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 Microprocessor
I'ticroprocessor is a Controlling unit of a micro-computer, fabricated on a
small chip capable of performing ALU (Arithmetic Logical Unit) operations
and communicating with the other devices connected to it.

Microprocessor consists of an ALU, register array, and a control unit.

ALU performs arithmetical and logical operations on the data received
from the memory or an input device. Register array consists of registers
identified by letters like B, C, D, E, H, L and accumulator. The control
unit controls the flow of data and instructions within the computer.

Block Diagram of a Basic I'ñicrocomputer

Working of Microprocessor
The microprocessor follows a sequence: Fetch, Decode, and then
Execute.
Initially, the instructions are stored in the memory in a sequential order. The
microprocessor fetches those instructions from the memory, then decodes it
and executes those instructions till STOP instruction is reached. Later, it
sends the result in binary to the output port. Between these processes, the
register stores the temporarily data and ALU performs the computing
functions.

List of Terms Used in a Microprocessor

Here is a list of some of the frequently used terms in a microprocessor -
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 • instruction Set - It is the set of instructi ons that the microprocessor
can understand.

• Bandwidth — It is the number of bits processed in a single instFU Ct ÏOFl.

• Clock Speed — It determines the number of operations per second the processos
can pedorm. It is expressed in megahedz (MHz) or gigaher(z (GHz).II is also known as
Clock Rate.

• Word Length — It depends upon the width of internal data bus, registers,
ALU, etc. An 8-bit microprocessor can process 8-bit data at a time. The
word length ranges from 4 bits to 64 bits depending upon the type
of the
microcomputer.

• Data Types — The microprocessor has multiple data type formats like
binary, BCD, ASCII, signed and unsigned numbers.

Features ot a Microprocessor
Here is a list of some of the most pi-onsinenL features of any
microprocessor —

• Cost-effective — I flu rr icroprocessor chips are available at low prices

and results its low cost.

• Size — The microprocessor is of small siye chip, hence is poi table.

• Low Power Consumption — Microprocessors are manufactured by using

metaloxide semiconductor technology, which has low power consumption.

• Versatility — The micrcprocessors are versatile as we can use the same

chip in a number of applications by configuring the software program.

• Reliability — The failure rate of an IC in microprocessors is very low, hence

it is reliable.

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Evohiúon of IiJicroprocessors
4 Bit Microprocessors
Intel 4004 as it was a 4 bit processor. It was a processor on a single chip.
It could perform simple arithmetic and logic operations such as addition,
subtraction, boolean AND and boolean OR. It had a control unit capable of
performing control functions like fetching an instruction from memory,
decoding it, and generating control pulses to execute it. It was able to operate
on 4 bits of data at a time.This first microprocessor was quite a success in
industry. Soon other microprocessors were also introduced. Intel introduced the
enhanced version of 4004, the 4040. Some other 4 bit processors are
International’s PPS4 and Thoshiba’s T3472.

8Bit Processors
The first 8 bit microprocessor which could perform arithmetic and logic
operations on 8 bit words was introduced in 1973 again by Intel. This was Intel
8008 and was later followed by an improved version, Intel 8088. Some other 8
bit processors are Zilog-80 and Motorola M6800.

16 Bit Processors
The 8-bit processors were followed by 16 bit processors. They are Intel 8086
and 80286.

32 Bit Processors
The 32 bit microprocessors were introduced by several companies but the most
popular one is Intel 80386.

Pentium Processors
Instead of 80586, Intel came out with a new processor namely Pentium
processor. Its performance is closer to RISC performance. Pentium was
followed by Pentium Pro CPU. Pentium Pro allows allow multiple CPUs in a
single system in order to achive multiprocessing. The MMX extension was
added to Pentium Pro and the result was Pentiuum II. The low cost version of
Pentium II is celeron.
The Pentium III fovided high performance floating point operations for certain
types of computations by using the SIMD extensions to the instruction set.
These new instructions makes the Pentium III faster than hlgh-end RISC
CPUs.
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Interestingly Pentium IV GOUld not execute code faster than the Pentium l)I when
running at the same clock frequency . So Pentium IV had to speed up by
executing at a much higher clock frequency.

Classification
A microprocessor can be classified into three categories -

RISC Processor
RISC stands for Reduced Instruction Set Computer. It is designed to
reduce the execution time by simplifying the instruction set of the
consputei . Using k1SC processors, each instruction requires only one
clock cycle to execute results in uniform execution time. This reduces the
efflclency as tlsei e at e more lines of code, hence more RARI is needed to
store the instructions. The compiler also has to work more to convert high-
level language instructions into machine code.

Some of the RISC processors are —

• Power PC: 601, 604, 615, 620

• DEC Alpha: 210642, 211066, 21068, 21164
• TIPS: TS (R10000) RISC Processor
• PA-RUC: HP 7100LC

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Architecture of RfSC
RISC microprocessor architecture uses hlghly-optimized set of
instructions. It is used in portable devices like Apple iPod due to its
power efficiency.

Characteristics of RISC
The major characteristics of a RISC processor are as follows —

• It consists of simple instructions.

• It supports various data-type formats.

• It utilizes simple addressing modes and fixed length instructions for

pipelining.

• It supports register to use in any context.

• One cycle execution time.

• “LOAD“ and “STORE“ instructions are used to access the memory location.

• It consists of larger number of registers.

• It consists of less number of transistors.

CISC Processor
CISC stands for Complex Instruction Set Computer. It is designed to
minimize the number of instructions per program, ignoring the number
of cycles per instruction. The emphasis is on building complex
instructions directly into the hardware.

The compiler has to do very little work to translate a high-level language

into assembly level language/machine code because the length of the
code is relatively short, so very little RAM is required to store the
instructions.

Some of the CISC Processors are —

• IBM 370/ 168

• VAX 11/780
• Intel 80486
Architecture of CISC
Its architecture is designed to decrease the memory cost because more
storage is needed in larger programs resulting in higher memory cost. To
resolve this, the number of instructions per program can be reduced by
embedding the number of operations in a single instruction.

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Characteristics of CISC
• Variety of addressing modes.
• Larger number of instructions.
• Variable length of instruction formats
• Several cycles may be required to execute one instruction.
• Instruction-decoding logic is complex.
• One instruction is required to support multiple addressing modes.

Special Processors
These are the processors which are designed for some special purposes.
Few of the special processors are briefly discussed —

Coprocessor
A coprocessor is a specially designed microprocessor, which can handle
its particular function many times faster than the ordinary
microprocessor.

For example — Path Coprocessor.

Some Intel math-coprocessors are —

• 8087-used with 8086

• 80287-used with 80286
• 80387-used with 80386
Input/Output Processor
It is a specially designed microprocessor having a local memory of its
own, which is used to control I/O devices with minimum CPu
involvement.

For example —

• DNA (direct Memory Access) controller

• Keyboard/mouse controller
• Graphic display controller
• SCSI port controller
Transputer (Transistor Computer)
A transputer is a specially designed microprocessor with its own local
memory and having links to connect one transputer to another
transputer for inter-processor communications. It was first designed in
1980 by Inmos and is targeted to the utilization of VLSI technology.

A transputer can be used as a single processor system or can be

connected to external links, which reduces the construction cost and
increases the performance.

For example — 16-bit T212, 32-bit T425, the floating point (T800, T805
& T9000) processors.

DSP (Digital Signal Processor)

This processor is specially designed to process the analog signals into a
digital form. This is done by sampling the voltage level at regular time
inteiwals and co‹\verting the voltage at that instant into a digital form.
This process is performed by a circuit callers nn analogue to digital
converter, A to D converter or ADC.

A DSP contains LI e following components

• Program Memory — II stores the programs that DSP will use to process
dala.

• Data Memory — It stores the information to be processed.

• Compute Engine — It performs the mathematical processing, accessing the

program from the program memory and the data from the data memory.

• Input/ Output — It connects to the outside world.

Its applications are —

• Sound and music synthesis

• Audio and video compression
• Video signal processing
• 7 D and 3d graphics accclui atiun.

For example — Texas In strument’s TMS 320 series, e.g., TNS 320C40,
TNS320C50.
 Microprocessor - 808S Architecture
8085 is pronounced as "eighty-eighty-five" microprocessor. It is an 8-bit
microprocessor designed by Intel in 1977 using NMOS technology.

It has the following configuration —

• 8-bit data bus

• 16-bit address bus, which can address upto 64KB
• A 16-bit program counter
• A 16-bit stack pointer
• Six 8-bit registers arranged in pairs: BC, DE, HL
• Requires +5V supply to operate at 3.2 PIHZ single phase clock
It is used in washing machines, microwave ovens, mobile phones, etc.

8085 Microprocessor — Functional Units

8085 consists of the following functional units —

Accumulator
It is an 8-bit register used to perform arithmetic, logical, I/O &
LOAD/STORE operations. It is connected to internal data bus & ALU.

Arithmetic and logic unit

As the name suggests, it performs arithmetic and logical operations like
Addition, Subtraction, AND, OR, etc. on 8-bit data.

General purpose register

There are 6 general purpose registers in 8085 processor, i.e. B, C, D, E,
H & L. Each register can hold 8-bit data.

These registers can work in pair to hold 16-bit data and their pairing
combination is like B-C, D- E & H -L.

Program counter
It is a 16-bit register used to store the memory address location of
the next instruction to be executed. Microprocessor increments the
program whenever an instruction is being executed, so that the
program counter points to the memory address of the next instruction
that is going to be executed.
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Stack pointer
It is also a 16-bit register works like stack, which is always
incremented/decremented by 2 during push & pop operations.

Temporary register
It is an 8-bit register, which holds the temporary data of arithmetic and
logical operations.

Flag register
It is an 8-bit register having five 1-bit flip-flops, which holds either 0 or 1
depending upon the result stored in the accumulator.

These are the set of 5 flip-flops —

• Sign (S)
• Zero (Z)
• Auxiliary Carry
(AC)
• Parity (P)
• Carry (C)
Its bit position is shown in the following table —

D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 DO

AC CY

Instruction register and decoder

It is an 8-bit register. When an instruction is fetched from memory then
it is stored in the Instruction register. Instruction decoder decodes the
information present in the Instruction register.

Timing and control unit

It provides timing and control signal to the microprocessor to perform
operations. Following are the timing and control signals, which control
external and internal circuits —

• Control Signals: READY, RD’, WR’, ALE

• Status Signals: S0, S1, IO/N’

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 • Df4A Signals: HOLD, HLDA
• RESET Signals: RESET IN, RESET OUT

Interrupt control
As the name suggests it controls the interrupts during a process. When a
microprocessor is executing a main program and whenever an interrupt
occurs, the microprocessor shifts the control from the main program to
process the incoming request. After the request is completed, the control
goes back to the main program.

There are 5 interrupt signals in 8085 microprocessor: INTR, RST 7.5, RST6.5, RST
5.5,TRAP

Serial Input/output control

It controls the serial data communication by using these two
instructions: SID (Serial input data) and SOD (Serial output data).

Address buffer and address-data buffer

The content stored in the stack pointer and program counter is loaded
into the address buffer and address-data buffer to communicate with the
CPU. The memory and I/O chips are connected to these buses; the CPU
can exchanqe the desired data with the murnury and T/C chlps.

Address bus and data bus

Data bus carries the data to be stored. It is bidirectional, whereas
address bus carries the location to where it should be stored and it is
unidirectional. It is used to transfer the data & Address I/O devices.

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 8085 Pin Configuration
The following image depicts the pin diagram of 8085 Microprocessor -

X 1 (a VCC
Xy 2 3t HOLD
Reset out 3 HLDA
SOD 4
3 CLK (out)
SID — •{ 5
6
36 Reset in
Trap 3s 34 Ready
7
RST 7.5 —H•{ 33
8 IO/M
RST 6.5 32
9 S1
RST 5.5 31
10 Vpp
30
INTR 11 RD
29
INTA 12
28 WR
ADD 13
27 S
AO1 14
26 As
15
ADD 25 A
16
AD3 24
17 t4
ADD 23
18 ''*•3
AD 22
19 A12
21
ADs 20 AII
ADy A10
Vss Ag
Ag

The pins of a 8085 microprocessor can be classified into seven groups —

Address bus
AI 5-A8, it carries the most significant 8-bits of memory/IO address.

Data bus
AD7-ADO, it carries the least significant 8-bit address and data bus.

Control and status signals

These signals are used to identify the nature of operaGon. There are 3
control signal and 3 status signals.

Three control signals are RD, WR & ALE.

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 • RD — This signal indicates that the selected IO or memory device Is to
be read and is ready for accepting data available on the data bus.

• WR — This signal indicates that the data on the data bus is to be written
into a selected memory or IO location.

• ALE — It is a positlve going pulse generated when a new operation is

started by the microprocessor. When the pulse goes high, it indicates
address. When the pulse goes down it indicates data.

Three status signals are IO/M, SO & S1.

IO/M
This signal is used to differentiate between IO and Memory operations,
i.e. when It 1s high indicates IO operation and when it is Ion then it
indicates memory operation.

S1 & SO
These signals are used to identify the type of current operation.

Power supply
There arc 2 power supply signals - VCC & VSS. VCC indicates +5v
power supply anrJ VG.? indir.ates ground signal.

Clock signals
There are 3 clock signals, i.e. X1, X2, CLK OUT.

• X1, X2 — A crystal (RC, LC N/W) is connected at these two pins and is used to
set frequency of the internal clock generator. This frequency is internally
divided by 2.

• CLK OUT — This signal is used as the system clock for devices
connected with the microprocessor.

Interrupts & externally initiated signals

Interrupts are the signals generated by external devices to request the
microprocessor to perform a task. There are 5 interrupt signals, i.e.
TRAP, RST 7.5, RST 6.5, RST 5.5, and INTR. We will discuss interrupts
in detail in interrupts section.
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• ve«tor interrupt — In this type of interrupt, the interrupt address Is known
to the processor. For example: RST7.5, RST6.5, RST5.5, TRAP.

• Non-Vector interrupt — In this type of interrupt, the interrupt address 1s

not known to the processor so, the interrupt address needs to be sent
externally by the device to perform interrupts. For example: INTR.

• Maskable interrupt — In this type of interrupt, we can disable the

interrupt by writing some instructions into the program. For example:RST7.
5, RST6.5, RST5.5.

« Non-Pfaskable interrupt — In this Eype of interrupt, we cannot disable the

interrupt by writing some instructions into the program. For
example: TRAP.

• Software interrupt — In this type of interrupt, the programmer has to add

the instructions into the program to execute the interrupt. There are 8
software interrupts in 8085, i.e. RST0, RST1, RST2, RST3, RST4, RST5,
RST6, and RST7.

• Hardware interrupt — There are 5 interrupt pins in 8085 used as

hardware interrupts, i.e. TRAP, RST7.5, RST6.5, RST5.5, INTA.

Note — NTA is not an interrupt, it is used by the microprocessor for

sending acknowledgement. TRAP has the highest priority, then RST7.5 and
so on.

Interrupt Service Routine (ISR)

A small program or a routine that when executed, services the
corresponding interrupting source is called an ISR.

TRAP
It is a non-maSkabIe interrupt, having the highest priority among all
interrupts. Bydefault, it is enabled until it gets acknowledged. In case of
failure, it executes as ISR and sends the data to baCkup memory.
This interrupt transfers the control to the location 0024H.

ority among all interrupts. When this interrupt is executed, the processor saves the content of the PC regi

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RST 6.5
It is a maskable interrupt, having the third highest priorlty among all
interrupts. When this interrupt is executed, the processor saves the
content of the PC register into the stack and branches to 0034H address.

RST 5.5
It is a maskable interrupt. When this interrupt is executed, the
processor saves the content of the PC register into the stack and
branches to 002CH address.

INTR
It is a maskable iiztei i ups, leaving the lowest priority amnng all
interrupts. It can be disabled by resetting the microprocessor.

When INTR signal goes high, the following events can occur —

• The microprocessor checks the status of INTR signal during the execution
of each instruction.

• When the INTR signal is high, then the microprocessor completes its
current instruction and sends nctive low interrupt acknowledge signal.

• When instructions are received, then the microprocessor saves the address
of the next instruction on stack and executes the received instruction.

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 808S Addressingf Jodes&
Interrupts
Addressing Modes in 8085
These are the instructions used to transfer the data from one register to
another register, from the memory to the register, and from the register
to the memory without any alteration in the content. Addressing modes
in 808s is classified into 5 groups -

Im mediate addressing mode

In this mode, the 8/16-bit data is specified in the instruction itself as one
of its operand. For example: MVI K, 20F: means 20F is copied into
register K.

Register addre5sing mode

In this mode, the data is copied from one register to another. For
example:MOV K, B: means data in register B is copied to register K.

Direct addressing mode

In this mode, the data is directly copied from the given address to the
register. For example: LDB SOOOK: means the data at address SOOOK is
copied to register B.

Indirect add ressin9 mode

In this mode, the data is transferred from one register to another by
using the address pointed by the register. For example: MOV K, B:
means data is transferred from the memory address pointed by the
register to the register K.

the data is specified by the

he external devices to request the microprocessor to perform a td5k. There are 5 interrupt signals, i.e. TRAP, RST 7

oups based on their parameter -

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• INTA — It is an interrupt acknowledgment signal.

• RESET IN — This signal is used to reset the microprocessor by setting

the program counter to zero.

• RESET OUT — This signal is used to reset all the connected devices when the
microprocessor is reset.

• READY — This signal indicates that the device is ready to send or

receive data. If READY is low, then the CPU has to wait for READY to
go high.

• HOLD — This signal indicates that another master is requesting the use of
the address and data buses.

• HLDA (HOLD Acknowledge) — It indicates that the CPU has received the
HOLD request and it will relinquish the bus in the next clock cycle. HLDA is
set to low after the HOLD signal is removed.

Serial I/O signals

There are 2 serial signals, i.c. SID and SOD and these signals ai-e used
for serial communication.

• SOD (Serial output data line) — The output SOD is set/reset as specified by
the SIM instruction.

• SID (Serial input data line) — The data on this line is loaded into accumulator
whenever a RIM instruction is executed.

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