1.

Elements of Sentences

1.1.Types of Phrases

A phrase is a group of related words (within a sentence) without both subject and verb.
Eg. 1. Car (a word)-a name of object
2. A new car (a phrase) - it answers what kind of car it is? It makes sense but not complete
sense.
A phrase functions as a noun, verb, adverb, adjective or preposition in a sentence. The function
of a phrase depends on its construction (words it contains). On the basis of their functions and
constructions, phrases are divided into various types i.e. noun phrase, verb phrase,
prepositional phrase, infinite phrase, participle phrase and gerund phrase.

Noun Phrase

A noun phrase consists of a noun as the head word and other words (usually modifiers and
determiners) which come after or before the noun. The whole phrase works as a noun in a
sentence.
Noun Phrase = noun + modifiers (the modifiers can be after or before noun)

Examples
He is wearing a nice red shirt. (as noun/object)
She brought a glass full of water. (as noun/object)
The boy with brown hair is laughing. (as noun/subject)
A man on the roof was shouting. (as noun/subject)

 A sentence can also contain more noun phrases.

For example: The girl with blue eyes bought a beautiful chair.

Prepositional phrase

A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition as a head word, objects of preposition (noun

or pronoun) and may also consist of other modifiers. e.g. on a table, near a wall, in the room, at
the door, under a tree etc. A prepositional phrase starts with a preposition and mostly ends with
a noun or pronoun. Whatever prepositional phrase ends with is called object of preposition. A
prepositional phrase functions as an adjective or adverb in a sentence.

Examples:
A boy on the roof is singing a song. (As adjective)
The man in the room is our teacher. (As adjective)
She is shouting in a loud voice. (As adverb)
He always behaves in a good manner. (As adverb)

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Infinitive Phrase

An infinitive phrase consist of an infinitive (to + simple form of verb) and modifiers or other
words associated to the infinitive. An infinitive phrase always functions as an adjective, adverb
or a noun in a sentence.

Examples:
He likes to read books. (As noun/object)
To earn money is a desire of everyone. (As noun/subject)
He shouted to inform people about fire. (As adverb, modifies verb shout)
He made a plan to buy a car. (As adjective, modifies noun plan)

Gerund Phrase

A gerund phrase consists of a gerund (verb + -ing) and modifiers or other words associated with
the gerund. A gerund phrase acts as a noun in a sentence.

Examples
I like writing good essays. (As noun/object)
She started thinking about the problem. (As noun/object)
Sleeping late in night is not a good habit. (As noun/subject)
Weeping of a baby woke him up. (As noun/subject)

Participle Phrase

A participle phrase consists of a present participle (verb + ing), a past participle (verb ending in
-ed or other form in case of irregular verbs) and modifiers or other associate words. A participle
phrase is separated by commas. It always acts as an adjective in a sentence.

Examples
The kids, making a noise, need food. (modifies kids)
I received a letter, mentioning about my exam. (modifies letter)
The table, made of steel, is too expensive. (modifies table)
We saw a car, damaged in an accident. (modifies car)

1.2 Clause

A clause is a group of related words containing a subject and a verb. A clause can be usefully
distinguished from a phrase, which is a group of related words that does not contain a subject-
verb relationship, such as "in the morning" or "running down the street" or "having grown used
to this harassment." We can classify clauses into main types i.e. subordinate/ dependant clause
and main/independent clause.

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Dependent or Subordinate Clauses

A dependent or subordinate clause depends on an independent clause to express its full meaning
(as in ―Because I love grammar.‖). These clauses begin with a dependent word,
like a subordinating conjunction or a relative pronoun. Subordination involves turning one of
the clauses into a subordinate element (one that cannot stand on its own) through the use of a
Subordinating Conjunction (sometimes called a dependent word) or a Relative Pronoun.
When the clause begins with a subordinating word, it is no longer an independent clause; it is
called a dependent or subordinate clause because it depends on something else (the independent
clause) for its meaning.

Eg. . Although Ramonita often thought about joining the choir, she never talked to her friends
about it.
 Ramonita never talked to her friends about joining the choir, because she was afraid they
would make fun of her.
 Yasmin told Ramonita to join the choir no matter what her friends said.

Independent Clauses

Independent Clauses could stand by themselves as discrete sentences, except that when they do
stand by themselves, separated from other clauses, they're normally referred to simply as
sentences, not clauses. The ability to recognize a clause and to know when a clause is capable of
acting as an independent unit is essential to correct writing and is especially helpful in avoiding
sentence fragments and run-on sentences..

Eg. 1. The bus arrived.

2. In the morning we began to explore the beach.

2. What is Sentence?
Definition: a group of words that express complete thought and make sense.

Which one is sentence and which one isn’t?

1. It was a hot day.

2. As it was a hot day.
3. Barking dogs.
4. Dogs bark.

2.1 Parts of sentence

Sentence has two parts i.e. a naming part (subject) and a telling part (predicate).
Subject - noun/pronoun with any of its modifiers.
Eg.1. Water freezes (what is this sentence about?)
2. Most students passed the test (what is this sentence about?)
Predicate- tells something about the subject- verb/verb phrase with any modifier or words used
to complete

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E.g. several branches fell. (What does this sentence about the branch?). They fell.

Identify the subject and predicate

1. Barking dogs seldom bite.
2. Taking overmuch is a sign of vanity.
3. The test directions confused the students.
4. With their fingers, the children draw pictures on the steamed window.

Types of subject and types of predicate

Every sentence short or long is made up of one or more units containing two main parts; subject
and predicate.

1. Simple subject and simple predicate

E.g. 1. John fights having simple subject and simple verb (word)
2. They run
2. Complete subject and complete predicate
2.1. Complete subject- expanded by addition of modifying words.
E.g. Flowers are blooming- (one word, is a simple subject)
The flowers are blooming complete subject
The small flowers are blooming
The small red petaled flowers are blooming.

2.2. Complete predicate- expanded form of predicate (expanded by modifiers)

Eg. Solomon is walking- simple predicate
Solomon is walking quickly complete predicate
Solomon is walking quickly to school
Solomon is walking quickly to school in the morning.
3. Compound subject and compound predicate
a. Compound subject – a subject can be made up of two or more nouns or pronouns. In this
case the sentence has compound subject.
Eg. 1. Gemechu and Chaltu saved $500 a year with grocery coupons.
2, A right attitude and a winning personality should be your best principle to get a job.
b. Compound predicate- a sentence can have two or more verbs for the same subject.
Eg. 1. We chopped the celery, diced the carrots, and sliced the onions.
2, The snow fell throughout the night and blanketed the area.
3, You should leave at six o‘clock and arrive by mid night.

 Word orders in a sentence

The correct word orders of sentence is subject + predicate = Norman/ common order

Person/object/thing verb + object/ complement.

Eg. He/ was unlucky.

Games played the children- wrong

She is wife a good.

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Drove the man a car.

But this will be broken in case of question/ interrogative sentence & exclamatory and other
cases.

Sentence combination- is to combine two or more sentence in to one in order to create long
sentences and to attract your readers by varying your sentence length. This can be achieved by
either coordination or subordination.

1.1 Coordinate conjunction- (and, but, or, yet, nor, so, for) are joining two or more independent
clauses/sentences by coordinators and the sentences remain independent. The most
commonly used coordinating conjunctions which are used in writing are the following:
a) For-a more formal word for because, this shows a result- cause relationship between two
independent clauses. It shows logical consequences; it has the same meaning as because, the
reason why.
b) And- shows the addition of two positive ideas. It has the same meaning as in addition, along
with, moreover, furthermore.
c) Nor- shows equality of two negative ideas. It shows an addition of a negative point. (Note:
you must revers the normal subject- verb positions in the second clause when using nor)
d) But- shows opposition or contrast between two ideas. It has the same meaning as however,
except, on the other hand
e) Or- shows alternative or choice
f) Yet- shows oppositions; also shows emphasis (a stronger but).
g) So- shows cause- effect relationship. It has the same meaning as therefore, as a result.

Note: when you use the above coordinating conjunctions to join complete sentence, use the
comma before the coordinators.

Examples:
1. Azeb studied hard, so she scored a good grade.
2. You must come early, or you will miss the bus.
3. The driver could not control the speed of the car, for the brake was not working.
4. The patient didn‘t eat his dinner, nor did he eat his lunch.
5. He knew the cost, yet he did it anyway.
6. He studied hard but, she failed the examination.
7. We went to the movie, and we ate snack.
Activity: combine the following pairs of sentences by using coordinating conjunctions.
1. a. The dog ate the food very fast
b. The dog was very hungry
2. a. The boy sang very well at the Ethiopian Idols.
b. the judges didn‘t allow him to pass to the next stage.
3. a. Aster didn‘t bring her exercise book
b. Aster didn‘t bring her pen.
4. a. The farmer worked day and night
b. The farmer harvested a lot of crops

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1.1.Correlating conjunction- are coordination words that work in pairs to join words, phrases,
and sentences.
1.2 Correlative conjunction
C. C Meaning
 Either---or ---------one of the two
 Neither-- nor------none of the two
 Both-----and-------both
 Whether—or------dilemma/hesitation/confusion
 Not only----but---also----both

Examples:
1. For the dessert, you may have either cake or ice cream. Either---or __ links two nouns.
2. Neither my sister nor my cousins are invited to the party.
3. Both my sister and my brother work with computers.
4. I wander whether to make the telephone call or to see her in person.
5. Not only my sister but also my cousins are invited to the party.
Activity: Combine the following sentences by using correlative conjunctions.
1. A. To go to Gondar you can use a bus.
B. To go to Gondar, you can use a plane.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. A. Azeb is beautiful.
B. Azeb is honest.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. (I am in confusion)
A. I want to go to class.
B. I want to go to my appointment.

1.2. Adverb Conjunction: is an adverb used to relate and connect main clauses in sentence. Common
conjunctive adverbs are:
Also still consequently however likewise
Hence then furthermore moreover otherwise
Thus instead nevertheless therefore
 Except some conjunctions like still and also, most adverb conjunctions are preceded by a semi
colon and followed by comma. Still and also are not preceded by semi colon.
Example:
1. I ordered the concert ticket; therefore, I didn‘t have to stand in line.
2. Our muscles were tired and sore; nevertheless, we kept on jogging.
3. Sorry I am late. My alarm didn‘t go off. Also, I had trouble starting the car.
4. He has treated: still, he is your brother.
 Some other adverbs like otherwise and then are preceded by a semi colon but not followed by a
comma.

Example:

1. John must be sick; otherwise he would be here.

2. She made coffee; then she cooked breakfast.

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Meaning coordination Adverb conjunction
Addition ,and ;furthermore /;moreover,
Contrast , but/ ,yet ;however, / ;nevertheless,
Alternative ,or/ ,nor(negative) ;instead,/ ;otherwise,
Result ,so ;therefore,/ ;consequently, /; thus,

Activity: join the following pairs of sentences using the appropriate conjunctive adverbs. Be sure to
punctuate it properly.

1. A. Sunshine Construction Company is building a plant in Nazareth.

B, Sunshine Construction Company is planning to build another in Bahir Dar next year.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. A. Tell him to carry out his duties properly!
B, we will fire him.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
3. A. A computer manufacturing plant is opening in Cairo.
B, There will be thousands of new jobs available next year.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
4. A. He worked hard.
B, He became rich.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
5. A. Dire Dawa is growing fast.
B, Jigjiga is growing slowly.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
2. Subordinating – joining of an independent clause and a dependent clause in the same sentence by
using subordinators, and these can be divided in two: 1. Subordinate conjunction 2. Relative pronoun.

Meaning Subordinating Conjunctions

Cause Because, since, as
Time Since, as, after, until, as soon as, after, before, when, while, whenever, as long as
Condition If, as if, as long as, provided that, provided, as though
Contrast/concession Though/even though/although, even if, whereas, while
Result That, so that, in order that
Place Where, wherever
Comparison As, then, as----as

Example: 1. Because the train was late, I arrived late to work.

2, Rahel was reading fiction while here brother was listened music.

Types of sentences
Structural classification
1. Simple sentence- composed of one subject and one predicate
Eg. 1. Worku runs

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 2. Worku and his wife run every morning
3. Worku runs and plays ground tennis morning.
2. Compound sentence- consists/composed of two or more simple sentences joined by
connectives like ‗and‘, ‗but‘, ‗or‘, ‗yet‘, ‗for‘, ‗nor‘, ‗so‘, or by a semi-colon(;) or colon(:) or
conjunctive adverbs like however, thus, therefore, consequently, moreover, furthermore etc.

Eg. 1. The economy stagnates and the price rises

2. We started on time, but the bus delayed us.
3. We must eat to live, but we should not live to eat.
4. I ordered the concert tickets by mails; therefore, I didn‘t have to stand in line.
5. He didn‘t study the exam, nor did he pass.
3. Complex sentence- consists of one independent (main) clause and one or more (dependant)
subordinate clause.
Eg. 1. They rested when evening came.
2. If he wins the battle, he will be crowned.
3. They serve God who serves his creatures.
4. Compound complex- it is the combination of compound and complex sentence i.e. it contains at least
two independent and one dependant clauses.
Eg. 1. Because it was hot day, Hanna ordered a cold Pepsi, and drank it at ones.
3. When the sky darkened, the wind blew, and the leaves fell.

Activity: Identify each sentences as simple, compound, complex or compound complex.

1. He worked hard, yet he didn‘t succeed.

2. He must not attempt to escape on pain of death.
3. He believes that he isn‘t innocent.
4. Leaving it all behind, I was happy at last.
5. We must eat or we cannot live.
6. Night came on, and we all got very wet as the rain fell heavily.
7. Time makes the worst enemies of friends.
8. The moment, which is lost, is lost forever.
9. He ate dinner and slept quickly.
10. Whatever you do well.
11. The man in the blue and his wife wrote a letter and mailed it yesterday.
12. Quarrels would not last long if the faults were only on one side.

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Common errors in Sentence construction
1. Sentence fragment- a word group/incomplete sentence that lacks a subject or a verb and
that doesn‘t express a complete thought.
Eg.1. While they were walking.
2 Terrorized by the hyena.
Types of fragment
I. Dependant clause fragment- a clause that begins with subordinate conjunctions
like after, since, because, while, although, until, when, whenever etc.
Eg. 1. Because it is too late. They couldn‘t catch up the bus.
1. Although we didn‘t got out to sea very much.
2. Tesfaye asked for a loan. Which he promised to pay back in two weeks.
II. The fragments in which either subjects or verbs are omitted.
 Eg. The truck skidded on the rain slick-high way. But missed a telephone pole on
the side of the road.
 There many points of view on the subject.
III. Add detail/appositive fragment
They often begin with one of one of the following words.
Especially among them
Including for example
 Eg. I love to cook and eat Italian food. Especially Sphaghatti and Lasagna.
 The class often starts late. For example, at quarter after nine instead of at nine
sharp.
IV. The participle (-ing, and –ed ending) and infinitive ‘to’ fragment- participle
and infinitive phrase written without independent clause are fragments because
they often lack the subject and verb (predicate).
Eg. I spent almost two hours. Trying to find a clinic.
Devastated by the Ethiopian army.
I spent on working overmuch. To get this job finish.
2. Dangling Modifiers- it is a phrase or a clause that either modifies nothing in the sentence or
that seems to modify a word to which is not logically related.
Eg. While smoking a pipe, my dog sat with me in the house. (Who is smoking a pipe in this
Sentence?)
1, Watering the garden, a snake was seen.
2, While sailing, a shark broke close to our boat.
3, In reading the poem, the first line is confusing.
4, Frustrated by the worsening health, the job was abandoned.
3. Run- on sentences-consists of two or more independent sentences run together (joined to
gather) with either no punctuation or with only a comma. Run on sentences with no
punctuation is called fused sentences, and run-on sentences with only a comma is called
comma splice.
 Eg. Capital punishment is ethically unacceptable it is against the moral of
postmodern society.
 The work was harder than I thought it was going to be, it almost killed me.
Ways of correcting
 Using a period (full stop) and write two separate sentences

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  Using a semi-colon or adverbial conjunctions such as thus, for example, on the other
hand, also, however, moreover, consequently, nevertheless, therefore, likewise, hence,
then, indeed, otherwise, still, furthermore.
 Using a comma and a coordinate conjunctions (but, and, or, for, so, nor, yet).
 Make one of a sentence dependant
Exercise – Rewrite the following run-on sentences correctly.
1. I come to the open field, it was not like the one I remember.
2. He enjoyed the beach last summer he is not going again.
3. I am arriving to Dire Dawa, I am not going anywhere.
4. It began to rain we had to call off our game.
4. Misplaced Modifiers – a modifier that refers to the wrong noun (noun phrase) or verb or
verb phrase. When a modifier is misplaced, the resulting meaning will be unintended.
Therefore you should know where the modifiers are placed.
Eg. Their marriage nearly was broken.
He left his car to be sold with the dealers.
Exercise –identify the following misplaced modifiers and rewrite them correctly
1. The man may have to rush his wife to the hospital who is about to have a baby.
2. There is a photograph in the bed room of an Africa elephant.
3. Abebe, shortly after he married and died, developed AIDS.
4. Almaz is my sister who you see with me in the morning.
5. Nearly she fainted when she meet her lost brother.
6. He almost studied for eight hours.
7. The teacher place two objects on his desk which I had never seen before.
5. Reference ambiguity/ faulty reference of pronouns-ambiguous sentences can mean
more than one thing because the pronouns used in the sentence may refer to different
nouns mentioned in sentences i.e. the fault occurs when pronouns are not correctly used.
Eg. 1, The mother told her daughter that she had to see the guest.
2, Television is quite good tonight; it is one of my favorite programs.
What does the pronoun ‗she’ and ‗it’ refers in the above two sentences?
Exercise – Revise the following sentences.
1, The moving Van struck a lamppost; luckily, no one was injured, but it was badly
damaged
2, Almaz told her friend that she was probably a genius.
3, Dany enjoyed his brother‘s wedding. His wife gave him a new tie.
4, Aster is an excellent singer; yet she has never taken a lesson in it.
5, Martha told Seniet that she should have written her a letter.
6.Faulty agreement-agreement is the relation between a verb and a subject, a pronoun and its
antecedent and number of subject and number of verb. Fault occurs when this agreement is
not well maintained.
Eg, 1, Tadelech and her sister is studying computer science.
7.Faulty parallelism-occurs when there is non-parallel constructions in a sentence.
Eg. 1. Martha likes walking, swimming, mountaineering and she likes reading.
Exercise- rewrite the following fault agreement and faulty parallelism correctly.
1, The teacher cannot tell whether an error is caused by ignorance or carless.
2, In the shop you could find the leather jackets, fur coats, cotton t-shirts, and trousers that are
beautiful
3, Daniel is one of the outstanding students who has been rewarded by the education office.

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What is Paragraph?
a. What is paragraph?
b. What is the relationship between each sentence in a paragraph?
c. What is the main function of a topic sentence in a paragraph? Where do we put it?
d. How many ideas does a paragraph develop?
e. What are the principles of paragraph development?

Samual is very shy. At parties he sits in a corner by himself all the night. When he is in crowd,
you would never notice him. When you talk to him, he looks at the ground and stammers out one
word replies. He never speaks in a class and I never seen him talk to girls. He is a nice person,
but few people ever get to know him.

Task 1: Supply topic sentence for the following paragraph.

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------. First I lost my not

book. Then I broke the mirror in my compact bag when I dropped it. I got sick during lunch and
flanked my geometry midterm first period after lunch. I cried all the way to the dorms.

Task 2: read and underline the sentence that doesn’t belong to the paragraph in the space
provided.

1. Selam is one of my classmates. She is from Tigray and speaks Tigregna. Mekele is the
capital city of Tigray. Selam is tall and pretty. She smiles a lot and is an excellent student.
2. My father is a business man. Every day he has breakfast with his family and then goes to
work. He has brown eyes and curly brown hair. He works in his office all morning and
then usually has lunch at restaurant. He works until 5:00 in the afternoon and then comes
home. He is happy to be at home at the end of the busy day.

Task 3: Reorder the following jumbled sentences in order to maintain its coherence and
indicate the transitional markers/pronouns/ any repeated expressions.

1. A. Second compare fees for special services, such as stopping cheers.

B. Always compares several banks before you open a checking account.
C. Finally, the monthly fee each bank charges when we save.
D. Firstly, the monthly credit charges of each bank when we borrow.
E. Next, see if you well be earning interest on your account.
2. A. The floods were welcomed by the people
B. They allowed the people to produce good harvest year after year.
C. The Nile has always been important provider for the people of Egypt.
D. Each year the river floods the land along its bank.
E. When the flood went down, they left behind a fresh covering of fertile soil.
F . It has been a reliable source of water and a convenient means of travel for the thousands
of years.

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 Paragraph Development Methods/ Types of Paragraphs

1. Definition
It is a paragraph that precisely explains what something is or how it looks or works its purpose,
etc. This type of paragraph answers the question, ―What do you mean?‖ For example, what do
you mean by ―Biblical authority‖? It provides a single definition which is expanded into more specific
detail (discussing qualities).

Example 1:

Emblems are gestures or body motions that mean the same as words or phrases. Just as we learn
the meanings of words, we learn the meanings of emblems in our society. One common emblem
in many places is the thumb-up signal, which often expresses, which can mean ― I don‘t know,‖
or ― who cares‖ and nodding the head to communicate ―yes‖ or ―no.‖

Example 2:

"Park" is difficult to define in Florida, because there are so many kinds of parks. Basically, a
park is a place to go for outdoor recreation-to swim, picnic, hike, camp, walk the dog, play
tennis, paddle your canoe, and, in some places take rides in miniature trains or swish down a
waterslide. Florida has a rich variety of parks, ranging from acres of RVs ringed around
recreation halls, to impenetrable mangrove wilderness. To make things more complicated, not all
of them are called "parks," and even the ones called "parks" come in several varieties.

What term is being defined? -----------------------------------------------

Which sentence gives the definition? -----------------------------------
Which sentences explains something about the term? ----------------

Activity: Develop a definition paragraph by defining the bicycle or any other object or idea that you
choose.
2. Exemplification /Explaining with Examples:

It is a technic of supporting or developing a topic or a point though specific cases or instances. It is

writing sentences in which the focus is to present experiences, cases, facts, etc. to make the abstracts
concrete, to make the illustrations vivid. The paragraph will then include at least three examples that
support your conclusion.

Task 1: look at this text/paragraph whose main points is supported with examples and identify the
examples that are used in this paragraph.

Office politics is a destructive game played by several types of people. For instance, two supervisors may
get into a conflict over how to do a certain job. Instead of working in agreement like adults, they carry on
a power struggle that turns the poor employees under them into human Ping-Pong balls being swatted
between two angry players. Another common example of office politics is the ambitious worker who
takes credit for other people‘s ideas. He or she will chat in a ―friendly‖ fashion with inexperienced

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employees, getting their idea about how to run the office smoothly. Next thing you know Mr. or Ms.
Ideas Stealers is having a close- door session with the boss and getting promotion pointing for his or her
―wonderful creativity.‖ Yet another illustration of office politics is the spy. This employee acts very
buddy-buddy with workers, often dropping little comment about things he or she doesn‘t like in the work
place. The spy encourages people to talk about their problems at work, how they don‘t like their boss, the
spy, and the working conditions. Then the spy goes straight back and repeats all he or she heard too the
boss, and the employees get blamed for their ―poor attitude.‖ A final example of office politics is people
who gossip. Too often, office politics can turn a perfectly fine work situation into a successful one.

Task2: in pair list down the most frequently used markers of exemplifications.

Task3: using one of the topics i.e. pollution, love, poverty, faithfulness, sex, - write a paragraph of about
150 words (8-10 sentences). When you write, follow the steps:
1. State your topic sentence
2. Write two or three major supports
3. Think of examples to explain the major supports
4. Organize the text in a text form and write it out
5. Edit the next
N.B: your sentences must be free from common errors, should be coherent, and should support the
topic sentence (should have unity and continuity), should have good structure i.e. opening,
presentation, and closing.

3. Classification/Classifying Paragraphs

It allows different components of a topic to be explained. It is a way that divides items into classes,
groups, or categories. Topic sentence ought to identify the subject to be classified, and give the number,
name, and significance of the classifications.

E.x.

The radio show explains three types of political spaces: the conservative space, the liberal space, and the
moderate space. Conservative spaces tend to foster groups of people who want "things to stay the same."
They like what they are doing, how they are living, and want things to remain. Liberal spaces tend to
foster groups of people who want "things to change." They want things to progress, to change, and to see
movement. Finally, moderate spaces tend to foster groups of people who want to see the best of
conservative and liberal spaces. They seek conservation and change when appropriate.

Language structure that is used in Classification writings

1.
There are types /categories/
two/three… kinds classes/
forms /ways/ of journalism These are: ------and----------
varieties

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2.
Types/ kinds/ classes/
two /three/ four etc. categories /forms/ are electronics
The ways/varieties of journalism and press
journalism.
3.
Classified/ divided
Journalism can be Grouped/ categorized into two: electronics and press.
4.
Types/ kinds/
Two/ three/ Classes/ forms/
Journalism four etc. Categories/ ways/ ,namely, electronic and press.
consists/contains/has varieties ;these are,

Task: using one of the notes of the diagram below, write a classification paragraph.
Drinks animals

Alcoholic Non-alcoholic wild domestic

Cold hot harmful Non-harmful eatable Non-eatable

4. PROCESS (Step-by-Step) – it is writing about something which has serious of steps and carried in a
serious of orders.

Task: the following text explains the sequence or steps which must be carried out when you intend to
change a punctured tire. Can you identify each of the steps followed in the text?
E.g.:
To properly change a tire, you must adhere to the following procedure: Remove the jack and the wrench
from the trunk. Next, remove the hub from the flat tire. Loosen the nuts on the tire. Do not remove them.
Then, slide the jack under the car. Make sure the jack is in a secure position. Press the level on the jack to
elevate the car to an adequate height. Remove the nuts, and remove the tire. Place the new tire in its place.
Place the nuts onto the bolts, and tighten the bolts. Press and hold the level on the jack to return the
vehicle to the ground. Finally, remove the jack from underneath the car.

Main features of process or activities

For the writer to outline the steps clearly, the use of sequencing markers and passive/active voice
constructions are quite essential. Steps are mentioned in sequential manner.

Beginning steps Middle steps Last steps

First(ly) Secondly/thirdly/fourthly… Last (ly)
To begin with Next Finally
Initially Then eventually
Start with Subsequently
Exercise: A. write a paragraph how to make coffee/bread/ ―enjera.‖

B, >>>>>>>> ―Doro Wot‖

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5, Explaining through Comparison and Contrast
5.1. COMPARISON (Similarities) - explores similarities between two topics/subjects.
Ex:
Bahir Dar and Hawassa have several things in common. First, Bahir Dar has a population of only about
250,000 people. It is situated around Lake Tana. It is a home to Bahir Dar University, which is famous for
its educational, business, and engineering programs as well as for its annual sport contents. Hawassa also
consists of about 235,000 local residences. This population swells to 246, 000 people when the college
students are attending classes. It lies near to Lake Hawassa. As for BahirDar, Hawassa possesses the
beautiful campus of Debub University, which is well known for its health and agricultural and
engineering programs and also for its yearly sport festival.

5.2. CONTRAST (Differences) -explores differences between two topics/subjects

EX:
The stories of Daedalus and Icarus and Pinocchio are very different. The story of Daedalus and Icarus is a
story from ancient Greece, while Pinocchio is a story from Tuscan folklore. The stories have very
different outcomes. Icarus dies as a result of not listening to his father. While in the other story, Pinocchio
does not die, but he encounters some perilous circumstances as a result of not listening to his father.

5.3. Comparison and contrast- explore similarities and differences between two topics/subjects.

Apples and oranges are similar in some ways, and yet they are also different. They are both fruits that
grow on the trees. Apples, however, do well in colder climates. While oranges grow best, where it is hot
your round. The two fruits are both round and small, but their skins differ in thick-skinned and orange in
color, whereas, the thin-skinned apples can be red, green or yellow. You can eat the skin of an apple;
however, the skin of an orange inedible. The inside of both are juicy and delicious to eat. Most
importantly, apples and oranges are very nutritious foods that satisfy you ―sweet both.‖

Q1, to what general category do both of these subjects belong?

Q2, how many of the key words used in writing comparison and contrast can you find in the paragraph?
List down them.
Patterns of Organization

There are two possible patterns by which you arrange the similarities and differences; these are vertical
and horizontal patterns. Below are texts about Abdul and Isaac in different patterns. Read it and look their
differences in pattern of organization.

Text 1:

Abdul was born in Assela. He was enrolled a school at the age of seven. He attended high school in Addis
Ababa. His ESLCE. Result was 4.00 which enabled him to study medicine. His friend Isaac; however,
was born in Addis Ababa. Unlike Abdul he went to school at 5. Like Abdul he attended high school in
Addis Ababa. He didn‘t score the same result as the Abdul did. He also differs from Abdul in the field of
the study he studied at university. He specialized in law.

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Text 2:

Abdul was born in Assela while Isaac was born I Addis Ababa. They also began school at different ages.
Abdul started at seven whereas Isaac went to school two years earlier. Both of them attended high school
in Addis Ababa. However they didn‘t score the same result in ESLCE. While Abdul scored 4.00 and got a
chance of studying medicine, Isaac got 3.60 and specialized in law.

Task: based on the given criteria, write a comparison and contrast paragraph about two of your
class/dormitory partners. Use one of the above patterns.
Bases of comparison similarities differences
Sex Appearance
Birth place Behavior
Upbringing Interest
Education

Task: write comparison and contrast paragraph about life in county side and life in town.
Bases of comparison similarities differences

Scenery Communication
Transportation Education

Markers of Comparison and Contrast

Comparison Contrast
Like as Although though
Too the same as However differ
Similar similarly Unlike even though
In the same way Yet but
As well as Instead while
Have in common Whereas conversely
Both Contrary to in contrast
On the other hand

6, Cause and Effect Relationship -provides the reader with details about the cause and the
effect; you may choose to inverse the sections (put the effect first, then the cause).
Task: read the following paragraphs and take down markers of cause effect.
1:
Global warming is an important occurrence to consider in the coming years. Global warming refers to the
idea of increasing temperatures on the surface of the Earth. Global warming is thought to be caused by the
release and prevalence of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. The effect of these gases is cause a rise in
the annual temperatures recorded by scientists. These increases are causing substantial melting of Arctic
and Antarctic glaciers, reducing streams and the presence of fresh water on land, and may result in the
extinction of particular species on the planet.
2:
What children eat can affect their health. Children who do not eat enough food containing vitamin A can
develop serious nutritional disorders. Of the effects caused by vitamin A deficiency, those involving eye
diseases are the most pronounced and widespread. Several thousand children become blinded each year
because of this dietary deficiency, which is most prevalent in poor, non-industrialized countries. Another
result of vitamin A is skin dryness.

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3:
The last night caused a great damage. The winds blew out to ninety four miles an hour and it rained very
hard. Eucalyptus trees by the river blew over blew over, and the trees hit over, and the trees hit the power
lines and blocked out the areas for five hours. Before morning as the river overflowed its banks, homes
were over flooded, roofs caved in, and thousands of families, living nearby were forced to flee their
homes with whatever belongings they could gather. Downtown, the main street was flooded; the cars
were left stranded in the bumper-deep water, and even some automobiles floated over the streets.

Markers of cause Effect

Because (of) as since due to + noun phrase
Due to (the fact that) so (that) owning to because of
As a result (of) therefore bring about
For this reason consequently lead to
On account of (this) emanate

 Some expressions, such as because (of), on account of, due to, as a result (of) can be used both at
the beginning and middle of the sentence.
Ex: Because of his frequent absence from class, Abdisa was forced to drop the course.
Abdisa was forced to drop the course because of his frequent absence from class.
 Other phrases, result in, lead to, bring s about, causes cannot be used in the same way as the
above expression.

leads to
Hatred result in conflict.
brings about
causes

 As a result, consequently, because of this, are used as sentence beginners.

Ex: he is the most popular student. As a result/consequently/because of this, the entire student
community elected him as student representative in a senate.
Task: write a cause effect a paragraph having 8- 10 sentences in one of the following topics:
 Religious conflict in Ethiopia
 Low quality education
 Underdevelopment of our country.
7, Narrative Paragraph
Narration is the reporting of a series of happenings such as actions, incidents, or episodes all leading to a
conclusion.
 A well- constructed narrative has three basic parts.
A. The initial situation (where a conflict or a contradiction between characters or a character and a
situation or a combination of all these is introduced).
B. The action taken to solve the conflict, and
C. The conclusion
 A narrative tells a story. Usually it begins by creating the setting (place and time of the story).
Then it tells what happens to a specific character.

Model paragraphs 1

It was getting dark by then, and there didn‘t seem to be anything alive around at all, so he began to shoot
the gun just to get used to it. Pretty soon he could shoot it, and not get knocked down. He kept shooting

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and walking, and finally it was dark and it seemed he was lost. He stumbled over a hidden rock and fell
and shoots the gun by accident and got a lot of dirt in his eyes. He got up and almost cried, but he
managed not to, and then he found a road, but he had no idea where it went or which direction to take. He
was scratched and sore all aver and not very happy and about the way he‘d shot the gun by accident. He
was scared, too, and he said a player a minute and meant every word of what he said. And he understood
for the first in his life why people liked to go to church.

Questions

5. What time of the story happened?

6. Where the story does takes place?
7. What was the character doing?
8. How the character felt?
9. How does the character in this paragraph console himself?

Model paragraphs 2(direct speech)

One day, a very drunk man got onto a bus and sat next to a very fat lady. She looked at him with
contempt and said, ―You are very drunk. It is quite disgusting. What will your wife and children think
when you arrive home like that?‖ The man looked at her and replied, ―And you madam are very ugly.
What does your husband think of when he sees you like that?‖ Then, they both sat in silence until the bus
arrived at the man‘s bus stop. He got up to leave and staggered down the bus. ―Thanks you are leaving‖
said the woman, ―Just look at you. You can hardly walk.‖ ―Hu! Will be ever reaching home?‖ she asked
the rest of the bus. As the man walked past the window, he shouted back at her ―well! In the morning I
will be sober, but you will still be ugly.‖

Model paragraphs 3(reported speech speech)

One day, while I was traveling by, I saw a very drunk man getting on to the bus and sitting next to a very
fat lady, she looked him with contempt and said that it was getting disgusting. She asked him what his
wife and his children would think when he arrived home like that. The man looked at her and told her as
she was ugly and asked her what her husband would think of when he saw her like that. Then they both
sat in silence until the bus arrived at the bus arrived at the man‘s bus stop. When he got up to leave
staggering down the bus she told him as he could hardly walk, and even she asked the rest of the bus
whether he would reach home. As the man walked past the wind, he said the woman as he would be sober
in the morning and insulted her as she would still be ugly.

When I was little, my older sister was always trying to scare me. One night she hid near the bottom of the
staircase. As I walked by, she jumped out at me and let loose a loud, bloodcurdling screen. Another time I
asked her to tell me a bedtime story. Holding a small flashlight under her chin, she turned the lights off,
lowered her voice to a whisper, and opened her eyes wide. I was terrified and she hadn‘t even started the
story! Her tales of ghosts and monsters kept me shivering with fright long after she left the room. Now, I
laugh whenever I recall how easily my sister could scare me when I was young.

Exercise: based on the above model paragraphs, write an account of a memorable personal experience.
Use one of the topics below or topics of your own choice.

 a major decision you made

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  a moment you know you were happy
 your best or worst date
 a time you took foolish risk

8, Descriptive paragraph
Description is used to create impressions that are vivid, real and life like for the reader. The writer appeals
to the five senses by telling us how something looks, tests, smells, sounds, and feels. These are five ways
of describing a person, place, thing or ideas. You need to know that effective descriptions operate by
showing rather than by telling. To this end, it is particularly important to learn to use words that refer to
shapes, textures, colors, sounds, operations, scenes, behaviors, technical intricacies etc. Can be used to
explain an object, event, person, process, position, express and clarify thoughts and emotions, strengthen
your conclusions of narrating and other paragraphs. (It is very much concerned with sensory impressions
(sight, sound, smell taste, touch). We have also special sensory words which are very much concerned
with description. Some words refer to sensory experiences: to what we see, hear, touch, taste, and smell.
Because these words call up sensory images, they are particularly effective in description).

In the following list, some words could fit into more than one sensory category.

Senses Sensory words

Touch Chill, clammy, cold, corrugated, grainy, gritty, harsh, jarring, knobby, moist, nubby, numb,
plushy, rough, satiny, slimy, slithering, smooth, sting, tingle, tickly, velvety.
Taste Bland, biting, bitter, nutty, peppery, salty, sour, spicy, sweet, tainted, vinegary, yeasty, brackish,
briny, metallic, minty
Smell Acrid, fetid, greasy, moldy, musky, musty, pungent, putrid, rancid, stinking, rank, reek, rotten,
stench, sulphurous, woodsy
sound Bellow, blare, buzz, chatter, chime, clang, clatter, clink, crackle, crash, creak, gurgle, purr,
rattle, rustle, screech, snap, splash, squeak, swish, tinkle, whine, whisper, hiss, hum, murmur,
pop.
Sight Blaze bleary, bloody, burnished, chalky, dapple, ebony, flame, flash, flicker, florid, foggy,
gaudy, glare, glitter, glossy, glow, golden, grime, haze, inky, leaden, lurid, muddy, roiled,
sallow, shadow, smudged, spark, streak, tawny, turbid.

Describing People

In order to write an interesting description of somebody we must use suitable nouns and adjectives. When
we describe persons, we are concerned with their physical appearance and with their personality. Certain
nouns and adjectives help us to describe the persons accurately. Here are some examples:

A. Useful nouns to describing a person’s appearance

Appearance Nouns
Age Baby, toddler, youngster, youth, boy, girl, teenager, man, woman, lady, young
man, young woman, old man, elder.
Parts of the Face Forehead eyes, eyebrows, nose, nostrils, ears, cheeks, mouth, lips, jaw, chin
Parts of the Body Head neck, shoulder, arms, lands, legs feet
Hair Hairstyle, plaits, braids, beard, moustache
Clothes Cloth fabrics, shirt, tie, coat, jacket, trousers, jeans, socks, pullover, sweater, suit,
overcoat, raincoat, dress, blouse, skirt, shawl, scarf, shoes, sandals, boots, hat,
glasses, spectacles.

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 Jewelry Necklace, bracelet, ring, earrings, ankle

B. Useful adjectives for describing a person’s appearance

Appearance Adjectives
Age Young, middle-aged, old, elderly, in his/her early thirties/mid-forties/ lase fifties
Face Long, round, oval, attractive, beautiful, un-shaven
Hair Long, medium-length, short, straight, curly, wavy, dark, black, blonder, gray, fair, white,
plaited, bald
Forehead High, low
Eyes Blue, brown, gray
Ears Big, small
Nose Long, pointed, turned up
Body build Tall, short, fat, plump, over-weight, thin, slim, slender, skinny, under-weight
Clothes Cotton, woolen, hand-woven, leather, traditional, western, colorful
General Handsome, good-looking, beautiful, lovely, pretty, attractive, well-dressed, smartly-
Appearance dressed, dressed.
Human Fair, dark, red, yellow
color
Race Black, white, Arab, Mongoloid

Read these examples of descriptive paragraph and notice the descriptive words use.

Model paragraph1:

Brook Shield‘s a tall girl, almost gangling (1.8 meters). She has a complexion like honey and cream,
green eyes skillfully made up the gaze at people bright and clear, the dark eye brows accentuate her bones
structure. Her physique is athletics; she is big breasted, plump and dressed casually in slacks and suede
shirt, without make up.

Model paragraph2:

I am forty years old, rather tall and I have blue eyes and short and short blue hair. I wear casual clothes as
I teach students in a relaxed atmosphere. I enjoy my job because I get to meet and help so many different
people from all over the world. During my spare time, I like playing tennis which I play at least three
times a week. I also love listening to classical music and I must admit that I spend a lot of many on
buying new CDs! I live in a pretty seaside town on the Italian coast. I enjoy eating great Italian food and
laughing with the likable people who live here.

Descriptions of Places

As writer, you have to observe a scene around you with great care; and you have to present it faithfully
so readers know exactly what you see. Selecting some places filled with colors, noises and people in the
midst of actions, you will present a scene that is clear and vivid for any reader to appreciate.

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 Model paragraph3:

My bedroom is very cosy. It is a small room with thick carpeting and light blue walls. Below the north
window is my double bed covered with an imitation of leopard skin bedspread. To the left of the bed
against the wall is a night stand with a reading lamp, an alarm clock, and a portable radio. At the foot of
the bed is a wooden stand holding my black-and-white TV. Behind the wooden stand and in front of the
closest are three comfortable armchairs. On the east and west walls posters of famous historical and
geographical sites are plastered. The holy cross bearing the crucifixion of Christ is hung to the wall
alongside the portrait of Virgin Mary embracing infant Christ…

The following words can help you to write a good description paragraph:

Properties Measurements Analogy Location

Size Height is like In
Color Length Resemble Above
Shape Width Below
Purpose Mass/weight Besides
Speed Near
Outside
North/east/south/west

Activity: write a paragraph describing a beautiful location you have been to at the same time, entitled
by ―My Favorite Place‖. (Don‘t forget using descriptive words adjectives, which create mood/feeling).

9, Argumentative paragraph

When you debate, you use language to defend your position. You use argument to persuade others about
the importance or truth of what you say or believe. The person/people with whom you are arguing will
use counter arguments to oppose you. The aim is to find stronger arguments than your opponent/s. Here
are steps that you should follow when you write an argumentative paragraph.

1.
State the opposing point of view

2.
State your opponent’s justifications point of view
.

3. Criticize this opposing point of view of view

4. Present your own point of view

5.
Support your point of view with reason

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Sample paragraph 1

Many people argue that teacher center method is better than student centered method. They say that
student centered method is time taking and doesn‘t allow to cover the course syllabus in time. But teacher
centered method doesn‘t permit students to be active participant in their lesson. However, my own view is
that student center method is better than teacher centered method. Because, student center method help
students to be active participant in their own lesson and in their own learning.

Sample paragraph 2

Some people argue that managers are born. They bring the rural and uneducated people as example for
their justification. They say that even though people in rural areas have never been to school, they can
manage and guide their community properly. But it is impossible to say rural people manage and guide
their community properly. Because we don‘t observe rural leaders bring social, individual, and
economical changes upon their family let alone their community. Moreover, we observe rural people
complaining their leaders of being irresponsible, non-transparent, corrupted, etc. However, I am in a
position that managers are made than born. Leading without knowledge may cause for some intended
and/or unintended problems, and may not bring growth upon the people who they manage. In addition,
when we take the case of developed and underdeveloped countries, countries in developed world have
grown up in different aspects like social, political, economic and cultural aspects; whereas, countries
which are in underdeveloped world are still back warded because of lack of skilled man power. From the
above argument we can infer that managers who are educated are more planed, trusted by the people in
doing in accountable and transparent way or in a more democratic way.

Activity1: what are the positions of the above arguers?

Activity 2: By supporting or against one of the following issues, write an argumentative paragraph.

1. Parents should never hit their children.

2. Abortion should be legalized.
3. Women should never wear jeans and other clothes that expose their body.
4. Educating girls leads to a breakdown of traditions.
5. Girls have the same intelligence as the boys.
6. Condoms should be available at school.
7. Parents should choose marriage partners for their children.
8. Premarital sex should never be practiced.

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