of a box is 50 cubic inches. How
(c) South America, North America, Africa, Europe, and Antarctica
accurately must you measure the volume of the
118. Distance Suppose that two cars, both traveling at a
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

box for the relative error to be less than 3%? Within

constant speed of 60 miles per hour, approach each 1.5 cubic inches—between 48.5 and 51.5 cubic inches
other on a straight highway.

WRITING ABOUT MATHEMATICS 126. Suppose that you know two solutions to the equa-
125. If a ⬆ 0, how many solutions are there to the equation 兩 ax + b 兩 = k. How can you use these solu-
tion 兩 ax + b 兩 = k when tions to solve the inequalities 兩 ax + b 兩 6 k and
(a) k 7 0, (b) k = 0, and (c) k 6 0? 兩 ax + b 兩 7 k ? Give an example.
Explain each answer.

SECTION
8.5 Checking Basic Concepts
Write answers in interval notation whenever possible. 4. Use the graph to solve the equation and inequalities.
y
1. Solve @ 34 x - 1 @ - 3 = 5.
2. Solve the absolute value equation and inequalities. 3
(a) 兩 3x - 6 兩 = 8
(b) 兩 3x - 6 兩 6 8 1 y = |2x – 4|
x
(c) 兩 3x - 6 兩 7 8 1 2 3 4
–1
3. Solve the inequality 兩 - 2(3 - x) 兩 6 6, and then
solve 兩 - 2(3 - x) 兩 Ú 6. (a) 兩 2 x - 4 兩 = 2 (b) 兩 2 x - 4 兩 … 2
(c) 兩 2 x - 4 兩 Ú 2

CHAPTER 8 Summary
SECTION 8.1 . FUNCTIONS AND THEIR REPRESENTATIONS

Function A function is a set of ordered pairs (x, y) where each x-value corresponds to exactly
one y-value. A function takes a valid input x and computes exactly one output y, forming the
ordered pair (x, y).
Domain and Range of a Function The domain D is the set of all valid inputs, or x-values, and
the range R is the set of all outputs, or y-values.
Examples: f = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3)} has D = {1, 2, 3} and R = {2, 3}.
f (x) = x 2 has domain all real numbers and range y Ú 0. (See the graph below.)
Function Notation y = f (x) and is read “y equals f of x.”
2x 2 # 3 6
Example: f (x) = x - 1 implies that f (3) = 3 - 1 = 2 = 3. Thus the point (3, 3) is on the graph of f.

Function Representations A function can be represented symbolically, numerically, graphically, or verbally.

Symbolic Representation (Formula) f (x) = x 2

Numerical Representation (Table) Graphical Representation (Graph)

y
x y
-2 4 5

-1 1 4
3
y = x2
0 0 2
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

1
1 1 x
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3
–1
2 4
Verbal Representation (Words) f computes the square of the input x.

Vertical Line Test If every vertical line intersects a graph at most once, then the graph
represents a function.

SECTION 8.2 . LINEAR FUNCTIONS

Linear Function A linear function can be represented by f (x) = mx + b. Its graph is a (straight)
line, where m is the slope and b is the y-intercept. For each unit increase in x, f (x) changes by an
amount equal to m.
Example: f (x) = 2 x - 1 represents a linear function with m = 2 and b = - 1.

Numerical Representation Graphical Representation

y
x f (x)
-1 -3 3
1 unit 2 units 2
-1
Q
0 Q 1
y = 2x – 1
1 unit Q 2 units
x
1 1 Q –3 –2 –1 1 2 3
1 unit Q 2 units –1
2 3 Q

Each 1-unit increase in x results in a 2-unit increase in f (x); thus m = 2.

NOTE: A numerical representation is a table of values of f (x).

Modeling Data with Linear Functions When data have a constant rate of change, they can
be modeled by f (x) = mx + b. The constant m represents the rate of change, and the constant
b represents the initial amount or the value when x = 0. That is,
f (x) ⴝ (Rate of change)x ⴙ (Initial amount).
Example: In the following table, the y-values decrease by 3 units for each 1-unit increase in x.
When x = 0, y = 4. Thus the data are modeled by f (x) = - 3x + 4.

x -2 -1 0 1 2
y 10 7 4 1 -2

Midpoint Formula The midpoint of the line segment connecting (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) is
x1 + x 2 y 1 + y 2
a , b.
2 2
Example: The midpoint of the line segment connecting (⫺5, 8) and (9, 4) is

-5 + 9 8 + 4
a , b = (2, 6).
2 2

SECTION 8.3 . COMPOUND INEQUALITIES

Compound Inequality Two inequalities connected by and or or.

Examples: For x + 1 6 3 or x + 1 7 6, a solution satisfies at least one of the inequalities.
For 2 x + 1 6 3 and 1 - x 7 6, a solution satisfies both inequalities.
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

Three-Part Inequality A compound inequality in the form x 7 a and x 6 b can be written as

the three-part inequality a 6 x 6 b.
Example: 1 … x 6 7 means x Ú 1 and x 6 7.

Interval Notation Can be used to identify intervals on the real number line
Examples: - 2 6 x … 3 is equivalent to ( - 2, 3].
x 6 5 is equivalent to ( - ⬁, 5).
All real numbers are denoted ( - ⬁, ⬁).

SECTION 8.4 . OTHER FUNCTIONS AND THEIR PROPERTIES

Domain and Range in Interval Notation The domain and range of a function can often be
expressed in interval notation.
Example: The domain of f (x) = x 2 - 2 is all real numbers, or ( - ⬁, ⬁), and its range is real
numbers greater than or equal to - 2, or [ - 2, ⬁).

Absolute Value Function The domain of f (x) = 0 x 0 is ( - ⬁, ⬁), and the range is [0, ⬁).
y

y = ⏐x⏐
2
1
x
–2 –1 1 2
–1
–2

Polynomial Functions The degree of a polynomial function (of one variable) equals the largest expo-
nent of a variable. The graphs of polynomial functions with degree greater than 1 are not lines. The
domain of a polynomial function is ( - ⬁, ⬁).
Examples: f (x) = 4x - 1 defines a linear function with degree 1.
g(x) = 4x 2 + x - 4 defines a quadratic function with degree 2.
h(x) = x 3 + 0.7x - 1 defines a cubic function with degree 3.
p(x)
Rational Functions If f (x) = q(x), where p(x) and q(x) are polynomials, f is a rational function. The
domain of a rational function includes all real numbers, except x-values that make the denominator 0.
1
Examples: f (x) = x has domain ( - ⬁, 0) h (0, ⬁), or x ⬆ 0.
g(x) = x 2 x- 9 has domain ( - ⬁, - 3) h ( - 3, 3) h (3, ⬁), or x ⬆ - 3, x ⬆ 3.

Operations on Functions If f (x) and g(x) are both defined, then the sum, difference, product,
and quotient of two functions f and g are defined by
( f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x) Sum
( f - g)(x) = f (x) - g(x) Difference
( fg)(x) = f (x) # g(x) Product
f f (x)
a b (x) = , where g(x) ⬆ 0. Quotient
g g (x)
Example: Let f (x) = x 2 - 1 and g(x) = x 2 + 1.
( f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x) = (x 2 - 1) + (x 2 + 1) = 2x 2
( f - g)(x) = f (x) - g(x) = (x 2 - 1) - (x 2 + 1) = - 2
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

( fg)(x) = f (x) # g(x) = (x 2 - 1)(x 2 + 1) = x 4 - 1

f f (x) x2 - 1
a b (x) = = 2
g g(x) x + 1

SECTION 8.5 . ABSOLUTE VALUE EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES

Absolute Value Equations The graph of y = 兩 ax + b 兩 , a ⬆ 0, is V-shaped and intersects

the horizontal line y = k twice if k 7 0. In this case there are two solutions to the equation
兩 ax + b 兩 = k determined by ax + b = k or ax + b = - k.
Example: The equation 兩 2 x - 1 兩 = 5 has two solutions.
Symbolic Solution
2 x - 1 = 5 or 2 x - 1 = - 5
2 x = 6 or 2x = - 4 Add 1.
x = 3 or x = ⴚ2 Divide by 2.
Graphical Solution Numerical Solution
y
x -3 ⴚ2 -1 0 1 2 3

6
兩 2x - 1 兩 7 5 3 1 1 3 5
(3, 5)
(–2, 5) y2 = 5 The solutions are ⴚ2 and 3.
3

y1 = |2x – 1|
x
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3

The solutions are ⴚ2 and 3.

Absolute Value Inequalities If the solutions to 兩 ax + b 兩 = k are c and d with c 6 d, then
the solution set for 兩 ax + b 兩 6 k is {x 兩 c 6 x 6 d}, and the solution set for 兩 ax + b 兩 7 k is
{x 兩 x 6 c or x 7 d}.
Example: The solutions to the equation 兩 2 x - 1 兩 = 5 are - 2 and 3, so the solution set for
兩 2 x - 1 兩 6 5 is {x 兩 - 2 6 x 6 3}, and the solution set for 兩 2 x - 1 兩 7 5 is
{x 兩 x 6 - 2 or x 7 3}.
If k 7 0 and y = f (x), then
兩 y 兩 6 k is equivalent to - k 6 y 6 k and
兩 y 兩 7 k is equivalent to y 6 - k or y 7 k.
Examples: 兩 3 - x 兩 6 5 is equivalent to - 5 6 3 - x 6 5 and
兩 3 - x 兩 7 5 is equivalent to 3 - x 6 - 5 or 3 - x 7 5.

CHAPTER 8 Review Exercises

SECTION 8.1 5. Function P computes the number of pints in q quarts.
(a) P(q) = 2q (b) P(5) = 10; there are 10 pints in 5 quarts.
Exercises 1–4: Evaluate f (x) for the given values of x. 6. Function f computes 3 less than 4 times a number x.
(a) f (x) = 4x - 3 (b) f (5) = 17; three less than four times 5 is 17.
1. f (x) = 3x - 1 x = - 2, 13 -7; 0
7. If f (3) = - 2, then the point (3, -2) lies on the graph
2. f (x) = 5 - 3x 2 x = - 3, 1 -22; 2 of f.
3. f (x) = 2x - 2 x = 0, 9 -2; 1 8. If (4, - 6) lies on the graph of f, then f ( 4 ) = -6 .
7
4. f (x) = 5 x = - 5, 5 5; 5
Exercises 9–12: Sketch a graph of f.*
Exercises 5 and 6: Do the following.
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

(a) Write a symbolic representation (formula) for the 9. f (x) = - 2 x 10. f (x) = 12 x - 32
function described.
11. f (x) = x 2 - 1 12. f (x) = 2x + 1
(b) Evaluate the function for input 5 and interpret
the result.

Exercises 13 and 14: Use the graph of f to evaluate the Exercises 23–30: Find the domain.
given expressions.
23. f (x) = - 3x + 7 24. f (x) = 2x
All real numbers x Ú 0
13. f (0) and f ( - 3) 1; 4 14. f ( - 2) and f (1) 1; -2 3
y
25. f (x) = 26. f (x) = x 2 + 2
y x ⬆ 0 x All real numbers
x
27. f (x) = 25 - x 28. f (x) =
4 3 x … 5 x + 2
3
2
x ⬆ -2
1 29. f (x) = 兩 2x + 1兩 30. f (x) = x 3
x x All real numbers All real numbers
-4 -2 -1 1 3 4 -3 -2 1 2 3
-1
-2 SECTION 8.2
-3
-4
Exercises 31 and 32: Does the graph represent a linear
function?
15. Use the table to evaluate f ( - 1) and f (3). 7; -1 y
31. 32. y
x -1 1 3 5
3
f (x) 7 3 -1 -5 3
2 2
1 1
16. A function f is represented verbally by “Multiply x x
-3 -2 1 2 3 -3 -2 -1 1 3
the input x by 3 and then subtract 2.” Give numeri- -1
cal, symbolic, and graphical representations for f. Let -2 -2
-3
x = - 3, - 2, - 1, p , 3 in the table of values, and let -3

- 3 … x … 3 for the graph. No Yes

Numerical:*; Symbolic: f (x) = 3x - 2; Graphical:*
Exercises 17 and 18: Use the graph of f to estimate its Exercises 33–36: Determine whether f is a linear func-
domain and range. tion. If f is linear, give values for m and b so that f may be
17. y 18. y expressed as f (x) = mx + b.
33. f (x) = - 4 x + 5 34. f (x) = 7 - x
4 Yes; m = -4, b = 5 Yes; m = -1, b = 7
3
2 2
35. f (x) = 1x 36. f (x) = 6
1 No Yes; m = 0, b = 6
x x
-4 1 3 4 -2 2 Exercises 37 and 38: Use the table to determine whether
-1
-2
-2 f (x) could represent a linear function. If it could, write
-3
-4 the formula for f in the form f (x) = mx + b.
D: All real numbers D: -4 … x … 4 37. Yes; f (x) = 32x - 3
R: y … 4 R: -4 … y … 0 x 0 2 4 6

Exercises 19 and 20: Does the graph represent a function? f (x) -3 0 3 6

19. y 20. y
38. No
x -1 0 1 2
4 4 f (x) -5 0 10 15
2 2
x x 39. Evaluate f (x) = 12x + 3 at x = - 4. 1
-4 -2 2 4 -4 -2 2 4
-2 -2 40. Use the graph to evaluate f ( - 2) and f (1). -3; 0
-4 -4 y

Yes No
3
y = f (x)
2
Exercises 21 and 22: Find the domain and range of S.
1
Then state whether S defines a function.
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

x
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3
21. S = {( - 3, 4), ( - 1, 4), (2, 3), (4, - 1)}
D = { -3, -1, 2, 4}, R = { -1, 3, 4}; yes
22. S = {( - 1, 5), (0, 3), (1, - 2), ( - 1, 2), (2, 4)} –3
D = { -1, 0, 1, 2}, R = { -2, 2, 3, 4, 5}; no

Exercises 41–44: Sketch a graph of y = f (x).* (a) y1 = y2 2 (b) y1 6 y2 (2, ⬁ )

(c) y1 7 y2 (- ⬁ , 2)
41. f (x) = x + 1 42. f (x) = 1 - 2 x
y
43. f (x) = - 13x 44. f (x) = - 1
45. Write a symbolic representation (formula) for a linear y2
function H that calculates the number of hours in x 2
days. Evaluate H(2) and interpret the result. x
H(x) = 24 x; H(2) = 48, there are 48 hours in 2 days. -4 -2 2
-2 y1
46. Let f (x) = 1x + 2 - x 2.
(a) Make a numerical representation (table) for the
function f with x = 1, 2, 3, p , 7.*
(b) Graph f in the standard window. What is the
56. The graphs of three linear functions f, g, and h are
domain of f ?*; x Ú -2
shown in the following figure. Solve each equation or
inequality.
Exercises 47 and 48: Find the midpoint of the line seg-
(a) f (x) = g(x) 4 (b) g(x) = h(x) 2
ment connecting the given points.
(c) f (x) 6 g(x) 6 h(x) (2, 4)
47. ( - 5, 3), (6, - 9) 48. 1 23, - 34 2 , 1 16, 32 2 y
(0.5, -3) 1 125 , 38 2
70

SECTION 8.3 60
50
Use interval notation whenever possible for the remain- y = h(x)
40
ing exercises. 30 y = g(x)
Exercises 49–52: Solve the compound inequality. Graph 20
y = f (x)
the solution set on a number line.* 10
x
49. x + 1 … 3 and x + 1 Ú - 1 [-2, 2] 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

50. 2 x + 7 6 5 and - 2 x Ú 6 (- ⬁ , -3] Exercises 57– 62: Write the given inequality in interval
51. 5x - 1 … 3 or 1 - x 6 - 1 1 - ⬁ , notation.
54 h
4
(2, ⬁ )
57. - 3 … x … 23 3 -3, 23 4 58. - 6 6 x … 45 (-6, 45]
52. 3x + 1 7 - 1 or 3x + 1 6 10 (- ⬁ , ⬁ )
59. x 6 72 1 - ⬁ , 72 2 60. x Ú 1.8 [1.8, ⬁ )
53. Use the table to solve - 2 … 2x + 2 … 4. [-2, 1]
61. x 7 - 3 and x 6 4 62. x 6 4 or x 7 10
x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 (-3, 4) (- ⬁ , 4) h (10, ⬁ )

2x + 2 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 Exercises 63–68: Solve the three-part inequality. Write

the solution set in interval notation.
54. Use the following figure to solve each equation or 63. - 4 6 x + 1 6 6 64. 20 … 2 x + 4 … 60
inequality. (-5, 5) [8, 28]
(a) y1 = y2 -4 (b) y2 = y3 2 65. - 3 6 4 - 13 x 6 7 66. 2 … 12 x - 2 … 12
(c) y1 … y2 … y3 [-4, 2] (d) y2 6 y3 (- ⬁ , 2) (-9, 21) [8, 28]
4 - 5x
67. - 3 … - 2 6 3 1 - 115, 75 4
y 3
2x - 6
y2
68. 30 … - 4 6 50 [88, 138)
150 5
100
y3 SECTION 8.4
x
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 Exercises 69 and 70: Write the domain and the range of
the function.
y1
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

-150 69. f (t) = 12t 2 70. f (x) = 0 x + 2 0

D = (- ⬁ , ⬁ ); R = [0, ⬁ ) D = (- ⬁ , ⬁ ); R = [0, ⬁ )

55. The graphs of y1 and y2 are shown at the top of the x + 1

71. Write the domain of f (x) = 2x - 8.
next column. Solve each equation or inequality. (- ⬁ , 4) h (4, ⬁ )

72. Write the domain and range of the function shown in X Y1

᎑1 3
the graph. D = [-3, 1]; R = [-3, 6] 0
1
2
1
2 0
y 3 1
4 2
5 3
Y 1 ⫽abs ( 2⫺X )
6
4
90. Use the graph of y = 兩 2 x + 2 兩 to solve each equa-
tion or inequality.
2
(a) 兩 2 x + 2 兩 = 4 -3, 1 (b) 兩 2 x + 2 兩 … 4 [-3, 1]
x
–3 –2 1 2 3 (c) 兩 2 x + 2 兩 Ú 4 (- ⬁ , -3] h [1, ⬁ )
y

Exercises 73–76: Determine whether f (x) represents a 5

polynomial function. If possible, identify the degree and
type of polynomial function. 3
2
73. f (x) = 1 + 2x - 3x 2 Yes; 2; quadratic y = |2x + 2|

x
74. f (x) = 5 + 7x Yes; 1; linear –4 –3 –2 –1
–1
1 2

75. f (x) = x 3 + 2x 76. f (x) = 0 2x - 1 0

Yes; 3; cubic No Exercises 91–96: Solve the absolute value equation.

Exercises 77 and 78: If possible, evaluate g(t) for the 91. 兩 x 兩 = 22 -22, 22 92. 兩 2 x - 9 兩 = 7 1, 8
given values of t. 93. @ 4 - 12 x @ = 17 94. 13 @ 3x - 1 @ + 1 = 9
77. g(t) = 0 1 - 4t 0 t = 3, t = - 14 11; 2 -26, 42 - 23 25
3, 3
4 95. 兩 2 x - 5 兩 = 兩 5 - 3x 兩 0, 2
78. g(t) = t = 3, t = - 2 - 45 ; undefined
4 - t2 96. 兩 - 3 + 3x 兩 = 兩 - 2x + 6 兩 -3, 95

Exercises 79–82: Graph y = f (x).* Exercises 97 and 98: Solve each absolute value equation
or inequality.
79. f (x) = 0 x + 3 0 80. f (x) = x 2 + 1
1 97. (a) 兩 x + 1 兩 = 7 -8, 6 (b) 兩 x + 1 兩 … 7 [-8, 6]
81. f (x) = 82. f (x) = - 3x
x (c) 兩 x + 1 兩 Ú 7 (- ⬁ , -8] h [6, ⬁ )
83. Use f (x) = 2x 2 - 3x and g(x) = 2x - 3 to find
each of the following. 98. (a) 兩 1 - 2 x 兩 = 6 - 52, 72 (b) 兩 1 - 2 x 兩 … 6 3 - 52, 72 4
(a) ( f + g)(3) 12 (b) ( fg)(3) 27 (c) 兩 1 - 2 x 兩 Ú 6 1- ⬁ , - 52 4 h 3 72, ⬁2
84. Use f (x) = x 2 - 1 and g(x) = x - 1 to find each Exercises 99–106: Solve the absolute value inequality.
of the following.
(a) ( f - g)(x) x 2 - x (b) ( f>g)(x) x + 1 99. 兩 x 兩 7 3 100. 兩 - 5x 兩 6 20 (-4, 4)
(- ⬁ , -3) h (3, ⬁ )

101. 兩 4 x - 2 兩 … 14 102. @ 1 - 45 x @ Ú 3
SECTION 8.5 [-3, 4] 1 - ⬁ , - 52 4 h 3 5, ⬁ )
Exercises 85–88: Determine whether the given values of x 103. 兩 t - 4.5 兩 … 0.1 104. - 2 兩 13t - 5 兩 Ú - 4
are solutions to the absolute value equation or inequality. [4.4, 4.6] 3 133 , 137 4
85. 兩 12 x - 24 兩 = 24 x = - 3; x = 2 No, no 105. 兩 5 - 4x 兩 7 - 5 106. 兩 2t - 3 兩 … 0 3
2
(- ⬁ , ⬁ )
86. 兩 5 - 3x 兩 7 3 x = 43; x = 0 No, yes
Exercises 107 and 108: Solve the inequality graphically.
87. 兩 3x - 6 兩 … 6 x = - 3; x = 4 No, yes 107. 兩 2x 兩 Ú 3 108. @ 12 x - 1 @ … 2
(- ⬁ , -1.5] h [1.5, ⬁ ) [-2, 6]
x = - 3; x = 23 No, yes
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

88. 兩 2 + 3x 兩 + 4 6 11
Exercises 109 and 110: Write each compound inequality
89. Use the table at the top of the next column to solve
as an absolute value inequality.
each equation or inequality.
(a) y1 = 2 (b) y1 6 2 (c) y1 7 2 109. - 0.05 … x … 0.05 0 x 0 … 0.05
(a) 0, 4 (b) (0, 4) (c) (- ⬁ , 0) h (4, ⬁ )

110. 5x - 1 6 - 4 or 5x - 1 7 4 0 5x - 1 0 7 4 ⬚C - 40 0 15 35 100

APPLICATIONS ⬚F - 40 32 59 95 212

111. Age at First Marriage The median age at the first

marriage for men from 1890 to 1960 can be mod- (a) Plot the data. Let the x-axis correspond to the
eled by f (x) = - 0.0492x + 119.1, where x is the Celsius temperature and the y-axis correspond
year. (Source: National Center of Health Statistics.) to the Fahrenheit temperature. What type of
(a) Find the median age in 1910. About 25.1 relation exists between the data?* Linear
(b) Graph f in [1885, 1965, 10] by [22, 26, 1]. What (b) Find f (x) = mx + b so that f receives the
happened to the median age?* Decreased Celsius temperature x as input and outputs the
(c) What is the slope of the graph of f ? Interpret the corresponding Fahrenheit temperature. Interpret
slope as a rate of change. the slope of the graph of f. *
-0.0492; the median age decreased by about 0.0492 year per year. (c) If the temperature is 20⬚ C, what is the equiva-
112. Marriages From 2002 to 2008 the number of U.S. lent temperature in degrees Fahrenheit? 68⬚ F
marriages in millions could be modeled by the
formula f (x) = 2.2, where x is the year. 2.2 million 117. Distance Between Bicyclists The following graph
(a) Estimate the number of marriages in 2006. shows the distance between two bicyclists traveling
(b) What information does f give about the number toward each other along a straight road after x hours.
of marriages from 2002 to 2008? (a) After how long did the bicycle riders meet? 3 hr
The number of marriages each year did not change. (b) When were they 20 miles apart? 2 hr and 4 hr
113. Fat Grams A cup of milk contains 8 grams of fat. (c) Find the times when they were less than 20 miles
(a) Give a formula for f (x) that calculates the num- apart. Between 2 and 4 hr, exclusive
ber of fat grams in x cups of milk. f (x) = 8x (d) Estimate the sum of the speeds of the bicyclists.
(b) What is the slope of the graph of f ? 8 20 mph
(c) Interpret the slope as a rate of change. y
The total fat increases at a rate of 8 g per cup.
70
114. Birth Rate The U.S. birth rate per 1000 people for
60
selected years is shown in the table. Distance (miles)
50
40
Year 1950 1970 1990 2010
30
Birth Rate 24.1 18.4 16.7 13.5 20

Source: U.S. Census Bureau. 10

x
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
(a) Make a scatterplot of the data.*
Time (hours)
(b) Model the data with f (x) = mx + b, where x is
the year. Answers may vary. f (x) = -0.1675x + 350
118. Violent Crimes in the U.S. The number of violent
(c) Use f to estimate the birth rate in 2000.
About 15 per 1000 people (answers may vary) crimes reported has dropped from 10 million in
115. Unhealthy Air Quality The Environmental Pro- 1992 to 5 million in 2008.
tection Agency (EPA) monitors air quality in U.S. (a) Find a linear function f (x) = mx + b that models
cities. The function f gives the annual number of the data x years after 1992. f (x) = -0.3125x + 10
days with unhealthy air quality in Los Angeles, (b) Use f (x) to estimate the number of violent
California, for selected years. crimes in 2005. About 5.9 million
119. Average Precipitation The average rainfall in
x 1995 1999 2000 2003 2007 Houston, Texas, is 3.9 inches per month. Each
month’s average A is within 1.7 inches of 3.9 inches.
f (x) 113 56 87 88 100 (Source: J. Williams, The Weather Almanac 1995.)

Source: Environmental Protection Agency.

(a) Write an absolute value inequality that models
this situation. 兩 A - 3.9 兩 … 1.7
(a) Find f (1995) and interpret your result.* (b) Solve the inequality. 2.2 … A … 5.6
(b) Identify the domain and range of f.*
120. Relative Error If a quantity is measured to be T and
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

(c) Discuss the trend of air pollution in Los Angeles.

It decreased and then increased. the actual value is A, then the relative error in this
116. Temperature Scales The table at the top of the next measurement is @ T -A A @ . If A = 35 and the relative
column shows equivalent temperatures in degrees error is to be less than 0.08 (8%), what values for T
Celsius and degrees Fahrenheit. are possible? Values between 32.2 and 37.8, exclusive

Step-by-step test solutions are found on the Chapter Test Prep Videos available via the Video Resources
CHAPTER 8 Test on DVD, in , and on (search “RockswoldComboAlg” and click on “Channels”).

1. Evaluate f (4) if f (x) = 3x 2 - 1x. Give a point on x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

the graph of f. 46; (4, 46)
- 3x 9 6 3 0 -3 -6 -9
2. Write a symbolic representation (formula) for a func-
tion C that calculates the cost of buying x pounds of
candy at $4 per pound. Evaluate C(5) and interpret your 11. Use the following figure to solve each equation or
result. C(x) = 4x; C(5) = 20; 5 pounds of candy costs $20. inequality. Write your answers for parts (c) and (d)
in interval notation.
3. Sketch a graph of f.* (a) y1 = y2 -5 (b) y2 = y3 5
(a) f (x) = - 2 x + 1 (b) f (x) = x 2 + 1 (c) y1 … y2 … y3 [-5, 5] (d) y2 6 y3 (- ⬁ , 5)
(c) f (x) = 2x + 3 (d) f (x) = 兩 x + 1 兩
y
4. Use the graph of f to evaluate f ( - 3) and f (0). Deter-
mine the domain and range of f. 0; -3
300
y D: -3 … x … 3;
R: -3 … y … 0 y3 200

3 x
-6 -4 4 6
2 -100
1 y2
x y1
-2 -1 1 2
-1
-2
12. Solve - 2 6 2 + 12 x 6 2 and write the solution set
in interval notation. (-8, 0)
5. A function f is represented verbally by “Square the
input x and then subtract 5.” Give symbolic, numerical, 13. Solve the equation 兩 2 - 13 x 兩 = 6. -12, 24
and graphical representations of f. Let x = - 3, - 2, 14. Solve each inequality. Write your answer in interval
- 1, p , 3 in the numerical representation (table) and notation.
let - 3 … x … 3 for the graph. f (x) = x 2 - 5; * (a) 兩 x 兩 … 5 [-5, 5] (b) 兩 x 兩 7 0
(- ⬁ , 0) h (0, ⬁ )
6. Determine whether the graph represents a function. 15. Determine whether f (x) = 1 - 2x + x 3 repre-
Explain your reasoning. No, it fails the vertical line test. sents a polynomial function. If possible, identify the
y degree and type of polynomial function. Yes; 3; cubic
16. Evaluate h(t) = - 5 4t- t at t = - 2. Write the
2 domain of h in interval notation. 87; (- ⬁ , 5) h (5, ⬁ )
1
x 17. Let f (x) = x 2 + 1 and g(x) = 2x. Find each of the
-3 -1 1 3 following.
-1
-2 (a) ( f - g)( - 2) 9 (b) ( f g)(x) 2x 3 + 2x
18. Drinking Fluids and Exercise To determine the
7. Find the domain of function f. (a) D = { -2, -1, 0, 5} number of ounces of fluid that a person should
(a) f = {( - 2, 3), ( - 1, 5), (0, 3), (5, 7)} drink in a day, divide his or her weight in pounds
(b) f(x) = 34x - 5 All real numbers by 2 and then add 0.4 ounce for every minute of
(c) f(x) = 1x + 4 x Ú -4 exercise.
(d) f (x) = 2 x 2 - 1 All real numbers (a) Write a function that gives the fluid require-
(e) f (x) = 5 3x
- x x ⬆ 5
ments for a person weighing 150 pounds and
exercising x minutes a day. f (x) = 0.4 x + 75
8. Determine if f (x) = 6 - 8x is a linear function. If it
(b) If a 150-pound runner needs 89 ounces of fluid
is, write it in the form f (x) = mx + b.
Yes; f (x) = -8x + 6 each day, determine the runner’s daily minutes
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

9. Graph the solution set to 2 x + 6 6 2 and - 3x Ú 3 of exercise. 35 min

on a number line.* 19. Heart Rate of an Athlete The table at the top of the
10. Use the table at the top of the next column to solve next page lists the heart rate or pulse of an athlete
the compound inequality - 3x 6 - 3 or - 3x 7 6. running a 400-meter race. The race lasts 50 seconds.
Use interval notation. (- ⬁ , -2) h (1, ⬁ )

Time(seconds) 0 20 30 50 are arriving at the lot randomly at an average rate of x

vehicles per minute. Then the average time T in min-
Heart Rate (bpm) 100 134 150 180 utes spent waiting in line and paying the attendant is
Yes; P(0) = 100, P(20) = 134, P(30) = 150, and P(50) = 180 given by
(a) Does P(t) = - 300 1 2
t + 5330 t + 100 modelthe 1
data in the table exactly? Explain. T(x) = ,
25 - x
(b) Does P(60) have significance in this situation?
where x 6 25. (Source: N. Garber.)
What should be the domain of P? Probably not
because the race is over in 50 sec; [0, 50].
(a) Graph T in [0, 25, 5] by [0, 2, 0.5]. Identify any
vertical asymptotes.* x = 25
20. Time Spent in Line Suppose that parking lot atten- (b) If the wait is 1 minute, how many vehicles are
dants can wait on 25 vehicles per minute and vehicles arriving on average? 24 vehicles/min

CHAPTER 8 Extended and Discovery Exercises

1. Developing a Model Two identical cylindrical tanks, (a) Estimate the weight of the fish when it hatches,
A and B, each contain 100 gallons of water. Tank at 6 weeks, and at 12 weeks.*
A has a pump that begins removing water at a con- (b) If (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) are points on the graph
stant rate of 8 gallons per minute. Tank B has a plug of a function, the average rate of change of f
y2 - y1
removed from its bottom and water begins to flow from x1 to x2 is given by x2 - x1. Approximate
out—faster at first and then more slowly. the average rates of change of f from hatching to
(a) Assuming that the tanks become empty at the 6 weeks and from 6 weeks to 12 weeks.*
same time, sketch a graph that models the amount (c) Interpret these rates of change.*
of water in each tank. Explain your graphs.* (d) During which time period does the fish gain
(b) Which tank is half empty first? Explain.* weight the fastest? The first 6 weeks
2. Modeling Real Data Per capita personal incomes in 4. Recording Music A compact disc (CD) can hold
the United States are listed in the following table. approximately 700 million bytes. One million bytes is
commonly referred to as a megabyte (MB). Recording
Year 2002 2003 2004
music requires an enormous amount of memory. The
Income $31,461 $32,271 $33,881 accompanying table lists the megabytes x needed to
record y seconds (sec) of music.
Year 2005 2006 2007
Income $35,424 $37,698 $39,458
x (MB) 0.129 0.231 0.415 0.491
Source: Department of Commerce.
y (sec) 6.010 10.74 19.27 22.83
(a) Make a scatterplot of the data.*
(b) Find a function f that models the data. Explain
x (MB) 0.667 1.030 1.160 1.260
your reasoning.*
(c) Use f to estimate per capita income in 2000. y (sec) 31.00 49.00 55.25 60.18
About $26,880 (answers may vary slightly)
3. Weight of a Small Fish The graph shows a function Source: Gateway 2000 System CD.

f that models the weight in milligrams of a small fish,

Lebistes reticulatus, during the first 14 weeks of its (a) Make a scatterplot of the data.*
life. (Source: D. Brown and P. Rothery, Models in Biology.) (b) What relationship seems to exist between x and y?
y Why does this relationship seem reasonable?*
200
(c) Find the slope–intercept form of a line that mod-
175 els the data. Interpret the slope of this line as a
Weight (milligrams)

150 rate of change. Answers may vary.*

125 (d) Check your answer in part (c) by graphing the
100 line and data in the same graph.*
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

75
(e) Write a linear equation whose solution gives
50
the megabytes needed to record 120 seconds of
25
x music. 47.9x - 0.1691 = 120
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
(f) Solve the equation in part (e) graphically or sym-
Time (weeks) bolically. About 2.5 MB
Beginning and Intermediate Algebra with Applications & Visualization, Third edition, by Gary K. Rockswold and Terry A. Krieger. Published by Addison Wesley.
Copyright © 2013 by Pearson Education, Inc.
588 CHAPTER 8 INTRODUCTION TO FUNCTIONS

CHAPTERS 1–8 Cumulative Review Exercises

1. Write 120 as a product of prime numbers. 24. (x - 4y)2 x 2 - 8xy + 16y 2
23 # 3 # 5
2. Translate the sentence “Triple a number decreased by 25. Write 2.5 * 104 in standard form. 25,000
4 equals the number” into an equation using the vari-
able n. Solve the equation. 3n - 4 = n; 2 26. Write 0.028 in scientific notation. 2.8 ⫻ 10⫺2

Exercises 3 and 4: Simplify completely. Exercises 27 and 28: Divide.

3. 14 , 34 - 12 - 16 4. 12 - 32 , 3 # 2 6 27.
6x 3 - 4x 2 + 8x 2
3x - 2x + 4
2x
5. Solve - 3(3 - x) - 6 = 2x. 15 28. (3x 3 + 2x 2 + 1) , (x - 1) 3x 2 + 5x + 5 + 6
x - 1
6. Convert 0.075 to a percentage. 7.5%
Exercises 29–34: Factor completely.
7. Solve A = 13(2a - b) for a. a = 3A + b
2
29. 10x 2y 3 - 15x 3y 2 30. x 3 + 3x 2 - x - 3
5x 2y 2(2y - 3x) (x - 1)(x + 1)(x + 3)
8. Solve 5 - 3t 6 1 - t. Write the solution set in set-
31. 2z 2 + z - 3 32. 16x 2 - 25
builder notation. {t 0 t > 2} (z - 1)(2z + 3) (4x - 5)(4x + 5)
33. a 3 - 8 34. z 42 + 7z 22 + 6
Exercises 9 and 10: Graph the equation.* (a - 2)(a 2 + 2a + 4) (z + 1)(z + 6)

9. 3x - 2y = - 6 10. y = 0 2x - 4 0 Exercises 35–38: Solve the equation.

11. Write the slope–intercept form of a line that passes 35. x(x + 5) = 0 ⫺5, 0 36. 4x 2 = 0 0
through the points (⫺4, 4) and (2, 1). y = - 12x + 2
37. 2x 2 + 5x = 3 -3, 12 38. x 3 = x ⫺1, 0, 1
12. Solve the system of equations. Write your answer as
39. Simplify x +x +4x 2+ 4 to lowest terms. x ⫹ 2
2
an ordered pair.
40. If possible, evaluate xx -+ 11 for x = - 2 and x = 1.
2
2x + 3y = 5
5
- 3; undefined
3x - 2y = 1 (1, 1)
Exercises 41 and 42: Simplify to lowest terms.
Exercises 13 and 14: Shade the solution set for the given x 2 - 3x + 2 x - 1
inequality.* 41. , 2x ⫺ 4
x + 2 2x + 4
13. x Ú - 1 14. x - y Ú 2 1 2 3x + 7
42. +
x + 3 x + 1 (x + 1)(x + 3)
15. Shade the solution set for the system of inequalities.*
x - y Ú 1 43. Solve xx +- 21 = 23. ⫺8
2x + y … 0 44. Suppose that y is directly proportional to x and that
y ⫽ 5 when x ⫽ 10. Find y when x ⫽ 20. 10
16. Simplify (3x 2 + 2x - 4) - (4x 2 + 5). -x 2 + 2x - 9
45. Evaluate f (x) = x 2 - 4x for x ⫽ ⫺2. 12
Exercises 17–20: Simplify and use positive exponents.
x -4 46. Graph f (x) = x 2 - 2 and identify the domain and
17. -3 1x 18. (3b -3)(2b 4) 6b range of f. Write your answer in interval notation.*
x D: (- ⬁ , ⬁ ); R: [-2, ⬁ )
2x 3 -2 1 47. Solve x - 2 6 3 or x - 2 7 6. Write your answer
19. 3(2t)3 24t3 20. a 2 -1 b 4x 2y 2 in interval notation. (- ⬁ , 5) h (8, ⬁ )
x y
48. Solve 0 2x - 4 0 = 6. ⫺1, 5
Exercises 21–24: Multiply the expression.
21. 2x 2(x 3 - 4x 2 - 5) 2x 5 - 8x 4 - 10x 2 49. Solve 0 2x - 4 0 … 6. Write your answer in interval
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

notation. [⫺1, 5]
22. (5x + 1)(2x - 7) 10x 2 - 33x - 7
50. Solve 0 x - 4 0 7 2. Write your answer in interval
23. (y - 3)(y + 3) y 2 - 9 notation. (- ⬁ , 2) h (6, ⬁ )

APPLICATIONS 54. Height of a Building An 8-foot-tall stop sign casts a

51. Modeling Motion The table lists distance d in miles 5-foot-long shadow, while a nearby building casts a
traveled by a car for various elapsed times t in hours. 65-foot-long shadow. Find the height of the building.
104 feet
Find an equation that models these data.
55. Shoveling the Driveway Two people are shovel-
ing snow from a driveway. The first person shovels
t (hours) 2 3 4 6
9 square feet per minute, while the second person
d (miles) 144 216 288 432 d = 72t shovels 11 square feet per minute.
(a) Write a simplified expression that gives the total
52. Rainfall At noon 2 inches of rain had fallen. For the number of square feet the two people can shovel
next 6 hours rain fell at 14 inch per hour. in x minutes. 20x
(a) Find an equation in the form y ⫽ mx ⫹ b that (b) How many minutes would it take for them to
calculates the number of inches of rain that fell clear a driveway with 1000 square feet? 50 min
x hours past noon. y = 14x + 2
56. Cost of a Television A 5% sales tax on a television
(b) What is the slope of the graph of f ? 14
amounts to $82.50. Find the cost of the television.
(c) Interpret the slope as a rate of change. $1650
(d) How much rain had fallen by 4 P.M.? 3 inches
1
(c) Rain is falling at a rate of 4 inch per hour.
53. Interest A total of $5000 is deposited in two
accounts paying 5% and 7% annual interest. If total
interest received at the end of the year is $308, deter-
mine how much is invested at each interest rate.
$2100 at 5%, $2900 at 7%
ISBN 1-256-49082-2

MAT111 Lesson 11
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