Republic of the Philippines

CAVITE STATE UNIVERSITY-CCAT

Cavite College of Arts and Trades Campus
Rosario, Cavite
 (046)437-9505 /  (046)437-6659
[email protected]
www.cvsu-rosario.edu.ph

LEARNING MODULE

CALCULUS 1 – DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

(MATH 11B)

Prepared by:

MICHAEL EDWARD T. ARMINTIA, REE, RME

Lecturer, Department of Engineering

First Semester
AY: 2021–2022
 CHAPTER 2: CONTINUITY AND LIMITS

I. OBJECTIVES
After the completion of this chapter, the students will be able to:
✓ use a table of values to estimate the limit of a function;
✓ recognize the basic limit laws and use these laws to evaluate limits of a function;
✓ explain three conditions for continuity at a point;
✓ describe three kinds of discontinuities; and
✓ define continuity on an interval.

II. INTRUCTIONS TO THE LEARNERS

This learning module must be utilized as follow:
✓ Keep and use it as neat as possible.
✓ For every chapter, pre-test will be given. This will be used to assess how much does
a student already know for that chapter. Answer key will be provided with this learning
module. Answer key must only be accessed right after finishing the pre-test.
✓ Lessons under each chapter will be discussed in “Learning Activities” section.
Learning activities include discussion, assignments, and exercises. Assignments and
exercises will be done on this learning module. Submission of assignments and
exercises will be online for those who chose online class and face-to-face for those
who chose modular learning. NOTE: Submission of requirements will be scheduled at
least once a month to limit physical contact.
✓ Post-test will also be provided in each chapter. This will be used to assess if the
students really learned from different learning activities conducted. Answer key will
also be provided and must only be accessed after completing the post-test.
✓ This learning module is intended for electrical engineering students enrolled in Cavite
State University – CCAT Campus for academic year 2020-2021. Any form of
reciprocation of this learning module without the consent of the author is not allowed.
Once caught, proper sanction will be applied.
III. PRE-TEST

A. Evaluate the limit of the following functions.

1.
Solve for: Solution:
lim (4𝑥 + 2)
𝑥→−3

2.
Solve for: Solution:
2𝑥 2 −3𝑥+1
lim 𝑥 3 +4
𝑥→2

3.
Solve for: Solution:
𝑥 2 −3𝑥
lim
𝑥→3 2𝑥 2 −5𝑥−3

4.
Solve for: Solution:
√𝑥+2−1
lim 𝑥+1
𝑥→−1

5.
Solve for: Solution:
1 1
−
𝑥+1 2
lim 𝑥−1
𝑥→1
B. Determine whether the following functions are continuous at a certain point or not.

1.
Given: Is 𝒇(𝒙) Solution/Proof:
continuous
at 𝒙 = 𝟐?
YES NO

𝑥2 − 4
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥−2

2.
Given: Is 𝒇(𝒙) Solution/Proof:
continuous
at 𝒙 = 𝟑?
YES NO

−𝑥 2 + 4 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≤ 3
𝑓(𝑥) = {
4𝑥 − 8 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 3

3.
Given: Is 𝒇(𝒙) Solution/Proof:
continuous
at 𝒙 = −𝟐?
YES NO

𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≤ −2
𝑓(𝑥) = { 3
𝑥 − 6𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > −2
IV. PRE-TEST FEEDBACK

A. Evaluate the limit of the following functions.

1.
Solve for: Solution:
lim (4𝑥 + 2) lim (4𝑥 + 2) = lim 4𝑥 + lim 2
𝑥→−3 𝑥→−3 𝑥→−3 𝑥→−3

= 4 ∙ lim 𝑥 + lim 2
𝑥→−3 𝑥→−3
= 4 ∙ (−3) + 2
= −𝟏𝟎

2.
Solve for: Solution:
2𝑥 2 −3𝑥+1 2𝑥 2 −3𝑥+1 lim (2𝑥 2 −3𝑥+1)
lim 𝑥 3 +4 lim 𝑥 3 +4
= 𝑥→2lim (𝑥 3 +4)
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2
2
2∙lim 𝑥 2 −3lim 𝑥+lim 1 2∙(lim 𝑥) −3∙lim 𝑥+lim 1
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2
= = 3
lim 𝑥 3 +lim 4 (lim 𝑥) +lim 4
𝑥→2 𝑥→2
𝑥→2 𝑥→2
2(4)−3(2)+1 𝟏
= 23 +4
= 𝟒

3.
Solve for: Solution:
𝑥 2 −3𝑥 𝑥 2 −3𝑥 𝑥(𝑥−3)
lim 2𝑥 2 −5𝑥−3
lim = lim (2𝑥+1)(𝑥−3)
𝑥→3 𝑥→3 2𝑥 2 −5𝑥−3 𝑥→3

𝑥 lim 𝑥
𝑥→3
= lim =
𝑥→3 2𝑥+1 2∙lim 𝑥+lim 1
𝑥→3 𝑥→3

3 𝟑
= =
2(3)+1 𝟕

4.
Solve for: Solution:
√𝑥+2−1 √𝑥+2−1 √𝑥+2−1 √𝑥+2+1
lim 𝑥+1
lim
𝑥+1
= lim
𝑥+1
∙
√𝑥+2+1
𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1
𝑥+1 1
= lim = lim
𝑥→−1 (𝑥+1)(√𝑥+2+1) 𝑥→−1 √𝑥+2+1
lim 1 𝟏
𝑥→−1
= =
lim 𝑥+ lim 2+ lim 1 𝟐
√𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1

5.
Solve for: Solution:
1 1 1 1 2−(𝑥+1)
− − 2(𝑥+1) 2−(𝑥+1) 2−𝑥−1
𝑥+1 2
lim 𝑥−1
lim 𝑥+1 2
𝑥−1
= lim
𝑥−1
= lim = lim
𝑥→1 𝑥→1 𝑥→1 𝑥→1 2(𝑥−1)(𝑥+1) 𝑥→1 2(𝑥−1)(𝑥+1)
−𝑥+1 −(𝑥−1) −1
= lim = lim = lim
𝑥→1 2(𝑥−1)(𝑥+1) 𝑥→1 2(𝑥−1)(𝑥+1) 𝑥→1 2(𝑥+1)
−( lim 1) −1 𝟏
𝑥→1
= = =−
2∙( lim 𝑥+lim 1) 2(1+1) 𝟒
𝑥→1 𝑥→1
B. Determine whether the following functions are continuous at a certain point or not.

1.
Given: Is 𝒇(𝒙) Solution/Proof:
continuous For a function to be continuous at a point, it
at 𝒙 = 𝟐? must satisfy three conditions. One of those is
YES NO that 𝑓(𝑎) is defined.

𝑥 2 −4
Evaluate 𝑓(𝑥) = at 𝑥 = 2
𝑥−2

𝑥2 − 4 𝑥 2 − 4 (2)2 − 4 0
𝑓(𝑥) = ✓ 𝑓(2) = = = = undefined
𝑥−2 𝑥−2 2−2 0

2.
Given: Is 𝒇(𝒙) Solution/Proof:
continuous Beside from 𝑓(𝑎) being defined,
at 𝒙 = 𝟑? another condition is that lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎
YES NO exists.

If 𝑥 = 3, then 𝑓(3) = −(3)2 + 4 = −5

∴ 𝑓(3) is defined
To know if lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists, check if the
𝑥→𝑎
right-hand limit and left-hand limit are
−𝑥 2 + 4 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≤ 3 the same.
𝑓(𝑥) = { ✓
4𝑥 − 8 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 3 lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = −(3)2 + 4 = −5
𝑥→3
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 4(3) − 8 = 4
𝑥→3+
lim 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ lim+ 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→3− 𝑥→3
∴ lim 𝑓(𝑥) 𝐷𝑁𝐸
𝑥→3

3.
Given: Is 𝒇(𝒙) Solution/Proof:
continuous Beside from 𝑓(𝑎) being defined,
at 𝒙 = −𝟐? another condition is that lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎
YES NO exists.

If 𝑥 = −2, then
𝑓(−2) = (−2)2 + 2(−2) = 0
∴ 𝑓(−2) is defined

To know if lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists, check if the

𝑥→𝑎
𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≤ −2 right-hand limit and left-hand limit are
𝑓(𝑥) = { 3 ✓
𝑥 − 6𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > −2 the same.
lim − 𝑓(𝑥) = (−2)2 + 2(−2) = 0
𝑥→−2
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = (−2)3 − 6(−2) = 4
𝑥→−2+
lim ≠ lim +
𝑥→−2− 𝑥→−2
∴ lim 𝑓(𝑥) 𝐷𝑁𝐸
𝑥→−2
V. LEARNING ACTIVITIES

A. Discussion
B. Exercises
C. Assignment

A. DISCUSSION

1) Key Terms
2) Preview on Calculus
3) The Limit of a Function
4) The Limit Laws
5) Continuity

1) Key Terms

▪ Continuity at a point – a function 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous at a point 𝑎 if and only if three

following conditions are satisfied: (1) 𝑓(𝑎) is defined, (2) lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists, and (3)
𝑥→𝑎
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑥→𝑎
▪ Continuity over an interval – a function that can be traced with a pencil without lifting
the pencil
▪ Infinite limit – a function has an infinite limit at point 𝑎 if it either increase or decrease
without bound as it approaches 𝑎.
▪ Limit – the process of letting 𝑥 to approach 𝑎 in an expression; the limit of a function
𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎 is the value that 𝑓(𝑥) approaches as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎
▪ Limit laws - the individual properties of limits
▪ One-sided limit – a limit taken from either left or right
▪ Vertical asymptote - function has a vertical asymptote at 𝑥 = 𝑎 if the limit as 𝑥
approaches 𝑎 from the right or left is infinite

2) Preview on Calculus
• Two key problems led to the initial formulation of calculus: (1) tangent problem, or
how to determine the slope of a line tangent to a curve at a point; and (2) the area
problem, or how to determine the area under a curve.
• Rate of change is one of the most critical concepts in calculus. In linear function, the
rate of change is constant.

Figure 2.1 The rate of change of linear function is constant in

each of these graphs, with the constant determined by the slope.
• From Figure 2.1, as we move from left to right along the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = −2𝑥 − 3,
we see that the graph decreases at a constant rate. For every one unit we move to
the right along the x-axis, the y-coordinate decreases by two units. This rate of
change is determined by the slope (−2) of the line. Same behaviour can be
𝑥
observed with the function 𝑔(𝑥) = + 1. On the other hand, function ℎ(𝑥) = 2 has a
2
slope of zero, indicating that the values of the function remain constant.
• Unlike linear functions, no single number represents the rate of change for nonlinear
function.

Figure 2.2 The function 𝑘(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 does

not have a constant rate of change.

• In measuring the rate of change of nonlinear function, we can approximate the rate
of change of a function 𝑓(𝑥) at a point (𝑎, 𝑓(𝑎)) on its graph by taking another point
(𝑥, 𝑓(𝑥)) on the graph of 𝑓(𝑥), drawing a line through the two points, and calculating
the slope of the resulting line. Such a line is called a secant line.

Figure 2.3 The slope of a secant line through a point (𝑎, 𝑓(𝑎))
estimates the rate of change of the function at the point (𝑎, 𝑓(𝑎)).

• The accuracy of approximating the rate of change of the function with a secant line
depends on how close 𝑥 is to 𝑎.

Figure 2.4 As 𝑥 gets closer to 𝑎, the slope of the secant

line becomes a better approximation to the rate of
change of the function 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑎.
 • The secant lines themselves approach a line that is called the tangent to the
function 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑎. The slope of the tangent line to the graph 𝑎 measures the rate of
change of the function at 𝑎. This value also represents the derivative of the function
𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑎, or the rate of change of the function at 𝑎. This derivative is denoted by
𝑓 ′ (𝑎).

Figure 2.5 As 𝑥 approaches 𝑎, the secant lines

approach the tangent line.

• This process of letting 𝑥 to approach 𝑎 in an expression is called taking the limit.

• In determining the area under the curve, another key problem that led to the initial
formulation of calculus, we approximate the area by dividing up the interval [𝑎, 𝑏]
into smaller intervals in the shape of rectangles.

Figure 2.6 The area of the region under the curve is

approximated by summing the areas of thin rectangles.

• As the widths of the rectangles become smaller (approach zero), the sums of the
areas of the rectangles approach the area between the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) an the x-axis
over the interval [𝑎, 𝑏]. This shows the process of taking limits. Limits of this type
serves as a basis for the definition of the definite integral.

3) Limit of a Function
• The concept of a limit or limiting process, essential to the understanding of calculus,
has been around for thousands of years.

Figure 2.7 These graphs show the behaviour of the three different
functions around 𝑥 = 2.
• From Figure 2.7(a), as the values of 𝑥 approaches 2 form either side of 2, the
values of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) approach 4. Mathematically, we say that the limit of 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥
approaches 2 is 4. Symbolically, we express the limit as:
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 4
𝑥→2
• We can think of the limit of a function at a number 𝑎 as being one real number 𝐿 that
the functional values approach as x-values approach 𝑎, provided such a real
number 𝐿 exists.

• Let 𝑓(𝑥) be a function defined at all values in an open interval containing 𝑎, with the
possible exception of 𝑎 itself, and let 𝐿 be a real number. If all the values of the
function 𝑓(𝑥) approach the real number 𝐿 as the values of 𝑥(≠ 𝑎) approach the
number 𝑎, then we say that the limit of 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎 is 𝐿. In other words,
as 𝑥 gets closer to 𝑎, 𝑓(𝑥) gets closer and stays close to 𝐿. Symbolically, we
express this idea as:

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑎
• Limits can be estimated by constructing tables of functional values. For example, to
evaluate lim 𝑓(𝑥), two sets of values must be chosen: one set of values
𝑥→𝑎
approaching 𝑎 and less than 𝑎, and another set of values approaching 𝑎 and greater
than 𝑎.

Table 2.1 Table of functional values for lim 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥→𝑎

• After setting the table of functional values, observe the values in each 𝑓(𝑥) column
and determine whether the values seem to be approaching a single value as we
move down each column. If both columns approach a common y-value 𝐿, we state
that:
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑎
Example 2.1:
sin 𝑥
Evaluate the lim
𝑥→0 𝑥

sin 𝑥
Table 2.2 Table of functional values for lim
𝑥→0 𝑥
 sin 𝑥
Observe that as we read down each column, the values in each column appear
𝑥
sin 𝑥
to be approaching one. Therefore, lim = 1. This can also be proven by
𝑥→0 𝑥
sin 𝑥
analysing the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = .
𝑥

sin 𝑥
Figure 2.8 The graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = .confirms the estimate at Table 2.2
𝑥

• Keep in mind that for a limit of a function to exist at a point, the functional values
must approach a single-real number value at that point. If the functional values do
not approach a single value, then the limit does not exist.

Example 2.2:
1
Evaluate the lim sin ( )
𝑥→0 𝑥

1
Table 2.3 Table of functional values for lim sin ( )
𝑥→0 𝑥

1
Observe that as we read down each sin ( ) column, the values do not seem to
𝑥
1
approach a single value. It can be concluded that lim sin ( ) does not exist or
𝑥→0 𝑥
1
lim sin ( ) DNE. Visualizing this example through Figure 2.9 will show that as 𝑥
𝑥→0 𝑥
approaches 0, the graph of the function oscillates rapidly.

1
Figure 2.9 The graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = sin ( ).shows rapid
𝑥
oscillation as 𝑥 approaches 0.
• Sometimes, indicating that the limit of a function fails to exist at a point does not
provide us with enough information about the behaviour of the function at that
particular point.

Example 2.3:
|𝑥−2|
From Figure 2.7 (b), review the graph of the function 𝑔(𝑥) = . Observe that as
𝑥−2
𝑥 approaches 2, 𝑔(𝑥) does not approach a single value and it can be concluded
that limit of 𝑔(𝑥) as 𝑥 approaches 2 does not exist or lim𝑔(𝑥) DNE.However, this
𝑥→2
statement does not give a complete picture of the behaviour of the function around
the x-value. In this regard, the concept of one-sided limit will be considered.

• From Example 2.3, for all values to the left, 𝑔(𝑥) = −1. Thus, as 𝑥 approaches 2
from the left, 𝑔(𝑥) approaches -1. Mathematically, the limit of 𝑔(𝑥) as 𝑥 approaches
2 form the left is -1. Symbolically, this idea is expressed as

lim 𝑔(𝑥) = −1
𝑥→2−

• Similarly, as 𝑥 approaches 2 from the right (from the positive side of xy-plane), 𝑔(𝑥)
approaches 1. Symbolically, this idea is expressed as:

lim 𝑔(𝑥) = −1
𝑥→2+

• From previous example, there are two types of one-sided limits: (1) Limit from the
left; and (2) Limit form the right.

• Limit from the left: Let 𝑓(𝑥) be a function defined at all values in an open interval
of the form (𝑐, 𝑎), and let 𝐿 be a real number. If the values of the function 𝑓(𝑥)
approach the real number 𝐿 as the values of 𝑥 (where 𝑥 < 𝑎) approach number
𝑎, then we say that 𝐿 is the limit of 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎 form the left.
Symbolically, this idea is expressed as:

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑎 −

• Limit from the right: Let 𝑓(𝑥) be a function defined at all values in an open interval
of the form (𝑎, 𝑐), and let 𝐿 be a real number. If the values of the function 𝑓(𝑥)
approach the real number 𝐿 as the values of 𝑥 (where 𝑥 > 𝑎) approach number
𝑎, then we say that 𝐿 is the limit of 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎 form the right.
Symbolically, this idea is expressed as:

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑎 +

Example 2.4:

𝑥 + 1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 2
For the function (𝑥) = { 2 , evaluate each of the following limits.
𝑥 − 4 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 2
a) lim− 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→2
b) lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→2+
 Construct a table of functional values for the given function.

𝑥 + 1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 2
Table 2.4 Table of functional values for 𝑓(𝑥) = {
𝑥 2 − 4 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 2

From Table 2.4, observe that for values of 𝑥 less than 2, function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1
was used. On the other hand, for values of 𝑥 greater than (or equal) 2, the function
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 4 was used. It can be concluded that:

a) lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 3
𝑥→2−
b) lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 0
𝑥→2+

In addition, the limit (two-sided) of 𝑓(𝑥) does not exist at 2. These conclusions can
be observed from Figure 2.10.

𝑥 + 1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 2
Figure 2.10 The graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = { shows break at 𝑥 = 2.
𝑥 2 − 4 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 2

• Considering the relationship between the limit of a function at point and the limits
from the right and left at that point, it seems clear that if the limit from the right and
the limit from the left have a common value, then that common value is the limit of
the function at that point. Similarly, if the limit form the right and the limit from the left
take on different values, the limit of the function does not exist.

• Let 𝑓(𝑥) be a function defined at all values in open interval containing 𝑎, with the
possible exception of 𝑎 itself, and let 𝐿 be a real number, then:

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 if and only if lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 and lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
• Behaviour of functions that do not have finite limits can also be described.
1
Reviewing Figure 2.7 (c), it can be observed that the function ℎ(𝑥) = (𝑥−2)2 shows
different behaviour from previous examples. From its graph, as 𝑥 approaches 2, the
values of ℎ(𝑥) become larger and larger and in fact, become infinite.
Mathematically, the limit of ℎ(𝑥)as 𝑥 approaches 2 is positive infinity. Symbolically,
this idea is expressed as:
lim ℎ(𝑥) = +∞
𝑥→2

• There are three types of infinite limits: (1) infinite limits from the left; (2) infinite
limits from the right; and (3) two-sided infinite limits.

• Infinite limit form the left: Let 𝑓(𝑥) be a function defined at all values in an open
interval of the form (𝑏, 𝑎).
i. If the values of 𝑓(𝑥) increase without bound as the values of 𝑥 (where 𝑥 < 𝑎)
approach the number 𝑎, then the limit as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎 from the left is
positive infinity:
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = +∞
𝑥→𝑎 −
ii. If the values of 𝑓(𝑥) decrease without bound as the values of 𝑥 (where 𝑥 < 𝑎)
approach the number 𝑎, then the limits as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎 from the left is
negative infinity:
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞
𝑥→𝑎 −

• Infinite limit form the right: Let 𝑓(𝑥) be a function defined at all values in an open
interval of the form (𝑎, 𝑐).
i. If the values of 𝑓(𝑥) increase without bound as the values of 𝑥 (where 𝑥 > 𝑎)
approach the number 𝑎, then the limit as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎 from the right is
positive infinity:
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = +∞
𝑥→𝑎 +
ii. If the values of 𝑓(𝑥) decrease without bound as the values of 𝑥 (where 𝑥 > 𝑎)
approach the number 𝑎, then the limits as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎 from the right is
negative infinity:
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞
𝑥→𝑎 +

• Two-sided infinite limit: Let 𝑓(𝑥) be defined for all 𝑥 ≠ 𝑎 in an open interval
containing 𝑎.
i. If the values of 𝑓(𝑥) increase without bound as the values of 𝑥 (where 𝑥 ≠ 𝑎)
approach the number 𝑎, then the limit as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎 is positive infinity:
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = +∞
𝑥→𝑎
ii. If the values of 𝑓(𝑥) decrease without bound as the values of 𝑥 (where 𝑥 ≠ 𝑎)
approach the number 𝑎, then the limits as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎 is negative infinity:
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞
𝑥→𝑎

• It is important to understand that when we write statements such as lim 𝑓(𝑥) = +∞

𝑥→𝑎
or lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞, we are describing the behaviour of the function and not asserting
𝑥→𝑎
that a limit exists. For the limit of a function 𝑓(𝑥) to exist at 𝑎, it must approach a
real number 𝐿 as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎. That said, if, for example, lim 𝑓(𝑥) = +∞, we
𝑥→𝑎
always write lim 𝑓(𝑥) = +∞ rather than lim 𝑓(𝑥) 𝐷𝑁𝐸.
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

Example 2.5:
Evaluate each of the following limits, if possible.
1
a) lim−
𝑥→0 𝑥
1
b) lim+
𝑥→0 𝑥
1
c) lim
𝑥→0 𝑥

Construct a table of functional values.

1
Table 2.5 Table of functional values for 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥

a) The values of 1/𝑥 decrease without bound as 𝑥 approaches 0 from the left.
Therefore:
1
lim− = −∞
𝑥→0 𝑥
b) The values of 1/𝑥 increase without bound as 𝑥 approaches 0 from the right.
Therefore:
1
= +∞ lim+
𝑥→0 𝑥
1 1
c) Since lim− = −∞ and lim+ = +∞ have different values, therefore:
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥
1
lim 𝐷𝑁𝐸
𝑥→0 𝑥
These conclusions can be observed from Figure 2.11.

Figure 2.11 The graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 1/𝑥 shows

that limit at 𝑥 approaches 0 does not exist.
• Functions of the form 𝑓(𝑥) = 1/(𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑛 , where 𝑛 is a positive integer, have infinite
limits as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎 from either left or right.
i. If 𝑛 is a positive even integer, then:
1
lim = +∞
𝑥→𝑎 (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑛

ii. If 𝑛 is a positive odd integer, then:

1
lim+ = +∞
𝑥→𝑎 (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑛
1
lim− = −∞
𝑥→𝑎 (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑛

Figure 2.12 The function 𝑓(𝑥) = 1/(𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑛 has infinite limits at 𝑎.

• In the graphs of 𝑓(𝑥) = 1/(𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑛 , points on the graph having x-coordinates very
near to 𝑎 are very close to the vertical line 𝑥 = 𝑎. That is, as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎, the
points on the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) are very close to the line 𝑥 = 𝑎. The line 𝑥 = 𝑎 is called
a vertical asymptote of the graph.

• Let 𝑓(𝑥) be a function. If any of the following conditions hold, then the line 𝑥 = 𝑎 is a
vertical asymptote of 𝑓(𝑥).

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = +∞ 𝑜𝑟 − ∞
𝑥→𝑎 −

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = +∞ 𝑜𝑟 − ∞
𝑥→𝑎 +

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = +∞ 𝑜𝑟 − ∞
𝑥→𝑎

Example 2.6:
Evaluate each of the following limits using infinite limits from positive integers.
Identify any vertical asymptotes of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 1/(𝑥 + 3)4 .

1
a) lim
𝑥→−3− (𝑥+3)4
1
b) lim
𝑥→−3+ (𝑥+3)4
 1
c) lim
𝑥→−3 (𝑥+3)4

Considering infinite limits for positive integer, when 𝑛 is an even positive integer, the
limit is +∞. In this case, 𝑛 = 4, therefore:

1
a) lim = +∞
𝑥→−3− (𝑥+3)4
1
b) lim = +∞
𝑥→−3+ (𝑥+3)4
1
c) lim 4 = +∞
𝑥→−3 (𝑥+3)

Since 𝑎 is −3, the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 1/(𝑥 + 3)4 has a vertical asymptote of 𝑥 = −3.
This conclusion can be seen at Figure 2.13.

Figure 2.13 Using a graph simulator, it can be seen that the limit of the function
𝑓(𝑥) = 1/(𝑥 + 3)4 is positive infinity with vertical asymptote of 𝑥 = −3.

4) The Limit Laws

• From previous section, tables of values and graphs were used in evaluating limits.
In this section, laws for calculating limits will be the main focus.

• Basic Limits Results: For any real number 𝑎 and any constant 𝑐,
i. lim 𝑥 = 𝑎
𝑥→𝑎
ii. lim 𝑐 = 𝑐
𝑥→𝑎

Example 2.7:

Evaluate each of the following limits:

a) lim 𝑥
𝑥→2
b) lim 5
𝑥→2

Applying basic limits results, the answers will be:

 a) lim 𝑥 = 2
𝑥→2
b) lim 5 = 5
𝑥→2

• Limit Laws: Let 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) be defined for all 𝑥 ≠ 𝑎 over some open interval
containing 𝑎. Assume that 𝐿 and 𝑀 are real numbers such that lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 and
𝑥→𝑎
lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑀. Let 𝑐 be a constant. Then each of the following statements holds:
𝑥→𝑎

i. Sum law for limits:

lim (𝑓( 𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)) = lim 𝑓( 𝑥) + lim 𝑔( 𝑥) = 𝐿 + 𝑀
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

ii. Difference law for limits:

lim (𝑓( 𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)) = lim 𝑓( 𝑥) − lim 𝑔( 𝑥) = 𝐿 − 𝑀
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

iii. Constant multiple law for limits:

lim 𝑐𝑓( 𝑥) = 𝑐 ∙ lim 𝑓( 𝑥) = 𝑐 ∙ 𝐿
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

iv. Product law for limits:

lim (𝑓( 𝑥) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥)) = lim 𝑓( 𝑥) ∙ lim 𝑔( 𝑥) = 𝐿 ∙ 𝑀
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

v. Quotient law for limits:

lim 𝑓(𝑥) 𝐿
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑥→𝑎
lim = = for 𝑀 ≠ 0
𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) lim 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑀
𝑥→𝑎

vi. Power law for limits:

𝑛
𝑛
lim (𝑓(𝑥)) = (lim 𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝐿𝑛 for every positive integer 𝑛
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

vii. Root law for limits:

𝑛 𝑛
lim √𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑛√ lim 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝐿
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

for all 𝐿 if 𝑛 is odd and for 𝐿 ≥ 0 if 𝑛 is even and 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 0

Example 2.8:
Use the limit laws to evaluate lim (4𝑥 + 2)
𝑥→−3

lim (4𝑥 + 2) = lim 4𝑥 + lim 2 Applying the sum law

𝑥→−3 𝑥→−3 𝑥→−3
= 4 ∙ lim 𝑥 + lim 2 Applying the constant multiple law
𝑥→−3 𝑥→−3
= 4 ∙ (−3) + 2 Applying the basic limit laws
= −10

Example 2.9:
2𝑥 2 −3𝑥+1
Use the limit laws to evaluate lim
𝑥→2 𝑥 3 +4

2𝑥 2 −3𝑥+1 lim (2𝑥 2 −3𝑥+1)

lim 𝑥 3 +4
= 𝑥→2lim (𝑥3 +4) Applying the quotient law
𝑥→2 𝑥→2
 2∙lim 𝑥 2 −3lim 𝑥+lim 1 Apply the sum law and constant
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2
= lim 𝑥 3 +lim 4 multiple law
𝑥→2 𝑥→2
2
2∙(lim 𝑥) −3∙lim 𝑥+lim 1
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2
= 3 Apply the power law
(lim 𝑥) +lim 4
𝑥→2 𝑥→2
2(4)−3(2)+1
= 23 +4 Apply the basic limit laws
1
=
4

• Notice that from previous examples, it has been the case that lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎). This
𝑥→𝑎
is not always true, but it does hold for all polynomials for any choice of 𝑎 and for all
rational functions at all values of 𝑎 for which the rational function is defined.

• Let 𝑝(𝑥) and 𝑞(𝑥) be polynomial functions. Let 𝑎 be a real number, then:
lim 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑝(𝑎)
𝑥→𝑎
𝑝(𝑥) 𝑝(𝑎)
lim = where 𝑞(𝑎) ≠ 0
𝑥→𝑎 𝑞(𝑥) 𝑞(𝑎)

• Above theorem can be proven by applying the sum, constant multiple, and power
laws on the polynomial:
𝑝(𝑥) = 𝐶𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝐶𝑥 𝑛−1 + 𝐶1 𝑥 + 𝐶0

lim 𝑝(𝑥) = lim (𝐶𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝐶𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + 𝐶1 𝑥 + 𝐶0 )

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
𝑛 𝑛−1
= 𝐶𝑛 (lim 𝑥) + 𝐶𝑛−1 (lim 𝑥) + ⋯ + 𝐶1 ((lim 𝑥) + (lim 𝐶0 )
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
= 𝐶𝑛 𝑎 + 𝐶𝑛−1 𝑎𝑛−1 + 𝐶1 𝑎 + 𝐶0
𝑛

= 𝑝(𝑎)

Following the quotient law that if 𝑝(𝑥) and 𝑞(𝑥) are polynomials and that 𝑞(𝑥) ≠
0, then:
𝑝(𝑥) 𝑝(𝑎)
lim =
𝑥→𝑎 𝑞(𝑥) 𝑞(𝑎)

Example 2.10:
2𝑥 2 −3𝑥+1
Evaluate the lim
𝑥→3 5𝑥+4

2𝑥 2 −3𝑥+1
Since 3 is the domain of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = , we can calculate the limit by
5𝑥+4
substituting 3 for 𝑥 into the function. Thus,
2(3)2 − 3(3) + 1 10
lim =
𝑥→3 5(3) + 4 19

• Calculating a limit when 𝒇(𝒙)/𝒈(𝒙) has the indeterminate form 𝟎/𝟎:

1. Make sure that the function has the appropriate form and cannot be
evaluated immediately using the limit laws.
2. Find a function that is equal to ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)/𝑔(𝑥) for all 𝑥 ≠ 𝑎 over some
interval containing 𝑎. Try the following steps to achieve desired function.
a. If 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) are polynomials, factor each function and cancel out
any common factors.
 b. If the numerator or denominator contains a difference involving a
square root, try multiplying the numerator and denominator by the
conjugate of the expression involving square root.
c. If 𝑓(𝑥)/𝑔(𝑥) is a complex fraction, begin by simplifying it.
3. Apply limit laws.

Example 2.11:
𝑥 2 −3𝑥
Evaluate the lim
𝑥→3 2𝑥 2 −5𝑥−3

𝑥2 −3𝑥
Step1. The function 𝑓(𝑥) = is undefined at 𝑥 = 3. Substituting 3 into the
2𝑥2 −5𝑥−3
function will result to an indeterminate answer in the form 0/0.
Step2. Find a way to express the given function in a way that the resulting answer,
when the domain 3 is plugged in, will not result in an indeterminate form
0/0. For this example, try factoring and cancelling strategy.

𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 𝑥(𝑥 − 3)
lim 2
= lim
𝑥→3 2𝑥 − 5𝑥 − 3 𝑥→3 (2𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 3)
𝑥
= lim
𝑥→3 2𝑥 + 1

Step3. Apply the limit laws. (Direct substitution of the domain into the function will
result in the same answer following the theorem on limits for polynomial
and rational functions)

𝑥 lim 𝑥
𝑥→3
lim =
𝑥→3 2𝑥 + 1 2 ∙ lim 𝑥 + lim 1
𝑥→3 𝑥→3
3 3
= =
2(3) + 1 7

Example 2.12:
√𝑥+2−1
Evaluate the lim
𝑥→−1 𝑥+1

√𝑥+2−1
Step1. The function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥+1
is undefined at 𝑥 = −1. Substituting −1 into the
function will result to an indeterminate answer in the form 0/0.
Step2. Find a way to express the given function in a way that the resulting answer,
when the domain -1 is plugged in, will not result in an indeterminate form
0/0. For this example, use the concept of conjugate.

√𝑥 + 2 − 1 √𝑥 + 2 − 1 √𝑥 + 2 + 1
lim = lim ∙
𝑥→−1 𝑥+1 𝑥→−1 𝑥+1 √𝑥 + 2 + 1
𝑥+1
= lim
𝑥→−1 (𝑥 + 1)(√𝑥 + 2 + 1)

1
= lim
𝑥→−1 √𝑥 + 2 + 1

Step3. Apply the limit laws. (Direct substitution of the domain into the function will
result in the same answer following the theorem on limits for polynomial
and rational functions)
 1 lim 1
𝑥→−1
lim =
𝑥→−1 √𝑥 + 2 + 1 lim 𝑥 + lim 2 + lim 1
√𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1
1
=
2

Example 2.13:
1 1
−
𝑥+1 2
Evaluate the lim
𝑥→1 𝑥−1

1
−1
Step1. The function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥+1
𝑥−1
2
is undefined at 𝑥 = 1. Substituting 1 into the
function will result to an indeterminate answer in the form 0/0.
Step2. Find a way to express the given function in a way that the resulting answer,
when the domain 1 is plugged in, will not result in an indeterminate form
0/0. This example contains complex fractions. Simplify the fractions to get
desired function.
1 1 2 − (𝑥 + 1)
− 2(𝑥 + 1)
lim 𝑥 + 1 2 = lim
𝑥→1 𝑥−1 𝑥→1 𝑥−1
2 − (𝑥 + 1)
= lim
𝑥→1 2(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1)
2−𝑥−1
= lim
𝑥→1 2(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1)
−𝑥 + 1
= lim
𝑥→1 2(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1)
−(𝑥 − 1)
= lim
𝑥→1 2(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1)
−1
= lim
𝑥→1 2(𝑥 + 1)

Step3. Apply the limit laws. (Direct substitution of the domain into the function will
result in the same answer following the theorem on limits for polynomial
and rational functions).
−1 − (lim 1)
𝑥→1
lim =
𝑥→1 2(𝑥 + 1)
2 ∙ (lim𝑥 + lim 1)
𝑥→1 𝑥→1
−1 1
= =−
2(1 + 1) 4

• There are times, when substituting the domain into the function, the result is not an
indeterminate form of 0/0 but 𝐾/0 where 𝑘 ≠ 0.

Example 2.14:
𝑥−3
Evaluate the lim−
𝑥→2 𝑥 2 −2𝑥

Step1. After substituting 𝑥 = 2, the resulting limit is −1/0. That is 𝑥 approaches 2

from the left, the numerator approaches -1, and the denominator
𝑥−3
approaches 0. Consequently, the magnitude of becomes infinite.
𝑥 2 −2𝑥
Step2. To get a better idea of what the limit is, factor the denominator.
 𝑥−3 𝑥−3
lim = lim
𝑥→2− 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 𝑥→2− 𝑥(𝑥 − 2)

Since 𝑥 − 2 is the only part of the denominator that is zero when 2 is

1
substituted, separate from the rest of the function.
𝑥−2
𝑥−3 𝑥−3 1
lim− = lim− ∙
𝑥→2 𝑥(𝑥 − 2) 𝑥→2 𝑥 𝑥−2

Step3. Apply the limit laws.

𝑥−3 1 𝑥−3 1
lim ∙ = lim ∙ lim−
𝑥→2− 𝑥 𝑥 − 2 𝑥→2− 𝑥 𝑥→2 𝑥 − 2
1
= − ∙ −∞
2
= +∞

• Trigonometric functions also have properties for limits. Here are the four basic limit
properties for trigonometric functions:
lim sin 𝑥 = sin 𝑎
𝑥→𝑎
lim cos 𝑥 = cos 𝑎
𝑥→𝑎
sin 𝑥
lim =1
𝑥
𝑥→0
1 − cos 𝑥
lim =0
𝑥→0 𝑥
• Proof for these limit properties will be discussed at latter part of this module.

5) Continuity
• Many functions have the property that their graphs can be traced with a pencil
without lifting the pencil. Such functions are called continuous. Other functions
have points at which a break in the graph occurs, but satisfy this property over
intervals contained in their domains. They are continuous on these intervals and are
said to have a discontinuity at a point where a break occurs.

• A function 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous at a point 𝑎 if and only if the following three

conditions are satisfied:

i. 𝑓(𝑎) is defined
ii. lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists
𝑥→𝑎
iii. lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑥→𝑎
 Figure 2.14 (a) Function 𝑓(𝑥) is not continuous because 𝑓(𝑎) is undefined. (b)
Function 𝑓(𝑥) is not continuous because lim 𝑓(𝑥)𝐷𝑁𝐸. (c) Function 𝑓(𝑥) is not
𝑥→𝑎
continuous because lim 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ 𝑓(𝑎).
𝑥→𝑎

Example 2.15:
Continuity at a point (Condition 1)

𝑥 2 −4
Determine whether the function 𝑓(𝑥) = is continuous at 𝑥 = 2.
𝑥−2
First, calculate 𝑓(2).
(2)2 − 4 0
𝑓(2) = =
2−2 0
𝑥 2 −4
∴ 𝑓(𝑥) = is discontinuous at 2 because 𝑓(2) is undefined.
𝑥−2

Example 2.16:
Continuity at a point (Condition 2)

−𝑥 2 + 4 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≤ 3
Determine whether the function 𝑓(𝑥) = { is continuous at 𝑥 = 3.
4𝑥 − 8 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 3
First, calculate 𝑓(3):
𝑓(3) = −(3)2 + 4 = −5
𝑓(3) is defined

Next, solve for lim− 𝑓(𝑥) and lim+ 𝑓(𝑥):

𝑥→3 𝑥→3

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −(3)2 + 4 = −5

𝑥→3−
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 4(3) − 8 = 4
𝑥→3+
lim 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ lim+ 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→3− 𝑥→3
∴ lim 𝑓(𝑥) 𝐷𝑁𝐸
𝑥→3

Thus 𝑓(𝑥) is not continuous at 3.

Example 2.17:
Continuity at a point (Condition 3)

sin 𝑥
𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≠ 0
Determine whether the function 𝑓(𝑥) = { 𝑥 is continuous at 𝑥 = 0.
1 𝑖𝑓𝑥 = 0
First, calculate 𝑓(0):
𝑓(0) = 1
sin 𝑥
Next, solve for lim and lim 1:
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0

lim 1 = 1
𝑥→0

sin 𝑥
lim =1
𝑥→0 𝑥
sin 𝑥
Since lim 1 = lim , lim 𝑓(𝑥) exist.
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0
 Last, compare 𝑓(0) and lim 𝑓(𝑥):
𝑥→0

𝑓(0) = 1 = lim𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→0

Since all three conditions are satisfied, 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous at 0.

• Polynomials and rational functions are continuous at every point in their domain.

• Discontinuities take on several appearances. If 𝑓(𝑥) is discontinuous at 𝑎, then:

i. 𝑓 has a removable discontinuity at 𝑎 if lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists.

𝑥→𝑎
ii. 𝑓 has a jump discontinuity at 𝑎 if lim− 𝑓(𝑥) and lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) both exist, but
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
lim− 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ lim+ 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
iii. 𝑓 has an infinite discontinuity at 𝑎 if lim−𝑓(𝑥) = ±∞ or if lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = ±∞
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

Figure 2.15 Discontinuities are classified as (a) removable, (b) jump, or (c) infinite.

Example 2.18:
𝑥 2 −4
From Example 2.15, 𝑓(𝑥) = is discontinuous at 𝑥 = 2. Classify this
𝑥−2
discontinuity as removable, jump, or infinite.

To determine discontinuity, solve for lim𝑓(𝑥):

𝑥→2
𝑥2 − 4
lim𝑓(𝑥) = lim
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥 − 2
(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2)
= lim
𝑥→2 𝑥−2
= lim(𝑥 + 2)
𝑥→2
= 4
Since 𝑓 is discontinuous at 2 and lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists, 𝑓 has removable discontinuity at 2
𝑥→2

Example 2.19:
𝑥+2
Determine whether 𝑓(𝑥) = is continuous at −1. If the function is discontinuous at
𝑥+1
−1, classify the discontinuity.

The function value of 𝑓(−1) is undefined. Therefore, the function is not continuous
at −1. To determine the type of discontinuity, determine the limit at −1.
𝑥+2
lim− = −∞
𝑥→−1 𝑥 + 1
𝑥+2
lim = +∞
𝑥→−1+ 𝑥 + 1
Therefore, the function has infinite discontinuity at -1.
• A function is continuous over an interval if we can use a pencil to trace a function
between two points in the interval without lifting the pencil.
i. A function 𝑓(𝑥) is said to be continuous from the right at 𝑎 if lim+𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥→𝑎
𝑓(𝑎)
ii. A function 𝑓(𝑥) is said to be continuous from the left at 𝑎 if lim−𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑥→𝑎
• A function is continuous in an open interval if it is continuous in every point in the
interval. A function 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous over a closed interval of the form [𝑎, 𝑏] of it is
continuous at every point in (𝑎, 𝑏) and is continuous from the right at 𝑎 and is
continuous from the left at 𝑏.

Example 2.20:
State the interval(s) over which the function 𝑓(𝑥) = √4 − 𝑥 2 is continuous.

From the limit laws, lim √4 − 𝑥 2 = √4 − 𝑎2 for all values in (−2,2). Also:
𝑥→𝑎

lim √4 − 𝑥 2 = 0 exists
𝑥→−2+

lim √4 − 𝑥 2 = 0 exists
𝑥→2−

∴ 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous over the interval [−2,2]

• Functions that are continuous over intervals in the form [𝑎, 𝑏], where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are
real numbers, exhibit useful properties. There are theorems concerning such
functions including the intermediate value theorem.

• Intermediate value theorem: Let 𝑓 be a function continuous over a closed,

bounded interval [𝑎, 𝑏]. If 𝑧 is any real number between 𝑓(𝑎) and 𝑓(𝑏), then there is
a number 𝑐 in [𝑎, 𝑏] satisfying 𝑓(𝑐) = 𝑥 in Figure 2.16.

Figure 2.16 There is a number 𝑐 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏] that satisfies 𝑓(𝑐) = 𝑧.

Example 2.21:
Show that 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − cos 𝑥 has at least one zero.

The problem is asking for 𝑓(𝑐) = 0. Since 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − cos 𝑥 is continuous at

(−∞, +∞), it is continuous over any interval of the form [𝑎, 𝑏]. To find a real
number 𝑐 that satisfies 𝑓(𝑐) = 0, find an interval [𝑎, 𝑏], using intermediate value
theorem, such that 𝑓(𝑎) and 𝑓(𝑏) have opposite signs. To achieve this, evaluate
𝜋
𝑓(0) and 𝑓 ( ).
2
𝑓(0) = 0 − cos 0 = −1 < 0
 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝑓 ( ) = − cos = > 0
2 2 2 2

𝜋
Observe that 𝑓(0) and 𝑓 ( ) have opposite signs. Using intermediate value
2
𝜋
theorem, we can see that there must be real number 𝑐 in [0, ] that satisfies 𝑓(𝑐) =
2
0. Therefore, the 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − cos 𝑥 has at least one zero.

Example 2.22:
If 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous over [0,2], 𝑓(0) > 0 and 𝑓(2) > 0, can we use intermediate
value theorem to conclude that 𝑓(𝑥) has no zeros in the interval [0,2]?

The answer is no. The intermediate value theorem only allows us to conclude that
we can find a value between 𝑓(0) and 𝑓(2); it doesn`t allow us to conclude that we
can`t find other values.

Example 2.23:
For 𝑓(𝑥) = 1/𝑥, 𝑓(−1) = −1 < 0 and 𝑓(1) = 1 > 0, can we conclude that 𝑓(𝑥) has
a zero in the interval [−1,1]?

The answer is no. The function is not continuous over 𝑓[−1,1]. Intermediate value
theorem will not apply.
B. EXERCISES

Exercise Number 1
Objective(s) Use a table of values to estimate the limit of a function.
Instruction Estimate the limit of a function using table of values. Show at
least 5 rows for estimation for both left-hand and right-hand
limit. No need to show your solution.

Given:

lim 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 4
𝑥→0

Conclusion:

Exercise Number 2
Objective(s) Recognize the basic limit laws and use these laws to evaluate
limits of a function.
Instruction Evaluate the limits of the following functions using limit laws.
Show your solution on the space provided.

Given: Solution:

2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 2
lim
𝑥→2 𝑥−2

Given: Solution:

lim 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 4
𝑥→0

Given: Solution:

𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 − 1
lim
𝑥→3 3𝑥 − 2
 Given: Solution:

cot 𝑥
lim𝜋
𝑥→ cos 𝑥
2

Given: Solution:

𝑥 2 + 25
lim
𝑥→−5 𝑥 + 5

Given: Solution:

4−𝑥
lim
𝑥→4 √𝑥 − 2

Exercise Number 3
Objective(s) Explain three conditions for continuity at a point.
Instruction Considering the three conditions for continuity, determine
whether the following functions are continuous at a certain
point. Explain your answer.

Given: Is 𝒇(𝒙) Solution/Explanation:

continuous
at 𝒙 = 𝟏?
YES NO

2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 3
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥−1

Given: Is 𝒇(𝒙) Solution/Explanation:

continuous
at 𝒙 = 𝟐?
YES NO
 𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≤ 2
𝑓(𝑥) = { 2
𝑥 +2 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 2

Given: Is 𝒇(𝒙) Solution/Explanation:

continuous
at 𝒙 = 𝟎?
YES NO

𝑥−6
𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 0
𝑥−3
𝑓(𝑥) = { 2 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 0
√4 + 𝑥2 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 0

Exercise Number 4
Objective(s) Describe three kinds of discontinuities.
Instruction Determine the point at which each of the function is
discontinuous. Classify any discontinuity as jump, infinite, or
removable. Explain your answer.

Given: Solution/Explanation:

1
𝑓(𝑥) =
√𝑥

Given: Solution/Explanation:

𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥2 − 𝑥

Given: Solution/Explanation:

𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≤ 2
𝑓(𝑥) = { 2
𝑥 +2 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 2

Given: Solution/Explanation:

𝑥+3
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥2 + 5𝑥 + 6
 Exercise Number 5
Objective(s) Define continuity on an interval.
Instruction Using the space provided, briefly explain continuity of a
function on a given interval.

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C. ASSIGNMENT
_________________________________________________________________
Determine if the given statement is true. Justify your answer with an explanation or an
example.

If the left-hand and right-hand limits of a function as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎 exist and

are equal, then that function cannot be discontinuous at 𝑥 = 𝑎.

𝑥 2 −4𝑥+3
The function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 −1
is continuous over the interval [0,3].
VI. POST-TEST

A. Evaluate the limit of the following functions, if it exists.

1.
Solve for: Solution:
3𝑥 2 −2𝑥
lim
𝑥→2 3𝑥

2.
Solve for: Solution:
1
lim
𝑥→2 (𝑥−2)4

3.
Solve for: Solution:
3−√𝑥
lim
𝑥→9 9−𝑥

4.
Solve for: Solution:
(𝑥+3)3 −27
lim 𝑥
𝑥→0
 5.
Solve for: Solution:
𝑥 2 +𝑥−2
lim
𝑥→−1 𝑥 2 −1

B. Determine whether the following functions are continuous at a certain point or not.

1.
Given: Is 𝒇(𝒙) Solution/Proof:
continuous
at 𝒙 = 𝟒?
YES NO

𝑥 2 − 16
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥−4

2.
Given: Is 𝒇(𝒙) Solution/Proof:
continuous
at 𝒙 = 𝟏?
YES NO

𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≤ 1
𝑓(𝑥) = { 3
𝑥 + 6 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 1

3.
Given: Is 𝒇(𝒙) Solution/Proof:
continuous
at 𝒙 = −𝟐?
YES NO

𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 1
𝑓(𝑥) = {6 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 1
−𝑥 2 + 7 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 1
VII. POST-TEST FEEDBACK

A. Evaluate the limit of the following functions, if it exists.

1.
Solve for: Solution:
3𝑥 2 −2𝑥 3𝑥 2 −2𝑥 𝑥(3𝑥−2) 3𝑥−2
lim lim = lim = lim
𝑥→2 3𝑥 𝑥→2 3𝑥 𝑥→2 3𝑥 𝑥→2 3

3𝑥 − 2 3 ∙ lim 𝑥 − lim 2 3(2) − 2 𝟒

𝑥→2 𝑥→2
lim = = =
𝑥→2 3 lim 3 3 𝟑
𝑥→2

2.
Solve for: Solution:
1 1
lim lim =∞
𝑥→2 (𝑥−2)4 𝑥→2 (𝑥−2)4

3.
Solve for: Solution:
3−√𝑥 3−√𝑥 3−√𝑥 3+√𝑥 9−𝑥
lim lim = lim ∙ = lim (9−𝑥)(3+
𝑥→9 9−𝑥 𝑥→9 9−𝑥 𝑥→9 9−𝑥 3+√𝑥 𝑥→9 √𝑥)

1 lim 1 1 𝟏
𝑥→9
lim = = =
𝑥→9 3 + √𝑥 lim 3 + √lim𝑥 3+3 𝟔
𝑥→9 𝑥→9

4.
Solve for: Solution:
(𝑥+3)3 −27 (𝑥+3)3 −27 (𝑥 3 +9𝑥 2 +27𝑥+27)−27
lim 𝑥
lim 𝑥
= lim 𝑥
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥→0

𝑥(𝑥 2 +9𝑥+27) 2
lim = (lim 𝑥) + 9lim 𝑥 + lim 27 = 𝟐𝟕
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥→0
 5.
Solve for: Solution:
𝑥 2 +𝑥−2 𝑥 2 +𝑥−2 (𝑥−1)(𝑥+2) (𝑥+2)
lim lim = lim = lim
𝑥→−1 𝑥 2 −1 𝑥→−1 𝑥 2 −1 𝑥→−1 (𝑥−1)(𝑥+1) 𝑥→−1 (𝑥+1)
(𝑥+2)
lim = 𝐷𝑁𝐸
𝑥→−1 (𝑥+1)

B. Determine whether the following functions are continuous at a certain point or not.

1.
Given: Is 𝒇(𝒙) Solution/Proof:
continuous For a function to be continuous at a point, it
at 𝒙 = 𝟒? must satisfy three conditions. One of those is
YES NO that 𝑓(𝑎) is defined.

𝑥 2 −16
Evaluate 𝑓(𝑥) = at 𝑥 = 4
𝑥−4
𝑥 2 − 16
𝑓(𝑥) = ✓
𝑥−4 𝑥 2 − 16 (4)2 − 16 0
𝑓(2) = = = = undefined
𝑥−4 4−4 0

2.
Given: Is 𝒇(𝒙) Solution/Proof:
continuous Beside from 𝑓(𝑎) being defined,
at 𝒙 = 𝟏? another condition is that lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎
YES NO exists.

If 𝑥 = 1, then 𝑓(1) = (1)2 − 3(1) = −2

∴ 𝑓(1) is defined
To know if lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists, check if the
𝑥→𝑎
right-hand limit and left-hand limit are
𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≤ 1 the same.
𝑓(𝑥) = { 3 ✓
𝑥 + 6 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 1 lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = (1)2 − 3(1) = −2
𝑥→1
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = (1)3 + 6 = 7
𝑥→1
lim 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ lim+ 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→1 𝑥→1
∴ lim 𝑓(𝑥) 𝐷𝑁𝐸
𝑥→1

3.
Given: Is 𝒇(𝒙) Solution/Proof:
continuous Beside from 𝑓(𝑎) being defined,
at 𝒙 = 𝟏? another condition is that lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎
YES NO exists.

If 𝑥 = 1, then 𝑓(1) = 6
∴ 𝑓(1) is defined
𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 1
Another condition is that right- and left-
𝑓(𝑥) = {6 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 1 ✓
hand limit exists and equal.
−𝑥 2 + 7 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 1
lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = (1)3 + 5(1) = 6
𝑥→1
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −(1)2 + 7 = 6
𝑥→1+
∴ lim− = lim+
𝑥→1 𝑥→1
Last condition is that 𝑓(𝑎) = lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎
𝑓(1) = 6 = lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→1