Cae Oxford Aviation Academy 020 Aircraft General Knowledge 3 Powerplant Atpl Ground Training Series 2014pdf

POWERPLANT
ATPL GROUND TRAINING SERIES

I Introduction
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© CAE Oxord Aviation Academy (UK) Limited 2014
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All Rights Reserved
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This text book is to be used only or the purpose o private study by individuals and may not be reproduced in
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any orm or medium, copied, stored in a retrieval system, lent, hired, rented, transmitted or adapted in whole or
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Certain copyright material is reproduced with the permission o the International Civil Aviation Organisation, the
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This text book has been written and published as a reerence work to assist students enrolled on an approved
EASA Air Transport Pilot Licence (ATPL) course to p repare themselves or the EASA ATP
ATPL
L theoretical knowledge
examinations. Nothing in the content o this book is to be interpreted as constituting instruction or advice
relating to practical flying.
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preparing or the EASA ATPL (A) theoretical knowledge examinations should not regard this book as a substitute
or the EASA ATPL (A) theoretical knowledge
knowledge training syllabus published in the current edition
edition o ‘Part-FCL 1’ (the
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Introduction
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Textbook Series I
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Book Title Subject o
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1 010 Air Law
2 020 Aircraf General Knowledge 1 Air rames & Systems
Fuselage, Wings & Stabilising Suraces

Landing Gear
Flight Controls
Hydraulics
Air Systems & Air Conditioning
Anti-icing & De-icing
Fuel Systems
Emergency Equipment
3 020 Aircraf General Knowledge 2 Elec trics – Elec tronics
Direct Current
Alternating Current
4 020 Aircraf General Knowledge 3 Powerplant
Piston Engines
Gas Turbines
5 020 Aircraf General Knowledge 4 Instrumentation
Flight Instruments
Warning & Recording
Automatic Flight Control
Power Plant & System Monitoring Instruments
6 030 Flight Per ormance & Planning 1 Mass & Balance

Perormance
7 030 Flight Per o

ormance & Planning 2 Flight Planning & Monitoring
8 0 40
40 Hu
Human Pe
Per o
ormance & Limitations
9 050 Meteorology
10 060 Navigation 1 General Navigation
11 060 Navigation 2 Radio Navigation
12 070 Op
Operational Pr
Procedures
13 080 Principles o Flight
14 090 Communications VFR Communications

IFR Communications
I Introduction
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Introduction
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Contents I
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ATPL Book 4 Powerplant

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Piston Engines
1. Piston Engines - Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2. Piston Engines - General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
3. Piston Engines - Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
4. Piston Engines - Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55
5. Piston Engines - Ignition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65
6. Piston Engines - Fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
7. Piston Engines - Mixture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91
8. Piston Engines - Carburettors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
9. Piston Engines - Icing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
10. Piston Engines - Fuel Injection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
11. Piston Engines - Perormance and Power Augmentatio
Augmentation
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12. Piston Engines - Propelle
Propellers
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Gas Turbines
13. Gas Turbines - Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
14. Gas Turbines - Air Inlets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
15. Gas Turbines - Compressors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
16. Gas Turbines - Combustion Chambers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
17.. Gas Turbine
17 Turbiness - The Tur
Turbine
bine Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
18. Gas Turbines - The Exhaust System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
19. Gas Turbine
Turbiness - Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
20. Gas Turbine
Turbiness - Thrust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
21.. Gas Turbines - Reve
21 Reverse
rse Thrust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
22. Gas Turbines - Gearboxes and Accessory Drives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
23. Gas Turbine
Turbiness - Ignition Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
24. Gas Turbines - Auxiliary Power Units and Engine Starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
25. Gas Turbines - Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
26. Gas Turbines - Fuel Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
27. Gas Turbines - Bleed Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
28. Revision Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
29 I d 447
I Introduction
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Chapter
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Piston Engines - Introduction
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Dynamics
Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Bernoulli’s Theorem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
A Vent
Venturi
uri Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Constant Mass Flow (The Continuity Equation). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
The Gas Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Charles’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
The Combined Gas Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
The Application o the Combined Gas Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Diesel Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Terms
Terms and Formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1 Piston Engines - Introduction
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Introduction 1
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Man’s early attempt at powered flight was thwarted by the lack o a suitable engine to provide o
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the necessary power
power.. The steam engine widely in use at the time was heavy and inefficient. u
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Combustion took place outside o the engine and much o the heat energy produced was t
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-
atmosphere .
wasted to the atmosphere. s
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In 1862 Beau de Rochas developed an engine where the combustion process took place inside E
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the engine, but in 187
1876
6 it was Nikolaus Otto who first succeeded
succeeded in producing
producing a working
working engine
engine t
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based on the principle. The principle o operation o the engine is accomplished by inducing a
mixture o air and uel into a cylinder
cylinder,, which is then compress
compressed piston..
ed by a piston
The mixture is ignited and the rapid rise in temperature causes the gas pressure in the cylinder
to rise and orces the piston down the cylinder
cylinder.. Linear movem
movement
ent o the piston is converted
into rotary motion by a connecting rod and crankshaf. The burnt gases are then exhausted to
atmosphere. The engine converts heat energy into mechanical energy.
Internal Combustion Engines all into three main categories, compression ignition engines
(Diesels), two-stroke and our-stroke spark ignition engines and Wankel rotary engines.
These notes cover in detail the construction and operation o the our-stroke engine which is
commonly used in aviation, and generally reerred to as the Piston Engine.
Figure 1.1
Beore we look at the operation and construction o the piston engine an understanding o
the ollowing
ollowing terms, definitions
definitions and theories
theories will be required.
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Terminology
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Force:
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A Force is that which, when acting on a body which is ree to move, causes it to move, or
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conversely, that which stops, or changes the direction o a moving body.
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Force is produced when a mass is accelerated. Force = Mass × Acceleration ( F = × a) e.g. A
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orce moves the piston down the cylinder (Units: newtons or pounds orce).
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Work:
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The Work Done by a orce is defined as the product o the Force and the Distance moved in
the direction o the applied orce. (Units: joules or oot pounds) e.g. The piston is moved rom
the top to the bottom o the cylinder by a orce.
Energy:
Energy is the capacity o a body to do work.
Energy comes in many orms: Heat, Light, Chemical, Kinetic, Potential. (Units: joules)
The Law o Conservation o Energy states that: “Energy can be neither created nor destroyed;
only its orm may be changed”. The chemical energy o the uel is converted to heat energy
during combustion in the engine. The engine then converts this to mechanical energy.
Power:
Power is the rate o doing work. Work Done per unit time. (Units joules/second = watts or oot
pound/minute = horsepower) Work is done as the piston moves in the cylinder. It is moved so
many times a minute, and so the power can be measured. The horsepower is a measurement
o power which is equal to 33 000 oot pounds a minute.
Dynamics
Newton’s Laws o Motion deal with the properties o moving objects (or bodies). It is easy to
see a piston or crankshaf move, but air is also a body, and will obey Newton’s Laws. It should
be remembered that air is the working fluid within the engine.
First Law.
“A body will remain at rest or in uniorm motion in a straight line unless acted on by an
external orce”.
To move a stationary object or to make a moving object change its direction a orce must be
applied. The mixture o uel and air or a piston engine does not want to flow into the cylinder,
a orce must make it flow. The piston moving down the cylinder does not want to stop. This
opposition o a body to change its motion or state o rest is called Inertia. Newton’s 1st Law
has no units o measurement. It is a property a body possesses, when stationary or moving.
Newton’s 1st Law is known as the Inertia Law.
Second Law.
“The acceleration o a body rom a state o rest, or uniorm motion in a straight line, is
proportional to the applied orce and inversely proportional to the mass”.
The energy released by the uel during combustion increases the pressure energy o the air
in the cylinder, and work can be done. The orce to move the piston can be controlled by
1
changing the pressure in the cylinder. The mass o the piston is accelerated to a velocity. Mass
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× Velocity is defined as Momentum. It is similar to inertia but only applies to moving bodies,
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and has units o measurement. kg and metres per second. Newton’s second Law is known as o
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the Momentum Law. u
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Third Law. -
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“For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction”. e
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Many examples o the application Newton’s third Law can be observed. The recoil o a gun as o
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the bullet is orced rom its barrel, the snaking o a hose as water is orced rom its nozzle, and P
the operation o the jet engine. Newton’s third Law is known as the Reaction Law.
Thermodynamics:
Is the study o Heat/Pressure energy. (Or the behaviour o gases and vapours under variations
o temperature and pressure).
First Law.
“Heat and Mechanical energy are mutually convertible and the rate o exchange is constant
and can be measured”.
(I two moving suraces are rubbed together without lubrication, heat will be generated and can
be measured with a temperature gauge. This is Mechanical energy converted into Heat energy,
conversely, when uel is burned in a piston engine, the Heat energy in the uel is converted to
Mechanical energy by the action o pistons and crankshaf. This too can be measured.)
Second Law.
“Heat cannot be transerred rom a region at a lower temperature to one at a higher
temperature without the expenditure o energy rom an external source”.
(Heat will naturally flow rom a radiator to the colder atmosphere which surrounds it, b ut the
expenditure o energy is required to lower the temperature o a rerigerator to a level below
that o the surrounding atmosphere.)
Bernoulli’s Theorem
Daniel Bernoulli, a Swiss scientist (1700-1782), discovered certain properties relating to fluids
in motion. These were expressed in the mathematical statement that the total energy in a
moving fluid or gas is made up o three orms o energy - the energy due to the height or
position (the potential energy), the energy due to pressure, and the energy due to movement
(the kinetic energy) - and that in the streamline flow o an ideal fluid the sum o all these is
constant.
When considering the flow o air the potential energy can be assumed to be constant; the
statement can thereore be modified, or all practical aerodynamic purposes, by saying that
the kinetic energy plus the pressure energy o a smooth flow o air is always constant. Thus,
i the kinetic energy is increased, the pressure energy drops proportionately so as to keep the
total energy constant.
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A Venturi Tube
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A practical application o Bernoulli’s theorem with which the pilot should be amiliar is the
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Venturi tube, sometimes called a convergent/divergent duct ( Figure 1.2 ) The Venturi tube has
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an inlet which narrows to a throat, and an outlet section, relatively longer, which increases in
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diameter towards the rear.
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Constant Mass Flow (The Continuity Equation)
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For a flow o air to remain streamlined the volume passing a given point in unit time (the mass
flow) must remain constant; i a Venturi tube is positioned in such an airstream then, or the air
to remain streamlined, the mass flow through the Venturi must remain constant. Mass Flow is
dependent on the Area × Density × Velocity and is a constant. This is known as the continuity
equation.
To do this and still pass through the reduced cross-section o the throat the speed o flow
through the throat must be increased. In accordance with Bernoulli’s theorem this brings
about an accompanying pressure and temperature drop. The use o Venturi tubes have many
applications in aircraf systems. For example the pressure drop at the throat o the Venturi
orms the basic principle o operation o the carburettor (Chapter 8).
Figure 1.2 A Venturi

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The Gas Laws 1
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Boyle’s Law states that: “In a gas held at a constant temperature, the volume is inversely o
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proportional to the pressure.” or: u
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P × V = K -
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where P is the absolute pressure o the gas, and V is the volume occupied when the pressure E
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is P . t
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Hence the product o the absolute pressure and volume o a given quantity o gas is constant
when the temperature does not change.
Charles’s Law
Charles’s Law, or Gay-Lussac’s Law states that: “I any gas is held at a constant pressure, its
volume is directly proportional to the absolute temperature”.
V
=K
T
The Combined Gas Laws

The Combined Gas Law is a combination o Boyle’s law and Charles’s Law and represents the
relationship between Volume, Pressure and Temperature.
This may be shown as:
P × V
= K, alternatively, where K is the gas constant P × V = K × T
T
P 1 × V 1 P 2 × V 2

or =
T 1 T 2
The Application of the Combined Gas Law

The changes in pressure, volume and temperature within the engine cylinder as the piston
moves between the top and the bottom o its stroke are illustrated in Figure 1.3 overlea.
These movements are known as the our strokes o an internal combustion engine (where
combustion takes place in the engine cylinder, and not externally as in the case o a steam
engine) as explained in the Otto cycle text which ollows, it will be seen that only one useul or
power stroke is available during the cycle which occupies two revolutions o the crankshaf. It
will be appreciated that although the piston moves up and down the cylinder (“strokes”) our
times, there are,in act, theoretically, five events in the cycle.
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Figure 1.3
Diesel Engines
Historically credit or the design o ‘cold-uel’ compression-ignition does not lie with Rudol
Diesel.
In 1891 Herbert Akroyd Stuart invented the ‘cold-uel’ injection system similar in operation to
modern-day automotive and aero-engine applications pre-dating Diesel’s design.
In 1892 Rudol Diesel designed and patented a similar engine to Akroyd Stuart’s known as
the ‘hot-bulb’ system where the uel was introduced to the engine utilizing a compressed-air
delivery which ‘pre-heated’ the uel allowing an easier start to be achieved.
Thereafer although strictly Akroyd Stuart’s design the compression-ignition engines became
known as ‘Diesels’. Cold-uel compression-ignition engines were developed urther because
they can run aster, weigh less and are simpler to maintain.
Diesel engines or use in aircraf are by no means a new idea. Aero-diesels appeared during
the late 1920s.
The mechanical parts o the diesel engine are similar to those o a conventional gasoline-driven
engine with the exception that diesels reciprocating parts are slightly heavier in order to cope
with higher compression-ratios within.
Recent developments in materials technology, superchargers and design have brought the
diesel to comparable weights with conventional engines and indeed, with even better power/
weight ratios. These developments have given way to recent certified retro-fits being trialled in
the Warrior PA28 and the Cessna 172.
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Terms and Formulae 1
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Quantity Symbol Standard Units Formula u
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1 Potential Difference V Volts, V V = IR -
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2 Current I Amperes, A I = V/R n
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3 Resistance R Ohms, Ω R = V/I
P = V × I or
4 Power P Watts. W
P = I 2R
Newtons, N
5 Force F F = ma
Pounds orce, lb
Kilograms, kg
6 Mass m F = ma
Pounds, lb
7 Density ρ kg/m3 or lb/f3 ρ = m /V
Newton Metres
8 Moment M M = F × d
Pounds Feet
9 Velocity v metres/sec f/sec v = d/t
10 Acceleration a m/sec2 or f/sec2 a = F/m
Pascals, Pa (N/m2)
11 Pressure P P = F/A
lb/in2
12 Area A m2 or in2 A = F/P
13 Volume m3 or f3
14 Frequency Hertz, Hz cycles/sec
15 Work Done Joules, J or f lb Wd = F × d
16 Potential Energy PE Joules, J PE = m × g × h
17 Kinetic Energy Joules, J KE =1/2mv 2
Useul work output

18 Efficiency
Total energy input
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Chapter
2
Piston Engines - General
Engine Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13

The Theoretical Otto Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
The Operation o the Theoretical Otto Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
The Operation o the Practical Otto Cycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
Power to Weight Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
Engine Efficiencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
Compression Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
Engine Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
The Crankcase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
The Crankshaf (Cranked-shaf) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
Connecting Rods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
The Pistons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
Cylinder Barrel or Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27
The Cylinder Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
Valve Operating Gear. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
Valve Clearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
The Sump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
The Carburettor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
The Accessory Housing or Wheelcase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2 Piston Engines - General
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Engine Layout
The power o an engine can be increased by adding cylinders producing multi-cylinder engines. 2
This is a more efficient way o increasing power than making a single cylinder larger, and also l
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has the benefit o making the engine run smoother. There are various types o engine design e
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Figure 2.1 Engine Layouts
The cylinder arrangement selected or a particular engine will depend on the type o cooling
o the engine, the power required, and role o the aircraf. Early aircraf used In-line engines.
These have their cylinders arranged in a straight line, one afer the other, they can be liquid or
air-cooled. The air-cooled variants are limited to around six cylinders. Many in-line engines are
inverted, so that the crankshaf is at the top and pistons below. The propeller is driven rom the
crankshaf and this arrangement gave greater ground clearance or the propeller.
The V Engine arrangement was used or larger more powerul engines o eight to twelve
cylinders. These engines powered the fighter aircraf o World War 2. Liquid-cooled, the V
arrangement o cylinders could easily be streamlined into the uselage so reducing drag. The
liquid cooling system however increased weight and complexity o the engine. Like the in-line
engine they could also be inverted.
The Radial Engine gave a large rontal area to the aircraf, but was short in length. The pistons
are arranged radially around a single-throw crank. Although drag was increased the engines
were light, rigid and produced high power.
Radial engines always have an odd number o cylinders. By placing urther rows o cylinders
behind the first produced Double and Triple Bank radials. These engines, although very
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powerul, had the disadvantages o being heavy and presenting a large rontal area as they
P were air-cooled.
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Most modern light aircraf use our or six cylinder engines arranged in the Flat/Horizontally
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Opposed configuration. This arrangement makes or a short rigid engine, which is easily
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streamlined.
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The Theoretical Otto Cycle

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In the introduction, the basic principle o operation o the piston engine was explained. The
ollowing paragraphs will explain in detail changes to the piston, valves, ignition and state o
the gas throughout the operation. It was stated that the engine works on a our stroke cycle.
A Stroke is defined as the linear distance that the piston moves in the cylinder. When the piston
is at the top o the stroke it is said to be at Top Dead Centre (TDC), and when at the bottom
o the stroke Bottom Dead Centre (BDC).
The piston is connected to a crankshaf. and as the piston moves rom TDC to BDC the crankshaf
rotates 180°. The complete cycle taking 720° (4 × 180) The Stroke is equal to Twice the Crank-
throw. Figure 2.2 an engine which has a bore equal to the stroke is known as over-square.
Figure 2.2
The internal diameter o the cylinder is called the Bore. These terms are used to explain the
Otto cycle. Piston and valve positions are related to degrees o crankshaf movement, and
position in relation to TDC and BDC.
The our strokes o the Otto cycle are shown in Figure 2.3.
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Figure 2.3 The our strokes o the Otto Cycle

The Operation of the Theoretical Otto Cycle

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The our strokes are:
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b) Compression
c) Power
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l When the piston is at TDC at the end o the compression stroke an electrical spark is produced
at the spark plug, and ignites the uel air mixture. It should be appreciated that this does not
result in an explosion o the mixture, but is a controlled burning. This event is called Combustion.
The combustion process takes place with the piston at TDC. The volume in the cylinder at that
moment in time is constant. Combustion is said to take place at Constant Volume.
In the theoretical Otto cycle there are Five Events:
a) Induction
b) Compression
c) Combustion
d) Power
e) Exhaust
These events can be shown graphically by a valve timing diagram - Figure 2.4. The timing
diagram shows the relationship between the events, and degrees o crankshaf rotation. Each
arc between TDC and BDC represents 180° o crankshaf rotation.
Figure 2.4 The theoretical timing diagram or the Otto Cycle
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The Operation of the Practical Otto Cycle
In practice the theoretical cycle proved to be inefficient and it was necessary to modiy the 2
times o valve openings and closings and ignition. A typical practical timing diagram is shown l
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in Figure 2.5 and the reasons or the modified timings are discussed below. e
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Figure 2.5 A practical valve and ignition timing diagram
The Induction Stroke

Opening the inlet valve beore TDC ensures that the valve is ully open early in the induction
stroke, there is then no time-lag between the piston moving down and the mixture flowing
into the cylinder as would otherwise occur due to the inertia o the mixture. The inflowing
mixture can thus keep up with the descending piston.
The momentum o the mixture increases as the induction stroke proceeds, and towards the
end o the stroke, it is such that the gases will continue to flow into the cylinder even though
the piston has passed BDC and is moving upwards slightly. The closing o the inlet valve is
thereore delayed until afer BDC when the gas pressure in the cylinder approximately equals
the gas pressure in the induction maniold.
The Compression Stroke

As the piston moves upwards, the inlet valve closes and the gas is compressed. By squeezing the
gas into a smaller space the pressure that it will exert when burnt is proportionally increased.
It should be noted that as the gas is compressed it becomes heated adiabatically, in the same
way that a bicycle pump warms up in action, as well as by conduction rom its hot surroundings,
and the pressure consequently rises to a higher value than that to be expected rom the
reduction in volume alone.
The indicator diagram is used to plot the maximum pressures obtained, this determines the
shape and the area enclosed by the graph. This area is representative o the work done on the
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air and the power produced.
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Figure 2.9 shows the indicator diagram opened out so that the pressure areas under the curve
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can be more easily compared and measured.
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The area within the power column represents work done on the piston during the power
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stroke and the blue areas represent work done by the piston in compressing the charge and
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a exhausting the cylinder against back pressure. This results in an average reading o pressure
on the piston during the working cycle being available which is termed the Indicated Mean
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Effective Pressure (IMEP).
The pilot is not given a display in the cockpit o the IMEP but what can be displayed is maniold
pressure which is representative o cylinder pressure. This is displayed on the maniold pressure
gauge. Opening the throttle increases maniold pressure and closing the throttle will reduce
it. The Maniold Absolute Pressure gauge (MAP) is normally calibrated to read in inches o
mercury.
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Figure 2.9 An indicator diagram plotted against stroke or simpler calculation o pressure areas
Having ound the pressure in the cylinder it is now possible by calculation using the known constants,
area o piston, (bore), distance moved (stroke), number o cylinders and time. To calculate the
INDICATED HORSEPOWER (IHP) o the engine concerned, use the ormula:
P × L × A × N × E
IHP =
33 000
where:
P = Indicated Mean Effective Pressure (lb/in 2)
L = Length o Stroke (f)
A = Area o cylinder (in 2)
N = The number o cylinders
E = Effective working strokes/min (rpm)
In the introduction, power was defined as the rate o doing work. Work is done when a orce
is moved through a distance. A orce acts on the piston - (lb) The piston moves through the
distance o the stroke - (f) It does this so many times a minute. This multiplies out as f-lb per
minute.
The inventor o the steam engine James Watt calculated that the average horse could move 1lb
a distance o 33 000 f in 1 minute - (550 f/lb/second). This is why P L A N E is divided by the
constant o 33 000 and the unit o power reerred to as horsepower.
The SI unit o power is the watt, and 750 watts is approximately equal to 1 horsepower.
IHP is only a theoretical value o power. In moving the piston and turning the crankshaf power
is used. This is called Friction Horsepower, (FHP), and must be deducted rom the IHP. The
Power to Weight Ratio

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Power to Weight Ratio (Specific Power Output) is a comparison o an engine’s power output
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per unit weight (kW/kg or horsepower/lb) expressed as a ratio.
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For example: An engine weighing 1000 lb (450 kg) and producing 250 hp (190 kW) would
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Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC)

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The increase in energy given to the air comes rom the heat released by burning the uel. This
in turn produces power in the engine. The weight o uel burnt, in lb, or the power produced
BHP in unit time (hours) is called the Specific Fuel Consumption.
Engine designers strive to get as much power as possible rom the engine, or the minimum
weight o uel burnt. During operation a reduction in power or the same weight o uel burnt,
is defined as an Increase in Specific Fuel Consumption , and a reduction in uel burnt or the
same, or more power a Decrease in Specific Fuel Consumption.
SFC is affected by engine design and pilot operation o the engine. Since the pilot has no
control over design, correct operation o the engine is essential i perormance figures are to
be attained.
Engine Efficiencies
The engine is a machine that converts heat energy into mechanical energy. Sadly there are
losses in this transer; engine design will try to reduce these losses. As stated previously the IHP
developed in the engine is reduced by FHP, leaving BHP to do useul work.
The term efficiency means simply a comparison o what is got out o a system, with what is put
in to the system. The efficiency o any mechanical device must be less than unity, it is usual to
express it as a ratio.
Mechanical Efficiency
Output BHP
Efficiency = × 100% Thus the mechanical efficiency = × 100%
Input IHP
A typical value o mechanical efficiency would be in the region o 80 - 85%.
Thermal Efficiency
The efficiency at which the heat energy released by the combustion o the uel is converted to
work done in the engine is known as the Thermal Efficiency.
heat converted into work
Thermal Efficiency = × 100%
heat energy available within the uel
Engine design and the use o correct uels increase thermal efficiency. A good value or thermal
efficiency in an internal combustion engine would be 25 - 28%.
As previously stated, air is the working fluid within the engine. Added to this is uel, so it
is actually a mixture o air and uel that enters the cylinders. The power o the engine is
determined by the maximum weight o mixture (charge) induced, and the subsequent rise in
pressure during combustion. Due to inertia and actors affecting the density o the mixture, it
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Volumetric Efficiency
The ratio o the weight o mixture induced to that which would fill the cylinder under normal
temperatures and pressures is called Volumetric Efficiency. 2
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Volumetric weight o mixture actually induced at normal temperatures r
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The volumetric efficiency o the engine is indicative o how well the engine is breathing. This n
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is affected by design, i.e. valve lead, lag and overlap. It is also affected by variables such as, o
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exhaust back pressure, resistance to flow and the orce pushing the mixture into the cylinder. P
I the orce is the difference in pressure between atmospheric and the cylinder pressure during
induction, the engine is said to be Normally Aspirated.
A normally aspirated engine will have a volumetric efficiency o between 75-85% maximum.
One way to improve the volumetric efficiency and hence power, is to increase the orce pushing
the mixture into the cylinder. This is called Supercharging and is covered later in these notes.
Compression Ratio
The work done on the mixture by the piston during the compression stroke depends on the
weight o mixture induced and the pressure that it is raised to. The pressure rise will depend on
the reduction in volume. There are three volumes that need to be considered. They are defined
below and illustrated in Figure 2.10.
Figure 2.10
Total Volume is the volume above the piston when the piston is at BDC.
Swept Volume is the volume displaced by the piston during a single stroke.
Swept volume = cross-sectional area o the cylinder × the stroke.
Clearance Volume is the volume above the piston crown when the piston is at TDC, this orms
The Compression Ratio is the ratio o the total volume enclosed in the cylinder with piston at
BDC, to the volume at the end o the compression stroke with the piston at TDC.
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Total Volume
Compression Ratio =
Clearance Volume
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n EXAMPLE. I the swept volume is equal to 1300 cc, and the clearance volume is equal to 200
cc the compression ratio would be equal to:
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Total Volume = 1300 + 200
Total Volume
Compression Ratio =
Clearance Volume
1500
Compression Ratio =
200
Compression Ratio = 7.5 : 1
Note: An increase in compression ratio will result in better uel utilization (hence greater
Thermal Efficiency ) and a higher mean effective pressure provided the correct uel is used.
This, however, will be at the expense o higher loading on the moving parts due to an increased
working pressure.
Engine Construction
The main components o the engine were stated in the introduction. The ollowing is a more
detailed explanation o the mechanical components and their unc tion.
The Crankcase
The crankcase is usually made in
two halves to make installation
and removal o the crankshaf
easier, it houses the main bearings
or the crankshaf, supports the
cylinders and provides mounting
aces and spigots or the
attachment o the other main
engine casings.
Generally made o light alloy, it

orms a sealed chamber or the
lubricating oil, and is provided
with the means o attaching the
engine to its mounting rame in Vent
the aircraf see Figure 2.11.
A vent to atmosphere is normally Crankcase

provided in order that gas
pressure build-up in the crankcase
Figure 2.11
is avoided.
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Crankshaft (Cranked-shaft)
The crankshaf, illustrated in Figure 2.12, converts the reciprocating or linear motion o the 2
pistons into rotary motion, and transmits torque to the propeller, and provides the drive or l
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accessories. The offset Crank Throw also determines the piston stroke. e
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Figure 2.12 A our cylinder crankshaf
The Journals, the main part o the shaf, are supported by the main bearings in the crankcase.
The Pistons are attached by the Connecting Rods to the Crank-pin.
The crankshaf ofen has as many crank throws as there are pistons (our throws or a our
cylinder engine). Oil-ways are drilled through the shaf to transer the lubricating oil onto the
bearing suraces. Plain Bearings are used to enable the high reciprocating loads to be carried.
The oil-ways can also be used to carry oil or the operation o a variable pitch Propeller.
The crankshaf is accurately balanced to minimize vibration, however, when a shaf has to
transmit a torque or twisting moment it must flex to some extent and spring back again when
released. I the shaf must have a lot o kinks in it to provide the crank throws, the twisting
moments are hard to resist and perceptible deflection may take place.
In the case o a radial engine, several cylinders may be connected to a single throw, and a
horizontally opposed engine may have only two pistons connected to one crank-pin.
The repeated applications o orce to which the crankshaf is subjected may set up oscillations
as the shaf recovers its original shape between power impulses. At certain speeds the impulses
may coincide with the natural vibration period o the shaf and give very rough running even
in an engine which is in good mechanical balance. For these reasons the shafs should be as
short as possible and adequately supported and counter-weighted to minimize these torsional
effects. In any event, many engines have rpm ranges which are prohibited or prolonged use
(Critical rpm) to prevent unnecessary vibration. This is indicated by a Red Arc on the rpm
It was previously stated that increasing the number o cylinders improves the power output
and makes the engine run smoother. This is because there are more power strokes in the 720°
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o crankshaf rotation. This is called the Firing Interval. Four cylinders are generally regarded
P as the minimum number to give reasonable firing interval. The firing interval or any engine
can be ound by dividing 720° by the number o cylinders o the engine. i.e. 4 cylinder =180°
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fire. This is called the Firing Order o the engine.
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A typical our cylinder engine could have a firing order o 1-3-4-2. The cylinders do not fire
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consecutively as this reduces the load and vibration on the crankshaf.
Note: Lycoming firing order is 1-3-2-4.
Connecting Rods
The connecting rods transmit the orces o combustion to the crankshaf; they convert the
linear movement o the pistons into rotary movement o the crankshaf. A connecting rod is
usually made o H section high tensile steel, to combine lightness with the strength necessary
to withstand the compressive and tensile loads imposed as the piston changes direction. The
rod is connected to the crank-pin o the crankshaf by a large circular bearing at the Big End
o the rod.
The Pistons
Generally made o aluminium alloy, the piston orms a sliding plug in the cylinder and transmits
the orce o the expanding gases via the connecting rod to the crankshaf. Bosses are ormed
to house the Gudgeon Pin which astens the piston to the Small End o the connecting rod.
Circumerential grooves are machined in the piston to accommodate piston Rings which
provide the means o preventing pressure leakage past the piston in one direction and oil
leakage in the other.
A number o piston rings can

be fitted to a piston. Their
arrangement will vary rom
engine to engine, but will
be similar to the ollowing
paragraphs, and Figure 2.13.
The Compression Rings

prevent gas leakage into the
crankcase. They are fitted
into grooves cut into the
upper portion o the piston.
Gas passing down between
the piston and the cylinder
wall orces a compression
ring down in its groove and
outwards against the cylinder Figure 2.13 The piston and associated components
wall. A small amount o gas
will pass the top ring; so a second (and sometimes a third) compression ring is fitted.
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The Scraper Rings or Oil Control Rings prevent excess oil passing into the combustion chamber
and spread the oil evenly around the cylinder bore. They are designed so that the bearing ace
is reduced in area and the bearing pressure consequently increased. 2
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The rings are generally made o a special grade o cast iron; the rings are sprung against the r
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cylinder walls. e
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Cast iron has the ability to retain its elasticity when heated. It also has sel-lubricating qualities n
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due to the graphitic content o the metal. This is desirable because during the power stroke E
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the walls o the cylinder are exposed to the hot combustion gases, and the thin film o oil is t
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burned away.
Piston rings which are worn or stuck in their grooves will cause excessive blue smoke (burning
oil) to be ejected rom the exhaust pipe.
Cylinder Barrel or Block

Made o alloy steel, the Cylinder resists the pressure o combustion and provides a working
surace or the piston. The cylinders are usually secured to the crankcase by studs and nuts.
One end o the cylinder is sealed by the Cylinder Head, the movable piston sealing the other
end. Figure 2.14
Camshas
Spark Plug
Valve Springs
Cylinder
Valve Guides
Head
Cylinder Barrel
Valves
Figure 2.14
About 30% o the heat generated during combustion is transerred to the cylinders. To cool the
cylinder there are two cooling methods used. Liquid Cooling has jacket around the cylinders to
allow or the flow o a liquid around them and carry the heat away. Air-cooled engines, have
fins machined onto the cylinder to increase the surace area in contact with air, which is used
The Cylinder Head

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The cylinder head is generally made o aluminium alloy to improve heat dissipation. It seals
P one end o the cylinder to provide a combustion chamber or the mixture. The cylinder head
accommodates the Valves, Valve Guides and Sparking Plugs, and supports the valve Rocker
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cylinder.
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Valve Guide - guides the valve in a straight path and keeps the valve concentric to its seat.
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Usually the valve guide is pressed into the cylinder head.
Valve Seat - ground to orm a gas tight seal with the ace o the valve, cut at various angles
(30° or 45°).
Valves - inlet and exhaust valves open and close the passages or the induction and scavenging
o the gases. The ace o the valve is accurately machined to the same angle as the valve seat.
The valve and seat are then lapped until a ull contact is obtained. Exhaust valve stems are
sometimes hollow and partly filled with sodium to assist in cooling. They may be flat, trumpet
or mushroom shape.
Valve Springs - made o special spring steel, to ensure that the valves remain closed except
when operated by the cams. The springs are o the helical coil type, the usual practice being
or two springs to be fitted to each valve, one inside the other.
This provides a Saety Factor and helps to eliminate Valve Bounce. The springs are held
compressed between the cylinder head and the valve spring cap, the latter being located on
the valve stem by split collets.
Valve Operating Gear

The valve operating gear consists o a Camshaf, Figure 2.15 , (or camshafs) driven rom the
crankshaf at Hal Crankshaf Speed regardless o how many cylinders there are, or how they
are arranged.
The camshaf is designed so as to have one Cam Lobe to control the opening o each valve.
The camshaf is driven at hal crankshaf speed because each valve is only required to open
and close once per working cycle, that is to say, once every two revolutions o the crankshaf.
The angular position o the lobes on the camshaf o an aircraf engine is fixed, causing the
amount o valve lead, valve lag and valve overlap to remain constant, irrespective o changing
engine speed. The act that the camshaf is driven by the crankshaf means that valve opening
and closing angles are reerred to with respect to crankshaf rotation, not camshaf rotation.
(See valve timing diagrams.)
Valve Clearance
To ensure that the valves close ully, it is necessary or there to be a Valve (or Tappet) Clearance.
This is a small gap measured between the Rocker Pad and the Valve Tip.
The valves are continuously heated by combustion and expand at a greater rate than the rest
o the operating mechanism. As the engine heats up, the small gap, or valve clearance, shown
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Figure 2.15 Valve clearance
The valve clearance becomes smaller but the valve still remains shut. The valve clearance is
measured between the rocker pad and the valve tip by eeler gauges and there is provision
made on the rocker arm or the clearance to be adjusted.
Excessive valve clearance will cause the valve to open late and close early. Too little clearance
will have the opposite effect o causing the valves to open early and close late and may even
prevent the valves closing at all, thereby producing an event called Popping back into the
Carburettor. The same effect can be caused by an inlet valve which is sticking in its guide.
Some designs o engine use Hydraulic Tappets. These are sel-adjusting and operate with no
clearance and thus there is no tappet noise.
A hydraulic tappet is made in two main par ts, one sliding within the other. Oil, which is supplied
under pressure, causes the tappet to lengthen and take up any clearance when the engine is
running.
The Sump
The sump is a casing attached to the base o the crankcase, it collects the lubricating oil afer it
has passed through the engine.
With some lubricating systems the sump also acts as the oil reservoir and all the oil is contained
within it. A filter is housed in the sump to trap any debris in the oil, so preventing damage to
the oil pumps.
The Carburettor
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The Carburettor meters the air entering the engine and adds the required amount o uel as
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a fine spray under all conditions o engine running. For an aircraf engine the correct mixture
must be supplied regardless o altitude or attitude o the aircraf.
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e An Injector can be fitted instead o a carburettor on some engines. They are attached to the
base o the crankcase, metal pipes connect the outlet rom the carburettor or injector to the
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cylinders. This is called the Induction Maniold.
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The waste gases afer combustion are carried away rom the cylinders by the Exhaust System.
The exhaust consists o steel pipes connected to each o the cylinders. The pipes rom each
cylinder usually connect up and go into one or two pipes which then carry the hot gases outside
the aircraf to atmosphere.
The Accessory Housing or Wheelcase

For the engine to operate supporting systems are needed, and they may need power to drive
them. Oil Pumps, Fuel Pumps, Superchargers and Magneto Ignition systems are fitted to the
Accessory Housing and driven via gears by the crankshaf.
The housing casing is bolted to the rear o the crankcase which encloses the gear train and
provides mounting pads or the ancillary equipment, Figure 2.16 . A Starter Motor can be
connected to the housing to initially rotate the crankshaf and start the cycle o operation.
Figure 2.16 Accessory housing
The accessory housing can also provide the drive to power aircraf systems such as Electrical
Generation, Hydraulics and Pneumatic systems.
2
Some engines may also have a Gearbox fitted between the crankshaf and the propeller. This
is a Reduction Gearbox to reduce the speed o propeller rotation. For the propeller to operate
efficiently a comparatively low speed is required. For the engine to develop its ull power, it 2
must turn at high speed. So that the engine and the propeller can both operate efficiently the l
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reduction gearbox may be required. Two typical types o reduction gearing are Spur Gear and e
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Planetary Gears. The lower powered engines have the propeller connected directly onto the G
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Aero-engines are classified by Cylinder Arrangement, Type o Drive, Direction o Rotation, E
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Cylinder Capacity, Cooling Method, Fuel System Type and whether they are supercharge or s
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normally aspirated.
An example o light aircraf engine is depicted below.
Figure 2.17
Figure 2.17 shows the Textron Lycoming model AEIO 540 L1B5. The model number is used to
define the engine.
AE Aerobatic Engine.
I Injected Fuel System
O Horizontally opposed Cylinder Arrangement.
540 Cylinder displacement = 540 cubic inches.
L Lef hand Rotation.
1B5 Modifications rom basic model.
This type o model numbering system is used by most manuacturers. I the letters G and S
were included it would imply the engine was geared and supercharged.
2 Questions
Questions
2
1. The temperature o the gases within the cylinder o a our-stroke engine during the
Q power stroke will:
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a. be constant
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b. decrease
c. increase
d. ollow Charles’s Law
2. The number o revolutions o the crankshaf required to complete a ull cycle in a

our-stroke engine is:
a. 6
b. 4
c. 2
d. 8
3. The inlet valve opens beore TDC in the exhaust stroke to:
a. increase the pressure in the cylinder on completion o the induction stroke.

b. reduce engine vibration
c. allow the incoming mixture to mix with a certain proportion o the exhaust
gases
d. induce a greater amount o mixture into the cylinder
4. The correct working cycle o a our-stroke engine is:
a. exhaust, power, induction, compression

b. compression, power, exhaust, induction
c. induction, power, compression, exhaust
d. power, exhaust, compression, induction
5. Valve overlap is incorporated in the valve timing o a piston engine to:
a. improve volumetric efficiency

b. reduce wear on the big end bearings
c. increase the engines compression ratio
d. prevent a weak cut when the engine is accelerated rapidly
6. With an increase in the rotational speed o a our-stroke engine, the valve overlap:
a. increases
b. decreases
c. remains constant
d. increases up to ground idle and thereafer decreases
7. In a normally aspirated engine, exhaust back pressure:
a. decreases as an aircraf climbs and thereby reduces the rate o decline o the
engine power output
b. increases as an aircraf climbs and thereby reduces the engine power output
c. is affected by the power lever position
d. decreases as an aircraf descends and thereby improves the engine power
output
Questions
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8. When the spark ignites the mixture:
a. the explosion pushes the piston down 2

b. the mixture changes rom rich to weak orward o the flame ront
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d. temperature and pressure increase within the cylinder t
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9. I the volume o a quantity o gas is halved during compression:
a. its pressure is approximately doubled

b. its temperature remains constant
c. its mass is approximately doubled
d. its pressure is approximately halved
10. The term Indicated Mean Effective Pressure reers to:
a. the maximum working pressure in the engine cylinder

b. the average pressure within the cylinder during the our cycles
c. the pressure achieved during compression
d. the minimum working pressure applied to the piston during the cycle
11. The degrees o rotation to complete a ull cycle on a nine cylinder engine will be:
a. 180
b. 360
c. 720
d. 80
12. The firing interval o a six cylinder horizontally opposed engine will be:
a. 180
b. 120
c. 60
d. 360
13. Which o the ollowing statements would be correct or a double banked radial
engine?
a. There will always be an odd number o cylinders

b. Radial engines are generally liquid-cooled
c. The linear distance rom TDC to BDC will accommodate two throws
d. Radial engines cannot suffer rom hydraulicing
14. On a our cylinder engine with a total volume o 9600 cc, bore area o 100 cm� and
a crank throw o 10 cm, what would the Compression Ratio be?
a. 7:1
b. 8:1
c. 24:1
d. 6:1
4 Questions
Questions
1. The most efficient method or cooling a piston engine is to use ....................
However, the most common method o cooling is to use ................. because o the
................ involved.
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a. air cooling liquid cooling reduced costs
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b. liquid cooling air cooling reduced costs
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c. uel cooling air cooling reduced costs
d. liquid cooling uel cooling reduced costs
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2. At take-off cowl flaps should be selected:
a. ully closed to decrease drag

b. open
c. partially closed
d. ully closed to increase drag
3. A typical piston engine has a maximum thermal efficiency o:
a. 70%
b. 80%
c. 90%
d. 30%
4. In a our cylinder in-line engine air-cooled, (No. 1, 2, 3, 4 rom the ront) the coolest
cylinder while running will be:
a. 1
b. 2
c. 3
d. 4
5. The device utilized to measure temperature on a piston engine is:
a. thermometer
b. barometer
c. thermocouple
d. thermostat
6. The temperature measuring device fitted in a our cylinder inline engine, (No. 1, 2,
3, 4 rom the ront), would normally be fitted to which cylinder?
a. 1
b. 2
c. 3
d. 4
Questions
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Answers
1 2 3 4 5 6
b b d a c d
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Chapter
5
Piston Engines - Ignition
The Dual Ignition System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67

Magnetos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
The Capacitor (Condenser) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
The Ignition Switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
The Grounding Wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
Magneto Checks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
Auxiliary Starting Devices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
Magneto and Distributor Venting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5 Piston Engines - Ignition
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5
The Dual Ignition System
All aero piston engines are fitted with dual ignition, that is to say, two electrically independent
ignition systems.
Each engine cylinder has two sparking plugs ed by two separate magnetos. This reduces the
risk o engine ailure caused by aulty ignition and increases the power output o the engine by
igniting the cylinder charge at two points (reducing combustion time). 5
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Magnetos o
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Magnetos are sel-contained engine-driven electrical generators. They produce a series o s
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extra high tension (EHT) electrical sparks at the sparking plugs, in the correct firing sequence, g
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or ignition o the petrol and air mixture. n
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The magneto combines the principles o the permanent magnet generator (PMG) and the
step-up transormer in order to generate the EHT voltage necessary to break down the gap
between the sparking plug electrodes.
A small magnetic field in the magneto primary coil, which consists o a ew hundred turns o
thick wire, is made to collapse at regulated intervals by the opening o a pair o cam-operated
contact breaker points.
As the primary magnetic field collapses, the lines o magnetic orce cut thousands o turns o
very thin wire which comprise the secondary coil, and this induces within it an EHT voltage.
This is an example o electromagnetic induction. The induced EHT voltage is taken to a rotary
switch called the distributor which distributes it to the sparking plugs in the correct firing
sequence. The cam-operated contact breaker points and the distributor rotor are geared
together so that the spark will appear at the sparking plug as the contact breaker points just
open. The contact breaker cam and distributor rotor rotate at hal engine speed.
The Capacitor (Condenser)

The prime unction o the capacitor is to prevent burning or arcing across the contact breaker
points, and to assist in creating the extra high voltage in the secondary coil by causing a rapid
change o flux (magnetic field) in the primary coil. This increases the efficiency o the magneto.
The capacitor is fitted in parallel with the contact breaker points and the magneto control
switch. The magneto relies or its operation on the rapid collapse o flux in the primary coil and
this is caused by the contact breaker points interrupting the current flow through that coil.
With a capacitor across the points, the voltage that appears as the points open charges up the
capacitor, and only a small weak spark appears at the breaker points and current in the primary
coil ceases to flow allowing a very rapid collapse in primary flux.
The capacitor thereore stops arcing at the contact breaker points, and allows a rapid collapse
o primary flux.
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Figure 5.1 Magneto Circuit
The Ignition Switch

The ignition switch provides complete control o the engine’s magneto circuit, the magneto
being made inoperative by earthing the primary circuit.
In the ‘OFF’ position the switch is closed and this short-circuits the contact breaker points,
which thereore no longer make and break the primary circuit. In the ‘ON’ position the switch
is open and the primary circuit is controlled by the ac tion o the contact breaker.
The Grounding Wire

As described above, the grounding wire is used to switch off the magneto. I the grounding
wire breaks when the engine is running there will be no apparent changes in the engine’s
perormance. I the grounding wire breaks and touches the engine-body or airrame then this
is the equivalent o grounding the primary circuit, and the magneto is switched off. Hence the
requirement or magneto checks listed below.
Magneto Checks
The Dead Cut Check is carried out at slow running. This check ensures that the pilot has
control o the ignition beore carrying out urther ignition checks at higher engine speeds.
RPM MUST DROP BUT ENGINE MUST NOT STOP WHILE SWITCHING ONE MAGNETO OFF AT
A TIME.
5
Consider the situation which would exist with an engine running with the pilot unaware that
only one magneto was working. I that live magneto was switched ‘OFF’ during a high rpm
magneto check the engine would die.
The automatic reaction o the pilot would be to switch the ignition switch quickly back to
‘BOTH’. The engine suddenly bursting into lie with the throttle still at the check position would
set up a high torque reaction between the airrame and engine, possibly causing extensive
damage.
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The Live Magneto Check is not normally required, as evidence o a live magneto is usually n
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ound at the Dead Cut Check simply by observing a change in rpm as the switch is operated. n
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The Magneto rpm Drop Check is carried out at approximately 75% o the maximum engine n
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speed. This checks that the magneto and sparking plugs are unctioning correctly. n
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As each magneto is switched off in turn, a check or a drop in rpm is made and this drop must P
be within the limits laid down by the manuacturers. The all in rpm is due to the increased
time taken or the mixture to burn in the cylinders, as a magneto, and consequently a plug in
each cylinder is switched off.
Auxiliary Starting Devices

During starting, most aero-engines are cranked at about 25 rpm, and at this speed the magneto
will not produce a spark with adequate energy or ignition o the petrol/air mixture.
It is necessary thereore, to ease starting, to employ auxiliary methods o spark augmentation.
These take the orm o:
The High Tension (HT) Booster Coil which supplies a succession o high voltage electrical
impulses to the trailing, starting, or retarded brush (electrode) o the main distributor rotor
(shower o sparks system). It is switched ‘ON’ or the starting and ‘OFF’ afer start-up.
The Low Tension (LT) Booster Coil supplies a low voltage to the magneto primary during
the starting sequence, this augmentation o the primary permitting normal operation o the
magneto. This system requires a Battery supply and is connected to the Primary (typically lef)
Magneto. When switched on, and the Starter engaged, the Booster Coil eeds a high voltage
directly to the distributor rotor trailing-arm providing a retarded spark which avoids kick-back
during the starting cycle. It is switched ‘ON’ or starting and ‘OFF’ afer start-up.
The Impulse Coupling. This is a mechanical device which uses a spring to temporarily increase
the speed o rotation o the magneto giving a large retarded spark during the starting cycle.
No action by the pilot is necessary.
Magneto and Distributor Venting

Since magneto and distributor assemblies are subjected to sudden changes in temperature, the
problems o condensation and moisture are considered in the design o these units.
Moisture in any orm is a good conductor o electricity; and i absorbed by the nonconducting
material in the magneto, such as distributor blocks, rotor arms, or coil cases, it can create a
stray electrical conducting path.
The high-voltage current that normally arcs across the air gaps o the distributor can flash
across a wet insulating surace to ground, or the high-voltage current can be misdirected to
some spark plug other than the one that should be firing. This condition is called ‘flashover’
and usually results in cylinder misfiring.
Waxing
For this reason coils, condensers, distributors and distributor rotors are waxed so that moisture
5 on such units will stand in separate beads and not orm a complete circuit or flashover.
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Flashover can lead to carbon tracking, which appears as a fine pencil-like line on the unit across
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The carbon trail results rom the electric spark burning dirt particles which contain hydrocarbon
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The water in the hydrocarbon material is evaporated during flashover, leaving carbon to orm
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a conducting path or current. When moisture is no longer present, the spark will continue to
ollow the track to the ground.
Magnetos cannot be hermetically sealed to prevent moisture rom entering a unit because the
magneto is subject to pressure and temperature changes in altitude.
Diesel engine ignition

Unlike the conventional spark-ignition engine, the diesel does not require an ignition-system
at all, thus saving on complexity and weight. The diesel is classified as a compression-ignition
engine where ignition o the uel/air mixture is a unction o the rise o temperature o the air
due to compression.
Much higher compression-ratios occur in the diesel, ratios o 25:1 are not uncommon. At these
compression-ratios the uel sel-ignites thereby eliminating the need or a spark-generating
system.
For cold starting, diesel engines usually employ a system o glow-plugs or pre-heaters which
provide initial localized heating to the combustion-chamber area. Once started the uel is
injected into a zone where the temperatures are higher than the flash-point o the uel due to
high compression ratios, and ignition effectively by detonation becomes continuous.
Questions
5
Questions
1. The spark appears at the plug electrodes when:
a. the contact breaker closes

b. the contact breaker opens
c. the contact breaker stays open
d. the magneto switch is made
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2. The ignition switch is fitted in: s

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b. the secondary coil circuit
c. the engine starter motor circuit
d. the battery circuit
3. When the ignition switch is placed in the ‘ON’ position it:
a. isolates the breaker points

b. makes the engine starter motor circuit
c. ‘Earths’ or ‘grounds’ the secondary winding
d. breaks the primary to earth circuit
4. The purpose o a condenser as fitted in a magneto is:
a. to assist in the rapid collapse o the primary current and prevent arcing at the
contact breaker points
b. to prevent the rapid collapse o the primary circuit and arcing at the points
c. to reduce the high tension voltage o the secondary circuit
d. to earth the primary circuit
5. The engine is checked or dead cut at:
a. a power check
b. slow running
c. cruising rpm
d. ull throttle
6. The distributor directs:
a. voltage rom the primary winding to the spark plug

b. voltage rom the secondary winding to the primary winding
c. voltage rom the magneto secondary winding to the spark plug
d. voltage rom the secondary winding to the contact breaker
7. To obtain a spark across the gap between two electrodes:
a. the circuit must have high EMF

b. the circuit must have high ohms
c. the circuit must have high current flow
d. the circuit must have an impulse union
5 Questions
8. The purpose o an ignition switch is:
a. to control the primary circuit o the magneto

b. to prevent condensation
c. to connect the secondary coil to the distributor
d. to connect the battery to the magneto
9. In a complex engine as rpm increases the ignition timing may be:

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b. retarded
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c. not altered
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d. only retarded
10. An impulse starter is a device to assist in starting an engine which uses:
a. a lea spring
b. a coil spring to increase temporarily the speed o rotation o the magneto
c. a special starting battery which provides a sudden impulse o electricity to the
plugs
d. an explosive inserted in a special tube
Questions
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Answers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
b a d a b c a a a b
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Chapter
6
Piston Engines - Fuel
Types o Fuel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77

Manuacturing Specifications and Grades. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
Calorific Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
Volatility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
High Volatility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
Sulphur Content. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
The Combustion Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
Flame Rate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
Variable Ignition Timing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
Variations in Flame Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80
Anti-detonation Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80
Detonation (Knocking) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80
The Effects o Detonation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
Detonation and Diesel Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
The Causes o Detonation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82
The Recognition and Prevention o Detonation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82
Fuel Quality Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83
Fuel Additives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
The Advantages o High Octane (Anti-detonation) Ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
Pre-ignition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
Thermal Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
Diesel Engine Fuel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Chapter
9
Piston Engines - Icing
Engine Icing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

Carburettor Icing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Action to be Taken i Engine Icing is Suspected . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Engine Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Fuel Injected Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Diesel Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Operational Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
9 Piston Engines - Icing
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9
Engine Icing
The problems o engine icing, particularly engines fitted with carburettors, have been known
or some years, but still accidents occur in which induction system icing has been the cause,
despite modern uel metering devices.
Atmospheric conditions, particularly o high humidity (more than 50% Relative Humidity (RH)
and temperatures ranging rom -7°C (20°F) to as high as +33°C (90°F), may cause icing in the
induction system o all types o piston engine. Figure 9.1 shows the range o temperatures at
which icing can affect the engine at different power settings.
Serious icing - any power
Moderate icing - cruise power 9
Serious icing - descent power g

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+20
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0 Dew point °C
-10
-20
-20 -100 0 +10 +20 +30 +40
Temperature °C
Figure 9.1
This temperature range and humidity occur throughout the year in the areas o the United
Kingdom and Europe, and thereore pilots should be constantly aware o the possibilities o
icing and take the corrective action necessary beore such problems arise and the situation
becomes irretrievable.
Once an engine stops due to induction icing it is most unlikely that it may be restarted in time
to prevent an accident - thereore recognition and correction is vital.
All pilots operating piston engined aircraf should understand the problems associated with
each particular type, but they also need to know how the engine reacts once heat is applied
to prevent induction icing.
Basically there are three orms o icing:
a) Impact ice which orms on the air filters and bends in the induction system.
b) Rerigeration ice (carburettor icing) which orms in float type carburettors as a result o
the low temperatures caused by uel vaporization and low pressure acting on moisture
in the atmosphere.
c) Fuel icing which is caused by moisture in the uel coming out o suspension and being
rozen by the low temperatures in the carburettor. This tends to stick to the inlet
maniold around the corners and reduce air/uel flow into the engine.
9
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anticipate the problem, would be a gradual drop in rpm which may be accompanied by engine
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rough running and vibration. In aircraf fitted with a constant speed propeller it would be
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The problem is caused partly by the rapid cooling in the throat o the carburettor as heat is
absorbed rom the air during the vaporization o the uel, and also by the low pressure area in
the Venturi tube. Figure 9.2 shows the build-up o icing in the induction system.
Figure 9.2
The result is that the temperature in this area o the carburettor drops as much as 22°C (70°F)
below the temperature o the incoming air. I now the air contains a large amount o moisture
this cooling process may be sufficient to cause ice to orm in the area o the throttle “butterfly”.
Here it will reduce the area o the induction intake and may prevent operation o the throttle
plate, resulting in the loss o power, and i not corrected the ice may accumulate sufficiently to
block the intake completely and stop the engine. At temperatures o -1°C (14°F) or below any
9
Action to be Taken if Engine Icing is Suspected
When icing is suspected, the carburettor heat control should be selected to ully hot and lef in
the hot position or a sufficient length o time to clear the ice. This could take up to 1 minute,
or longer depending on the severity.
Partial heat should not be used unless the aircraf is equipped with a carburettor air temperature
gauge. The carburettor heat control provides heated air rom around the exhaust pipe into the
induction system which will melt the ice and which then passes through the engine as water.
Engine roughness and urther power loss may occur as the water passes into the cylinders
and pilots should not be tempted to return the heat control to OFF (cold), thinking that the
situation has become worse since applying heat.
Icing is also more likely during long periods o flight at reduced power, such as during a
glide descent or letdown or approach and landing. Because the heat is derived rom the 9
engine, during long descents the engine temperatures will gradually cool, thus reducing the
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To help maintain engine temperatures and provide a sufficient heat source to melt any ice, it is P
necessary to increase power periodically to a cruising setting at intervals o between 500 and

1000 f during the descent. Additionally this action prevents lead ouling o the spark plugs.
Carburettor icing can occur during taxiing at small throttle settings or when the engine is at
idle rpm. In these circumstances ensure that hot air is used beore take-off to clear any ice, but
select cold air beore opening the throttle to ull power and check that the correct take-off rpm
/maniold pressure is obtained.
Under no circumstances should carburettor heat be used during take-off.
Engine Considerations
When using carburettor heat there are a number o actors which should be understood.
The application o hot air reduces the power output by approximately 15% and also creates a
richer mixture which may cause rough running.
Heat should not be applied at power settings greater than 80% as there is a danger o
detonation and engine damage. Intake icing should not occur at power settings involving a
wide throttle butterfly opening.
The continuous use o carburettor heat should be avoided due to the change o mixture and
increase o engine temperatures. Heat should be used only or a sufficient period o time to
restore engine power to its original level. This will be noted by an increase o rpm or maniold
pressure above the original setting when the control is returned to cold.
Do not use carburettor heat once clear o icing conditions, but check periodically that ice has
not reormed.
Fuel Injected Engines

The uel injected engine does not have the problems o ice orming at the Venturi, but other
parts o the system may accumulate ice with a similar loss o power.
Fuel icing may gather at the bends in the system, impact icing may orm at the impact sensing
tubes, or on the air filters, particularly when flying in cloud at low temperatures. The alternate
air system fitted to these engines should then be selected and the icing drill ollowed according
to the aircraf check list.
Diesel Engines
Diesel engines do not suffer rom icing in the same way as conventional piston engines. Firstly
there is no ‘carburettor’ and thereore no Venturi to attract the rerigeration icing associated
9
with float chamber carburettors.
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Impact-icing at the air-inlet filter is overcome by the use o ‘ice-guards’ which effectively by-pass
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temperatures is overcome by putting additives in the uel or by using uel-heaters in the uel-
lines or filters to ‘pre-heat’ the uel.
Operational Procedures
The ollowing points should be understood in the use o carburettor heat control.
Ground Operation
Use o the heat control on the ground should be kept to a minimum as the air is not filtered
and may eed dust and dirt into the system causing additional wear on pistons and cylinders.
A unction check o the heater control should be made beore take off. Rpm should drop
approximately 100 rpm when heat is applied and return to the selected setting when turned
OFF (cold).
Take-off
I icing is evident on the ground beore take-off, use heat to clear the ice but return the control
to OFF (cold) beore applying take-off power. Check that normal take-off power is available.
Climb
Do not use carburettor heat during the climb or at power settings above 80% (approximately
2500 rpm).
Flight Operations
Be aware o conditions likely to cause carburettor icing - damp, cloudy, oggy or hazy days, or
when flying close to cloud or in rain or drizzle.
Look out or an unaccountable loss o rpm/maniold pressure. Make requent checks or icing
by applying heat or a period o between 15 to 30 seconds, noting first the selected rpm then
the drop o rpm as heat is applied.
Listen to the engine noise and check the outside air temperature. Should rpm increase whilst
9
Descents
Apply carburettor heat during glide descents or long periods o flight at reduced power (below
1800 rpm) remembering to warm/clear the engine or short periods every 500 - 1000 f.
Approach and Landing

The carburettor heat selector should remain at cold during approach and landing, except or
a glide approach, but i icing conditions are known or suspected, ull heat should be applied.
However the control must be returned to cold beore applying power or a roller landing or
carrying out an overshoot.
Caution
During hot/dry weather application o hot air may cause a rich cut in the engine, thereore use
the carburettor heat control sensibly, not just as a matter o habit. Think about what you are
doing and check the prevailing conditions. 9
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Chapter
10
Piston Engines - Fuel Injection
Indirect Fuel Injection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

The Fuel Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
The Fuel/Air Control Unit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
The Fuel Maniold Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
The Discharge Nozzle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Diesel Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Electronic or Common Rail Injection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
10 Piston Engines - Fuel Injection
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Figure 10.1 General arrangement.
Indirect Fuel Injection

Indirect uel injection is ofen employed on aircraf piston engines, but is o the low-pressure,
continuous-flow type. In the low-pressure, continuous-flow method, uel is sprayed continuously
into the induction pipe as close to the inlet valve as possible. The advantages claimed or the
method are low operating pressure, good uel distribution, reedom rom icing problems and
the ability to use a pump which does not have to be timed to the operating cycle.
Some uel injection systems operate on a similar principle to the carburettor but inject uel
under pressure, into the intake.
In the indirect injection system, the air throttle metering valve varies the pressure o uel
according to engine speed.
Mixture strength is varied by a manually operated mixture control valve which adjusts the uel
pressure or altitude or operating conditions as necessary. Because o the method o operation
o the injector, no special idling arrangements are required and a separate priming system or
engine starting is unnecessary.
The main components in the system are a uel pump, a uel/air control unit, a uel maniold
(distribution) valve, and discharge nozzles or each cylinder.
In addition, a normal throttle valve controls airflow to the engine, and a uel pressure gauge
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The Fuel Pumps
The pump supplies more uel than is required by the engine, and a recirculation path is
provided. Two pumps are provided, arranged in parallel, so that when the mechanical pump is
not operating, uel under positive pressure rom the electrical pump can bypass the mechanical
pump, so allowing the electrical pump to be used or engine priming and starting and in an
emergency.
The Fuel/Air Control Unit

This unit is mounted on the intake maniold and contains three control elements:
a) the air throttle assembly (throttle valve)
b) the throttle metering valve (metering uel valve)
c) the mixture control valve 0

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throttle lever and controls airflow to the engine. e
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The intake maniold has no Venturi or other restrictions to air flow. F
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engine by means o two valves. n
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One valve, the metering uel valve, is connected to the air throttle and controls uel flow to the
uel maniold valve according to the position o the air throttle, thus uel flow is proportioned
to airflow and provides the correct air/uel ratio.
The second valve, the mixture control valve, is connected to the pilot’s mixture control lever,
and bleeds off uel pressure applied to the metering valve. Thus the air/uel ratio can be varied
rom the basic setting o the metering valve, as required by operating conditions.
A uel pressure gauge in the system indicates metered uel pressure, and, by suitable calibration,
enables the mixture to be adjusted according to altitude and power setting.
The Fuel Manifold Valve

This valve is located on the engine crankcase, and is the central point or distributing metered
uel to the engine. When the engine is stopped, all the outlet ports are closed, and no uel can
flow to the engine. As uel pressure builds up (as a result o engine rotation or booster pump
operation) all the ports to the discharge nozzles open simultaneously. A ball valve ensures that
the ports are ully open beore uel starts to flow.
The Discharge Nozzle

A uel discharge nozzle is located in each cylinder head, with its outlet directed into the inlet
port. Nozzles are calibrated in several ranges, and are fitted to individual engines as a set, each
nozzle in a set having the same calibration.
Diesel Engines
The uel-supply system in terms o storage is similar to that o conventional aircraf. In a light
aircraf the wing tanks (rigid) store the bulk o the uel which is then sent utilizing the effects o
gravity and ram air to a common strainer, selector-valve and then via water-traps, uel heaters
and filters to an engine-mounted delivery system.
Delivery to the cylinders may be perormed in many ways. However the preerred system is
known as ‘common rail’ where a high pressure supply (1800 bar/26 000 psi) is maintained
locally and adjacent to the cylinders.
In electronic/computer-controlled dual-channel unit known as FADEC (Full Authority Digital

Engine Control) opens electronically operated ‘nozzles’ at the appropriate time and duration
according to demand.
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An common rail systems, the distributor injection pump (old-style system) is replaced by a
single extremely high pressure pump (2000 bar or 29 000 psi) that eeds a single storage
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maniold known as the Common Rail. The common rail distributes high pressure uel to
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computer controlled injector valves. Each injector valve is activated by either a solenoid, or,
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more recently, by piezoelectric actuators.
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In modern aircraf such as the DA40 both the timing and uel quantity per injection is under the
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control o the FADEC. The FADEC receives data rom various sources such as air temperature, air
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density and throttle position. The combination o the ‘high-tech’ injector-valves and computer
control, leads to greater uel efficiency and more effective power management.
Figure 10.3 A common rail system.

Gas Turbines - Introduction
13
Airflow Through a Turboprop Engine
Figure 13.8
13.8 illustrates both a centriugal compressor turboprop engine and an axial flow
compressor turboprop engine.
The output rom a turbo-propeller engine is the sum o the shaf power developed at the
turbine and the residual
residual jet thrust. This is called
called Equivalent
Equivalent Shaf Horsepower
Horsepower (ESHP).
(ESHP).
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Figure 13.8 Centriugal and axial compressor turboprop engines.
The major difference between the turboprop and the turbojet is how in the ormer almost all
the energy in the
the gas stream is converted
converted into
into mechanical
mechanical power.
power.
In the turbojet a high proportion o the gas stream energy is utilized to drive the compressor as
it is in the turboprop, but whereas in the turbojet the energy that remains is used as thrust, the
energy that remains in a turboprop engine is used to drive the propeller. Only a small amount
o ‘jet thrust’ is available rom the exhaust system o a turboprop with an efficient turbine, it
can be described as ‘residual thrust only’.
Apart rom this difference, the airflow through the engine is virtually the same in either case.
The compressor passes the air to the combustion chamber where the uel is added and a
substantial increase in the volume o the air is obtained at a nominal constant pressure.
pressure.
The gas is now expanded in the turbine where a drop in the temperature, pressure and velocity
is exchanged or the mechanical energy to drive the compressor/s and the propeller through
its reduction gear.
13 Gas Turbines - Introduction
Airflow Through
Through a Turboshaft Engine
The turboshaf engine can be thought o as a turboprop engine with the propeller replaced
replaced by
a shaf. Turboshaf engines can be used to drive helicopter rotors.
They can also used in applications where a compact supply o electrical power is required, their
output shaf being attached to an alternator. This is the type o engine normally used as the
Auxiliary Power Unit (APU) on most modern transport aircraf.
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Figure 13.9 A
13.9 A single spool turboshaf
turboshaf engine
engine incorporating
incorporating a ree power
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turbine.
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incorporate a Free Power Turbine.
Most, i not all, turboshaf engines incorporate
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A ree power turbine is one that is not connected to any o the compressors. This rees it rom
the constraint
constraint o having
having to rotate at a speed that suits the
the compressor
compressor and this gives it a much
much
wider operating speed range.
The single spool turboshaf engine illustrated in Figure 13.9

13.9 has a reverse flow combustion
chamber system. This allows the engine to be much shorter, stiffer and lighter than it otherwise
would, but does add the requirement or a centriugal compressor to be used in the high
pressure stage. This allows or the air to be thrown out radially in order that it can enter the
combustion chamber in the correct direction.
Other than this deviation, the airflow

air flow ollows that previously described or the turbojet engine
up to the point where it leaves the high and low pressure turbines. Having converted sufficient
sufficient
energy to drive the two compressors, the gas now passes through the ree power turbine
where all o the remaining energy can be used to drive whatever is attached to it.
13
Airflow Through
Through a Low Bypass Ratio Engine
The Bypass Ratio is the ratio o the mass airflow which flows through the an-duct (bypass
duct) to the mass o air which is directed through the hot core. A low ratio is considered to be
in the region o about 1 or 2:1, whereas a high ratio would be around 5:1.
1200
Example: Fan Mass-flow 1500 lb Bypass Ratio = = 4:1
300
Core Mass-flow 300 lb
The engine shown in Figure 13.10 is

13.10 is a twin spool, low bypass ratio engine. The airflow as ar
as the end o the low pressure compressor is identical to that o a pure turbojet, but then the
airflow splits into two. An amount depending on the bypass ratio will flow down the bypass
duct and the remainder continues into the high pressure (HP) compressor.
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Figure 13.10 A
13.10 A twin spool low ratio bypass
bypass turbojet
P = Gas Pressure
T = Gas Temperature
N = Rotating Assembly
Each symbol is accompanied by a number which identifies its position rom the ront to rear o
the engine.
Rolls Royce have historically used the designations listed below and shown in Figu
Figure
re 13.1
3.10
0.
P0 T0 = Ambient P6 T6 = LP Turbine Exit
P1 T1 = Inlet P7 T7 = Exhaust
P2 T2 = LP Compressor Delivery P 8 T8 = Propelling Nozzle
P3 T3 = HP Compressor Delivery N1 = LP Compressor/Turbine
P4 T4 = Turbine Entry N2 = HP Compressor/Turbine

From the HP compressor the air ollows the now amiliar path through the combustion
chambers and into the turbine beore it rejoins the bypass air in the mixer unit o the exhaust
system.
The propulsive efficiency o both the low and high ratio by-pass engines is much greater than
that o the pure turbojet at the speeds normally associat
associated
ed with jet transport aircraf. Propulsive
efficiency was explained earlier
This also ollows or the specific uel consumption which is appreciably lower or the high ratio
bypass engine.
Airflow Through a High Bypass Ratio (Turbofan) Engine

The experience gained through manuacturing and operating the low bypass ratio type o
engine proved that engines dealing with larger comparative airflows and lower jet velocities
could give propulsive efficiencies
efficiencie s comparable to those o
o turboprops and greater than turbojets
at normal cruising speeds. The advent o the an jet engine had arrived.
The triple spool ront an turbojet engine shown in Figure 13.11 represents
13.11 represents probably the most
successul example o this type o engine, the Rolls Royce RB 211.
1
3
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Figure
Figur e 13.
13.1
11 Triple spool ront an turbojet
The air enters the intake and passes immediately into the low pressure compressor, more
commonly called the an. Here its pressure is raised beore it splits to go either through the
bypass duct or into the intermediate pressure compressor, the amount depending upon the
bypass ratio.
The thrust o this type

t ype o engine is almost completely dependent on the bypass airflow which
has a high mass and relatively low velocity, hence its good propulsive efficiency. The air which
passes through the intermediate and high pressure compressors has a great deal o energy
added in the combustion chambers, but this energy is required to drive the compressors.
The rearmost, or the low pressure turbine, is responsible or extracting virtually all o the energy
that remains
remains in the gas stream
stream to drive
drive the ront
ront an.
I it is efficient in doing its job then there should be only residual thrust remaining when the hot
gases emerge rom the turbine.
13
Propulsivee Efficiency
Propulsiv
Thrust is the product o mass times acceleration. It can be demonstrated that the same amount
o thrust can be provided either by imparting a low acceleration to a large mass o air, or by
giving a small mass o air a large acceleration. In practice the ormer is preerred, since it has
been ound that the losses due to turbulence are much lower and the propulsive efficiency is
higher. The levels o propulsive efficiency or several different types o gas turbine engine are
shown in Figu
Figure
re 13.1
3.12
2, below.
The efficiency o conversion o kinetic energy to propulsive work is termed propulsive or

external efficiency. This is affected by the amount o kinetic energy wasted by the propelling
mechanism.
Work Done on Aircraf

Propulsive Efficiency =
Work Done on Airflow + Work Wasted in Exhaust
2V
Propulsive Efficiency
Efficiency ormula is written as: PE = where V is
is aircraf Speed
V +V J
and V J is Jet Velocity
Example 1.
A low bypass turbojet engine has a orward velocity (V) o 200 mph and a jet velocity (V J)
3
o 1000 mph. 1
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2V 2 × 200 400 1 100 t
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V +V J = = = × = 33% u
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200 + 1000 1200 3 1 o
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Example 2. -
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A low bypass turbojet engine has a orward velocity ( V ) o 600 mph and a jet velocity ( V J) u
T
s
o 1000 mph. a
G
2V 2 × 600 1200 3 100

= = = × = 75%
V +V J 600 + 1000 1600 4 1
It can be seen rom these examples that the closer the aircraf speed comes to the speed o the
jet efflux, the more
more efficient the propulsion
propulsion unit becomes.
The highest propulsive efficiency at low airspeeds is offered by the turbo-propeller engine
combination. However, above about 350 miles per hour, the propeller’s efficiency does drop
off quite rapidly due to the disturbance o the airflow at the tips o the blades.
In comparison with the turboprop, the propulsive efficiency

efficiency o the pure turbojet appears quite
poor at the lower airspeeds.
As the airspeed increases in excess o 800 miles per hour however, the propulsive efficiency
starts to improve beyond the capability o the turboprop engine to match it, and rom then
on there is no comparison, the eventual outcome being a propulsive efficiency close to 90%.
Cruising speeds in the order o 800 miles per hour are at present out o the reach o most
transport aircraf and this act
act means that in the mid-speed
mid-speed range, where most o
o the world’s
transport aircraf operat
operate,
e, there is a niche
niche or the
the bypass type o engine.
engine.
This type, which includes the ducted an or turboan engine, has a propulsive efficiency
efficiency which
fits neatly between that o the turboprop and the pure turbojet. By dealing with comparatively
larger mass airflows at lower jet velocities the bypass t ype engine attains a propulsive efficiency
which exceeds that o both the turboprop and the pure turbojet at the speeds normally
associated
associated with jet transport aircraf.
1 To summarize. The closer the aircraf speed comes to the speed o the jet efflux exiting the
3
engine, the higher the Propulsive Efficiency o the engine/propeller combination.
combination.
G
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Modular Construction Methods

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- The use o larger and larger aircraf has meant that air travel has become less and less expensive.
I
This concept works well as long as the aircraf themselves
themselves work well. I howeve
howeverr one restricting
n
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component on a large aircraf, such as an engine, becomes unserviceable, then the expense
involved in keeping three or our hundred passengers ed, accommodated and happy becomes
t
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exorbitant.
Engine manuacturers, in an attempt to minimize the financial burden imposed upon the users
o their equipment in the even
eventt o ailure, have started
star ted to use Modular Construction Methods
which acilitate changing sections o an engine rather than the whole engine. Figure 13.13
shows how the engine is split into several modules.
Questions
13
Questions
1. When gases pass through a convergent duct their:
a. velocity and temper

temperature
ature increase and their pressure decreases
b. their velocity increases and their temper
temperature
ature and pressure decrease
c. their velocity decreases and their tempe
temperature
rature and pressure increase
d. they expand adiabatically
2. Select the correct order o best propulsive efficiency, rom low to high airspeed.
a. High bypass ratio turbojet, Low bypass ratio turbojet, Pure turbojet,
Turboprop
b. Low bypass ratio turbojet, Pure turbojet, Turbo
Turboprop,
prop, High bypass ratio
turbojet
c. Pure turbojet, Turboprop, High bypass ratio turbojet, Low bypass ratio
turbojet
d. Turboprop, High bypass ratio turbojet, Low bypass ratio turbojet, Pure
turbojet
3. The highest pressure in a gas turbine engine occurs:
a. between the compresso

compressorr and the combustion chamber
3
b. in the combustion chamber 1
c. in the jet pipe s

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d. at the P1 probe o
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4. In a turboan engine, the an speed is controlled by: Q
a. a reduction gear
b. a wastegate
c. the turbine
d. varying the pitch
5. In a High Bypass Ratio engine:
a. all o the air goes through both the low and high pressure compresso
compressors
rs
b. not all the air goes through the high pressure compresso
compressorr
c. not all the air goes through the low pressure compresso
compressorr
d. all the air goes through the high pressure compresso
compressorr
6. Modular construction:
a. is only used on turboprop engines

b. cannot be used on high ratio engines
c. has a weight saving unction
d. enables malunctioning sections o the engine to be changed without
changing the whole engine
7. The Bypass Ratio o an engine is the ratio o:
a. primary air to tertiary air

b. cold stream air to that flowing through the hot core o the engine
c. exhaust gas pressure to air intake pressure
d. primary air to secondary air
13 Questions
8. The Gas Turbine Engine uses the principle o:
a. Newton’s Third Law o motion

b. creating thrust equal to the weight o the aircraf
c. expelling air at the same speed as that o the aircraf
d. the fluid flywheel
9. The addition o heat in a combustion chamber allows a:
a. large expansion at a substantially constant pressure

b. large expansion at a constant volume
c. large expansion at a decreasing static pressure
d. minimum expansion at a constant volume
10. In a divergent duct:
a. the pressure decreases and the temper

temperature
ature and velocity increases
b. the pressure, velocity and temper
temperature
ature increases
c. the pressure temper
temperature
ature increases and the velocity decreases
d. the pressure decreases, the temper
temperature
ature increases and the velocity remains
constant
11. In a twin spool engine:

1
3
Q a. the LP compressor is connected to the HP compressor

u
e b. the HP turbine is connected to the LP compresso
compressor, r, the LP turbine is connected
to the HP compressor
compressor
s
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c. the LP turbine is connected to the LP compresso
compressor,r, the HP turbine is connected
n
s
to the HP compressor

compressor
d. the HP turbine is connected to the LP turbine, the HP compresso
compressorr is connected
to the LP compresso
compressorr
12. A Bypass Ratio o 5:1 means that:
a. 5 pounds o air is bypassed or every 10 pounds entering the engine intake
b. 5 pounds o goes through the HP compressor or every 10 pounds that enters
the intake
c. 10 pounds o air goes through the bypass or every 5 pounds that enters the
intake
d. 5 pounds o air is bypassed or every 1 pound that goes through the hot core
o the engine
13. Af o the compressor:
a. the velocity o the airflow remains the same

b. the velocity o the airflow decreases beore the combustion chamber
c. the velocity increases beore the combustion chamber
d. the air pressure decreases beore the combustion chamber
14. The an in a ducted an engine, is driven by:
a. the high pressure turbine

b. the rearmost turbine
c. the intermedi
intermediate
ate pressure turbine
d. all o the above
Questions
13
15. In a bypass engine, the bypass air:
a. increases the air mass flow and thereore increases the propulsive efficiency
b. cools the combust
combustion
ion chamber and thereore increases the thermal efficiency
c. reduces the air mass flow and thereore increases the propulsive efficiency
d. increases the air mass flow and thereore reduces the propulsive efficiency
16. The majority o the thrust o a:
a. turboan engine comes rom the turbine exhaust

b. turboprop engine comes rom the turbine exhaust
c. turboshaf engine comes rom the ree power turbine exhaust
d. turboan engine comes rom the bypass air
17..
17 A pure turbojet engine gives:
a. a small accelerat
acceleration
ion to a large mass o air
b. a large accelerat
acceleration
ion to a large mass o air
c. a small accelerat
acceleration
ion to a small mass o air
d. a large accelerat
acceleration
ion to a small mass o air
18. During the Brayton cycle, combustion takes place:
a. continuously 3
1
b. once every revolution
s
c. once every other revolution n
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d. only during the start cycle s
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
b d a c b d b a a c c d
13 14 15 16 17 18
b b a d d a
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Chapter
14
Gas Turbines - Air Inlets
Air Inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

Operational Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
14 Gas Turbines - Air Inlets
Operational Consider
Considerations
ations
Take-off
The engine air inlet is designed to maintain a stable airflow to the compressor ace, anything
that disrupts the airflow and causes it to be turbulent may cause he compresso
compressorr to stall or
surge.
The intake cannot cope with high angles o attack and be expected to maintain a stable
airflow. One o the most critical times is during acceleration o the engine to take-off power.
Any crosswind may affect the airflow into the intake, particularly those af body mounted
engines having an ‘S duct’ type o intake, (TriStar, 727). To avoid the possibility o stall and
surge the procedure defined in the operating manual must be ollowed which typically is to
get the aircraf moving orwards beore smoothly increasing the power setting to the take-off
value by 60 - 80 knots approx. (rolling take-off).
Icing
Inlet icing can occur i conditions are conducive, typically this would be i the ambient
temperature
tempe rature is below +10°C, there is visible moisture, standing
s tanding water on the runway or the
RVR is less than 1000 metres. I these conditions exist the pilot should activate the engine anti-
icing system.
Damage
1
4 Damage to the intake or any roughness internally in the intake may cause the incoming air
G
to be turbulent and may disrupt the airflow into the compresso
compressorr causing stall or surge. Be
a
s particular during intake inspection to notice damage, uneven skin panels, surace roughness
etc.
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Foreign Object Ingestion
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Damage to compressor blades is invariably caused by ingestion o oreign objects while the
i
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aircraf is on or close to the ground. Pay particular attention to the area on the ground in ront
l
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t
s
o the engine intakes prior to engine start to ensure that it is ree o loose stones and other
debris. This is particularly important or wing mounted engines whose intake is close to the
ground. It is no coincidence that af body mounted engines whose intake is above the aircraf
uselage suffer much less with oreign object ingestion.
In-flight Turbulence
Heavy in-flight turbulence can not only spill the coffee but can seriously disrupt the airflow into
the engines.
engines. Using
Using the operating handbook turbulence penetratio
penetrationn speed
speed and the correct
correct rpm
or Engine Pressure Ratio (EPR) will reduce the possibility o compressor malunction. It may
also be prudent or a requirement to activate
activate the continuous ignition to reduce the probability
o engine ‘flame out’.
Ground Operations
The vast majority o compressor damage is caused by Foreign Object Damage (FOD). Damage
to the compresso
compressorr blades leads to changes in the geometry o the system which can cause
perormance deterioration, compressor stall and even engine surge. To prevent such damage
being caused it is essential that the operators o gas turbine engines should take precautions
which preclude the entry o debris into the area o the ramp. Further to this the pilot should
ensure during his external pre-flight checks that the engine intakes are ree rom any such
debris. The responsibility does not end there, afer flight, intake and exhaust covers should be
fitted to prevent ingress o contaminants and windmilling.
Gas Turbines - Air Inlets
14
During start up, taxi and reverse thrust operation debris can be sucked into the intake and
power should be kept to a minimum to avoid potential damage.
Several deaths and many serious injuries have been caused through personnel being sucked
into the intakes o gas turbine engines while they have been operating, great care must be
exercised
exercised whenever it is necessary to unction in close proximity to running engines.
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14 Questions
Questions
1. In a high bypass engine with a ‘pitot’ intake, with the engine running and the
brakes on, what will P 1 be in relation to P 0?
a. Same.
b. Greater.
c. Less.
d. 14.7 psi.
2. A pitot intake orms a ............. duct ............ the an to ensure that the airflow
............ to ............... and achieves
achieves a ...............
a. convergent beore speeds up subsonic pressure rise

b. divergent afer slows down subsonic pressure rise
c. divergent beore speeds up sonic pressure drop
d. divergent beore slows down subsonic pressure rise
3. What effect will severe icing in the intake have on a high bypass engine?
a. The axial velocity o the air will increase with a reduction in the angle o attack
o the airflow with the compressor blades and a possible stall.
b. The axial velocity o the air will decrease with a reduction in the angle o
attack o the airflow with the compressor blades and a possible stall.
1
4 c. The axial velocity o the air will decrease with an increase in the angle that the
Q
resultant airflow orms with the compressor blades chord line and a possible
u
e stall.
d. The axial velocity o the air will increase with an increase in the angle o attack
s
t
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s o the airflow with the compressor blades and a possible stall.
4. Which o the ollowing would be classed as prudent when carrying out Engine
Ground Runs?
a. Only carry out engine runs with a tailwind.

b. Fit debris guards when running.
c. Only do ground runs on tarmac.
d. Only do ground runs on concrete
concrete..
5. With an ‘S’ type intake, i the pilot selects max rpm while standing still, there is a
strong possibility that:
a. the angle, which the relative airflow orms with the compress
compressoror blades, will
become too small, which will cause the engine to stall and surge.
b. the angle, which the relative airflow orms with the compress
become too small, which will cause the engine to surge then stall.
c. the angle which the relative airflow orms with the compresso
compressorr blades will
become too large, which will cause the engine to stall and surge.
d. the angle, which the relative airflow orms with the compress
become too large, which will cause the engine to surge then stall.
Questions
14
6. The purpose o an air inlet is to provide a relatively ............. supply o air to the
............. o the ............ compressor.
a. turbulent ree ace low pressure

b. turbulent ace low pressure
c. turbulent ree rear low pressure
d. turbulent ree ace high pressure
7. In a pitot intake the term ‘Ram Pressure Recovery’ reers to the time when:
a. EPR has attained the take-off setting.

b. the HP Compressor has reached its maximum.
c. the EPR has recovered to its optimum figure.
d. intake pressure has been re-estab
re-established
lished to ambient pressure.
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14 Answers
Answers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
c d c b c a d
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Chapter
15
Gas Turbines - Compressors
Typess o Compres
Type Compressor
sor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .227
The Pros and Cons o the Centriugal Compre
Compressor
ssor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .227
The Principles o the Centriugal Flow Compressor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .227
The Principles o the Axial Flow Compress
Compressor
or . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .228
Maintaining the Axial Velocity o the Airflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229
Airflow Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229
Stalll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .230
Stal 230
Surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .230
Prevention
Prevention o Stall and Surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .231
Variable Inlet Guide Vanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .231
Variable Stator Vanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .232
Compressor
Compressor Bleeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .232
Multi-spool Compres
Compressors
sors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .233
Active Clearance Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .234
Compressor
Compressor Surge Envelope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .234
Construction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .234
Rotor Blades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .235
Stator Vanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .235
Fan Blades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .236
Compressor
Compressor (and Tur
Turbine)
bine) Contaminat
Contamination
ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .237
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
15 Gas Turbines - Compressors
1
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15
Types of Compressor
The air must be compressed beore having uel added to it in the combustion chambers and
subsequent expansion in the turbines.
There are basically two types o compressor in use in engines presently available, one allows
axial airflow through the engine while the other creates centriugal flow.
flow.
In both cases the compressors

compressors are driven by a turbine which is coupled to it by a shaf.
The Pros and Cons of the Centrifugal Compressor

The centriugal compressor is much more robust than the axial flow compressor. That and
the act that it is the
the easiest and cheapest
cheapest o the two types to
to manuacture made it a popular
popular
choice in early gas turbine engines.
It does however have one or two disadvantages which have relegated it to the second position
in terms o large modern engines. I we compare two compressors with the same rontal area,
one centriugal and the other axial, we would first o all find that the axial flow compressor
can consume ar more air than the centriugal compressor and secondly that much higher
compression ratios can be attained in the axial flow compressor.
Since the amount o thrust generated by an engine depends partly upon the mass o air flowing
through it, it can be demonstrat
demonstrated
ed that the centriugal
centriugal compressor
compressor engine will have less thrust
than an axial flow
flow compressor
compressor with the same rontal
rontal area.
5
1
The Principles of the Centrifugal Flow Compressor s

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o
s
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The action o the turbine rotates the impeller o the compressor at high speed. Air is introduced p
m
o
continuously into the eye (centre) o the impeller by rotating guide vanes and centriugal orce C
-
s
causes it to flow outwards towards the tip. e
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Because o the divergent shape o the vanes the pressure o the air increases as it flows out wards, s
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and because we are adding energy into the equation, the air’s velocity also increases.
The air leaves the tip o the impeller and passes into the diffuser section, a system o stationary
divergent ducts designed to convert the kinetic energy (velocity) into potential energy
(pressure).
In practice approximately 50% o the pressure rise across the compressor occurs in the impeller
and the other 50% in the diffuser section.
The compression ratio o a single stage centriugal compressor would be in the region o 4:1.
That means that the outlet pressure o the compressor stage would be approximately our
times greater
greater than the inlet
inlet pressure.
pressure.
To attain greater engine compression ratios using centriugal compressors two o them would
have to be used in series with each other.
In practice it has not been ound easible to use more than two centriugal compressor stages
together,, excessiv
together excessivee impeller tip speeds and extreme centriugal loading prohibit efficient
operation o a third stage.
As a result o this, engine compression ratios o greater than 15:1 are not considered possible
using centriugal compressors.
At the elbows o the compresso

compressorr outlet casing
cascade vanes are fitted.
These enable the air to be turned through

large angles with the minimum o loss, and
they are also used to complete
complete diffusion.
diffusion.
The Principles of the Axial Flow

Compressor
The principle o the axial flow compressor is
basically the same as that o the centriugal
flow compressor, it converts kinetic energy
into pressure (potential) energy. The means Figure 15.1
which it uses to achieve this conversion are
however different.
The axial flow compressor, as shown in Figure

15.2,, consists o several rows o rotating (rotor)
15.2
blades o aerooil section interspersed with
rows o stationary diffuser (stator) blades,
1
5
also o aerooil section.
A stage consists o one row o rotor blades,

G
a
s
T
u
r
astened to discs on a rotor drum, ollowed by
a row o stator blades, which are astened to
b
i
n
e
s
-
C
the compressor
compressor outer
outer casing.
o
m
p
r
e On both the rotor and the stator the spaces
between the blades orm divergent passages.
s
s
o
r
s
In the rotor, which is turned continuously at

high speed by the turbine, mechanical energy
is added and converted into both kinetic
(velocity) energy and potential (pressure) Figure 15.2 The changes in pressure & velocity through
energy. an axial flow compressor.
Within the stator, the pressure is increased by the conversion o the kinetic energy into pressure
energy. This process is illustrated in Figure 15.2.
15.2.
Simply stated, the rotor

rotor stages can be seen as doing the same job as the impeller in a centriugal
compressor, while the stator stages can be compared to the diffuser in a centriugal compres sor.
The pressure rise across each stage is only quite small, the ratio being about 1.1 or 1.2:1. This
means that in the first stage the pressure might only increase by about 3 psi. As a consequence
o this, in order to gain the compression ratios demanded by modern engines, many stages
may be used on the same spool (see Figure 15.3 ), ), and
and an engine may have up to three spools.
So effective is this method o compression that in an engine like the RB 211 compression ratios
as great as 35:1 can be attained. In this engine, the pressure rise over the last stage can be as
much as 80 psi.
15
These high pressures can result in compressor outlet temperatures o up to 600°C.
Some engines now use a combination o centriugal and axial compressors.
Maintaining the Axial Velocity of the Airflow

The space between the rotor drum and the compressor outer casing is called the air annulus.
To maintain the axial velocity o the air as it is compressed into a smaller and smaller volume,
the air annulus must be reduced.
This gradual convergence is achieved by either tapering the compressor outer casing or the
rotor drum, or in some cases a combination o both. This is shown in Figure 15.3.
5
1
s
r
o
s
s
e
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p
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-
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Figure 15.3 A single spool compressor. n
i
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u
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s
Airflow Control a
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Increasing the compression ratio o a compressor makes it progressively more difficult to ensure
that it operates efficiently over the whole o its speed range. This is caused by the act that the
compression ratio o the engine alls as the speed o rotation o the compressor alls. Thereore,
as the engine slows down, the volume which the air takes up gets greater and greater, because
it is not being compressed so much.
The increased volume o air at the high pressure end o the compressor makes it difficult or it
to pass through the space available and so it slows down and in some cases can cause choking
and turbulence.
This reduction in axial velocity happens throughout the compressor and can cause a
phenomenon called stall, which i not checked can progressively worsen to produce surge, a
situation where, in the worst case, the airflow through the engine can instantaneously reverse
its direction o flow.
15
Apart rom the loud noise that usually accompanies a surge, there is a large rise in the EGT
and the resulting loss o thrust may cause the aircraf to yaw.
Prevention of Stall and Surge

Operation o the engine outside the optimum rpm and axial velocity range is inevitable, design
criteria are, afer all, aimed at producing the greatest efficiency near maximum rpm, and
operation at levels below that point has to occur i we are to be able to throttle the engine
back.
This means that we are committed to altering the rotational speed o the compressor, and also
the axial
axial velocity
velocity o the air as it passes through the engine,
engine, by doing so
so we are encouraging
encouraging the
onset o stall and surge.
Methods o ensuring that this does not happen have to be fitted to the engine, the ollowing
is a list o some o those methods:
a) Variable Inlet Guide Vane

Vaness (VIGVs)
b) Variable Stator Vanes.
c) Compressor Bleeds.
d) Multi-spool Compres
Compressors.
sors.
e) Active Clearance Control. 5

1
s
Variable Inlet Guide Vanes r
o
s
s
e
r
p
Variable inlet guide vanes (VIGVs) are fitted to engines which have a particular problem with m
o
C
inherent compressor
compressor stall at low rpm or during engine acceleration or deceleration. The vanes -
s
e
are fitted just in ront o the first rotor stage, they can be automat
automatically
ically pivoted around their n
i
b
r
own axis to vary the path o the airflow going into the compressor, so maintaining the proper u
T
s
relationship between compressor
compressor rotational speed and airflow
air flow in the ront compressor
compressor stages. a
G
At low compressor speeds the VIGVs are angled to impar t the greatest amount o swirl to the
air, thereby correcting the relative airflow to obtain the optimum angle o attack over the
rotor blades. This optimum angle o attack allows a smooth and rapid engine acceleration.
acceleration.
Variable Stator Vanes

Afer the first rotor stage has been successully negotiated, the airflow may s till have problems
urther down the compressor when the engine is operatin
operating
g at other than optimum conditions.
To minimize these problems, some engine are fitted with variable stator vanes, see Figure 15.4
These vanes can be pivoted automatically, so that as the compressor speed is reduced rom the
optimum design value, they are progressiv
progressively
ely closed to maintain an acceptable angle o attack
onto the ollowing rotor blades.
1
5
G
a
s
T
u
Figure 15.4 Typical variable stator vanes
r
b
i
n
e
s
-
Compressor Bleeds
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
o
r As explained earlier, when the engine slows down, its compression ratio will decrease and the
volume o air in the rear o the compressor will be greater.
s
This excess volume causes choking in the rear o the compressor and a decrease in the mass
flow. This in turn causes a decrease in the velocity o the air in the ront o the compressor and
increases the tendency to stall.
I a compressor bleed valve, as shown in Figure 15.5 ,

, is
is introduced into the intermediate stages
o the compressor, it can be opened at low rpm or during engine acceleration to allow some o
the excess volume o air to
to escape.
escape.
This will have the effect o increasing the velocity o the air i n the earlier stages o the compressor
and reducing the choking effects in the rear o the compressor.
This combination will ensure that compressor stall is less likely to occur during the conditions
while the bleeds are open, but there are disadvantages to the use o the system.
Opening compressor bleeds, whether they are stall preventive measures or bleeds used to
supply air or aircraf services, decreases the mass flow through the engine.
15
This will cause a drop in thrust or a given throttle position which raises the engine’s specific
uel consumption (sc) and also raises the EGT because o the drop in the amount o cooling
air available.
Figure 15.5 The operation o a compressor bleed valve.
Multi-spool Compressors
5
1
Early axial flow engines were developed by adding more compressor stages on one shaf to
s
obtain higher and higher compression ratios. r
o
s
s
e
r
p
This made it increasingly difficult to retain operational flexibility in terms o engine speed. m
o
Compressor
Compres sor blade angles are
a re arranged to give peak perormance around maximum rpm, when C
-
s
the axial velocity o the airflow and the rotational speed o the blade produce the optimum e
n
i
b
angle o attack o the air flow over the blade. r
u
T
s
a
G
Any reduction o engine rpm changes the symmetry o the vector diagram relating it to the
axial velocity, and the angle o attack no longer retains its optimum value, stall became an ever
present problem at lower engine speeds.
To overcome this, the compressor was split, initially into two, and subsequently into three,
sections, each section being driven through a shaf by its own turbine. The speed o rotation o
each successive compressor increases, the HP compressor rotating aster than the LP.
The whole unit, compressor, shaf and turbine, orms a spool.
By designing the engine so that, upon closing the throttle, the speed o the low pressure spool
alls off more rapidly than the high pressure spools, it can be arranged that the symmetry o
the vector diagram relating to angle o attack can be maintained over a much greater range,
thus reducing greatly
greatly the chance o compressor
compressor stall.
Active Clearance Control

A later development designed to control the airflow through the engine is that o active
clearance control. The basic problem with all cases o stall is that the angle o attack o the
airflow over the blade is no longer at its optimum value.
This can be the result o changes in either the axial velocity o the airflow over the blades or
their rotational
rotational speed.
I the axial velocity can be controlled over the whole o the engine speed range, then the
chances o stall or surge happening are diminished.
One method o accomplishing this is to vary the size o the air annulus at the high pressure end
o the compressor, something which was considered technically impossible not too long ago.
By cooling the compressor casing we can cause it to shrink and so achieve the desired clearance
between it and the blade tips. The cooling medium most ofen used at present is air, which is
introduced into tubing running through the exterior o the compresso
compressorr casing.
Compressor Surge Envelope

Compressor stall/surge has been shown to be caused by an imbalance between the flow o air
Compressor
through the compresso
compressorr and the pressure ratio. Figure 15.6 illustrates
illustrates how the designer ensures
the relationship between pressure rise and rpm ollows a path known as the working line or
1 design line. Built-in airflow control devices such as bleed valves,
valves, allow a saety margin between
5
the working line and the surge line.
G
a
s
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u
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b
i
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e
s
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o
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p
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e
s
s
o
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s
Figure 15.6
Construction
Figure 15.3 shows
15.3 shows the basic methods o construction commonly used in compressor assembly.
The rotor shaf is supported in bearings and is coupled to the turbine shaf so that minor
variations in alignment are allowed or.
15
The types o fixing methods vary, the most common being that where the root o the blade is
shaped into a dovetail joint and secured to the disc by a pin or locking tab.
On smaller engines it becomes more and more difficult to design a practical fixing method and
at the same time maintain minimum disc weight.
One way o getting over the problem is to produce blades integral with the disc, this type o
blade and disc combination has been called the ‘blisk’.
The compressor casing is constructed o aluminium alloy at the ront stages with the intermediate
stage casing being manuactured rom steel alloys.
In the high pressure section o the compressor the temperatures are so high that nickel based
alloys are the only materi
materials
als capable o withstanding them.
Rotor Blades
The rotor blades are o aerooil section and are normally made
rom drop orged stainless steel, machined to a close tolerance
beore being attached to the rotor disc.
The blades reduce in size rom the ront to the rear o the
compressor, to accommodate the convergent shape o the air
annulus, see Figure 15.3.
15.3.
Some o the low pressure stages may have blades manuactured

manuactu red 5
1
rom titanium where the temperatures o compression are not
s
r
too high. o
s
s
e
r
p
The method o fixing, usually the dovetail system, see Figure m
o
C
15.7
, does not ensure that the blade is held immovable in -
s
e
the disc, in act the blades are quite loose until firmly seated n
i
b
r
by centriugal orce during engine operation, so that when u
T
s
windmilling on the ground the blades rattle loosely and sound a
G
somewhat like a bag o nails being shaken.
Stator Vanes Figure 15.7 A

A typical compressor
compressor
rotor blade.
The stator vanes are also aerooil shaped and are fixed to the compressor casing either directly
or into stator vane retaining rings, which are themselves astened to the casing.
The vanes may be assembled in segments in the earlier stages, and the longer ones are shrouded
at their inner ends to prevent vibration which can be induced by the velocity flow over them,
see Figure 15.8.
15.8.
Early engines used aluminium alloys in the manuacture o stator vanes but it did not withstand
oreign object ingestion damage at all well.
Steel or nickel based alloys have a high atigue strength and are less easily cracked or eroded
by impact. Titanium is sometimes used or the vanes in the early stages, but it is not suitable
urther down the engine where the high tempe
temperatures
ratures can affect it.
mechanical ailure, sufficient heat rom riction would then be generat

generated
ed to ignite the titanium
causing at best expensive repairs, or at worst an air worthiness hazard.
Figure 15.8 Segments o shrouded stator vanes.
Fan Blades
1
5 The high bypass ratio engine’s low pressure
G compressor blades, more commonly known
a
s
T
as the an blades, were initially manuactured
rom solid titanium, this material having the
u
r
b
properties o strength with lightness.
i
n
e
s
-
C
A low blade weight is essential i the an is
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
to be able to withstand the out o balance
o
r
s orces which would occur i a blade ailed.
Notwithstanding the enormous strength o
titanium, the blades had to have
have incorporat
incorporated
ed
into their design a snubber.
This was a support fitted at mid-span

which prevented aerodynamic instability,
unortunately it also added weight, and,
particularly when two o them were required,
as shown in Figure 15.9 ,
, it
it interered with the
supersonic flow characteristics o the air at the
extremities o the blade. Figure 15.9 A
15.9 A high bypass ratio
ratio engine low pressure
compressor or an.
Experiments with new materials, particularly
carbon fibre, were carried out, but its flexibility greatly reduced its effectiveness and its use has
largely been discontinued.
15
The greatest advancement has been achieved by abricating
the blade rom a honeycomb core sandwiched between two
outer skins o titanium, see Figure 15.10.
15.10.
This method gives added strength with less weight, enabling

the introduction o the wide chord an blade. The stability o
the blade is ensured
ensured as a result o its wider
wider chord
chord and thereo
thereore
re
the snubber is no longer necessary.
Compressor
Compressor (and Turbine) Contamination
Accumulation o contaminants in both the compressor and
the turbine section o
o the engine reduces
reduces the efficiency
efficiency o the
unit and can seriously affect its perormance
perormance..
The contaminants on the compressor, which are mostly salt

and pollution rom industrial areas, reduce the aerodynamic
efficiency o the blades.
In the turbine the contamination takes the orm o sulphidation,

a build up o sulphur deposits rom the burning uel which
destroys the aerodynamic shape o the turbine blades and
the nozzle guide vanes and which will, over a period o time,
erode their surace finish.
5
I the major cause o contamination is salt ingestion, then a 1
timely rinsing o the compresso

compressorr with resh water can avoid Figure 15.10 Wide chord an blade s
r
o
the harsher treatment which otherwise will be required. This construction. s
s
e
r
can be carried out either while motoring the engine over on p
m
the starter, or while running the engine at idle speed. This o
C
-
procedure is known as a desalination wash. s
e
n
i
b
r
u
I the contamination has reached the stage where a desalination wash is not sufficient, then T
s
a
the application o an emulsion type surace cleaner may be necessary, this is sprayed into the G
engine intake under the same conditions as the desalination wash. This procedure is known as
a perormance recovery wash.
The turbine also benefits rom this treatment, requent applications

applications allowing an extension o
service lie or some engines.
A more vigorous treatment

treatment,, perhaps more applicable to centriugal compressor engines, is that
o the injection o an abrasive grit into the engine intake while it is running at an idle power
setting.
The grit takes the orm o broken walnut shells, (the Americans use the broken stones rom
apricots), unortunately, because the grit is mostly burnt in the combustion chambers, this
method does not clean the turbine components as well as the fluid cleaning method.
15 Questions
Questions
1. The pressure ratio o a gas turbine engine compressor is:
a. equal to the number o compressio

compression
n stages
b. the ratio between compresso
compressorr outlet and compresso
compressorr inlet pressure
c. the ratio between exhaust inlet and exhaust outlet pressure
d. never greater than 5 to 1
2. The compressor idling speed o an uncompensated gas turbine engine will

increase:
a. at higher ambient temperature

b. with higher than sea level density
c. at altitudes lower than sea level
d. at lower ambient temperature
3. One stage o an axial flow compressor consists o:
a. one rotor assembly and one row o stator vanes

b. one stator assembly and one row o guide vanes
c. one rotor and one impeller assembly
d. one impeller and one diffuser assembly
4. The pressure rise across each stage o an axial flow compressor is:
1
5
a. greater than that o a centriugal compresso
compressorr
b. between 3 and 5 to one
Q
u c. twice the inlet pressure
d. between 1.1.1
1 and 1.2 to one
e
s
t
i
o
n
s
5. The ring o blades which sometimes precede the first rotor stage o an axial flow
compressor are called:
a. the first stage stator blades

b. variable inlet guides vanes
c. first stage diffuser blades
d. nozzle guide vanes
6. As air passes through an axial flow compressor, a pressure rise takes place in:
a. the impeller and the diffuser

b. the rotor blades only
c. both the rotor blades and the stator vanes
d. the stator vanes only
7. In the event o a surge occurring the correct action to be taken is:
a. to close the throttle quickly

b. to close the throttle slowly
c. to open the throttle ully
d. to close the LP uel valve
Questions
15
8. Shrouding o stator blade tips is designed to:
a. prevent tip turbulence

prevent
b. ensure adequate cooling
c. minimize
minimiz e vibration
d. prevent tip losses
9. The cross-sectional area o the air annulus is reduced as it approaches the

combustion chamber:
a. to maintain the volume o the air under rising pressure

b. to preve
prevent
nt an increase o the velocity o the air under rising pressure
c. to maintain the axial velocity o the air towar
toward
d the combustion chamber
d. to allow longer blades to be used towards the latter stages o the compressor
10. The attachment o blades to the compressor disc:
a. allows slight movement to relieve stress concentration

b. is rigid
c. prevents them being contaminated by the atmosphere
d. allows slight movement because o the different expansion rates o the blades
and the disc, which would otherwise cause centre line closure
11..
11 Compressor blades are designed to produce:
a. a given pressure and velocity rise

b. a constant flow over the engine speed range
5
c. a steady velocity with a pressure rise over the engine speed range 1
d. turbulent flow into the combustion chamber s
n
o
i
t
s
12. A compressor blade will stall when: e
u
Q
a. the air axial velocity and rotation
rotational
al speed relationsh
relationship
ip is disturbed
b. the mass airflow and speed relationsh
relationship
ip is constant
c. the speed o the gas flow through the turbine alls below Mach 0.4
d. the compression ratio exceeds 10 to 1
13. Compressor surge will occur when:
a. all stages are at maximum efficiency

b. all stages are at maximum rpm
c. there is a partial breakdo
breakdown
wn o airflow through the compresso
compressorr
d. all stages have stalled
14. Cascade vanes are fitted in which part o the centriugal compressor?
a. the air inlet

b. the outlet elbow
c. the impeller
d. the diffuser
15 Questions
15. The purpose o the diffuser vanes in a centriugal compressor is to:
a. increase the charge temperature

b. convert pressure energy into kinetic energy
c. increase the air velocity
d. convert kinetic energy into pressure energy
16. The pressure rise across a centriugal compressor:
a. occurs in the impeller only

b. occurs in the diffuser only
c. is shared almost equally by the impeller and the diffuser
d. is always greater in the diffuser than in the impeller
17. To gain a greater pressure ratio than 4:1:
a. two centriugal compressors can be placed in parallel

b. the compressor diameter must be reduced
c. the cascade vanes must be convergent
d. two centriugal compressors can be placed in series with each other
18. The major disadvantage o a centriugal compressor is that:
a. it cannot cope with a large mass flow o air

b. it cannot be used or a turbo jet engine
c. a larger turbine must be used
1
d. it is more prone to damage than the axial flow compressor
5
Q 19. The purpose o cascade vanes is to:

u
e
s
a. increase the velocity o the airflow prior to it entering the combustion
t
i
o
n
s
chambers
b. turn the air smoothly through 90 degrees and complete diffusion
c. remove swirl rom the airflow
d. swirl the air, ready or the next compression stage
20. The type o compressor used to create radial airflow would be:
a. positive displacement
b. axial
c. centriugal
d. constant volume
21. Under ideal conditions the pressure rise across a single-stage centriugal
compressor can be:
a. 1.1 or 1.2 to 1
b. not more than 4 to 1
c. 1.5 to 1
d. 30 to 1
22. An advantage o a centriugal compressor is that it is:
a. dynamically balanced
b. more robust and is easier to manuacture
c. unaffected by turbulence
Questions
15
23. A compressor stall causes:
a. the vibration level to increase with a decrease in the turbine gas temperature
b. an increase in the turbine gas temperature and the vibration level
c. the rotation o the engine to stop suddenly
d. the airflow through the engine to stop suddenly
24. Air passing through a convergent duct experiences:
a. a decrease in temperature and pressure with an increase in velocity

b. an increase in temperature and velocity with a decrease in pressure
c. an increase in temperature and pressure with a velocity decrease
d. adiabatic expansion
25. Fuel is regulated on rapid engine acceleration:
a. to prevent detonation in the combustion chambers

b. because the rapid response o the compressor might cause a flame out
c. because the cooling effect o too much uel would cause a drop in pressure in
the combustion chamber
d. to prevent inducing a compressor stall and surge
26. A compressor stall:
a. is overcome by increasing the uel flow

b. is a complete breakdown o the airflow through the compressor
c. may only affect one stage or several stages o a compressor
5
d. is mechanical ailure o the compressor 1
s
n
27. Compressor blades increase in size: o
i
t
s
e
u
a. rom the root to the tip to increase the temperature Q
b. rom the high pressure section o the compressor to the low-pressure section
c. rom the low-pressure section o the compressor to the high-pressure section
to maintain a constant airflow velocity
d. rom the tip to the root to decrease the temperature
28. The occurrence o compressor stalls is limited by:
a. bleed valves
b. nozzle guide vanes
c. swirl vanes
d. cascade vanes
29. Bleed valves are automatically opened:
a. at maximum rpm to prevent compressor stall

b. at low rpm to prevent the turbine stalling
c. during engine acceleration to prevent turbine surge
d. at low engine rpm to prevent the compressor stalling
15 Questions
30. To prevent compressor stall at the rear o the compressor, bleed valves must be
positioned:
a. at the rear stages o the compressor

b. at the ront stages o the compressor
c. at the mid stages o the compressor
d. at the intake o the engine
31. A complete breakdown o airflow through a compressor is known as:
a. compressor turbulence
b. compressor buffet
c. compressor surge
d. compressor seizure
32. One indication that a compressor bleed valve has stuck closed at low rpm is:
a. possible compressor stall

b. an inability to achieve ull power
c. that bleed air is reduced
d. that the engine will stop
33. Within the compressor:
a. bleed valves are set to open at high rpm

b. pressure decreases
1
c. temperature decreases
5
d. temperature increases
Q
34. Bleeding compressor air or anti-icing will cause:
u
e
s
t
i
o
n
s
a. an increase in EGT, a decrease in thrust and an increase in SFC
b. a decrease in EGT, an increase in thrust and a decrease in SFC
c. an increase in rpm and uel flow
d. an increase in rpm and a decrease in uel flow
35. Variable inlet guide vanes:
a. deflect air past the compressor

b. adjust the relative airflow position
c. deflect air past the turbine
d. induce air into a centriugal compressor
36. Compressor blades are twisted rom root to tip:
a. to decrease the pressure

b. to maintain a correct angle o attack
c. to reduce the relative airflow
d. to give added rigidity to the blade structure
37. In a compressor:
a. the air temperature is steady with a pressure rise

b. the air temperature alls with a pressure rise
c. the drop in air temperature is inversely proportional to the pressure rise
d. the air temperature rises with a pressure rise
Questions
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38. A stall in a gas turbine engine is most likely to occur with:
Pressure Ratio Location in Compressor
a. high ront
b. high back
c. low back
d. low ront
39. Contamination o the compressor:
a. is not likely to prove a problem i the aircraf is not flown at low level over the
sea
b. will not decrease the perormance o the engine i the uel sulphur content
does not exceed 0.001%
c. can seriously reduce the efficiency o the engine
d. can be reduced by periodically flying through thunderstorms
40. The low pressure compressor o a high ratio bypass engine:
a. is driven by the high pressure turbine

b. rotates aster than the high-pressure compressor
c. is always a centriugal compressor
d. is driven by the rearmost turbine
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Answers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
b a a d b c b c c a c a
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
d b d c d a b c b b b a
25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
d c b a d c c a d a b b
37 38 39 40
d c c d
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Chapter
16
Gas Turbines - Combustion Chambers
The Task o the Combustion Chamber. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

The Temperature Increase Allowed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
The Temperature Increase Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
The Flame Rate o Kerosene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Primary Air. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Secondary Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Tertiary Air. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
The Combustion Chamber Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
The Multiple Combustion Chamber System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
The Fuel Drain System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
The Tubo-annular Combustion Chamber System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
The Annular Combustion Chamber System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
The Air/Fuel (Stoichiometric) Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Pressure Losses in the Chamber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Combustion Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Relighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Combustion Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Fuel Spray Nozzles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
The Airspray System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
The Duplex System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
The Vaporizing Tube System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
16 Gas Turbines - Combustion Chambers
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The Task of the Combustion Chamber
The combustion chamber must contain the burning mixture o air (rom the compressor)
with uel (rom the uel spray nozzles), to allow the maximum heat release at a substantially
constant pressure, so that the turbine receives a uniormly expanded, heated and accelerated
stream o gas. This is not an easy task, but advancements are constantly being made in
combustion chamber design to enable more efficient use o uel with less and less pollution o
the atmosphere.
Efficient combustion has been made increasingly more important because o the rise in the
cost o the uel itsel, and the increasing awareness o the general public o the dangers o
atmospheric pollution rom the exhaust smoke.
The Temperature Increase Allowed

There is a limit to the maximum temperature o the gas rom the combustion chamber, this is
imposed by the materials rom which the nozzle guide vanes and the turbine are manuactured.
The slightest excursion above that limit will mean the possible disintegration o the turbine
with probably catastrophic results.
The Temperature Increase Required

Modern materials will allow a gas temperature initially in the combustion chamber o 2000°C
plus. When it exits the combustion chamber the temperature must be reduced to 1000 to
1500°C. Considering that the air may already have been heated to around 600°C due to
compression, sufficient uel must be added to raise the temperature urther.
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This o course would be the temperature at ull power, lower power settings would require s
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lower uel flows so the combustion chamber has to be capable o maintaining stable and e
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efficient combustion over a wide range o engine operating conditions. a
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The Flame Rate of Kerosene s
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Air enters the combustion chamber at approximately the same rate at which it enters the C
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intake o the engine, speeds o up to 500 eet per second are not unusual. e
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The flame rate o kerosene, the speed at which the leading edge o the flame travels through s
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the vapour, is 1 to 2 eet per second. I burning kerosene was exposed in an airstream which
was travelling at 500 eet per second it would be extinguished immediately.
Something must be done to slow down the speed o the airflow afer it leaves the compressor
and beore it reaches the primary zone, the zone inside the combustion chamber where it is
mixed with the uel and burnt.
Figure 16.1 shows how the air is slowed down and its pressure is increased afer it leaves the
compressor and beore it enters the combustion chamber.
In act the pressure attained at this point is the highest in the whole o the engine. The reduction
in velocity is still not enough however, urther decreases must be achieved i the flame is not
to blow out.
Figure 16.1 shows how the air entering the primary zone passes through the snout beore
being divided to go through the perorated flare and the swirl vanes.
Figure 16.1 The division o airflow through the combustion chamber.
Primary Air
The primary air is then 20% o the flow coming into the combustion chamber, this is basically
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the air which is mixed with the uel and burnt.
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By being passed through the flare and the swirl vanes, the velocity o this air is reduced, and it
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also starts the recirculation which is required i the flame is not to be extinguished.
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Secondary Air
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and the air casing. Some o this air is allowed into the flame tube through secondary air holes.
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Secondary air, about 20% o the total, reacts with the primary air flowing through the swirl
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vanes to orm a toroidal vortex, a region o low velocity airflow which resembles a doughnut
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s or a smoke ring. This stabilizes and anchors the flame and prevents it being dragged down the
flame tube away rom the uel nozzle area.
The temperature o the gases at the centre o the primary zone reaches about 2000°C, this is
ar too hot or the materials o the nozzle guide vanes and turbine blades so a urther drop in
temperature is required beore the gases can be allowed to exit the combustion chamber.
Tertiary Air
The remaining 60% o the total airflow, tertiary air, is progressively introduced into the flame
tube to cool and dilute the gases beore they are allowed to go into the turbine assembly.
Tertiary air is used to cool both the gas exiting the chamber and the walls o the air casing.
16
Figure 16.2 An early combustion chamber.
The combustion chamber shown in Figure 16.2 is one o several which would have been used
in an early multiple combustion chamber system, more modern designs use a different method
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o cooling the air casing, this is termed transpiration cooling, where a film o air flows between 1
laminations which orm the air casing wall. s

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The Combustion Chamber Components a
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Figure 16.2 shows several interesting eatures o a multiple combustion chamber. s
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Most gas turbine engines only have two igniters, in act the engine would probably start C
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quite readily with only one operating, however, because there are only two, another means e
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o passing the starting flame between the combustion chambers has to be ound, this is the u
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inter-connector. s
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Immediately afer light up, the flame in the chamber with the igniter causes an increase in
the pressure within that chamber. The pressure differential between that chamber and the
one adjoining it drives the burning gases through the inter-connector where they ignite the
mixture.
This process is continued around the engine until the contents o all o the chambers is burning,
whereupon the pressures within them are equalized and the flow through the inter-connectors
ceases.
The sealing ring at the turbine end o the combustion chamber allows or elongation o the
chamber due to expansion. The chamber is fixed at the compressor end by being bolted onto
it, it cannot expand in that direction. The sealing ring allows the chamber to expand into the
nozzle box, the portion o the engine immediately preceding the nozzle guide vanes, while
The corrugated joints allow the tertiary air to bleed into the flame tube, so causing a gradual
drop in the temperature o the gases beore they exit into the nozzle guide vanes.
The Multiple Combustion Chamber System

The straight through flow multiple combustion chamber system was developed rom Sir Frank
Whittle’s original design. It was used on some earlier types o axial flow engine and is still in use
on centriugal compressor engines like the Rolls Royce Dart.
It consists o eight or more o the chambers illustrated in Figure 16.2 , disposed around the
engine to the rear o the compressor section, each chamber being made up o a flame tube
with an individual air casing.
Shown in Figure 16.3 is a multiple combustion chamber system similar to that used on the Rolls
Royce Avon, which was a powerul (or its time) axial flow compressor engine used on many
different types o aircraf, both military and commercial, or a considerable number o years.
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Well defined in Figure 16.3 are the snout (the primary air scoop), the inter-connectors and the
drain tubes.
The drain tubes provide or the unlikely event o a ailure to start, more commonly known as a
wet start. This situation happens when the mixture in the combustion chamber ails to ignite
during a start.
A considerable amount o uel will have been ed into the engine and i it is not removed
beore the next attempt to start, the result will be a very long, very hot and very dangerous jet
o flame rom the rear o the engine.
The Fuel Drain System

Two means o getting rid o the uel are open to us, first, the uel drain system, and secondly
a method o evaporating the remaining traces rom the chambers and the jet pipe. The uel
drain system utilizes the drain tubes which connect the lowest part o each chamber with the
next chamber below it.
Fuel remaining afer a wet start will attempt to find its own level by flowing rom the top o
the engine to the bottom chamber. Once in the bottom chamber it exits via the drain valve
located at the six o’clock position, which is spring loaded towards open. During normal engine
operation internal pressure keeps the valve shut.
To evaporate any remaining traces o uel rom the chambers, the engine is then motored over
on a blow out cycle.
Utilizing the starter motor, the engine is rotated or the time normally allocated to a ull start
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cycle, with the HP uel cock shut and the ignition system automatically de-selected. Compressed 1
air will flow through the combustion chamber and assist in the evaporation o any uel still s
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Gas Turbines - The Exhaust System
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Figure 18.7 The pattern o noise created by jet exhaust.
The exhaust noise o a bypass engine drops because o the reduction in velocity, but because
they are handling a much greater power, the turbines and the low pressure compressor
generate a higher noise output.
In the case o a high ratio bypass engine (5 to 1), the noise rom the jet exhaust has reduced
to such a degree that the noise rom the low pressure compressor (the an) and the turbine
become predominant.
Having reduced noise rom the main source, it was logical to suppose that engine manuacturers
would then concentrate on lowering the levels o noise rom the rest o the engine, the an
and the turbine.
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The use o noise absorbing material (acoustic-lining) in the bypass duc t and the engine intake, 1
see Figure 18.8, next page , was extremely efficient in reducing noise in that region, urther m
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in the same quest or noise reduction. S
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The disadvantages o these materials is that they add a small percentage in weight, and their E
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Whereas the modern engines could take advantage o the new methods o sound absorbing b
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materials, aircraf fitted with older pure turbojets had to find some other system o reducing T
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their noise output. G
Aircraf can still be seen with ‘corrugated internal mixers’ and ‘lobe type nozzles’ fitted to
the rear o their power units. The latter caused the gases to flow in separate exhaust jets
that rapidly mix with slower moving air trapped by the lobes. The corrugated internal mixer
was most efficient at reducing noise, but also induced perormance penalties that limited its
popularity with aircraf operators.
18 Gas Turbines - The Exhaust System
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Figure 18.8 The types o materials used or noise suppression & their locations.
Questions
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Questions
1. The velocity o the gases in the exhaust unit is held to:
a. Mach 0.5 to minimize turbulence

b. Mach 0.75 to optimize the pressure distribution
c. Mach 0.85 to maximize thrust
d. Mach 1 to maximize acceleration
2. The exhaust cone:
a. straightens the gas flow beore it goes into the turbine assembly
b. prevents the hot gases flowing across the rear turbine ace
c. increases the velocity o the gases
d. decreases the pressure o the gas
3. The propelling nozzle is designed to:
a. increase the velocity and decrease the pressure o the gas stream
b. decrease the velocity and increase the pressure o the gas stream
c. to increase the velocity and the pressure o the gas stream
d. to decrease the velocity and the pressure o the gas stream
4. A nozzle is said to be “choked” when:
a. the gas flow through it is subsonic

b. the gas flow through it reaches its sonic value
c. the gas temperature rises
d. the gas flow through it is supersonic
5. A choked nozzle:
a. decreases thrust 8

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b. gives additional pressure without the addition o heat
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d. implies that no urther increase in velocity can be obtained without the s
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increase o heat Q
6. The exhaust gases pass to atmosphere via the propelling nozzle which:
a. is a convergent duct, thus it increases the gas velocity

b. converts kinetic energy into pressure energy
c. is a divergent duct, thus it increases the gas velocity
d. is a divergent nozzle, thus it increases the gas pressure
7. The jet pipe is insulated rom the airrame by:
a. heat insulation materials

b. a cooling air jacket
c. a combination o cooling air and insulating material
d. semi-conducting geodetic structures
18 Questions
8. The noise rom a high ratio bypass engine:
a. is created mainly in the exhaust section

b. is high in the exhaust section because o the high velocity gas flow
c. is predominantly rom the an and the turbine
d. is greater than that rom a turbojet engine o comparable power output
9. The shape o the volume within the jet pipe casing immediately to the rear o the
turbine:
a. is convergent to accelerate the gases towards the propelling nozzle

b. is divergent to accelerate the gases away rom the turbine blades
c. is convergent to increase the pressure o the gases in the jet pipes
d. is divergent to reduce the velocity o the gases leaving the turbine
10. The turbine rear support struts:
a. add swirl to the gases beore they travel down the jet pipe
b. prevent the hot gases flowing across the rear ace o the rear turbine bearing
c. allow entry o the bypass air into the exhaust system
d. straighten out any residual whirl in the gas stream
11. An exhaust nozzle is said to be choked when the velocity at the throat is:
a. Mach 0.5
b. below Mach 1
c. at Mach 1
d. above Mach 1
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Answers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
a b a b d a c c d d c
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Chapter
19
Gas Turbines - Lubrication
The Reasons or Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293

Lubricating Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
The Pressure Relie Valve Lubrication System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
The Full Flow Lubrication System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
The Oil Tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Oil Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Oil Coolers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Magnetic Chip Detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
The Centriugal Breather and Vent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Filters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Types o Lubricating Oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
19 Gas Turbines - Lubrication
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The Reasons for Lubrication
There are many reasons or having a lubricant within the engine besides that o reducing
riction. However scrupulously clean the engine is maintained, there will always be a small
amount o dirt or impurities that find their way inside. That dirt must be removed beore it can
cause damage to bearings or block small oil passageways.
The oil can be used to keep the engine clean by carrying dirt to the oil filter where it is strained
out and where it remains until replacement o the filter.
The majority o the bearings within the engine are manuactured rom steel, a metal which
would soon oxidize itsel i it were not prevented rom doing so by a liberal coating o oil, thus
the lubricant will also minimize corrosion inside the engine.
The engine bearings, particularly those around the hot end o the engine, must be cooled i
they are to be able to withstand the constant stresses imposed upon them, the most likely
medium or cooling is the lubricant which cleans, reduces riction and corrosion.
Not least among the tasks given to the lubricating oil is that o a hydraulic fluid, in many turbo-
prop engines the control o the pitch o the propeller blades is achieved by passing some o the
engine lubricating oil into the pitch change mechanism.
Lubricating Systems
Most gas turbine engines use a sel-contained recirculatory lubrication system in which the oil
is distributed around the engine and returned to the oil tank by pumps.
There are two basic re-circulatory systems, the pressure relie valve system, or the ull flow
system.
A schematic layout o the basic system is shown in Figure 19.1 showing the relative location o
the major components.
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The oil used will be invariably synthetic because o the high temperatures involved. Oil level is
checked immediately afer engine shutdown. Unlike a piston engine the oil is not changed on
a regular basis because gas turbine engines use more oil due to the nature o the air seals and
the synthetic oil does not break down and oxidize like mineral oils do. The filters however are
removed, washed out, and refitted at regular intervals to examine any debris collected and
evaluate the wear rate o the engine.
The Pressure Relief Valve Lubrication System

In the pressure relie valve system a spring loaded valve limits the pressure in the eed line and
so controls the flow o oil to the bearing chambers.
The pressure is restricted to a value which the engine designer considers correct or all conditions
that the engine might encounter. The spring loaded valve opens at the pressure generated by
the oil pressure pump at engine idling speed and consequently gives a constant eed pressure
over the whole o the engine speed and oil temperature ranges.
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Figure 19.2 A pressure relie valve type oil system.
Figure 19.2 shows the pressure relie valve method and the basic components or a turboprop
engine lubrication system. The oil is drawn through a suction filter to the oil pressure pump.
The suction filter protects the pump rom damage should any debris enter the tank. The oil
is then passed through the pressure filter to the pressure relie valve which maintains the oil
pressure to the eed jets in the bearing chambers constant.
The oil passes to the eed jets through internal drillings and ex ternal oil pipes, in this particular
engine the hollow interior o the compressor/turbine shaf is used to transer oil rom the ront
o the engine, where it is used in the pitch control mechanism, all the way through to the rear,
19
The torque meter pump shown in this diagram is used to boost engine oil pressure to a much
greater figure, in some turboprop engines that figure can be as high as 600 pounds per square
inch. This pressure is utilized to balance the axial thrust o the helically cut gears within the
propeller reduction gear.
As has already been explained, measuring the torque meter oil pressure will give an accurate
indication o the torque being transmitted to the propeller, reerence figures which take
account o the ambient temperature and pressure allow the pilot to find the minimum torque
pressure which the engine should be capable o producing in any set o conditions.
When the oil has completed its tasks o lubricating, cooling, cleaning and acting as a hydraulic
medium, it alls into collecting trays or compartments which communicate with the scavenge
pumps.
The scavenge pumps are mounted in the same oil pump pack which contains the oil pressure
pump. Although there is only one pressure pump, the oil pump pack may contain several
scavenge pumps. This will ensure that the method o lubrication remains a dry sump system.
The scavenge pumps push the oil through an air-cooled oil cooler in this particular engine,
different engines may have different types o oil cooler fitted. Whatever the type o oil cooler,
its job is to drop the temperature o the oil afer its journey through the engine.
The next stage or the oil is the de-aerator tray, here any air bubbles which will have been
collected in the oil are allowed to escape and the oil alls to the oil tank, in this case the tank is
contained around the engine intake.
Any air pressure which has been built up within the engine lubrication system, through
leakage rom seals or rom the de-aerator tray must be allowed to escape. I it was just vented
to atmosphere then any oil mist contained within it will pass to atmosphere also, thus the
oil contents would quickly diminish. To prevent this happening the oil mist is vented via a
centriugal breather which is positioned in the accessory gearbox.
The Full Flow Lubrication System

9
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This system achieves the required oil flow to the engine throughout its entire speed range by n
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allowing the oil pressure pump to directly supply the oil eed jets without the u se o a pressure t
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relie valve. Using this system allows the use o smaller pressure and scavenge pumps since the r
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volume o oil passed is less than that in the pressure relie valve system. This happens because L
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o the large amount o oil which is spilled back to the oil tank by the pressure relie valve at e
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high engine speed. r
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In Figure 19.3 the pressure pump picks up oil rom the oil tank through a suction filter and
passes it through a pressure filter to the distribution galleries. Across the pressure filter is an
oil differential pressure switch. This can give warning o blockage o the filter. This warning is
usually indicated at the ground crew servicing panel and is sometimes duplicated by a warning
light on the flight deck.
One gallery takes the oil up to an oil pressure transmitter and low oil pressure warning switch.
These are used primarily to give warning in the cockpit o malunctions in the oil system. Other
parameters indicated in the cockpit are those o oil quantity and oil temperature, the latter
being measured as the oil leaves the oil cooler.
It is rom this same gallery that oil is taken to lubricate all o the bearings in the accessory
drive gearbox. The other gallery is used to transer oil to the bearings which support all o the
compressor spools.
The bearings are lubricated by oil jets which are positioned very close to the bearings so as to
minimize the possibility o the oil being deflected rom its target by local turbulence. Just prior
to the oil jets are fitted thread type filters, these perorm the unction o a ‘last chance’ filter,
removing any debris which may have managed to pass through the main pressure filter.
As in the pressure relie valve system, when the oil has completed its tasks it is collected and
passed back through scavenge pumps. Prior to the oil reaching the scavenge pump it must pass
over a chip detector and through a suction filter.
The scavenge pumps orce the oil through to the oil cooling system, in the engine shown in
Figure 19.3 there are two types o oil cooler, a uel-cooled oil cooler and an air-cooled oil cooler.
Normally the uel-cooled oil cooler is sufficient to cool the oil on its own, but in the event
that it proves inadequate a valve opens automatically and brings the air-cooled oil cooler into
operation as well.
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Figure 19.3 A ull flow type lubricating system.
As has been seen previously, air pressure escaping rom seals cannot be allowed to build up
within the engine and it is vented through the hollow shaf between the intermediate gearbox
and the external gearbox, leaving the latter via the centriugal breather.
Questions
20
Questions
1. In a gas turbine engine:
a. ram pressure is maximum at the start o the take-off run

b. ram pressure is unaffected by airspeed
c. thrust is unaffected by the aircraf’s orward speed
d. thrust is maximum and ram pressure at minimum at the start o the take-off
run
2. In a high bypass engine whose an max rpm is 20 000 rpm, when turning at 5000
rpm will develop approx.
a. 25% take-off thrust

b. 50% take-off thrust
c. 5% take-off thrust
d. 15% take-off thrust
3 With an increase in altitude which o the ollowing statements are correct or a jet
aircraf with constant engine speed or a fixed throttle setting?
1. Temperature and pressure reduce with a resulting drop in thrust

2. Fuel consumption will increase
3. Fuel consumption will decrease
4. Specific uel consumption will increase
5. Specific uel consumption will decrease
6. Specific uel consumption stays relatively the same
7. Temperature and pressure will reduce, resulting in an increase in thrust
a. 1, 3, 6
b. 2, 4, 1
c. 7, 2, 4
d. 1, 2, 5
4. The maximum thrust that a jet engine can develop will be:
a. take-off thrust 0

2
b. go around thrust s
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c. max climb thrust o
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d. max static thrust s
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5. As temperature ............. air density............. and the mass o air or given engine
speed ............ thereore thrust .............. To maintain the compressor speed however
.............. uel must be added or the compressor will .............
a. decreases decreases increases increases less slow down

b. increases decreases decreases increases more slow down
c. decreases increases increases increases more slow down
d. increases decreases increases decreases less speed up
6. From a standing start with an increase in orward speed jet thrust will:
a. increase
b. stay the same
c. decrease
d. decrease then recover but will never achieve its initial setting
20 Questions
7. On a turboprop aircraf with a 14 stage axial flow compressor while climbing it will
experience:
a. increase shaf horsepower increase jet thrust increase uel

consumption
b. decrease shaf horsepower decrease jet thrust decrease uel
consumption
c. decrease shaf horsepower increase jet thrust decrease uel
consumption
d. decrease shaf horsepower decrease jet thrust increase uel
consumption
8. On a turboprop aircraf with a 14 stage axial flow compressor while increasing

orward speed, it will experience:
a. increase shaf horsepower increase jet thrust

b. decrease shaf horsepower decrease jet thrust
c. decrease shaf horsepower increase jet thrust
d. increase shaf horsepower decrease jet thrust
9. On a part throttled engine, take-off thrust would be achieved:
a. later than normal due to pressure in the compressor being low

b. later than normal due to the EPR being low
c. at less than ull throttle position
d. later than normal due to the EPR being high
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Questions
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20 Answers
Answers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
d c a d c d b d c
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Chapter
21
Gas Turbines - Reverse Thrust
Reverse Thrust. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327

Clamshell Doors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
External Door (Bucket) Reversers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
Cold Stream (Blocker) Reverser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
Indication and Saety Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
Restrictions o Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
Ground Manoeuvring Reverse Thrust is not Normally Used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
21 Gas Turbines - Reverse Thrust
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Figure 21.1 The types o reverse thrust systems.

21
Reverse Thrust
Modern aircraf braking systems, which incorporate anti-skid units and other sophisticated
devices are extremely efficient, bad runway conditions however can reduce the ability o even
the most refined braking systems to the point where they become a liability.
The addition o a Reverse Thrust capability has improved the situation so much that landing a
modern aircraf on a wet and/or icy runway in crosswind conditions need now hold no terrors
or the capable pilot.
The difference in stopping distance in an aircraf with and without reverse thrust are quite
marked. Reverse thrust is selected immediately the weight o the aircraf is firmly on the
mainwheels and coupled with ground spoilers can reduce the landing distance dramatically
without producing riction at the wheels.
There are three basic Thrust Reversal Systems presently in use, they are:
a) Clamshell Doors.
b) Bucket Doors (External Doors).
c) Blocker Doors.
They are typically operated by hydraulic or pneumatic actuators or motors driving screwshafs
and reverse the direction o the gas flow thereby reversing the thrust.
Clamshell Doors
The name “Clamshell” has been applied to this system o reverse thrust because o the shape
o the reverse thrust doors, which resembles that o a clamshell.
The reverser doors are usually pneumatically operated and use high pressure compressor (P3)
air as the power source. Pneumatic rams move the doors rom their stowed (Forward Thrust)
position to their deployed (Reverse Thrust) position.
In their stowed position, the clamshell doors cover Cascade Vanes which are revealed when
1
the doors move to the deployed state. 2
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Whilst deployed, the clamshell doors close the normal exhaust gas exit and it escapes through r
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the Cascade Vanes in a orward direction so that the orward motion o the aircraf is opposed. e
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The lower cascade vanes, while directing the jet thrust orward, are angled so that the exhaust R
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has an outboard angular component as well. This minimizes the chances o debris and hot e
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gases being reingested into the engine intake during the use o reverse thrust. u
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External Door (Bucket) Reversers

The Bucket Reverser system is normally hydraulically operated. The rear o the exhaust pipe
is shaped like two halves o a bottomless bucket which are hinged to enable them to swing
backwards when selected to deflect the exhaust gas orward.
Cold Stream (Blocker) Reverser

This system is only used on High Bypass Ratio FanJet Engines. The essential difference between
this system and the Clamshell Door and Bucket systems is that while the latter use the hot
exhaust as the means o reverse thrust, the ‘Blocker’ system, as its name suggests, blocks and
diverts the Cold Bypass Airstream only.
Operation o the system is initiated, as are the other two systems, by movement o reverse
thrust levers in the cockpit, each engine with a reverse thrust capability has a reverse thrust
lever.
In the case o the blocker system, the speed and direction o an Air Motor is determined by
operation o the reverse thrust lever. The output o the air motor drives through flexible shafs
to open or close the Blocker Doors, which, by their movement, expose or cover Cascade Vanes
to direct the By-Pass air where it is required.
Indication and Safety Systems

In order that the pilot may have inormation regarding the position o the reverse thrust doors,
REVERSE THRUST WARNING LIGHTS are fitted. These are usually AMBER lights positioned
somewhere on the orward instrument array within ull view o the crew.
The light will illuminate whenever the reverser doors are unlocked and away rom their STOWED
(Forward Thrust) POSITION.
Like a great number o things which purport to be beneficial, the Reverse Thrust system can,
i wrongly serviced or mishandled, become more o a curse than a blessing. Saeguards have
to be built into the system which will protect the aircraf in case o a malunction or incorrect
2
handling.
1
G Other indications may be provided - reverser deployed, reverser operating etc dependent upon
the aircraf type.
a
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Figure 21.2 illustrates the throttle lever and reverse thrust lever o an engine fitted with
i
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reverse thrust.
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Figure 21.2 Throttle & reverse thrust lever.
There are five saeguards built into the selection o Reverse Thrust, they are:
a) Reverse thrust cannot be selected until the throttle lever is at idle.
b) Reverse thrust cannot be activated until the aircraf has the weight on the mainwheels
(air/ground logic interlock).
c) rpm in Reverse cannot be increased above idle until the reverse thrust doors are in the
deployed (Reverse Thrust) position.
1
2
d) I, while Forward Thrust is selected, the reverser doors inadvertently move to the
t
s
deployed (Reverse Thrust) position, the throttle may automatically close to idle. u
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e) I, while Reverse Thrust is selected, the reverser doors inadvertently move to the r
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stowed (Forward Thrust) position, the reverse thrust lever will automatically go to e
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the reverser deploy position (See Figure 21.2 ). s
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Restrictions of Use
While there is normally no restriction on the upper speed at which Reverse Thrust can be
selected, there are aircraf with systems fitted which place a restricted minimum speed o
operation on the Reverse Thrust system.
Earlier it was described how the lower cascade vanes o the clamshell door system were angled
orwards and outwards, this was to minimize the chances o debris and hot gases being re-
ingested into the engine.
There is nevertheless a clear danger that, despite the angle o the cascade vanes, i the aircraf
is only moving orwards slowly, or is stationary, the depression in the engine air intake will
overcome the deflection applied to the exhaust gas stream (and any associated debris), and
suck it into the compressor with potentially catastrophic consequences or the engine.
To prevent the likelihood o this happening, Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) on some
aircraf is to reduce the position o the reverse thrust lever to the reverse idle position at
typically 60 - 80 knots. Subsequently, at a speed where it is considered there is no urther
benefit to be gained rom maintaining that Idle Reverse position, i.e. when it is judged that
there is no urther requirement or a sudden selection o ull reverse power, usually at about
50 knots, the reverse thrust lever is returned to the stowed position.
Ground Manoeuvring Reverse Thrust is not Normally Used

When in use engine indications must be closely monitored, in particular or excessive EGT.
Care must be exercised when increasing reverse rpm that the engines respond symmetrically
as adverse yaw can be induced.
There may also be a perormance limitation imposed i one engine thrust reverse system is
inoperative as the total reverse capability will be reduced and on a two wing pylon mounted
engined aircraf, may mean that the good reverser may not be operated either because o the
asymmetric effect.
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Questions
21
Questions
1. Use o reverse thrust below the recommended speed may cause:
a. over stressing o the gear oleos.

b. ingestion o the exhaust gases and oreign objects.
c. more uel to be provided to the burners.
d. the TGT limit to be exceeded, in which case the reverse thrust lever will return
to the orward thrust position.
2. A big an engine gets reverse thrust by:
a. reversing the direction o rotation o the compressor.

b. deflecting the exhaust gases.
c. blocking the bypass air.
d. reversing the hot stream gases.
3. Beore reverse thrust can be selected, the orward thrust lever must be:
a. pulled back to idle power.

b. positioned to reverse minimum power.
c. put back to the reverser deploy position.
d. positioned to reverse maximum power.
4. An aircraf uses clamshell doors or thrust reversal to:
a. direct the gas flow rearwards.

b. block the flow o exhaust gas.
c. absorb any change in thrust.
d. change the direction o the exhaust gas.
5. A reverse thrust warning light illuminates:
a. only when the reverser doors are ully deployed in the reverse thrust position.
b. when the reverser doors are stowed in the orward thrust position.
c. when the reverser doors are not stowed in the orward thrust position.
d. whenever reverse thrust is selected.
1
6. Once the blocker doors are ully deployed, with an increase in rpm, which o the 2
ollowing statements would be incorrect? s

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a. Forward thrust rom the hot gases would increase. e
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b. Forward thrust rom the hot gases would decrease. Q
c. Reverse thrust rom the blocked air would increase.

d. TGT will increase.
21 Answers
Answers
1 2 3 4 5 6
b c a d c b
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28 Revision Questions
38. I an aircraf maximum operating altitude is limited by the pressure cabin, this limit
is due to:
a. the maximum positive pressure differential at maximum operating ceiling

b. the maximum positive pressure differential at maximum cabin altitude
c. the maximum number o pressurization cycles
d. the maximum zero uel mass at maximum pressure altitude
39. Long haul aircraf are not used as short haul aircraf because:
a. checklists would be too time consuming to complete

b. it would use too much uel
c. some tanks will be empty the whole time imposing too much strain on the
aircraf
d. structures are given atigue lives based on their use
40. The properties o Duralumin are:
1. aluminium/copper base
2. aluminium/magnesium base
3. hard to weld
4. easy to weld
5. good thermal conductivity
6. poor resistance to air corrosion
a. 1, 3 and 5
b. 2, 3 and 5
c. 1, 2 and 3
d. 4, 5 and 6
41. An undercarriage leg is considered to be locked when:
a. it is down
b. the amber light is on
c. mechanically locked by an ‘over-centre’ mechanism
d. the actuating cylinder is at the end o its travel
42. An underinflated tyre on a dry runway:
a. increases wear on the shoulder

b. increases wear on the crown
c. increases viscous aquaplaning speed
d. will cause the tyre temperature to reduce
43. Kreuger flaps are positioned:

R
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a. towards the wing tip
v
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u
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c. along the whole leading edge
t
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d. at the wing trailing edge
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44. What are flaperons?
a. Combined spoiler and flap

b. Combined elevators and flaps
c. Combined ailerons and elevators
Revision Questions
28
45. What is the purpose o inboard ailerons:?
a. To reduce wing bending at high speed

b. To reduce wing twisting at low speed
c. To reduce wing bending at low speed
d. To reduce wing twist at high speed
46. What is the purpose o trim tabs?
a. To reduce stick orces in manoeuvres

b. To reduce stick holding orces to zero
c. To increase control effectiveness
d. To reduce control effectiveness
47. Smoke hoods protect:
a. ull ace and provide a continuous flow o oxygen

b. mouth and nose and provide a continuous flow o oxygen
c. ull ace and provide oxygen on demand
d. mouth and nose and provide oxygen on demand
48. Oxygen supplied to the flight deck is:
a. gaseous, diluted with ambient air i required

b. chemically generated and diluted with cabin air i required
c. gaseous, diluted with cabin air i required
d. chemically generated, diluted with ambient air i required
49. I during pressurized flight the outflow valve closes ully due to a ault in the
pressure controller the:
a. skin will be overstressed and could rupture

b. saety valve opens when the differential pressure reaches structural max diff
c. the inward relie valve will open to prevent excessive negative differential
d. ECS packs are automatically closed down
50. In a an jet engine the bypass ratio is:
a. internal mass airflow divided by external mass airflow

b. external mass airflow divided by internal mass airflow
c. internal mass airflow divided by mass uel flow
d. mass uel flow divided by mass uel flow
51. The thrust reverser light illuminates on the flight deck annunciator when the:
a. thrust reverser doors have moved to the reverse thrust position s
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b. thrust reverser doors have been selected but the doors have not moved t
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c. thrust reverser doors are locked u
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d. thrust reverser doors are unlocked n
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52. In very cold weather the pilot notices slightly higher than normal oil pressure on R
start up. This: 8
2
a. indicates an oil change is required.

b. is indicative o a blocked oil filter.
c. is acceptable providing it returns to normal afer start up.
53. I a uel tank having a capacitive contents gauging system is empty o uel but has
a quantity o water in it:
a. the gauge will show ull scale high

b. the gauge will show the mass o the water
c. the gauge will show empty
d. the gauge needle will ‘reeze’
54. In a our stroke engine, when the piston is at BDC at the end o the power stroke
the position o the valves is:
Inlet Exhaust
a. closed closed
b. open open
c. open closed
d. closed open
55. What is the effect on EGT and EPR i a bleed valve is opened?
a. Increase, increase
b. Decrease, decrease
c. Decrease, increase
d. Increase, decrease
56. Reer to the ollowing diagram or a modern turboan engine – where is uel flow
measured?
Fuel tank Engine
Firewall LP FCOC Fuel Filter HP FCU HP

SOV pump heater pump SOV
d c b a
57. Where is torque measured in a turboprop engine?

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b. Reduction gearbox
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u c. At the turbine
d. At the constant speed unit oil pump
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58. Propeller blade angle is:
8
a. the angle between the blade chord and the plane o rotation
b. the angle between the relative airflow and the chord
c. dependent upon rpm and TAS
d. the difference between effective pitch and geometric pitch
Revision Questions
28
59. Why is a propeller blade twisted?
a. To reduce the thrust at the root o the blade

b. To prevent the blade rom ully eathering
c. To reduce the tip speed
d. To even out the thrust orce along the length o the blade
60. For calculating resistances in parallel the ormula is:
1 1 1 1
a. = × ×
RT R1 R2 R3
b. RT = R1 + R2 + R3

c. RT = R1 × R2 × R3
1 1 1 1
d. = + +
RT R1 R2 R3
61. When a use operates it is ............. and when a circuit breaker operates it is .............
a. high current low current

b. low current high current
c. non re-settable re-settable
d. re-settable non re-settable
62. A hot busbar is one that:
a. supplies galley power

b. is permanently connected to the battery
c. carries all o the non-essential loads
d. is connected to the battery in an emergency
63. In an AC distribution system what is the purpose o the GCB?
a. Maintains constant requency

b. Connects the load busbar to the synchronizing busbar
c. Controls generator field excitation
d. Connects a generator output to its load busbar
64. An aircraf which uses DC as the primary source o power, AC or the instruments
may be obtained rom:
a. CSDU
b. rectifier
c. inverter
d. TRU
s
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65. Persistent over excitation o one generator field will cause: i
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a. the GCB and BTB to trip n
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b. the BTB and exciter control relay to trip s
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c. the GCB and exciter control relay to trip R
d. the GCB and SSB to trip 8
2
66. When a battery is nearly discharged, the:
a. voltage decreases
b. voltage and current decrease
c. current increases because voltage has dropped
d. electrolyte boils
67. The state o charge o an aircraf battery on an aircraf with a voltmeter would be
checked:
a. on load
b. off load
c. with the battery negative terminal disconnected
d. by monitoring the electrolyte resistance
68. In a paralleled AC distribution system what regulates the real load?
a. Torque rom the CSDU (CSD)

b. Field excitation rom the voltage regulator
c. Synchronizing circuits in the BTB
d. A potentiometer on the flight engineer’s panel
69. I the oil temperature gauge o the CSD is in the red what would action is required?
a. Throttle back and allow to cool down

b. Auto disconnect
c. Manually disconnect and reconnect on the ground
d. Disconnect, then when cooled reconnect
70. What is a transistorized static inverter in a DC circuit used or?
a. Convert AC to DC
b. Provide field excitation current
c. Provide AC or instruments
d. To supply power to the emergency lights
71. I the load increases on a ‘constant speed AC generator’ what does the voltage
regulator do?
a. Increases generator speed

b. Decreases field excitation
c. Remains the same
d. Increases field excitation
72. Incorrect bonding o the aircraf structure could cause:

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a. corrosion at skin joints
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c. static on the radio
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d. VOR intererence
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73. The characteristics o a Unipole system are:
1. Lighter
2. Easier ault finding
3. More likely to short circuit
4. Less likely to short circuit
5. It is not a single wire system
a. 2, 4 and 5.
b. 1, 2 and 3.
c. 2, 4 and 1.
d. 1, 4 and 5.
74. The requency o an AC generator is dependent upon?
a. the rpm o the rotor

b. the number o poles in the rotor
c. the rpm and number o poles in the rotor
d. the number o poles in the rotor and the number o phase windings in the
stator
75. With an almost discharged battery there will be:
a. a decrease o voltage with increasing load

b. increase o current with decrease o voltage
c. decrease o current with increasing load
d. increase o voltage with increasing load
76. When is an engine overheat firewire system activated:
a. When an overheat is detected all along the length o both firewire loops
b. When an overheat affects one detector loop at a point anywhere along its
length
c. When an overheat is detected all along the length o one firewire loop
d. When an overheat affects both detector loops at a point anywhere along
their length
77. In an air cycle air conditioning system what is the unction o the ground-cooling
an?
a. To re-circulate air through the mix maniold

b. To draw cooling air over the turbine
c. To blow air into the compressor
d. To draw cooling air over the heat exchangers
78. How do you control power in a jet engine? s

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a. By controlling the mixture ratio u
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b. By controlling the uel flow n
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c. By controlling the airflow i
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d. By controlling the bleed valves R
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79. In a normally aspirated piston engine carburettor icing can occur:
a. between 0°C and –10°C

b. at more than +10°C
c. only at less than +10°C i there is visible moisture
d. only above 5000 f
80. In a gas turbine engine uel system why is the uel heater beore the filter?
a. To prevent ‘waxing’
b. To help vaporization o the uel
c. To prevent water in the uel reezing and blocking the filter
d. To prevent the uel rom reezing and blocking the filter
81. What is the purpose o the FCOC (Fuel-cooled Oil Cooler)?
a. To maintain the oil at the correct temperature

b. To heat the uel and cool the oil
c. To heat the oil and cool the uel
d. To bypass oil to the engine i the oil pressure filter becomes blocked
82. What is the purpose o the torque links in a landing gear leg?
a. To prevent the wheel rotating around the leg

b. To prevent shimmy
c. To transer the brake torque to the wheel
d. To position the wheels in the correct attitude prior to landing
83. An artificial eel system is needed in the pitch channel i the:
a. airplane has a variable incidence tailplane

b. elevators are controlled through a reversible servo system
c. elevator is controlled through a servo tab
d. elevators are controlled through an irreversible servo system
84. Auto brakes are disengaged:
a. when the ground spoilers are retracted

b. when the speed alls below 20 kt
c. on the landing roll when the autopilot is disengaged
d. by the pilot
85. In the ollowing diagram the landing gear arrangements shown are:
1. 2. 3. 4.
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1. 2. 3. 4.
a. ork cantilever levered tandem
b. cantilever dual ork tandem
Revision Questions
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86. In an aircraf with a uel dumping system it will allow uel to be dumped:
a. down to a predetermined sae value

b. down to unuseable value
c. to leave 15 gallons in each tank
d. down to maximum landing weight
87. What does ‘octane rating’ when applied to AVGAS reer to?
a. The waxing point o the uel

b. The ability o the uel to disperse water
c. The anti-knock value o the uel
d. The volatility o the uel
88. How are modern passenger jet aircraf uel tanks pressurized?
a. By nitrogen rom a storage cylinder

b. By ram air through the vent system
c. By bleed air rom the pneumatic system
d. By a volumetric top off unit
89. Reering to the ollowing diagram:
To get logic 1 output at A there must be a logic 1 input at:
a. C1 and C2 only
b. C1 and C3 only
c. C2 and C4 only
d. C3 only s
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90. In which o the ollowing areas would an overheat/fire warning be provided? s
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a. Fuel tank o
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b. Cabin v
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c. Tyres
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d. Wheel/undercarriage bay 2
91. An axial flow compressor when compared to a centriugal compressor:
a. takes in less air and is less prone to rupturing

b. takes in more air and is more prone to rupturing
c. takes in more air and is less prone to rupturing
d. takes in less air and is more prone to rupturing
92. Hydraulic pressure typically used in the system o large transport aircraf is:
a. 2000 - 3000 psi

b. 3000 - 4000 psi
c. 1000 - 2000 psi
d. 4000 - 5000 psi
93. The EGT indication on a piston engine is used:
a. to control the cooling air shutters

b. to monitor the oil temperature
c. to assist the pilot to adjust the uel mixture
d. to indicate cylinder head temperature
94. A gas turbine engine having a single spool, the compressor will rotate:
a. at the same speed as the turbine

b. slower than the turbine
c. aster than the turbine
d. independently o the turbine
95. Because o its unction an ‘AND’ gate may also be reerred to as:
a. invert or not gate

b. any or all gate
c. all or nothing gate.
d. either or gate.
96. What type o hydraulic fluid is used in a modern passenger jet aircraf?
a. Mineral based
b. Phosphate ester based
c. Vegetable based
d. Water based
97. In a 4 stroke engine when does ignition occur in each cylinder?
a. Afer TDC or starting and then beore TDC every 2nd rotation o the
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b. Beore TDC or starting and then afer TDC every 2nd rotation o the
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c. Afer TDC or starting and then beore TDC every rotation o the crankshaf
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d. Beore TDC or starting and then afer TDC every rotation o the crankshaf
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98. When smoke appears in the cockpit, afer donning the oxygen mask the pilot
should select:
a. normal
b. 100%.
c. diluter
d. emergency
99. Which part o the gas turbine engine limits the temperature?
a. Combustion chamber
b. Turbine
c. Compressor
d. Exhaust
100. What makes the non-rigid fittings o compressor and turbine blades rigid when the
engine is running?
a. Spring locks
b. Thrust and drag orces
c. Aerodynamic and centriugal orce
d. Tapered bead seats
101. What ice protection system is used on most modern jet transport aircraf?
a. Liquid
b. Electrical
c. Hot air
d. Pressure operated boots
102. What requency is commonly used in aircraf electrical distribution systems?
a. 200 Hz
b. 400 Hz
c. 100 Hz
d. 50 H
103. When does the engine High Pressure uel shut off valve close?
a. Afer a booster pump ailure

b. When the engine uel switch is selected ‘on’ during engine start
c. When flight idle is selected
d. When the engine uel switch is selected ‘off’ during engine shutdown
104. When does the Low Pressure uel shut off valve close?
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a. When the fire handle is pulled t
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b. When the engine uel switch is selected ‘on’ during engine start u
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c. When flight idle is selected n
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d. Afer a booster pump ailure i
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105. What voltage is supplied to booster pumps on a modern jet airliner? 8
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a. 115 V AC single phase

b. 200 V AC three phase
c. 28 V DC rom an inverter
106. An engine having a ‘ree turbine’:
a. there is a mechanical connection between the power output shaf and the
ree turbine
b. there is no mechanical connection between the power output shaf and the
ree turbine
c. there is a mechanical connection between the compressor and the propeller
shaf
d. air enters via compressor inlet on the turbine
107. I the pressure controller malunctions during the cruise and the outflow valve
opens what happens to:
i) cabin ROC ii) cabin Alt iii) differential pressure
a. i) increase ii) decrease iii) decrease

b. i) decrease ii) increase iii) decrease
c. i) increase ii) increase iii) decrease
d. i) increase ii) increase iii) increase
108. What controls cabin pressurization?
a. ECS pack mass flow controller

b. outflow valve
c. engine bleed valve
d. inflow valve
109. I the fire handle is pulled in an aeroplane with an AC generator system what
disconnects?
a. Exciter control relay and GCB

b. GCB and BTB
c. BTB and GCU
d. Exciter control relay only
110. Which components constitute a crank assembly?
a. crankshaf, camshaf, valve springs

b. crankcase, crankshaf, pistons and connecting rods
c. crankshaf, pistons and connecting rods
d. propeller, crankshaf, connecting rods
111. One stage o an axial compressor:
a. Comprises a row o stators ollowed by a rotor disc

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c. Comprises a rotor disc ollowed by a row o stators
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112. I a CSD overheat warning is shown:
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a. the CSD can be disconnected and the pilot must control the alternator himsel
b. the pilot must throttle back to reduce the load on the alternator
c. the CSD can be disconnected then reconnected later when the temperature
has reduced
d. the CSD can be disconnected but not used or the rest o the flight
Revision Questions
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113. A new tyre with wear on the tread and parallel grooves:
a. can be repaired once only

b. can be repaired several times
c. can never be repaired
d. is fit or use only on a nose-wheel
114. An emergency exit assisted escape device must be fitted i the door sill height is
above:
a. 8 f with the aircraf on the landing gear with the nosewheel extended
b. 8 f with the aircraf on the landing gear with the nosewheel collapsed
c. 6 f with the aircraf on the landing gear with the nosewheel extended
d. 6 f with the aircraf on the landing gear with the nosewheel collapsed
115. In a compensated capacitance uel contents system what happens to a uel weight
o 8000 lb i its volume increases by 5%?
a. Decreases by 5%
b. Increases by 5%
c. Remains the same
d. Increases by 5% or every degree rise in temperature
116. How do aircraf spoilers work?
a. Lower suraces only, symmetrical and asymmetrical operation

b. Lower suraces only, symmetrical operation
c. Upper suraces only, symmetrical and asymmetrical operation
d. Upper suraces only, symmetrical operation
117. What is the total volume in the cylinder o a our stroke engine?
a. A value equal to the cubic capacity

b. Swept volume minus clearance volume
c. Volume between TDC and BDC
d. Swept volume plus clearance volume
118. Afer the power stroke on a piston engine the poppet valve sequence is:
a. exhaust valve opens, inlet valve opens, exhaust valve closes

b. exhaust valve closes, inlet valve opens, exhaust valve opens
c. inlet valve opens, exhaust valve closes, inlet valve closes
d. inlet valve closes, exhaust valve closes, inlet valve opens
119. What speed does the LP compressor run at?

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a. The speed o the LP turbine t
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b. The speed o the HP turbine u
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c. Hal the engine speed n
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d. Constant speed i
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44. The voltage regulator o a DC generator is connected in:
a. series with the armature and parallel with the shunt field
b. parallel with the armature and parallel with the shunt field
c. series with the armature and series with the shunt field
d. parallel with the armature and series with the shunt field
45. I the requency o a series capacitive circuit increases, what happens to the
current?
a. It increases
b. It decreases
c. It stays the same
d. It increases or decreases
46. Which is the correct statement(s) with regard to flight crew oxygen requirements
or a pressurized aircraf:
1. at all times when the cabin pressure altitude exceeds 13 000 f

2. at all times when the cabin pressure altitude is between 10 000 f and 13 000
f except or the first 30 mins
3. in no case less than 30 mins i certificated below 25 000 f
4. in no case less than 2 hours i certificated above 25 000 f
a. 1, 2, 3 and 4
b. 1 and 2
c. 1, 2 and 3
d. 2 and 3
47. The advantages o a chemical oxygen generator system are:
1. it is a sel-contained system
2. it can be filled rom outside the pressure hull
3. the flow o oxygen can be regulated
4. it can be turned off
5. it is relatively light
a. 1 and 5
b. 1, 2 and 4
c. 2 and 4
d. 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
48. An aircraf operating at FL350 must have sufficient supplementary oxygen available
or 100% o passengers or a descent rom its maximum certificated operating
altitude to allow a descent to:
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c. 15 000 f in 10 minutes
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49. The passenger oxygen drop down mask stowage doors are released:
a. barometrically operated latch

b. electrically or chemical generator systems and pneumatically or gaseous
systems
c. electrically or gaseous systems and pneumatically or chemical generator
systems
d. by the cabin crew
50. The fire extinguisher system or an engine is activated:
a. automatically immediately a fire is sensed

b. automatically once the engine has been shut down
c. by the pilot immediately a fire is detected
d. by the pilot once the engine has been shut down
51. The flight deck warning o an engine fire is:
a. individual warning lights and bells

b. a common light and common aural warning
c. aural warning only
d. individual warning lights and a common aural warning
52. High cylinder head temperatures on a piston engine are associated with:
a. mass ratio o 1:15

b. cruise mixture setting
c. a weak mixture
d. a rich mixture
53. In a gas turbine the maximum gas temperature is reached:
a. in the combustion chamber

b. at the turbine exit
c. across the turbine
d. in the cooling air around the turbine
54. When TAS increases the pitch angle o a constant speed propeller:
a. increases
b. decreases
c. remains constant
d. decreases and then returns to its original angle
55. From the list select the conditions or highest engine perormance:
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1. low temperature t
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2. low humidity u
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3. high pressure n
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4. high temperature i
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5. high humidity R
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a. 1, 2 and 6
b. 1, 3 and 5
c. 3, 4 and 5
56. A torque meter is situated:
a. between the engine and propeller

b. on the auxiliary gearbox
c. between the turbine and the gearbox
d. in the spinner housing
57. A reverse thrust door warning light is illuminated when:
a. the reverser doors are unlocked

b. the thrust levers are lifed beyond ground idle
c. the reverse thrust mechanism is not operating correctly
d. asymmetric reverse thrust has been selected
58. Adjusting the mixture o piston engines as aircraf altitude increases is necessary
to:
a. increase uel flow to compensate or decreasing air density

b. decrease uel flow to compensate or decreasing air density
c. increase uel flow to compensate or increasing air density
d. decrease uel flow to compensate or increasing air density
59. The power output o a piston engine can be calculated by multiplying:
a. orce by distance
b. work by velocity
c. pressure by moment arm
d. torque by rpm
60. When high pressure bleed valves open they:
a. reduce the EPR

b. increase the uel flow
c. reduce the EGT
d. increase the thrust
61. The an stage o a ducted an engine is driven by the:
a. LP turbine
b. IP turbine
c. HP turbine
d. HP compressor through reduction gearing
62. In a our stroke engine, ignition occurs:

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b. at TDC every 2nd rotation o the crankshaf
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d. beore TDC every rotation o the crankshaf
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63. A fixed pitch propeller blade has wash-out rom root to tip in order to:
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a. keep the local angle o attack constant along the blade length
b. keep the pitch angle constant along the blade length
c. keep the local angle o attack at its optimum value along the blade length
d. decrease the blade tangential speed rom root to tip
Revision Questions
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64. The alpha range o a variable pitch propeller is between:
a. eather and flight fine pitch stop

b. eather and ground fine pitch stop
c. flight fine pitch stop and reverse stop
d. ground fine pitch stop and reverse stop
65. With the CSU governor in the underspeed condition, oil will be directed to:
a. increase the blade angle

b. decrease the blade angle
c. decrease the rpm
d. open the throttle valve
66. In a an jet engine the bypass ratio is:
a. internal mass airflow divided by external mass airflow

b. external mass airflow divided by internal mass airflow
c. internal mass airflow divided by mass uel flow
d. mass uel flow divided by internal mass airflow
67. In a normally aspirated piston engine carburettor icing can occur:
a. between 0°C and –10°C

b. at more than +10°C
c. only at less than +10°C i there is visible moisture
d. above 5000 f only
68. At what speed does the LP compressor run?
a. The speed o the LP turbine

b. The speed o the IP turbine
c. The speed o the HP turbine
d. Constant speed
69. The magnetos are switched off and the engine continues to run normally. The
cause o this ault is:
a. a wire rom the magneto coming into contact with aircraf metal skin
b. hotspots in the cylinder
c. carbon ouling o the spark plugs
d. grounding wire rom the magneto broken
70. The volume o the scavenge pump(s) in an engine lubrication system is greater
than that o the pressure pump(s) in order to:
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a. prevent cavitation o the oil system eedlines t
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b. ensure heat is dissipated more efficiently u
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c. compensate or thermal expansion o the lubricating fluid n
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d. ensure that the engine sump remains dry i
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71. Variable inlet guide vanes are fitted to gas turbine engines to: 8
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a. increase the mass flow at high speeds

b. prevent a compressor stall at low engine speed
c. prevent a compressor stall at high engine speeds
72. The theoretically correct air to uel ratio or efficient combustion in a gas turbine
under constant speed conditions is:
a. 5:1
b. 15:1
c. 25:1
d. 40:1
73. A gas turbine engine power change is achieved by adjusting the amount o:
a. uel supplied and the amount o air entering the compressor

b. uel supplied
c. air supplied
d. uel supplied and the amount o air entering the turbine
74. What happens to the pressure and velocity o the gas stream rom root to tip
across the nozzle guide vanes?
a. Both remain constant

b. Both increase
c. Velocity increases, pressure decreases
d. Velocity decreases, pressure increases
75. What is a crank assembly?
a. Crankcase, crankshaf, pistons and connecting rods

b. Crankshaf, pistons and connecting rods
c. Propeller, crankshaf and connecting rods
d. Camshaf, pistons and connecting rods
76. The effect o climbing at rated rpm but less than rated boost is to:
a. increase ull throttle height

b. reduce ull throttle height
c. produce no change to the ull throttle height
d. reduce the time to ull throttle height
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Answers to Practice Systems Examination Paper

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
a c d b d c d c b c c d
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
b c a c b b b d b d c b
25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
a a c a a d a c d b d a
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48
c d a a b b d d a a a c
49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
b d d c a a d a a b d a
61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72
a a a a b b b a d d b b
73 74 75 76
b d b a
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Explanations to Practice Systems Examination Paper
9. Book 2
Feel system shown in parallel. Fully powered controls are irreversible servo systems.
This question seems to be getting at the difference in the value o the dielectric i.e. Fuel 2.1,
water 80 something, so i the tank was ull o water the value o capacitance would be so high
that the gauge would read ull scale.
12. Book 2
See also electrical system book 3.
15. Book 2
As cabin pressure rapidly alls, cabin altitude increases, cabin vertical speed indicates up and
differential pressure alls.
16. Book 2
As the cabin pressure builds up due to perhaps the outflow valves closing un-commanded,
the differential pressure will increase, the cabin alt will show a descent, and the differential
will increase until max diff is achieved when the saety-valves will open to prevent structural
damage.
30. Book 3
Calculations as ollows:
No. o poles rpm

× = Freq
2 60
No. o poles 6000

× = 400
2 60
No. o poles
× 100 = 400
2
No. o Poles × 100 = 400 x 2
No. o Poles × 100 = 800
No. o Poles = 800 = 8 Poles

100
8 s
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Answer is = = 4 Pole Pairs e
2 w
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34. Book 3 See calculation or Q30
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28 Answers
45. Book 3
Calculation as ollows:
1
Xc =
2π fc
1
Xc (Ω) =
2π fc
Thereore i requency increases, it ollows:
1
Xc (Ω) = where requency increases:
2π fc
Xc (Ω) must decrease (Reactance)
Take the value o reactance, and, using Ohms’ law to find the current ( I ), it ollows:
V
I= (With R reducing)
R
I (Current) must increase.
Thereore i the Frequency increases in a capacitive circuit, the Current (I), must Increase.
55. Highest engine perormance is produced under highest density conditions i.e. those o
lowest temperature, low humidity and highest pressure. There are many reerences to
this in:
a. Powerplant
b. Principles o flight
c. Aircraf Perormance
59. Book 4 From the Power ormula P×L×A×N×E Force = Press × Area (P × A)
Torque/Work = Force x Distance (P×L×A)
Power, the Rate o doing Work = (P×L×A×E) where ‘E’ is effective rpm
63. Book 4 Wash-out (or blade-twist) is the name given to the reduction o blade angle rom
root to tip.
66. Book 4 It is the air mass passing through the bypass duct (external mass flow) divided by
the air mass passing through the core (internal mass flow) o the engine.
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8
Chapter
29
Index
29 Index
A Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Blowout Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
Absolute Pressure Controller (APC) 139, 141 Blue Smoke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Boiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
Acceleration Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377 Boost Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Accelerator Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Bootstrapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Accessory Housing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Bore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Active Clearance Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 Bottom Dead Centre (BDC) . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Adiabatic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Boyle’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Brake Horsepower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Air Annulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Air Bleed Diffuser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 C
Air-cooled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Calorific Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Air Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58, 59 Cam Lobe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Airflow Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 Camshaf. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Air/Fuel (Stoichiometric) Ratio . . . . . . . . 254 Capacitor (Condenser) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Air Inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Carburettor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30, 103
Airspray System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 Carburettor Icing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Air Starter Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355 Cast Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Alpha. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 Cavitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Alpha (Flight) Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 Centriugal Breather . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Altitude Boosted Superchargers . . . . . . . 136 Centriugal Compressor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Altitude Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377 Centriugal Latch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Angle o Attack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Charles’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Annular Combustion Chamber . . . . . . . . 253 Check Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Anti-surge Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Chemically Correct Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
APU Control and Operation . . . . . . . . . . 352 Choked Nozzle Thrust Example . . . . . . . 312
APU Operations in Flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352 Chord Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Clamshell Doors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Athodyd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 Clearance Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Atmosphere Exclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369 Cloudy Fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
Attack o a Compressor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 Cold Stream (Blocker) Reverser . . . . . . . . 328
Automatic Boost Control Unit (ABC) . . . 146 Combined Gas Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Auxiliary Power Unit (APU) . . . . . . . . . . . 351 Combustion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Auxiliary Star ting Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Combustion Chamber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
AVGAS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Combustion Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
AVGAS 100LL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Combustion Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Axial Velocity o the Airflow . . . . . . . . . . 229 Common Rail Injection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
B Compound Oils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Compression Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Baffles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Compression Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Bernoulli’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Compression Stroke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Beta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 Compressor Bleeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Beta (Ground) Range. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 Compressor Surge Envelope . . . . . . . . . . 234
Beta Range Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 Connecting Rods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Big End . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Constant Speed Propeller . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
I
n
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Blade ‘Butt’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Constant Speed Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
e
x Blade Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Constant Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2 Blade ‘Shank’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Contact Breaker Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
9
Blade Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 Contamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Blade Twist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 Continuity Equation 6
Index
29
Convergent-Divergent Nozzle . . . . . . . . . 281 Equivalent Shaf Horsepower (ESHP) . . . 313
Cooling Fins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Exhaust Cone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Coring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Exhaust Gas Temperature Gauge . . . . . . . 95
Cowl Flap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Exhaust Gas Temperature Limiting . . . . . 377
Crankcase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Exhaust Stroke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Crank-pin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 External Door (Bucket) Reversers . . . . . . 328
Crankshaf (Cranked-shaf) . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Externally Driven Superchargers (Turbo-
Crank-throw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Chargers) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
CSU/PCU Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170, 171
Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 F
Cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 FADEC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Cylinder Barrel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Fan Blades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Cylinder Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Fan Engine Thrust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Cylinder Head Temperature Gauge . . . . . 60 FCOC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
Feathered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
D Feathering and Uneathering . . . . . . . . . 176
Dead Cut Check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Feathering - Double Acting Propeller . . . 179
Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Feathering - Single Acting Propeller . . . . 177
Density Altitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 Firing Interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Density Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Firing Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
DERD 2485 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 First Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4, 5
Detonation (Knocking) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 Fir Tree Root . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Diesel Engines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Fixed Orifice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Differential Pressure Controller . . . . . . . . 143 Fixed Pitch Propellers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Direct Drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Flame Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Discharge Nozzle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Flame Rate o Kerosene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Distributor Venting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Flight-fine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Divergent & Convergent Ducts . . . . . . . . 205 Flowmeter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
Drains Tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379 Flyweight Cutout Switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Dry Sump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Dual Ignition System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Four Stroke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Duct Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Free Power Turbine . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208, 268
Duplex System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Duty Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354 Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Friction Horse Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
E Frothing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Effect o Aircraf Speed on SHP . . . . . . . 320 FSII (Fuel System Icing Inhibitor). . . . . . . 368
Effect o Altitude on SHP. . . . . . . . . . . . . 319 Fuel/Air Control Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Efficiency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Fuel Colour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
Electrical Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Fuel Control Unit (FCU) or Fuel Flow
Electric Starter Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356 Regulator (FFR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
Electronic Engine Control . . . . . . . . . . . . 379 Fuel Drain System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Fuel Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
Engine Efficiencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Fuel Heater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
Engine Fuel System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 Fuel Icing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Engine Icing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Fuel Maniold Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Engine Layouts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Fuel Pressure and Temperature. . . . . . . . 376 x
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Engine Power Checks Reerence rpm . . . 147 Fuel Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 n
I
Engine Power Checks Static Boost . . . . . 148 Fuel Spray Nozzles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 9
2
Engine Power Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 Full Authority Digital Engine Control (FADEC)
Epicyclic Reduction Gear . 183 380
29 Index
Full Throttle Height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 Induction Stroke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Fungal Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368 Ineffective Crank Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Inertia Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
G In-flight Starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
Galvanometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Injector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Gas Laws in the Gas Turbine Engine . . . . 203 In-line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Gasoline Vapour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Internally Driven Superchargers . . . . . . . 144
Gearbox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Intershaf Hydraulic Seal . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
Gills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Interstage Seal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
Glycol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Iso-octane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Gross Thrust Calculation (Fg) . . . . . . . . . 310
Gross Thrust (Fg) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
J
Ground Boosted Supercharger . . . . . . . . 136 JET A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
Grounding Wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 JET A1 (AVTUR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
Gudgeon Pin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 JET B (AVTAG)(Aviation turbine gasoline) . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
H Jet Fuel Additives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
Hal Crankshaf Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Jet Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Header Tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
High-bypass Ratio (Turboan) Engine . . . 210
K
High Energy Ignition Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . 344 Kinetic Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5, 9
High Ratio Bypass Engine Exhaust System . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 L
High Tension Booster Coil . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Liquid and Air-cooled Systems. . . . . . . . . . 58
High Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Liquid Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27, 58
HITEC (Lubricity Agent) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368 Low Bypass Ratio Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Horizontally Opposed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Low Pressure Boiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Horsepower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Low Pressure Pump (LP pump) . . . . . . . . 375
Hot Pot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Low Ratio Bypass Engine Exhaust System 282
Hot Start . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358 Low Tension Booster Coil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
HP Fuel Cock (HP Fuel Shut Off Valve) . . 378 Low Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Hung Start . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359 Lubricant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Hydraulicing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Lubrication Monitoring Instruments . . . . 47
Hydraulic Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Lubrication System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Hydraulics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Hydraulic Tappets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 M
Magneto Checks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
I
Magneto rpm Drop Check . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
IEOH (internal engine overheat) . . . . . . . 397 Magnetos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Igniter Plugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 Maniold Absolute Pressure (MAP) . . . . 137
Ignition Switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Maniold Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20, 137
Impact Ice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 Maniold Pressure Gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Impulse Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 MAP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Impulse-reaction Blade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Indicated Horsepower (IHP) . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Mechanical Efficiency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
I
Indicated Mean Effective Pressure (IMEP) 20 Mixture Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Indicating Medium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
n
d
e Modular Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Indication and Saety Systems. . . . . . . . . 328
x
2
MOGAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
9 Indicator Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Indirect Fuel Injection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Momentum Law. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Ind ction Maniold . 30 M Th
Index
29
Multi-grade Oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Pressure (Choked Nozzle) Thrust . . . . . . 312
Multiple Combustion Chamber . . . . . . . . 250 Pressure Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Multi-spool Compressors . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 Pressure Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Multi-spool Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 Pressure Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Pressure Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
N Pressure Relie Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Net Thrust Calculation (Fn) . . . . . . . . . . . 311 Pressure Scavenging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Newton’s Laws o Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Pressurizing and Dump Valve . . . . . . . . . 378
Noise Suppression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 Primary Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Normal Heptane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Primary Coil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Normally Aspirated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Priming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Normal Temperature and Pressure (NTP) 135 Principles o the Gas Turbine Engine . . . 200
Nozzle Guide Vane Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . 394 Propeller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25, 163
Propeller Control Unit - PCU . . . . . . . . . . 175
O Propeller Efficiency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Octane Rating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Propulsive Efficiency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Oil Control Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Pure Straight Turbojet Engine . . . . . . . . . 206
Oil Cooler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44, 47, 298 PV Diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Oil Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
R
Oil Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Radial Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Oil Tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Radiator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
On Speed Condition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 Ram Air Turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
Operational Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . 220 Ram Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Over Boost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 Ram Pressure Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Over Boost Relie Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 Ram Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
Over-oiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Rated Altitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Overspeed Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 Rated Boost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Rated Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
P Rated rpm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Parallel Spur Gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 Reaction Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Perormance N umbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 Reduction Gearbox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Permanent Magnet Generator (PMG) . . . 67 Reduction Gearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Pitch Lock Solenoid - Ground Fine. . . . . . 176 Reduction Gear Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Pitch, or Blade Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Rerigeration Ice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Plain Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Relight Envelope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Planetary Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Relighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Pneumatic Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Popping Back . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29, 93 Reverse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Potential Difference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Reverse Pitch. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Potential Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5, 9 Reverse Thrust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Reverse Thrust lever . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Power Enrichment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Reverse Thrust Warning Lights . . . . . . . . 328
Power Limiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378 Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Power Stroke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Rocker Arms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Power to Weight Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Rocker Pad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Practical Mixture Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Rotor Blades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228, 235 x
e
d
Practical Otto Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 rpm Limiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378 n
I
Pre-ignition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 Rundown Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359 9

2
Pressure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
P B l D t 105
29 Index
S The Propeller Pitch Control Lever (The rpm

Lever) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Saety Factor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Thermal Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22, 84
Saybolt Universal Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Thermal Shock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Scavenge Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44, 47 Thermocouple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60, 95, 272
Scraper Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Secondary Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 Thermostat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Secondary Coil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 The Throttle Lever (The Power Lever) . . 145
Second Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4, 5 Third Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Sel-sustaining Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357 Thrust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Semi-synthetic Oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Thrust ‘Face’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Shrouded Stator Vanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 Thrust Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Single Acting Propeller. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 Thrust Indications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
Small End . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Thrust Ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Society o Automotive Engineers (SAE) . . 48 Thrust to Weight Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Sparking Plugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Thrust with Aircraf Speed . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC) . . . . 22, 313 Thrust with Altitude. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Sprag Clutch Ratchet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355 Thrust with rpm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Spur Gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Thrust with Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Spur Gear Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Top Dead Centre (TDC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Torque Meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183, 312
Stall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 Total Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Start Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356 Triple Bank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Starter Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Tubo-annular Combustion Chamber System .
Stator Blades. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Stator Vanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 Turbine Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Step-up Transormer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Turbine Blade Fixing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Straight Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Turbine Blade Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Stresses in the Turbine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 Turbine Disc Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
Stroke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Turbine Stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Suction Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Turbocharger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Sulphur Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Turbo-lag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Sump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Turboprop Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Supercharger Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 Turboshaf Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Supercharger Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
S u p e r c h a r g i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 U
Supervisory EEC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379 Underspeed Condition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 Uneathering - Double Acting Propeller . 179
Swept Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Uneathering - Single Acting Propeller . . 177
Synchronising . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 ‘U’ Tube Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
S y n c h r o p h a s i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
V
T
Valve Bounce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Temperature Increase Allowed . . . . . . . . 247 Valve Guide. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Temperature Increase Required . . . . . . . 247 Valve Lag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Temperature Limit o the Engine . . . . . . 203 Valve Lead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
I
n
d
Temperature Measurement. . . . . . . . . . . 272 Valve Lif Solenoid and Piston -
e
x Tertiary Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 Autoeathering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
2 Tetra Ethyl-lead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 Valve (or Tappet) Clearance . . . . . . . . . . . 28
9
The Diffuser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Valve Overlap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
The High Pressure (HP) Fuel Pump . . . . . 376 Valves 28
Index
29
Valve Seat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Valve Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Valve Tip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Vaporizing Tube System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Vapour locks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Variable Ignition Timing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Variable Inlet Guide Vanes . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Variable Pitch (Constant Speed) Propellers . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Variable Stator Vanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
V Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Venturi Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Venturi Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Viscosity Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Volatility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Volumetric Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
W
Wastegate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Wastegate Position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Water Drains. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
Watt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Waxing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
Wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Wet Start . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
Wet Sump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
White Smoke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Work Done . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Working Cycle o the Gas Turbine Engine . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
x
e
d
n
I
9
2
29 Index
I
n
d
e
x
2
9

Cae Oxford Aviation Academy 020 Aircraft General Knowledge 3 Powerplant Atpl Ground Training Series 2014pdf

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POWERPLANT

ATPL GROUND TRAINING SERIES

1 010 Air Law

2 020 Aircraf General Knowledge 1 Air rames & Systems

Fuselage, Wings & Stabilising Suraces

3 020 Aircraf General Knowledge 2 Elec trics – Elec tronics

4 020 Aircraf General Knowledge 3 Powerplant

5 020 Aircraf General Knowledge 4 Instrumentation

6 030 Flight Per ormance & Planning 1 Mass & Balance

7 030 Flight Per o

10 060 Navigation 1 General Navigation

11 060 Navigation 2 Radio Navigation

13 080 Principles o Flight

14 090 Communications VFR Communications

ATPL Book 4 Powerplant

Figure 1.2 A Venturi

The Combined Gas Laws

This may be shown as:

P 1 × V 1 P 2 × V 2

The Application of the Combined Gas Law

7 Density ρ kg/m3 or lb/f3 ρ = m /V

9 Velocity v metres/sec f/sec v = d/t

10 Acceleration a m/sec2 or f/sec2 a = F/m

12 Area A m2 or in2 A = F/P

14 Frequency Hertz, Hz cycles/sec

15 Work Done Joules, J or f lb Wd = F × d

16 Potential Energy PE Joules, J PE = m × g × h

17 Kinetic Energy Joules, J KE =1/2mv 2

Useul work output

Engine Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13

Figure 2.1 Engine Layouts

The Theoretical Otto Cycle

Figure 2.3 The our strokes o the Otto Cycle

The Operation of the Theoretical Otto Cycle

In the theoretical Otto cycle there are Five Events:

Figure 2.5 A practical valve and ignition timing diagram

The Induction Stroke

The Compression Stroke

Eﬀective Pressure (IMEP).

Power to Weight Ratio

Speciﬁc Fuel Consumption (SFC)

Generally made o light alloy, it

A vent to atmosphere is normally Crankcase

Figure 2.12 A our cylinder crankshaf

The Pistons are attached by the Connecting Rods to the Crank-pin.

consecutively as this reduces the load and vibration on the crankshaf.

Note: Lycoming ﬁring order is 1-3-2-4.

A number o piston rings can

The Compression Rings

Cylinder Barrel or Block

The Cylinder Head

Usually the valve guide is pressed into the cylinder head.

Valve Operating Gear

Figure 2.15 Valve clearance

The Accessory Housing or Wheelcase

Figure 2.16 Accessory housing

An example o light aircraf engine is depicted below.

I Injected Fuel System

O Horizontally opposed Cylinder Arrangement.