Contents

I. Photovoltaic Cells (PV)......................................................................................................................2

1. How Generate electricity from PV:..............................................................................................2
2. Application PV :................................................................................................................................4
3. Solar radiation in Viet Nam..........................................................................................................6
II. Stucture PV- Equivalent Electrical Circuit:................................................................................7
III. Major factors:..............................................................................................................................19
1. The sun intensity:.........................................................................................................................20
2. The sun angle:..............................................................................................................................20
3. Shadow Effect..............................................................................................................................21
4. Temperature Effect:....................................................................................................................23
5. How to Keep Solar Panels From Overheating;............................................................................25
IV. Maximum power point tracking..............................................................................................26
1. Problem:...........................................................................................................................................26
2. MPPT theory:..................................................................................................................................28
3. MPPT Algorithm.............................................................................................................................29
V. References :......................................................................................................................................33
VI. QUESTIONS?:.............................................................................................................................33
I. Photovoltaic Cells (PV)
1. How Generate electricity from PV:

photovoltaic cell
We’ve come a long way to gain an understanding of semi-conductors to
see how they relate to making solar cells. A solar cell is essential a PN
junction with a large surface area. The N-type material is keep thin to
allow light to pass through to the PN junction.

Figure : how pv work

Light travels in packets of energy called photons. The generation of

electric current happens inside the depletion zone of the PN junction.
The depletion region as explained previously with the diode is the area
around the PN junction where the electrons from the N-type silicon,
have diffused into the holes of the P-type material. When a photon of
light is absorbed by one of these atoms in the N-Type silicon it will
dislodge an electron, creating a free electron and a hole. The free
electron and hole has sufficient energy to jump out of the depletion zone.
If a wire is connected from the cathode (N-type silicon) to the anode (P
type silicon) electrons will flow through the wire. The electron is
attracted to the positive charge of the P-type material and travels through
the external load (meter) creating a flow of electric current. The hole
created by the dislodged electron is attracted to the negative charge of
N-type material and migrates to the back electrical contact. As the
electron enters the P-type silicon from the back electrical contact it
combines with the hole restoring the electrical neutrality.
Photovoltaic panels absorb the energy from the sun in the form of
photons and convert the energy into direct current electricity. This
electricity travels out of the panels and into a device called an inverter,
which transforms direct current (DC) electricity into alternating current
(AC) electricity, which is then used in your home. If the PV solar panels
produce more electricity than you use, the excess is sent back into the
power grid and bought by your utility company. In this situation you can
literally watch your electric meter run backwards!.
Solar Panel Systems are the Cleanest Way to Generate Electricity
One of the best aspects of solar panels is that they are free of moving
parts, which makes them very resistant to mechanical failure. Solar
panels are capable of reliably converting sunlight into useful energy
without noise or pollution for twenty years or more. Even hydroelectric
damns and windmills can have detrimental impacts on our natural world.
Solar panels are the cleanest way we can generate electricity, provide a
reasonable return on investment, and increase the value of your home or
business!
The present pv energy cost is still higher than the price the utility
customers pay in most countries. For that reason, the pv applications
have been limited to remote locations not connected to the utility lines.

2. Application PV :

The peak power tracker senses the voltage and current outputs of
the array and continuously adjusts the operating point to extract the
maximum power under the given climatic conditions. The output of the
array goes to the inverter, which converts the DC into AC. The array
output in excess of the load requirement is used to charge the battery.
The battery charger is usually a DC-DC buck converter. If excess power
is still available after fully charging the battery, it is shunted in dump
heaters, which may be space or room heaters in a stand-alone system.

In the grid-connected system, dump heaters are not required, as all

excess power is fed to the grid lines. The battery is also eliminated,
except for small critical loads, such as the start up controls and the
computers. The DC power is first converted into AC by the inverter,
ripples are filtered and then only the filtered power is fed into the grid
lines.

For pv applications, the inverter is a critical component, which converts

the array DC power into AC for supplying the loads or interfacing with
the grid. A new product recently being introduced into the market is the
AC-pv modules, which integrates an inverter directly in the module, and
is presently available in a few hundred watts capacity. It provides utility
grade 60 Hz power directly from the module junction box. This greatly
simplifies the pv system design.
Anh others:
3. Solar radiation in Viet Nam

Solar radiation is a very important natural resource in Viet Nam. At

an average total solar radiation of about 5 kW/h/m2 /day in most of the
middle and the southern provinces and about 4 kW/h/m2/day in the
northern provinces, solar radiation is better in Viet Nam than in most
other parts of the world .Below the17th parallel, the radiation is not only
plentiful but also steady for most part of the year, reducing about 20 per
cent from dry season to rainy season. The solar energy potential is
estimated at 43.9 billon tonnes of oil equivalent (TOE) per year.
Figure 1 shows the average total solar radiation in Hanoi, Danang and
Ho Chi Minh (HCM) city, which are typical for the northern, middle and
southern regions of Viet Nam. The average solar radiation is better in
the middle and southern regions. The northern provinces receive poor
sunshine in the first quarter of the year; there are only two hours or less
of sunshine during January, February and March and the average solar
radiation is 50-60 per cent less. The average sunshine hours per year in
the Northeastern zone range between 1,500 and 1,700 hours, while the
Southern and Central Viet Nam clocks between 2,000 and 2,600
sunshine hours per year. These data, measured over a period of 10 years,
were taken from the weather station at HCM City.

Figure: Solar radiation in the north, middle and south of Viet Nam

A general view of the development of photovoltaic (PV) installations in

Viet Nam in the last decade. PV development has been realized in
applications such as battery charging centre, community centre,
telecommunications, satellite receiver-transmitter, navigation beacons,
etc.
II. Stucture PV- Equivalent Electrical Circuit:

The sun is a star in the center of our solar system. Earth and the other
members (including other planets, asteroids, meteors, comets, and dust)
orbit the Sun. Sun only accounts for 99.86% of the mass of the solar
system.
Particular light, or electromagnetic radiation in general, from the
surface of the Sun is considered the main source of energy for Earth.
Solar constant is calculated by the power of direct comparison of
radiation per unit surface area, with about 1370 W/m2. Sunlight is
absorbed in part on the Earth's atmosphere, so a smaller portion to the
surface, near 1000 W / m² solar energy to Earth in the clear sky
conditions.
Beam is transmitted straight from the sun called direct radiation direct
radiation .Rays and the scattering of radiation called. Direct current
density of radiation outside the atmosphere radiation, the surface of 1m2
placed perpendicular to the radiation, is calculated by the formula:
              q =  D T .C (T/100)4
0

(1.1)
 D T : radiation angle coefficient between the Earth and Sun
 D T =  2 /4 (1.2)
   32'
:sun angle ,

C 0 = 5,67 W/m2.K4 – coefficient of radiation of absolutely

black body

T  57620K – solar surface temperature (see breeds absolute

black)

Sun angle
2
 2.3,14.32 
  4
 360.60   5762 
q .5, 67.    1353
 4  100  W/m2
Solar batteries, structure and working principles:
Solar is a method of producing electricity directly from solar
power through photovoltaic devices change. Solar cell has the
advantages of lightweight, can be tied to any installation where there is
sunlight, especially in the area of spacecraft. Aplication Solar energy in
the form of this technology was developed with speed rapidly,
particularly in developed countries. Solar battery (or photovoltaic cells,
photovoltaic cells), a semiconductor device containing large p-n diodes,
in the presence of sunlight is capable of creating an electrical current is
used. This transition is called the photovoltaic effect.

A solar cell battery

Solar cell structure:

Anatomy of a solar cell is a semiconductor pn junctions have the
ability to transform the direct solar radiation energy into electricity
through the photoelectric effect inside
 Solar cell structure
Currently, the main material for solar cells (and for other semiconductor
devices) is the silicon crystal. Crystalline solar cells from silicon divided
into three types:
- A crystal or single crystal module manufacturing process based on the
Czochralski. Single-crystal solar cell performance can be achieved from
11% - 16%. They are usually very expensive due to be cut from
cylindrical ingots.
- Most crystals made from cast ingots cast from molten silicon is
carefully cooled and solidified. The battery is usually cheaper than the
single crystal, but less efficient, from 8% - 11%.
- Strip silicon thin film made of pieces from molten silicon and
polycrystalline structure. This category has the lowest performance,
from 3% - 6%, but the cheapest of these types because they do not need
to be cut from silicon ingots.
Silicon group IV, which has four outer electrons. Silicon can be
combined with other silicon to form a solid. There are basically two
types of solid silicon: multi allotrope (no sort order) and crystal (atoms
arranged in sequence 3-D). The most common solar cells using
polycrystalline silicon.
At room temperature, pure silicon conductivity silicon kem.de create
better electrical conductivity, can add a small amount of group III atoms
(aluminum or gallium to form p-type semiconductor) or V (phosphorus
or arsenic to form n type semiconductor) in the periodic table of
chemical. Note that both n and p are energy neutral, ie they have the
same positive and negative energy, n type semiconductor, the type of
music can move around, in contrast to similar types of p.
As to direct sun light, a battery silicon is 6 cm in diameter circuit voltage
between the two poles around 0.55 V and short circuit currents when its
solar radiation intensity on 1000W/m2 approximately 25 -: - 30mA/cm2

Some types of solar panel

Currently we have fabricated solar cells of amorphous silicon (a-Si).
Compared with the Sun implementation crystal Si a-Si solar cells
cheaper but lower performance and less stable.
Types of materials for producing solar cells has great potential as
cadmium sulphite-east (CuCds), galium arsenite (GaAs) ...
Manufacturing technology of solar cells include many different stages,
for example, to manufacture solar cells from polycrystalline silicon from
the unions as shown. Finally we are module.

Principles of operation of solar cells

 System 2 energy levels (E1 <E2)
Normally occupied electronic energy levels lower than E1. When
lighting systems, light quanta (photons) with energy hv (h is the Planck
constant and v is the frequency of light) electronic absorption and
transfer to the E2.
Energy balance equation:
                                hv = E1 - E2

Areas of energy
Equation of quantum effects:
eV + hv → e- - h+ (1.4)
Conditions for the electrons can absorb photons and transfer energy
from the valence to the conduction band, creating electron-hole are:
hv> Eg = EC - EV (1.5)
Derive the critical wavelengths of light to λC can create pairs of e- - h+
is:
λC = hc / (EC - EV) (1.6)
  So when a light into the solid, the valence electron absorbs photon
energy hv and move up the lead to create pairs of particles leading e - f-
holes - h +, ie, creating a voltage. The phenomenon is called
Photoelectric phenomena inside.
Principle of operation of solar photovoltaic phenomenon is occurring on
p-n junctions.
A photon with energy just larger enough energy to excite electrons outer
conductor. However, the frequency of the Sun is often equivalent to
6000 ° K, so most solar energy is absorbed by silicon. However, most
solar energy converted into heat energy than the electrical energy used

Principles of operation of solar cells

Equivalent diagram:
Can see that when illuminated, if we connect the p and n semiconductor
exposure of a pn with a wire, it emits a solar photovoltaic Iph.Vi the first
solar cell that can view as a current source.

 
 Figure 1.17: Simple equivalent circuit of the solar
battery.

Semiconductor pn junctions are equivalent as a rectifier diodes.

However, when the opposite polarity, due to resistive junctions are
limited, should still have a currents - called leakage - through it.
Characterize the leakage current through the pn junction into the great
people of shunt resistor Rsh (shunt).
When running in the photoelectric circuit, it must pass through p and n
semiconductor layers, electrodes, contacts, ... the sum of the
characteristic resistance of the layer that is a serial RS resistor in the
circuit ( can be seen as resistance of the battery in the sun).

 
Figure 1.18: equivalent circuit of solar cells.
From the equivalent scheme, can easily write equations volt-amper
characteristic brightness of the solar battery as follows:
             q  U  Rs .I   U  I .Rs
I  I ph  I d  I sh  I ph  I s exp  1 
 nkT  Rsh
Of which:
Iph - line of photovoltaic (A/m2)
Id - the current through diode (A/m2)
Is - line saturation (A/m2)
n - is called the ideal factor depends on the degree of perfection of the
solar cell manufacturing. You can get near n = 1.
Rs - series resistance (resistance to) the solar battery ()
Rsh - shunt resistance (leakage resistance) ()
q - electron charge (C)
T - temperature of the solar battery (ok)
Usually very large resistor Rsh so can ignore the last term in this
expression.

Short circuit current Isc:

 
Figure 1.19: Diagram of a simple equivalent of the solar battery
including a current source in parallel with an ideal diode.

 
Isc is the short circuit current in the circuit of solar cells when short
circuits (short out the terminals of the battery). At that voltage circuits of
the battery with V = 0. Set the value V = 0 in equation (2.2) we obtain :

RS .I SC
q . Rs . Isc q.RS .I SC Rs . Isc
ISC = Iph – IS(exp nkT nkT – 1) – Rsh Rsh (1.8)

In normal lighting conditions (no convergence), the series resistance

effect can be ignored RS, and Id = 0 and thus can be inferred:
Isc = Iph = α.E (1.9)
Where: E: is the light intensity
α: coefficient ratio.
 In normal conditions the battery short circuit current is proportional to
the solar radiation intensity lighting.
Open circuit voltage VOC:

 
Open circuit voltage VOC is measured when the voltage circuits of the
battery open the Sun (R = ∞). Then I = 0 line circuits. Set the value of
foreign vessels into (2.2) and one very large assumption Rsh determine
VOC expression as follows:

Voc. = Ln (1.10)

 
Figure 1.20: Graph of solar VA.
For example, consider a solar battery: cross section of 100cm2
Saturation of the diode line Io = 10-12 A/cm2
Short Circuit Current ISC = 40 mA/cm2 at 250C
Saturation line: Is = 10-12. 100 = 10-10 A
Short Circuit: Isc = 40.10-3.100 = 4 A (full sun, 100% radiation)
ISC = 2 A (half sun, 50% radiation)
From formula (1.10), derived application circuit:

Voc. = Ln = (full sun)

Voc = 0610 (V) (half sun).

 
Figure : Graph of V-A examples
     

III. Major factors:

The photoconversion efficiency of the pv cell is defined as the

following:

Obviously, the higher the efficiency, the higher the output power we get
under a given illumination.
1. The sun intensity:
The magnitude of the photocurrent is maximum under full bright sun
(1.0 sun).On a partially sunny day, the photocurrent diminishes in direct
proportion to the sun intensity. The i-v characteristic shifts downward at
a lower sun intensity as shown in Figure. On a cloudy day, therefore, the
short circuit current decreases significantly. The reduction in the open-
circuit voltage, however, is small.

i-v characteristic of pv module shifts down at lower sun intensity, with

small reduction involtage.
2. The sun angle:

The cell output current is given by I =I0 cosθ,where I0 is the current with
normal sun (reference), and θ is the angle of the sunline measured from
the normal. This cosine law holds well for sun angles ranging from 0 to
about 50°.
 Figure : Kelley cosine curve for pv cell at sun angles from 0 to 90°.

3. Shadow Effect.
The array may consist of many parallel strings of series-connected cells.
Two such strings are shown in Figure .:
Figure : Shadow effect on one long pv string of an array. The power
degradation is small until shadow exceeds the critical limit.

A large array may get partially shadowed due to a structure interfering

with the sunline. If a cell in a long-series string gets completely
shadowed, it will lose the photovoltage, but still must carry the string
current by virtue of its being in series with the other fully operating
cells. Without internally generated voltage, it cannot produce power.
Instead, it acts as a load, producing local I 2R loss and heat. The
remaining cells in the string must work at higher voltage to make up the
loss of the shadowed cell voltage. Higher voltage in healthy cells means
lower string current as per the i-v characteristic of the string. This is
shown in the bottom left of Figure :
The current loss is not proportional to the shadowed area, and may go
unnoticed for mild shadow on a small area. However, if more cells are
shadowed beyond the critical limit, the i-v curve

Figure :Bypass diode in pv string minimizes the power loss under heavy
shadow
gets below operating voltage of the string, making the string current fall
to zero, losing all power of the string.
The commonly used method to eliminate the loss of string due to
shadow effect is to subdivide the circuit length in several segments with
bypass diodes (Figure). The diode across the shadowed segment
bypasses only that segment of the string. This causes a proportionate
loss of the string voltage and current, without losing the whole string
power. Some modern pv modules come with such internally embedded
bypass diodes.
4. Temperature Effect:
With increasing temperature, the short-circuit current of the cell
increases, whereas the open-circuit voltage decreases (Figure ).

Figure : Effect of temperature on the i-v characteristic. The cell

produces less current but greater voltage,with net gain in the power
output at cold temperature

The effect of temperature on the power is quantitatively evaluated by

examining the effects on the current and the voltage separately. Say I0
and V0 are the short-circuit current and the open-circuit voltage at the
reference temperature T, and α and β are their respective temperature
coefficients. If the operating temperature is increased by Δ Τ , then the
new current and voltage are given by the following:

The new power is as follows:

Figure: Effect of temperature on the p-v characteristic. The cell
produces more power at cold temperature
5. How to Keep Solar Panels From Overheating;

Solar panels have the potential to overheat when there is an abundance

of sunny weather and the energy produced is not being used. The fluid
inside most solar panel systems consists of a glycol-based antifreeze,
which can break down and circulate improperly if overheated. Installing
panels with breathing room and diverting energy for use to other parts of
your home can help keep your solar panels from overheating, optimizing
electrical production.
a. Make sure there is enough space between the roof and the solar
panel above it. William Kemp, author of "The Renewable Energy
Handbook," recommends keeping "an air gap of 2 to 3 inches, which
will allow cooling air to circulate under the array, providing maximum
power output". Install or retrofit thermally activated venting to your
solar paneling. Solar manufacturers have developed heat-triggered
ventilation systems that can be installed underneath solar collectors.
When fluids inside the collector become stagnant, reaching higher
temperatures, vents open to let additional cool air inside the solar panel.
b. Have a plumber set up a bypass valve that will direct energy to
other areas of your home. Excess hot fluid can be redirected by installing
bypass plumbing to a baseboard heater or perhaps even a pool/hot tub.
During extended periods of hot, sunny weather, use a garden hose to
spray your solar panels with a light mist. This will temporarily keep
panels from overheating and maintain optimal energy efficiency. The
University of Southern California recently recognized a science project
that demonstrated increased electrical production from solar panels
cooled with water.(video).
IV. Maximum power point tracking

1. Problem:
Solar energy is one of the most important renewable energy sources.
Unfortunately, PV generation systems have two major problems:

 the conversion efficiency of electric power generation is very low

(9÷17%), especially under low irradiation conditions,
 and the amount of electric power generated by solar arrays
changes continuously with weather conditions.
Moreover, the solar cell V-I characteristic (Figure 1)is nonlinear and
varies with irradiation and temperature. In general, there is a unique
point on the V-I or V-P curve, called the Maximum Power Point (MPP),
at which the entire PV system (array, converter, etc…) operates with
maximum efficiency and produces its maximum output power. The
location of the MPP is not known, but can be located, either through
calculation models or by search algorithms. Therefore Maximum Power
Point Tracking (MPPT) techniques are needed to maintain the PV
array’s operating point at its MPP.
I(A)

5
Isc
3

0
10 20 30 Voc 40 U(V)

Figure 1:The characteristic of solar cell

Figure 2: Load characteristics and solar batteries.
Many MPPT techniques have been proposed in the literature;
examples are the Perturb and Observe (P&O) methods, the Incremental
Conductance (IC) methods,the Artificial Neural Network method, the
Fuzzy Logic method, etc... These techniques vary between them in many
aspects, including simplicity, convergence speed, hardware
implementation, sensors required, cost, range of effectiveness and need
for parameterization. The P&O and IC techniques, as well as variants
thereof, are the most widely used.
The MPPT techniques considering different types of insulation and
solar irradiance variations. The partially shaded condition will not be
considered: the irradiation is assumed to be uniformly spread over the
PV array.

Figure 3.Stand alone PV system analysed.

2. MPPT theory:
Power output of solar cells: P = V * I
At maximum power point:
d (V . I )
=0
dV

V . d ( I )+ I . d (V )
=0
dV
 dI I
=−
dV V

When battery power is solar maximum:
dI I dP
=− =0
dV V , dV

If
dI I dP
>− >0
dV V , dV

Means that Operation point on the left side of the MPPT,

so need to increase the voltage levelby reducing the pulse
width (lower D).
Otherwise:
dI I dP
<− <0
dV V , dV

That means the working point to the right of MPPT,

so need to reduce voltage levels by increasing the pulse
width (increasing D).
MPP
P

Left
. dP/dV=0

Right

V
0 Voc
 
Figure 4: The Operation point varies.
 3. MPPT Algorithm
To find the MPPT, we icrease or decrease the width pulse (duty
cycle) of DC/DC converter
Example ,we use Cuk Converter.
When D increase, current increase , voltage decrease and otherwise.
3.1.Perturbation and Observation Method
Use according to dP / DV
dP
>0
If dV  the reduction D
dP
<0
If dV  the increased D
dP
=0
If  dV they keep the D

The P&O algorithms operate by periodically perturbing (i.e.

incrementing or decrementing) the array terminal voltage or current and
comparing the PV output power with that of the previous perturbation
cycle. If the PV array operating voltage changes and power increases
(dP/dVPV>0), the control system moves the PV array operating point in
that direction; otherwise the operating point is moved in the opposite
direction. In the next perturbation cycle the algorithm continues in the
same way.
A common problem in P&O algorithms is that the array terminal
voltage is perturbed every MPPT cycle; therefore when the MPP is
reached, the output power oscillates around the maximum, resulting in
power loss in the PV system. This is especially true in constant or
slowly-varying atmospheric conditions.
Furthermore, P&O methods can fail under rapidly changing
atmospheric conditions . Starting from an operating point A, if
atmospheric conditions stay approximately constant, a perturbation ΔV
the voltage V will bring the operating point to B and the perturbation
will be reversed due to a decrease in power. However, if the irradiance
increases and shifts the power curve from P1 to P2 within one sampling
period, the operating point will move from A to C. This represents an
increase in power and the perturbation is kept the same. Consequently,
the operating point diverges from the MPP and will keep diverging if the
irradiance steadily increases.

Figure 5:Divergence of P&O from MPP

There are many different P&O methods available in the literature. In
this paper we consider the classic, the optimized and the three-points
weight comparison algorithms.
In the classic P&O technique (P&Oa), the perturbations of the PV
operating point have a fixed magnitude. In our analysis, the magnitude
of perturbation is 0.37% of the PV array VOV (around 2V)
In the optimized P&O technique (P&Ob), an average of several
samples of the array power is used to dynamically adjust the
perturbation magnitude of the PV operating point.
 In the three-point weight comparison method (P&Oc), the perturbation
direction is decided by comparing the PV output power on three points
of the P-V curve. These three points are the current operation point (A),
a point B perturbed from point A, and a point C doubly perturbed in the
opposite direction from point B.
All three algorithms require two measurements: a measurement of the
voltage VPV and a measurement of the current IPV (see Fig. 6).

Figure 6: P & O block diagram

3.2. Incremental Conductance Method

Use according to dI / DV
dI I
>−
If  dV V the reduction D
dI I
<−
If  dV V the increased D
dI I
=−
If  dV V they keep the D
The Incremental Conductance (IC) algorithm is based on the
observation that the following equation holds at the MPP .

where IPV and VPV are the PV array current and voltage, respectively.
When the optimum operating point in the P-V plane is to the right of
the MPP, we have (dIPV/dVPV)+(IPV/VPV)<0, whereas when the optimum
operating point is to the left of the MPP, we have (dI PV/dVPV)+
(IPV/VPV)>0.
The MPP can thus be tracked by comparing the instantaneous
conductance IPV/VPV to the incremental conductance dIPV/dVPV.
Therefore the sign of the quantity (dIPV/dVPV)+(IPV/VPV)
indicates the correct direction of perturbation leading to the MPP. Once
MPP has been reached, the operation of PV array is maintained at this
point and the perturbation stopped unless a change in dI PV is noted. In
this case, the algorithm decrements or increments V ref to track the new
MPP. The increment size determines how fast the MPP is tracked.
Through the IC algorithm it is therefore theoretically possible to know
when the MPP has been reached, and thus when the perturbation can be
stopped. The IC method offers good performance under rapidly
changing atmospheric conditions.
There are two main different IC methods available in the literature.
The classic IC algorithm (ICa) requires the same measurements , in
order to determine the perturbation direction: a measurement of the
voltage VPV and a measurement of the current IPV.

The Two-Model MPPT Control (ICb) algorithm combines the CV and

the ICa methods: if the irradiation is lower than 30% of the nominal
irradiance level the CV method is used, other way the ICa method is
adopted. Therefore this method requires the additional measurement of
solar irradiation.

V. References :
1. Wind and solar power systems. Mukund R. Patel,
2. http://www.wseas.us/e-library/transactions/power/2008/27-
545.pdf.
3. The reseache of student at university technologie.
4. Google searche…
VI. Questions?
1. Why do you have formule power energy ?
Current and voltage :

The new power is as follows:

, because :α+β<<1
2. Why PV has Rrs ?
We explain at II.
3. Why PV seem current consatant?
Depend diagraph:
I(A)

5
Isc
3

0
10 20 30 Voc 40 U(V)

Cureent does not varie.