Critical Thinking Development: A Stage Theory

With Implications for Instruction

Linda Elder with Richard Paul

Though most teachers aspire to make critical thinking a primary objective of their instruction, most also do not
realize that, to develop as thinkers, students must pass through stages of development in critical thinking. That
is, most teachers are unaware of the levels of intellectual development that people go through as they improve
as thinkers. We believe that significant gains in the intellectual quality of student work will not be achieved
except to the degree that teachers recognize that skilled critical thinking develops, only when properly
cultivated, and only through predictable stages.

In this paper we shall set out a stage theory based on the nearly twenty years of research of the Center for
Critical Thinking and explain some of the theory’s implications for instruction. We shall be brief, concise, and to
the point in our explanation with minimal theoretical elaboration. Furthermore, we believe that the “practicality”
of the theory we explain here is best tested in the classroom and in everyday life. The reader should be
expressly aware that we are approaching the human mind exclusively from an intellectual standpoint---not from
a psychological standpoint. Each stage of intellectual development will be explained in terms of the following
variables:

• Defining Feature
• Principal Challenge
• Knowledge of Thinking
• Skill in Thinking
• Relevant Intellectual Traits
• Some Implications for Instruction

Due to space limitations, we have made no attempt to be exhaustive with respect to any stage, nor to answer
the many questions that might be raised concerning the development, reliability or validity of the stages. The
basic intention is to provide a practical organizer for teachers interested in using a conceptual map to guide
student thinking through developmental stages in the process of becoming critical thinkers. Once the stages
are explained, and stage-specific recommendations are given, we close with some global implications for
instruction.

We make the following assumptions:

• that there are predictable stages through which every person who develops as a critical thinker
passes,
• that passage from one stage to the next is dependent upon a necessary level of commitment on the
part of an individual to develop as a critical thinker, is not automatic, and is unlikely to take place
“subconsciously,”
• that success in instruction is deeply connected to the intellectual quality of student learning,
• that regression is possible in development.

Before moving to the stages themselves, a brief overview of what we mean by critical thinking is in order. Our
working definition is as follows: We define critical thinking as:
the ability and disposition to improve one’s thinking by systematically subjecting it to intellectual self-
assessment.

It is important to recognize that on this view, persons are critical thinkers, in the fullest sense of the term, only if
they display this ability and disposition in all, or most, of the dimensions of their lives (e.g. as a parent, citizen,
consumer, lover, friend, learner, and professional). We exclude from our concept of the critical thinker those
who think critically in only one dimension of their lives. We do so because the quality of one’s life is dependent
upon high quality reasoning in all domains of one’s life, not simply in one dimension.

The stages we will lay out are as follows:

Stage One: The Unreflective Thinker

Stage Two: The Challenged Thinker
Stage Three: The Beginning Thinker
Stage Four: The Practicing Thinker
Stage Five: The Advanced Thinker
Stage Six: The Master Thinker

Stage One: The Unreflective Thinker

Defining Feature: Unreflective thinkers are largely unaware of the determining role that thinking is playing in
their lives and of the many ways that problems in thinking are causing problems in their lives. Unreflective
thinkers lack the ability to explicitly assess their thinking and improve it thereby.
Knowledge of Thinking: Unreflective thinkers lack the knowledge that high quality thinking requires regular
practice in taking thinking apart, accurately assessing it, and actively improving it. In fact, unreflective thinkers
are largely unaware of thinking as such, hence fail to recognize thinking as involving concepts, assumptions,
inferences, implications, points of view, etc. Unreflective thinkers are largely unaware of the appropriate
standards for the assessment of thinking: clarity, accuracy, precision, relevance, logicalness, etc.

Skill in Thinking: Unreflective thinkers may have developed a variety of skills in thinking without being aware
of them. However, these skills are inconsistently applied because of the lack of self-monitoring of thought.
Prejudices and misconceptions often undermine the quality of thought of the unreflective thinker.

Some Implications for Instruction: We must recognize that in the present mode of instruction it is perfectly
possible for students to graduate from high school, or even college, and still be largely unreflective thinkers.
Though all students think, most students are largely unaware of how their thinking is structured or how to
assess or improve it. Thus when they experience problems in thinking, they lack the skills to identify and “fix”
these problems. Most teachers do not seem to be aware of how unaware most students are of their thinking.
Little is being done at present to help students "discover" their thinking. This emphasis needs shifting.

Stage Two: The Challenged Thinker

Defining Features: Thinkers move to the “challenged” stage when they become initially aware of the
determining role that thinking is playing in their lives, and of the fact that problems in their thinking are causing
them serious and significant problems.

Principal Challenge: To become initially aware of the determining role of thinking in one’s life and of basic
problems that come from poor thinking.

Knowledge of Thinking: Challenged thinkers, unlike unreflective thinkers are becoming aware of thinking as
such. They are becoming aware, at some level, that high quality thinking requires deliberate reflective thinking
about thinking (in order to improve thinking). They recognize that their thinking is often flawed, although they
are not able to identify many of these flaws. Challenged thinkers may develop an initial awareness of thinking
as involving concepts, assumptions, inferences, implications, points of view, etc., and as involving standards
for the assessment of thinking: clarity, accuracy, precision, relevance, logicalness, etc., though they have only
an initial grasp of these standards and what it would take to internalize them. Challenged thinkers also develop
some understanding of the role of self-deception in thinking, though their understanding is limited. At this stage
the thinker develops some reflective awareness of how thinking operates for good or ill.
Skill in Thinking: Most challenged thinkers have very limited skills in thinking. However like unreflective
thinkers, they may have developed a variety of skills in thinking without being aware of them, and these skills
may (ironically) serve as barriers to development. At this stage thinkers with some implicit critical thinking
abilities may more easily deceive themselves into believing that their thinking is better than it actually is,
making it more difficult to recognize the problems inherent in poor thinking. To accept the challenge at this
level requires that thinkers gain insight into the fact that whatever intellectual skills they have are inconsistently
applied across the domains of their lives.

Relevant Intellectual Trait: The fundamental intellectual trait at this stage is intellectual humility, in order to
see that problems are inherent in one’s thinking.

Some Implications for Instruction: We must recognize the importance of challenging our students--in a
supportive way--to recognize both that they are thinkers and that their thinking often goes awry. We must lead
class discussions about thinking. We must explicitly model thinking (e.g., thinking aloud through a problem).
We must design classroom activities that explicitly require students to think about their thinking. We must have
students examine both poor and sound thinking, talking about the differences. We must introduce students to
the parts of thinking and the intellectual standards necessary to assess thinking. We must introduce the idea of
intellectual humility to students, that is, the idea of becoming aware of our own ignorance. Perhaps children
can best understand the importance of this idea through their concept of the "know-it-all," which comes closest
to their recognition of the need to be intellectually humble.

Stage Three: The Beginning Thinker

Defining Feature: Those who move to the beginning thinker stage are actively taking up the challenge to
begin to take explicit command of their thinking across multiple domains of their lives. Thinkers at this stage
recognize that they have basic problems in their thinking and make initial attempts to better understand how
they can take charge of and improve it. Based on this initial understanding, beginning thinkers begin to modify
some of their thinking, but have limited insight into deeper levels of the trouble inherent in their thinking. Most
importantly, they lack a systematic plan for improving their thinking, hence their efforts are hit and miss.

Principal Challenge: To begin to see the importance of developing as a thinker. To begin to seek ways to
develop as a thinker and to make an intellectual commitment to that end.

Knowledge of Thinking: Beginning thinkers, unlike challenged thinkers are becoming aware not only of
thinking as such, but also of the role in thinking of concepts, assumptions, inferences, implications, points of
view, etc. Beginning thinkers are also at some beginning stage of recognizing not only that there are standards
for the assessment of thinking: clarity, accuracy, precision, relevance, logicalness, etc., but also that one needs
to internalize them and thus begin using them deliberately in thinking. They have a beginning understanding of
the role of egocentric thinking in human life.

Skill in Thinking: Beginning thinkers are able to appreciate a critique of their powers of thought. Beginning
thinkers have enough skill in thinking to begin to monitor their own thoughts, though as “beginners” they are
sporadic in that monitoring. They are beginning to recognize egocentric thinking in themselves and others.

Relevant Intellectual Traits: The key intellectual trait required at this stage is some degree of intellectual
humility in beginning to recognize the problems inherent in thinking. In addition, thinkers must have some
degree of intellectual confidence in reason, a trait which provides the impetus to take up the challenge and
begin the process of active development as critical thinkers, despite limited understanding of what it means to
do high quality reasoning. In addition, beginning thinkers have enough intellectual perseverance to struggle
with serious problems in thinking while yet lacking a clear solution to those problems (in other words, at this
stage thinkers are recognizing more and more problems in their thinking but have not yet discovered how to
systematize their efforts to solve them).
Some Implications for Instruction: Once we have persuaded most of our students that much of their
thinking--left to itself--is flawed and that they, like all of us, are capable of improving as thinkers, we must teach
in such a way as to help them to see that we all need to regularly practice good thinking to become good
thinkers. Here we can use sporting analogies and analogies from other skill areas. Most students already know
that you can get good in a sport only if you regularly practice. We must not only look for opportunities to
encourage them to think well, we must help them to begin to understand what it is to develop good HABITS of
thinking. What do we need to do regularly in order to read well? What must we do regularly and habitually if we
are to listen well? What must we do regularly and habitually if we are to write well. What must we do regularly
and habitually if we are to learn well? We must recognize that students are not only creatures of habit, but like
the rest of us, they are largely unaware of the habits they are developing. They are largely unaware of what it
is to develop good habits (in general), let alone good habits of thinking. If our students are truly “beginning”
thinkers, they will be receptive to the importance of developing sound habits of thought. We must emphasize
the importance of beginning to take charge of the parts of thinking and applying intellectual standards to
thinking. We must teach students to begin to recognize their native egocentrism when it is operating in their
thinking.

Stage Four: The Practicing Thinker

Defining Feature: Thinkers at this stage have a sense of the habits they need to develop to take charge of
their thinking. They not only recognize that problems exist in their thinking, but they also recognize the need to
attack these problems globally and systematically. Based on their sense of the need to practice regularly, they
are actively analyzing their thinking in a number of domains. However, since practicing thinkers are only
beginning to approach the improvement of their thinking in a systematic way, they still have limited insight into
deeper levels of thought, and thus into deeper levels of the problems embedded in thinking.

Principal Challenge: To begin to develop awareness of the need for systematic practice in thinking.

Knowledge of Thinking: Practicing thinkers, unlike beginning thinkers are becoming knowledgeable of what it
would take to systematically monitor the role in their thinking of concepts, assumptions, inferences,
implications, points of view, etc. Practicing thinkers are also becoming knowledgeable of what it would take to
regularly assess their thinking for clarity, accuracy, precision, relevance, logicalness, etc. Practicing thinkers
recognize the need for systematicity of critical thinking and deep internalization into habits. They clearly
recognize the natural tendency of the human mind to engage in egocentric thinking and self-deception.

Skill in Thinking: Practicing thinkers have enough skill in thinking to critique their own plan for systematic
practice, and to construct a realistic critique of their powers of thought. Furthermore, practicing thinkers have
enough skill to begin to regularly monitor their own thoughts. Thus they can effectively articulate the strengths
and weaknesses in their thinking. Practicing thinkers can often recognize their own egocentric thinking as well
as egocentric thinking on the part of others. Furthermore practicing thinkers actively monitor their thinking to
eliminate egocentric thinking, although they are often unsuccessful.

Relevant Intellectual Traits: The key intellectual trait required to move to this stage is intellectual
perseverance. This characteristic provides the impetus for developing a realistic plan for systematic practice
(with a view to taking greater command of one’s thinking). Furthermore, thinkers at this stage have the
intellectual humility required to realize that thinking in all the domains of their lives must be subject to scrutiny,
as they begin to approach the improvement of their thinking in a systematic way.

Some Implications for Instruction: What are the basic features of thinking that students must command to
effectively become practicing thinkers? What do they need to do to take charge of their thinking intellectually,
with respect to any content? We must teach in such a way that students come to understand the power in
knowing that whenever humans reason, they have no choice but to use certain predictable structures of
thought: that thinking is inevitably driven by the questions, that we seek answers to questions for some
purpose, that to answer questions, we need information, that to use information we must interpret it (i.e., by
making inferences), and that our inferences, in turn, are based on assumptions, and have implications, all of
which involves ideas or concepts within some point of view. We must teach in such a way as to require
students to regularly deal explicitly with these structures (more on these structure presently).

Students should now be developing the habit---whenever they are trying to figure something out---of focusing
on: purpose, question, information, inferences, assumptions, concepts, point of view, and implications. The
result of this emphasis in instruction is that students begin to see connections between all the subject matter
they are learning. In studying history, they learn to focus on historical purposes and questions. When studying
math, they clarify and analyze mathematical goals and problems. When studying literature, they reflect upon
literary purposes and questions. They notice themselves making historical, mathematical, and literary
assumptions. They notice themselves tracing historical, mathematical, and literary implications. Recognizing
the "moves" one makes in thinking well is an essential part of becoming a practicing thinker.

Students should be encouraged to routinely catch themselves thinking both egocentrically and sociocentrically.
They should understand, for example, that most of the problems they experience in learning result from a
natural desire to avoid confusion and frustration, and that their inability to understand another person’s point of
view is often caused by their tendency to see the world exclusively within their own egocentric point of view.

Stage Five: The Advanced Thinker

Defining Feature: Thinkers at this stage have now established good habits of thought which are “paying off.”
Based on these habits, advanced thinkers not only actively analyze their thinking in all the significant domains
of their lives, but also have significant insight into problems at deeper levels of thought. While advanced
thinkers are able to think well across the important dimensions of their lives, they are not yet able to think at a
consistently high level across all of these dimensions. Advanced thinkers have good general command over
their egocentric nature. They continually strive to be fair-minded. Of course, they sometimes lapse into
egocentrism and reason in a one-sided way.
Principal Challenge: To begin to develop depth of understanding not only of the need for systematic practice
in thinking, but also insight into deep levels of problems in thought: consistent recognition, for example, of
egocentric and sociocentric thought in one’s thinking, ability to identify areas of significant ignorance and
prejudice, and ability to actually develop new fundamental habits of thought based on deep values to which
one has committed oneself.

Knowledge of Thinking: Advanced thinkers are actively and successfully engaged in systematically
monitoring the role in their thinking of concepts, assumptions, inferences, implications, points of view, etc., and
hence have excellent knowledge of that enterprise. Advanced thinkers are also knowledgeable of what it takes
to regularly assess their thinking for clarity, accuracy, precision, relevance, logicalness, etc. Advanced thinkers
value the deep and systematic internalization of critical thinking into their daily habits. Advanced thinkers have
keen insight into the role of egocentrism and sociocentrism in thinking, as well as the relationship between
thoughts, feelings and desires.

They have a deep understanding of the powerful role that thinking plays in the quality of their lives. They
understand that egocentric thinking will always play a role in their thinking, but that they can control the power
that egocentrism has over their thinking and their lives.

Skill in Thinking: Advanced thinkers regularly critique their own plan for systematic practice, and improve it
thereby. Practicing thinkers regularly monitor their own thoughts. They insightfully articulate the strengths and
weaknesses in their thinking. They possess outstanding knowledge of the qualities of their thinking. Advanced
thinkers are consistently able to identify when their thinking is driven by their native egocentrism; and they
effectively use a number of strategies to reduce the power of their egocentric thoughts.
Relevant Intellectual Traits: The key intellectual trait required at this stage is a high degree of intellectual
humility in recognizing egocentric and sociocentric thought in one’s life as well as areas of significant ignorance
and prejudice. In addition the thinker at this level needs:
• the intellectual insight and perseverance to actually develop new fundamental habits of thought
based on deep values to which one has committed oneself,
• the intellectual integrity to recognize areas of inconsistency and contradiction in one’s life,
• the intellectual empathy necessary to put oneself in the place of others in order to genuinely
understand them,
• the intellectual courage to face and fairly address ideas, beliefs, or viewpoints toward which one
has strong negative emotions,
• the fair-mindedness necessary to approach all viewpoints without prejudice, without reference to
one’s own feelings or vested interests. In the advanced thinker these traits are emerging, but may
not be manifested at the highest level or in the deepest dimensions of thought.

Some Implications for Instruction: It is important that students learn what it would be to become an advanced
thinker. It is important that they see it as an important goal. We can help students move in this direction by
fostering their awareness of egocentrism and sociocentrism in their thinking, by leading discussions on
intellectual perseverance, intellectual integrity, intellectual empathy, intellectual courage, and fair-mindedness.
If we can graduate students who are practicing thinkers, we will have achieved a major break-through in
schooling. However intelligent our graduates may be, most of them are largely unreflective as thinkers, and are
unaware of the disciplined habits of thought they need to develop to grow intellectually as a thinker.

Stage Six: The Master Thinker

Defining Feature: Master thinkers not only have systematically taken charge of their thinking, but are also
continually monitoring, revising, and re-thinking strategies for continual improvement of their thinking. They
have deeply internalized the basic skills of thought, so that critical thinking is, for them, both conscious and
highly intuitive. As Piaget would put it, they regularly raise their thinking to the level of conscious realization.
Through extensive experience and practice in engaging in self-assessment, master thinkers are not only
actively analyzing their thinking in all the significant domains of their lives, but are also continually developing
new insights into problems at deeper levels of thought. Master thinkers are deeply committed to fair-minded
thinking, and have a high level of, but not perfect, control over their egocentric nature.

Principal Challenge: To make the highest levels of critical thinking intuitive in every domain of one’s life. To
internalize highly effective critical thinking in an interdisciplinary and practical way.

Knowledge of Thinking: Master thinkers are not only actively and successfully engaged in systematically
monitoring the role in their thinking of concepts, assumptions, inferences, implications, points of view, etc., but
are also regularly improving that practice. Master thinkers have not only a high degree of knowledge of
thinking, but a high degree of practical insight as well. Master thinkers intuitively assess their thinking for
clarity, accuracy, precision, relevance, logicalness, etc. Master thinkers have deep insights into the systematic
internalization of critical thinking into their habits. Master thinkers deeply understand the role that egocentric
and sociocentric thinking plays in the lives of human beings, as well as the complex relationship between
thoughts, emotions, drives and behavior.

Skill in Thinking: Master thinkers regularly, effectively, and insightfully critique their own use of thinking in
their lives, and improve it thereby. Master thinkers consistently monitor their own thoughts. They effectively and
insightfully articulate the strengths and weaknesses inherent in their thinking. Their knowledge of the qualities
of their thinking is outstanding. Although, as humans they know they will always be fallible (because they must
always battle their egocentrism, to some extent), they consistently perform effectively in every domain of their
lives. People of good sense seek out master thinkers, for they recognize and value the ability of master
thinkers to think through complex issues with judgment and insight.
Relevant Intellectual Traits: Naturally inherent in master thinkers are all the essential intellectual
characteristics, deeply integrated. Master thinkers have a high degree of intellectual humility, intellectual
integrity, intellectual perseverance, intellectual courage, intellectual empathy, intellectual autonomy, intellectual
responsibility and fair-mindedness. Egocentric and sociocentric thought is quite uncommon in the master
thinker, especially with respect to matters of importance. There is a high degree of integration of basic values,
beliefs, desires, emotions, and action.

Some implications for Instruction: For the foreseeable future the vast majority of our students will never
become master thinkers--any more than most high school basketball players will develop the skills or abilities
of a professional basketball player or student writers the writing skills of a published novelist. Nevertheless, it is
important that they learn what it would be to become a master thinker. It is important that they see it as a real
possibility, if practicing skills of thinking becomes a characteristic of how they use their minds day to day.

General Implications for Instruction

We believe that the thinking of students will remain "invisible" to them unless they are supportively challenged
to discover the problems in their thinking. This is not possible unless they receive careful introduction into the
intellectual workings of the human mind.. Thus it is vital that an intellectual vocabulary for talking about the
mind be established for teachers; and that teachers lead discussions in class designed to teach students, from
the point of view of intellectual quality, how their minds work, including how they can improve as thinkers.

Of course, teachers need to take students through stages of intellectual development. For example, in
elementary school an essential objective would be that students become "beginning" thinkers, that is, that they
will be taught so that they discover that they are thinkers and that their thinking, like a house, can be well or
poorly constructed. This "discovery" stage--the coming to awareness that all of us are thinkers--needs to be
given the highest priority. Middle school and High School, on this model, would aim at helping all students
become, at least, "practicing" thinkers. Of course, students discover thinking only by discovering that thinking
has "parts." Like learning what "Legos" are, we learn as we come to discover that there are various parts to
thinking and those parts can be put together in various ways. Unlike Legos, of course, thinking well requires
that we learn to check how the parts of thinking are working together to make sure they are working properly:
For example, have we checked the accuracy of information? Have we clarified the question?

We are not advocating here that teachers withdraw from academic content. Rather we are suggesting that
critical thinking provides a way of deeply embracing content intellectually. Within this view students come to
take intellectual command of how they think, act, and react while they are learning...history, biology,
geography, literature, etc., how they think, act, and react as a reader, writer, speaker, and listener, how they
think, act, and react as a student, brother, friend, child, shopper, consumer of the media, etc.

For example if we teach all courses with emphasis on the parts, or intellectual elements of thinking, we can
help students discover content as a mode of thinking at the same time they are discovering their minds as
thinkers. In fact, to effectively learn any subject in an intellectually meaningful way presupposes a certain level
of command over one’s thinking, which in turn presupposes understanding of the mind’s processes.

The Advantages of Critical Thinking

When teachers become advocates of quality thinking and learning, in keeping with this stage theory, they
teach in such a way that students are regularly required to:

• state and explain goals and purposes,

• clarify the questions they need to answer and the problems they need to solve,
• gather and organize information and data,
• explicitly assess the meaning and significance of information you give them,
• demonstrate that they understand concepts,
• identify assumptions,
• consider implications and consequences,
 • examine things from more than one point of view,
• state what they say clearly,
• test and check for accuracy,
• stick to questions, issues, or problems; and not wander in their thinking,
• express themselves precisely and exactly,
• deal with complexities in problems and issues,
• consider the point of view of others,
• express their thinking logically,
• distinguish significant matters from insignificant ones,

And as a result of such instruction, the students (in general):

• learn content at a deeper and more permanent level

• are better able to explain and apply what they learn,
• are better able to connect what they are learning in one class with what they are learning in
other classes,
• ask more and better questions in class,
• understand the textbook better,
• follow directions better,
• understand more of what you present in class,
• write better,
• apply more of what they are learning to their everyday life,
• become more motivated learners in general,
• become progressively easier to teach.

Closing

There are many ways to teach content so that students progress as thinkers. However if we are to do so, we
must explicitly focus on the mind intellectually and grasp the stages that students must progress through. We
and our students must recognize that we all develop incrementally as thinkers, and that the progress of any
one of us is directly dependent on our level of intellectual knowledge and commitment. Put another way, if I am
to develop my critical thinking ability I must both "discover" my thinking and must intellectually take charge of it.
To do this I must make a deep commitment to this end.

Why is this so important? Precisely because the human mind, left to its own, pursues that which is
immediately easy, that which is comfortable, and that which serves its selfish interests. At the same
time, it naturally resists that which is difficult to understand, that which involves complexity, that
which requires entering the thinking and predicaments of others.

For these reasons, it is crucial that we as teachers and educators discover our own "thinking," the thinking we
do in the classroom and outside the classroom, the thinking that gets us into trouble and the thinking that
enables us to grow. As educators we must treat thinking--quality thinking--as our highest priority. It is the
fundamental determinant of the quality of our lives. It is the fundamental determinant of the quality of the lives
of our students. We are at some stage in our development as thinkers. Our students are at some stage in the
development of theirs. When we learn together as developing thinkers, when we all of us seek to raise our
thinking to the next level, and then to the next after that, everyone benefits, and schooling then becomes what
it was meant to be, a place to discover the power of lifelong learning. This should be a central goal for all our
students--irrespective of their favored mode of intelligence or learning style. It is in all of our interest to accept
the challenge: to begin, to practice, to advance as thinkers.

{Elder, L. with Paul R. (1996). At website www.criticalthinking.org}