Edited with the trial version of

Foxit Advanced PDF Editor

To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

Introduction to Photography

Study Material for Students

 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

: Introduction to Photography

CAREER OPPORTUNITIES IN MEDIA WORLD

Mass communication and Journalism is institutionalized and source specific.

It functions through well-organized professionals and has an ever increasing
interlace. Mass media has a global availability and it has converted the whole
world in to a global village. A qualified journalism professional can take up a
job of educating, entertaining, informing, persuading, interpreting, and
guiding. Working in print media offers the opportunities to be a news
reporter, news presenter, an editor, a feature writer, a photojournalist, etc.
Electronic media offers great opportunities of being a news reporter, news
editor, newsreader, programme host, interviewer, cameraman, producer,
director, etc.

Other titles of Mass Communication and Journalism professionals are script

writer, production assistant, technical director, floor manager, lighting
director, scenic director, coordinator, creative director, advertiser, media
planner, media consultant, public relation officer, counselor, front office
executive, event manager and others.

2
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

: Introduction to Photography

INTRODUCTION

The book will introduce the student to the techniques of photography. The book
deals with the basic steps in photography. Students will also learn the different
types of photography. The book also focuses of the various parts of a photographic
camera and the various tools of photography. Students will learn the art of taking a
good picture.

The book also has introduction to photojournalism and the basic steps of film
development in photography.

3
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

Introduction to Photography

INDEX
402 Introduction to Photography

I. INTRODUCTION 5-33

1.1 Photography;
1.2 Photographic Camera & Types of camera
1.3 Camera; Parts of a Camera
1.3.1 Shutter
1.4 Kinds of Photography,
1.4.1 Infrared Photography
1.4.2 Ultraviolet Photography
1.4.3. High-speed Photography
1.4.4. Aerial Photography
1.4.5 Digital Photography
1.4.6. The Invention of Photography
1.4.7. The Daguerreotype
1.4.8. The Calotype
1.4.9. The Collodion Process
1.4.10. The Impact of Early Photography
1.4.11. Further Developments
1.5 History & Development of Photography,
1.6 Tools of Photography,
1.6.1. Photography Styles

UNIT 2. PHOTOJOURNALISM 33-57

2.1. Role of Photojournalism

2.2. Importance of Photojournalism
2.3. Elements of Photography
2.4. Point of Interest
2.5. Rule of Thirds
2.6. Role of Visualizations
2.7. Photographer’s jargon
2.8. Photographic equipment: Choice of Cameras
2.9. The Role Film and the Cut Film
2.10. Compositions
2.11. Cameras and Photo:
2.11.1. Shutter
2.11.2 Film Format
2.11.3 Basics of Film Speed
2.11.4 Processing your Photo
2.12. Photo editing

4
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

Introduction to Photography

UNIT 3. TYPES OF PHOTOS 57-77

3.1. Portrait Photography
3.2. Still Photography
3.3. Wildlife Photography
3.4. Disaster Photography
3.5. Sports Photography
3.6. Political Photography
3.7. Weather & Environment Photography
3.8. War Photography
3.9. Advertising Photography
3.10. Landscape Photography
3.11. Social Photography
3.12. News Photography

UNIT 4. NEWS VALUES FOR PICTURES: 77-95

4.1. PHOTO ESSAY

5.1 Photo Features
5.2 Picture Magazines
5.4 Color Photography
5.5 Impact Of Technology
5.6. Photography Lighting Techniques
5.7. Film Development
5.8. Photo Paper
5.9. Chemicals And Equipment

Summery 95
Questions for practice 99
Suggested Readings 100

5
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

: Introduction to Photography

SYLLABUS

Introduction to Photography

Photography;
Meaning,
Definition & History of Photography,
Tools of Photography,
Camera; Parts of a Camera Shutter, Apertures, Lens, Films,
Types of Camera,
Quality of Photograph,
Role of Visualizations,
Shots,
Roles of Lightings,
How to take a good picture,
Role of Subject,
Editing & Development of Photograph.
Manual & Computerized
Composition of Photograph,
Photo Journalism, its Role & Importance

6
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

Introduction to Photography

INTRODUCTION TO PHOTOGRAPHY

OBJECTIVES

 to introduce the student to the techniques of photography

 to deal with the basic steps in photography
 learn the different types of photography
 to know the various parts of a photographic camera and the various tools of
photography
 to learn the art of taking a good picture.
 to introduce the students to photojournalism and the basic steps of film
development in photography

INTRODUCTION

Photography is the process of forming stable or permanent visible images

directly or indirectly by the action of light or other forms of radiation on
sensitive surfaces. Traditional photography uses the action of light to cause
changes in a film of silver halide crystals in which development converts exposed
silver halide to non -sensitive) metallic silver. Following exposure in a camera or
other device, the film or plate is developed, fixed in a solution that dissolves the
undeveloped silver halide, washed to remove the soluble salts, and dried. Printing
from the original, if required, is done by contact or optical projection onto a second
emulsion-coated material, and a similar sequence of processing steps is followed.
Digital photography captures images directly with an electronic photo sensor.

1.1. Photography is the process of making pictures by means of capturing light

on a light-sensitive medium, such as a sensor or film. Light patterns reflected or
emitted from objects are recorded onto a sensitive medium or storage chip through
a timed exposure. The most common process is done through mechanical,
chemical or digital devices known as cameras.

7
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

: Introduction to Photography

The word comes from the Greek words phos "light", and graphis "stylus",
"paintbrush" or "representation by means of lines" or "drawing", together
meaning "drawing with light." Traditionally the product of photography has been
called a photograph. The term photo is an abbreviation; many people also call them
pictures. In digital photography, the term image has begun to replace photograph
the term image is traditional in geometric optics.

1.2. Photographic Cameras

The camera is the image-forming

device, and photographic film is
the recording medium. A camera
works somewhat like the human
eye, capturing reflected light
from objects and through a
camera lens and focusing those
light rays into an image.
Traditionally cameras recorded
the image onto film. More
recently through the
development of computer chips,
many cameras capture their
images on a computer chip. The
computer chip then allows the
conversion of the image to
digital data. Regardless of
whether the photography is film or digital-based, the images can be made
permanent and seen by an unlimited number of people.

Photographers control the camera and lens to "expose" the light recording material
usually film or a charge-coupled device; a complementary metal-oxide-
semiconductor may also be used to the required amount of light. After processing,
this produces an image.

Types of Camera

 SLR Single Lens Reflex : The viewfinder sees the same image as the main
lens, i.e. what you see is what you get. SLRs also allow you to change
lenses for different purposes. This is a hugely popular type of camera, pretty
much the standard for enthusiasts and professionals.
8
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

ntroduction to Photography

 Viewfinder or range f inder): In this type of camera the viewfinder is

separate to the lens. This is common in cheap cameras, although some
professional cameras also use this configuration. The main problem with a
separate viewfinder is that the image you see may not be quite the same as
the image that gets recorded. This limitation is overcome in professional
cameras by using viewfinders that compensate for the different positions.
Viewfinder cameras do have some advantages; for example, lower noise and
higher light levels to the viewfinder.
 Twin reflex: The camera has two lenses — one for the photograph and one
for the viewfinder. This type of camera has certain advantages in some
professional situations.
 View: A flexible bellows joins two standards — one with the lens and the
other with the viewfinder or film. This allows for unusual types of
composition; for example, distorting the shape of the image by skewing the
film plane.
 Pinhole: A very simple camera without a lens.

The controls usually include but are not limited to the following:

Focus of the lens

 Aperture of the lens – adjustment of the iris, measured as f-number, which

controls the amount of light entering the lens. Aperture also has an effect on
focus and depth of field, namely, the smaller the opening aperture), the less
light but the greater the depth of field--that is, the greater the range within
which objects appear to be sharply focused.
 Shutter speed – adjustment of the speed often expressed either as fractions
of seconds or as an angle, with mechanical shutters of the shutter to control
the amount of time during which the imaging medium is exposed to light for
each exposure. Shutter speed may be used to control the amount of light
striking the image plane; 'faster' shutter speeds that is, those of shorter
duration decrease both the amount of light and the amount of image
blurring from subject motion or camera motion.
 White balance – on digital cameras, electronic compensation for the color
temperature associated with a given set of lighting conditions, ensuring that
white light is registered as such on the imaging chip and therefore that the
colors in the frame will appear natural. On mechanical, film-based cameras,
this function is served by the operator's choice of film stock. In addition to
using white balance to register natural coloration of the image,

9
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

Introduction to Photography

photographers may employ white balance to aesthetic end, for example

white balancing to a blue object in order to obtain a warm color temperature.
 Metering – measurement of exposure at a midtone so that highlights and
shadows are exposed according to the photographer's wishes. Many modern
cameras feature this ability, though it is traditionally accomplished with the
use of a separate light metering device.
 ISO speed – traditionally used to set the film speed of the selected film on
film cameras, ISO speeds are employed on modern digital cameras as an
indication of the system's gain from light to numerical output and to control
the automatic exposure system. A correct combination of ISO speed,
aperture, and shutter speed leads to an image that is neither too dark nor too
light.
 Auto-focus point – on some cameras, the selection of a point in the imaging
frame upon which the auto-focus system will attempt to focus. Many SLR
single Lens Reflex cameras feature multiple auto-focus points in the
viewfinder.

Many other elements of the imaging device itself may have a pronounced effect on
the quality and/or aesthetic effect of a given photograph; among them are:

 Focal length and type of lens telephoto, macro, wide angle, or zoom
 Filters or scrims placed between the subject and the light recording
material, either in front of or behind the lens
 Inherent sensitivity of the medium to light intensity and color/wavelengths.
 The nature of the light recording material, for example its resolution as
measured in pixels or grains of silver halide.

Camera controls are inter-related, the total amount of light reaching the film plane
the "exposure" changes with the du ration of exposure, aperture of the lens, and
focal length of the lens which changes as the lens is zoomed. Changing any of
these controls alters the exposure. Many cameras may be set to adjust most or all
of these controls automatically. This automatic functionality is useful in many
situations, and in most situations to occasional photographers.

The duration of an exposure is referred to as shutter speed, often even in

cameras that don't have a physical shutter, and is typically measured in fractions of
a second. Aperture is expressed by an f-number or f-stop derived from focal ratio,
which is proportional to the ratio of the focal length to the diameter of the aperture.
If the f-number is decreased by a factor of , the aperture diameter is increased by
a factor of 2. The f-stops that might be
10
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

ntroduction to Photography

found on a typical lens include 2.8, 4, 5.6, 8, 11, 16, 22, 32, where going up "one
stop" doubles the amount of light reaching the film, and stopping down one stop
halves the amount of light.

Exposures can be achieved through various combinations of shutter speed and

aperture. For example, f/8 at 1/125th of a second and f/4 at 1/500th of a second
yield the same amount of light. The chosen combination has an impact on the final
result. In addition to the subject or camera movement that might vary depending on
the shutter speed, the aperture and focal length of the lens determine the depth of
field, which refers to the range of distances from the lens that will be in focus. For
example, using a long lens and a large aperture f/2.8, for example), a subject's
eyes might be in sharp focus, but not the tip of the nose. With a smaller aperture
f/22, or a shorter lens, both the subject's eyes and nose can be in focus. With very
small apertures, such as pinholes, a wide range of distance can be brought into
focus.

Image capture is only part of the image forming process. Regardless of material,
some process must be employed to render the latent image captured by the camera
into the final photographic work. This process consists of two steps,
development, and printing.

During the printing process, modifications can be made to the print by several
controls. Many of these controls are similar to controls during image capture, while
some are exclusive to the printing process. Most controls have equivalent digital
concepts, but some create different effects. For example, dodging and burning
controls are different between digital and film processes. Other printing
modifications include:

 Chemicals and process used during film development

 Duration of exposure — equivalent to shutter speed
 Printing aperture — equivalent to aperture, but has no effect on depth of
field
 Contrast
 Dodging — reduces exposure of certain print areas, resulting in a lighter
areas
 Burning — increases exposure of certain areas, resulting in darker areas
 Paper quality — glossy, matte, etc

1.3. PARTS OF CAMERA

11
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

Introduction to Photography

Despite advances in technology, the camera hasn't changed a whole lot, as far as
mechanics go. A camera is essentially a light-tight box with a hole in it. Everything
else is an elaboration. Here we’ll look in general how the box is arranged and
where the elaborations usually are, for the 35mm SLR.
The body
The body is the box, to which everything else is attached. Can be made from metal,
plastic, space-age composite, wood, cardboard, or just about anything opaque. As
well as the attaching point, the body holds the film. In the case of a view camera,
the body is simply a frame which holds a film holder on one side and a bellows, or
extendable tube on the other, which is attached to a separate lens-holding frame.

Viewfinder
The viewfinder is what you look through to compose the picture. Most often
integral to the body, pro cameras have viewfinders that can be switched. The
viewfinder contains a lens, through which you look, a mirror, and a ground
glass view screen, which again, in pro cameras, can be replaced or swapped for
different types. Most viewfinders only show some 85-90% of the scene, so watch
your edges, and get closer

1.3.1. Shutter release

Usually located on the right front as you hold the camera), the shutter release is
the button you push to, hey, release the shutter. The button may be threaded to
accept a cable release, which you attach as an extension, and use when you want to
eliminate vibration. Mounted with the shutter release, at least on those old-timey
cameras, is the film advance lever. Many newer cameras with auto winders built-in
don't have a film advance lever.

Shutter speed dial

Usually located on the right front as you hold the camera), closer to the
viewfinder. Many newer, electronic cameras don't have this dial, and you set the
shutter speed using buttons or different dial, usually located near the release on
the body. The shutter speed dial will have a series of numbers, usually from 8 or 4
to 1000 or 2000. These are shutter speeds, and are parts of a second. Also, you may
see A or P for automatic or program, T for time, which opens the shutter when you
press the release, and leaves it open until you press it again. B is the bulb setting,
which keeps the shutter open for as long as you keep the release held down. There
will also be a flash-sync speed, which is the speed setting for your camera when
using a strobe.

Rewind/ASA dial
12
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

Introduction to Photography

This, at least on cameras without a built-in winder, is a kind of multi-function

knob. The upper part has a small flip-out crank, which is used in conjunction with
a release button on the bottom of the body to rewind the film back into the
canister. Pull the crank up, and it releases the camera back, to load and unload film.
The bottom part is the ASA, or film speed, setting. Pulling up on the outer ring
allows you to rotate a dial to change the ASA setting. Cameras that do not have
either of these will have a rewind switch, or rewind the film automatically when
you reach the end of a roll. There will be a lever or release for the back, usually on
the side of the body. The ASA may be set automatically reading the DX code
from the film canister, with an override available through the onboard computer.

Lens release
A button or lever which unlocks the lens for removal, the lens release is one of the
few controls on the front of the camera which hasn't been replaced by a selection in
an LED menu. Work the release and twist the lens to remove, with bayonet-mount
lenses. To replace the lens, line up the slots, or two dots one on the lens and one
on the body and twist until th e lens clicks into place. Do not force the lens! If it is
lined up properly, it should go right on.

Others
While the above controls/parts are pretty much standard, there are more that are
less so. The first is a depth of field preview. This is a button or lever, which when
manipulated, will stop down the lens to the aperture setting selected, allowing you
to look through the viewfinder and actually see the depth of field. An excellent
thing, with one problem: many 35mm SLRs have viewfinders that are too small
and dim to see anything once you've stopped down past about ƒ/8. Another control
is a self-timer, a button or switch which will release the shutter after a given
interval, so that you can be in those wonderful group pix with everyone else.
Usually there is a socket for a sync cord a small double -circle), which is used to
attach the camera to a strobe unit. There may be a manual shutter release, for use
when batteries are well and truly gone.

Cameras that do not have auto-advance and rewind usually have a small button on
the bottom of the body which must be depressed when rewinding the film. This
button disengages the film advance drive mechanism. If you don’t hold this down
and insist in rewinding the film, you will do one of several bad things: break the
rewind lever/handle, rip the film, and/or strip the gearing

The basic idea behind a photographic camera has not changed much since its
invention, although new advancements such as digital technology have changed
13
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

ntroduction to Photography

the art form. Knowing the mechanism behind a camera gives the photographer a
better understanding of the craft of photography.

Casing and Viewfinder: The camera casing is the solid outer shell that provides
protection for the inner parts. The casing also helps keep light out of the camera,
preventing light from exposing the film. The viewfinder is used by the camera
operator to aim and focus the image and adjust the settings.
Lens and Mirror: The lens allows light to enter the camera and focuses the light
on the film. It also allows light to reflect off the mirror, allowing the operator to
see the image to be photographed in the viewfinder. An image that is not focused
in the viewfinder will appear blurry when printed. The mirror is only in use when
the shutter is closed. It allows the operator to see the image in the viewfinder to
prepare the image to be photographed. When the shutter is opened, the mirror
moves up, allowing light to enter the camera and exposing the film to the lighted
image.
Prism: The prism refracts light, allowing the operator to see the image in the
viewfinder when the shutter is closed.
Aperture and Shutter Speed Dial: The opening in the lens that controls the
amount of light allowed into the camera and the length of time the film is exposed
to light is called the aperture. The shutter speed dial is set by the camera operator
and regulates how long the aperture stays open. The slower the shutter speed, the
more light the aperture allows into the camera; a slow shutter speed would be set
around 60.
F-Stop Ring and ASA Dial: The F-Stop ring has settings from 2 to 22, with 2
being the largest and 22 the smallest. These settings are for the size of the aperture
opening when the picture is taken; the smaller the setting, the less light is allowed
into the camera to expose the film. The ASA dial is set according to the speed of
the film used in the camera. Faster film is used for fast-moving action and low
light levels; a film with a setting of 200 or above is classified as fast.
Film Advance Lever, Rewind Crank and Frame Advance Box: The film
advance lever is used to advance the film through the camera. The frame advance
box displays the number of pictures taken and helps the operator judge how many
pictures are left on a roll of film. The rewind crank is used when a roll of film is
finished and is used to rewind the exposed film back into the canister.

Uses of Photography

Photography is practiced on a professional level for portraiture and for various

commercial and industrial applications, including the preparation of photographs
for advertising, illustration, display, and record-keeping. Press photography is for
14
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

Introduction to Photography

newspaper and magazine illustrations of topical events and objects. Photography is

used at several levels in the graphic arts to convert original photographs or other
illustrations into printing plates for high-quality reproduction in quantity. Industrial
photography includes the generation and reproduction of engineering drawings,
high-speed photography, and many other forms of technical photography, which
can aid in the development, design, and manufacture of various products. Aerial
photography is used for military investigation and mapping, civilian mapping,
urban and highway planning, and surveys of material resources. Biomedical
photography is used to reveal or record biological structures, often of significance
in medical research, diagnosis, or treatment. Photography is widely applied to
preparing projection slides and other displays for teaching through visual
education.

Photography is one of the most important tools in scientific and technical fields. It
extends the range of vision, allowing records to be made of things or events which
are difficult or impossible to see because they are too faint, too brief, too small, or
too distant, or associated with radiation to which the eye is insensitive. Technical
photographs can be studied at leisure, measured, and stored for reference or
security. The acquisition and interpretation of images in scientific and technical
photography usually requires direct participation by the scientist or skilled
technicians.

1.4. KINDS OF PHOTOGRAPHY

Infrared Photography

Emulsions made with special sensitizing dyes can respond to radiation at

wavelengths up to 1200 nanometers, though the most common infrared films
exhibit little sensitivity beyond 900 nm. One specialized color film incorporates a
layer sensitive in the 700–900-nm region and is developed to false colors to show
infrared-reflecting subjects as bright red.

15
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

ntroduction to Photography

Photographs can thus be made of subjects, which radiate in the near-infrared, such
as stars, certain lasers and light-emitting diodes, and hot objects with surface
temperatures greater than 500°F 260°C). Infrared films are more commonly used
to photograph subjects, which selectively transmit or reflect near-infrared
radiation, especially in a manner different from visible radiation. Infrared
photographs taken from long distances or high altitudes usually show improved
clarity of detail because atmospheric scatter haze is diminished with increasing
wavelength and because the contrast of ground objects may be higher as a result of
their different reflectance in the near-infrared. Grass and foliage appear white
because chlorophyll is transparent in the near-infrared, while water is rendered
black because it is an efficient absorber of infrared radiation.

Ultraviolet Photography

Two distinct classes of photography rely on ultraviolet radiation. In the first, the
recording material is exposed directly with ultraviolet radiation emitted, reflected,
or transmitted by the subject; in the other, exposure is made solely with visible
radiation resulting from the fluorescence of certain materials when irradiated in the
ultraviolet. In the direct case, the wavelength region is usually restricted by the
camera lens and filtration to 350–400 nm, which is readily detected with
16 Y
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

ntroduction to Photography

conventional black-and-white films. Ultraviolet photography is accomplished at

shorter wavelengths in spectrographs and cameras fitted with ultraviolet-
transmitting or reflecting optics, usually with specialized films. In ultraviolet-
fluorescence photography, ultraviolet radiation is blocked from the film by
filtration over the camera lens and the fluorescing subject is recorded readily with
conventional color or panchromatic films. Both forms of ultraviolet photography
are used in close-up photography and photomicrography by mineralogists,
museums, art galleries, and forensic photographers.

High-speed Photography

Photography at exposure durations shorter than those possible with conventional

shutters or at frequencies frame rates greater than those achievable with motion
picture cameras with intermittent film movements is useful in a wide range of
technical applications.

17
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

ntroduction to Photography

Aerial Photography

The art of aerial photography, in which photographs of the Earth's surface are
made with specialized roll-film cameras carried aloft on balloons, airplanes, and
spacecraft, is an important segment of a broader generic technology, remote
sensing. The film is often replaced with an electronic sensor, the sensor system
may be mounted on an aircraft or spacecraft, and the subject may be the surface of
a distant planet instead of Earth. Remote sensing is used to gather military
intelligence; to provide most of the information for plotting maps; for evaluating
natural resources minerals, petroleum, soils, crops, and water and natural
disasters; and for planning cities, highways, dams, pipelines, and airfields. Aerial
photography normally provides higher ground resolution and geometric accuracy
than the imagery obtained with electronic sensors, especially when covering small
areas, so it continues as the foundation for mapmaking, urban planning, and some
other applications.

Digital Photography

The process of electronic acquisition, the equivalent of taking a photograph, is

often referred to as image capture.

18
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

: Introduction to Photography

Light intensity is detected in digital camera by a photo sensor. This is normally a

charge-coupled device CCD, although complementary metal oxide silicon
CMOS) devices are beginning to appear in some systems.

When photons strike the sensor, they give up energy. This causes electrons to be
emitted, turning the energy of the photons into electrical energy. The number of
electrons that are emitted can be measured to determine how many photons struck
the capture element, and from this the scanner can generate a value for the intensity
of light arriving from the point on the original being analyzed.

The aim of the digitization stage is to capture all the information from an original
that will be needed in the reproduction and convert it into an array of binary
numbers that a computer can process. The human visual system actively seeks cues
that will give it information about the objects within the visual field, and a
reproduction of an image that contains a large amount of detail is almost always
preferred to one in which some of the detail has been lost.

Like conventional cameras, digital cameras come in compact, single-lens reflex,

and large-format varieties. Low-resolution compacts are useful for producing
classified advertisements and tend to have relatively simple optics, image-sensing
electronics, and controlling software. Digital cameras are often based on existing
single-lens reflex camera designs with the addition of CCD backs and storage
subsystems. The capture resolution of these cameras is ideal for news photography
and other applications with similar quality requirements.

The Invention of Photography

The necessary first breakthrough in photography was in a different, not eye-

centered area—that of making permanent photographic images. Employing data
from the researches of Johann Heinrich Schulze—who, in 1727, discovered that
silver nitrate darkened upon exposure to light—Thomas Wedgwood and Sir
Humphry Davy, early in the 19th cent., created what we now call photograms.
These were made by placing assorted objects on paper soaked in silver nitrate and
exposing them to sunlight. Those areas of the paper covered by the objects
remained white; the rest blackened after exposure to the light.

19 Y
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

ntroduction to Photography

Born in 1765 in France, Joseph Nicéphore Niépce enjoyed a comfortable middle-class upbringing.
After pursuing early careers in teaching and the military, he returned to his birthplace in 1801 to
settle on and administer his family estate. Joining with his brother, Claude, in several experiments
and inventions, he adopted the mantle of a scientifically-minded gentleman. As early as 1793 the
brothers had discussed the possibility of utilizing light-sensitive compounds to reproduce imagery.
Joseph's earliest experiments in this direction appear to have begun in 1816, but it was not until
1824 that he had some degree of success with permanent photographs from nature. This slow
progress is accounted for by the fact that photography was not his sole, or even his main, interest;
the invention on which the brothers expended most of their efforts, genius, and ultimately their
entire family fortune, was a combustion engine called the "Pyreolophore" for propelling boats.
Patented in 1807, this ingenious and surprisingly early combustion engine did actually propel a
model boat on the rivers Saône and Seine. The next twenty years were spent in improving and
endeavoring to exploit the engine, the latter involving Claude's eventual move to England.
When the craze for the newly invented art of lithography swept France in 1813, it naturally
attracted Joseph's attention. Unable to draw well, he placed engravings, made transparent, on
stones coated with light-sensitive varnish of his own composition. Thus lithography led to what
Niépce later termed Heliography, and subsequently to the first permanent photography from
nature, produced on pewter around 1826.
In September 1827, Joseph traveled to Kew near London to visit his brother Claude, who lay
dangerously ill. While there, he was introduced to the noted botanist, Francis Bauer, FRS, who
examined the specimens Niépce had brought with him and immediately recognized the importance
of his discovery. Bauer advised Joseph to write a memoir and provided him with introductions to
present the paper and show the specimens to the Royal Society on December 8th. These
specimens—which were all referred to by Niépce as "Les premiers resultats obtenus spontanement
par l'action de la lumiere"—were returned to him together with the memoir, for the Royal Society
felt unable to take cognizance of an invention for which the inventor was unwilling to disclose the
details. Joseph left England shortly afterwards. Before his departure he presented his handwritten
memoir and his heliograph specimens including the First Photograph to Francis Bauer. The
botanist dutifully inscribed the gifts, labeled them 1827 the year of their presentation to him, and
set them aside. Within two weeks of his return to France, Joseph would learn of his brother
Claude's death.
Upon his return Joseph continued his experiments. Courted by Louis-Jacques-Mandé Daguerre,
the painter, and entrepreneur, Niépce eventually formed a ten-year partnership with him in 1829.
He continued to experiment with heliography, dreaming of eventual recognition and economic
success, until his death in 1833. In 1839 Daguerre focused the world's attention upon his own
invention, the daguerreotype, and the pioneering work of Joseph Nicéphore Niépce was largely
overwhelmed and easily ignored. It would take the combination of Niépce's kind gift to Bauer, the
care which Bauer gave to the precious artifacts, and Helmut Gernsheim's persistence and insight,
to restore Joseph Nicéphore Niépce to his rightful position as the world's first successful
photographer.

20
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

Introduction to Photography

Davy and Wedgwood found no way of arresting the chemical action at this stage,
however, and their images lasted only a short time before darkening entirely.

Photography's basic principles, processes, and materials were discovered virtually

simultaneously by a diverse group of individuals of different nationalities, working
for the most part entirely independently of one another. The results of their
experiments coalesced in the first half of the 19th cent., creating a tool for
communication that was to become as powerful and significant as the printing
press. Four men figure principally in the establishment of the rudiments of
photographic science.

The French physicist, Joseph Nicéphore Niepce, made the first negative on
paper) in 1816 and the first known photograph on metal; he called it a heliograph
in 1826. By the latter date he had directed his investigations away from paper
surfaces and negatives having invented, in the meantime, what is now called the
photogravure process of mechanical reproduction and toward sensitized metallic
surfaces.

In 1827 Niepce had also begun his association with Louis Jacques Mandé
Daguerre, a French painter who had been experimenting along parallel lines. A
partnership was formed and they collaborated until Niepce's death in 1833, after
which Daguerre continued their work for the next six years. In 1839 he announced
the invention of a method for making a direct positive image on a silver plate—the
daguerreotype.

Daguerre's announcement was a source of dismay to the English scientist William

Henry Fox Talbot, who had been experimenting independently along related lines
for years. Talbot had evolved a method for making a paper negative from which an
infinite number of paper positives could be created. He had also worked out an
effective although imperfect technique for permanently “fixing” his images.
Concerned that he might lose the rights to his own invention, the calotype process,
Talbot wrote to the French Academy of Sciences, asserting the priority of his own
invention. He then lost no time in presenting his researches to England's Royal
Society, of which he was a distinguished member.

All three pioneers, Niepce, Daguerre, and Talbot, along with Sir John Herschel—
who in 1819 discovered the suitability of hyposulfite of soda, or “hypo,” as a
fixing agent for sensitized paper images and who is generally credited with giving
the new medium its name—deserve to share the title Inventor of Photography.
Each made a vital and unique contribution to the invention of the photographic

21
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

: Introduction to Photography

process. The process developed by Daguerre and Niepce was, in a grand gesture,
purchased from them by the French government and given, free of patent
restrictions, to the world. Talbot patented his own process and then published a
description of it, entitled The Pencil of Nature 1844 –46. This book, containing 24
original prints, was the first ever illustrated with photographs.

The Daguerreotype

Daguerreotype Camera

Daguerreotype spread rapidly, except in England, where Daguerre had secretly

patented his process before selling it to the French government. The legal problems
attending the pursuit of photography as a profession account in part for the
widespread influence of amateurs e.g., Nadar, the French pioneer photographer
on the early development of the medium. The popularity of the daguerreotype is
attributable to two principal factors. The first of these was the Victorian passion for
novelty and for the accumulation of material objects, which found its perfect
paradigm in these silvery, exquisitely detailed miniatures. The second was the
greatly increasing demand from a rising middle class for qualitatively good but—
compared to a painter's fee—inexpensive family portraits. The cheaper tintype
eventually made such likenesses available to all.

The Calotype

The calotype's paper negative made possible the reproduction of photographic

images. The unavoidably coarse paper base for the negative, however, eliminated
the delicate detail that made the daguerreotype so appealing. This lack of precision
was understood and used to advantage by the Scottish painter David Octavius Hill
and his assistant, Robert Adamson. From 1843 to 1848 they made an extensive
series of calotype portraits of Scottish clergymen, intended to serve only as studies
22
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

: Introduction to Photography

for a group portrait in oils, that stands today among the major bodies of work in the
medium. Hill and Adamson composed their portraits in broad planes, juxtaposing
bold masses of light and dark, creating works that are monumental in feeling
despite their small size.

Clergymen who had been at the assembly, photographed at Dumbarton Presbytery in 1845 as
the basis for their portraits.

Robert Adamson, was a Scottish pioneer photographer. Adamson was born in St. Andrews,
he was hired in 1843 by David Octavius Hill 1802 -1870), a painter of romantic Scottish
landscapes. He was commissioned to make a group portrait of the 470 clergymen who
founded the Free Church of Scotland. Hill required calotypes from which he would paint.
Distinguished persons from many fields came to be photographed by the partners. Together
they made more than 1,000 portraits and numerous views of Edinburgh between 1843 and
1848, until Adamson died at the age of 26. Hill returned to painting and the partners’ great
work was not rediscovered until 1872. The Scottish painter and arts activist David Octavius
Hill collaborated with the engineer and photographer Robert Adamson between 1843 and
1847 to pioneer many aspects of photography in Scotland.

23
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

Introduction to Photography

The Collodion Process

The dilemma of detail versus reproducibility was resolved in 1851 by an

Englishman, Frederick Scott Archer, who introduced the collodion process. This
method, also known as the “wet plate” technique, involved coating a glass plate
with silver iodide in suspension, exposing it while still wet, and developing it
immediately. Once fixed and dried, the glass plate was covered with a thin, flexible
film containing the negative image, the definition and detail of which approached
that of the daguerreotype. As this process merged the advantages of both its
predecessors, it was universally adopted within a very short time.

The Impact of Early Photography

With the advent of the collodion process, came mass production and dissemination
of photographic prints. The inception of these visual documents of personal and
public history engendered vast changes in people's perception of history, of time,
and of themselves. The concept of privacy was greatly altered as cameras were
used to record most areas of human life. The ubiquitous presence of photographic
machinery eventually changed humankind's sense of what was suitable for
observation. The photograph was considered incontestable proof of an event,
experience, or state of being.

To fulfill the mounting and incessant demand for more images, photographers
spread out to every corner of the world, recording all the natural and manufactured
phenomena they could find. These were in three main forms: the family album,
which contained cabinet portraits and scrapbooks containing large prints of views
from various parts of the world; and boxes of stereoscope cards, which in
combination with the popular stereo viewer created an effective illusion of three-
dimensionality.

A number of photographers, including Timothy O'Sullivan, J. K. Hillers, and W.

H. Jackson, accompanied exploratory expeditions to the new frontiers in the
American West, while John Thomson returned from China and Maxime Du Camp
from Egypt with records of vistas and peoples never before seen by Western eyes.
Roger Fenton, who photographed the Crimean conflict, and Mathew Brady's
photographic corps, who documented the American Civil War, provided graphic
evidence of the hellishness of combat.

Further Developments

24
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

: Introduction to Photography

E. J. Marey, the painter Thomas Eakins, and Eadweard Muybridge all devised
means for making stop-action photographs that demonstrated the gap between
what the mind thinks it sees and what the eye actually perceives. Muybridge's
major work, Animal Locomotion 1887, remains a b asic source for artists and
scientists alike. As accessory lenses were perfected, the camera's vision extended
both telescopically and microscopically; the moon and the microorganism became
accessible as photographic images.

The introduction of the halftone process in 1881 made possible the accurate
reproduction of photographs in books and newspapers. In combination with new
improvements in photographic technology, including dry plates and smaller
cameras, which made photographing faster and less cumbersome, the halftone
made immediate reportage feasible and paved the way for news photography.
George Eastman's introduction in 1888 of roll film and the simple Kodak box
camera provided everyone with the means of making photographs for themselves.

1.5. History & Development of Photography

When photography was announced to the world in 1839, almost immediately three
relationships to the body were established. The most pervasive of these was its use
to produce portraits and snapshots that have served as surrogates, even fetishistic
tokens, of the human body. As new technologies made photography progressively
cheaper throughout the nineteenth century, photographic portraiture, produced in
the studios of trained technicians, worked its way down to ever lower classes of
society. Photographic portraits made present to broad classes of people images of
the bodies of family members who had emigrated, gone off to war, died, or
otherwise absented themselves, a privilege enjoyed previously only by the rich. For
the last third of the nineteenth century photographic portraits were also collected
and assembled into albums as a way for the public to see the leading political,
artistic, and literary figures of the day.

As a different kind of surrogate, photography itself extended the reach of the

body's comprehension of the world. Doing so more insistently than did other forms
of mimetic representation, photography seemed to stand in for the direct, bodily
experience of the individual, its lens becoming the roving eye of the beholder.
Most obviously one sees this in travel and expeditionary photographs of the
nineteenth century, for which skilled professionals traveled forth from Western
Europe and the eastern USA to record and bring back views of sites as various as
India, the American West and the Middle East.

25
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

: Introduction to Photography

Finally, photography played a role in the nineteenth-century comprehension of the

body itself within the emerging sciences. Ethnographers saw in photography the
potential to prove theories of racial difference, using photographs showing faces
and full frequently unclothed bodies that had been produced both for the tourist
trade and specifically for ethnographic study. Early investigators of psychiatry and
eugenics considered the medium an objective tool of research, finding evidence in
straightforward face shots as well as those that had been manipulated. Studies of
physiognomy and the emotions were illustrated with photographs of faces
stimulated by electrical charges, while eugenicists sought to arrive visually at
average ‘types’ by exposing a single piece of photographic paper to multiple
portrait negatives, one on top of the next, so that only the most commonly held
traits appeared in the final picture. Within criminology, photographic ‘mug’ shots
fixed the identities of convicted criminals, while detailed pictures of ears and other
body parts enabled a crude method of tracking suspects, as today fingerprints and
DNA are used. Physiology was advanced by studies of motion in the 1870s and
80s, which fixed the positions the body held through the course of a variety of
activities. Using light
waves beyond the
visible spectrum, the
invention of the X-ray
toward the end of the
century let physicians
study internal body
parts.

An original Brownie camera from 1900

At the end of the nineteenth century, photography's relationship to the body

changed with the invention and mass marketing of George Eastman's Kodak, the

26
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

: Introduction to Photography

first snapshot camera. The ease of use and mobility of this hand-held camera ‘you
push the button; we do the rest,’ boasted the ads made it an extension of o ne's own
body. Already a ‘point and shoot’ camera, this early Kodak allowed individuals to
take over many of the functions previously performed by professional
photographers. Ever-growing masses of people could now make portraits and
travel views of their own, with a camera handily carried anywhere. Within the
snapshot photographs that emerged, the body itself was recorded in increasingly
common and casual ways.

Also beginning at the end of the nineteenth century, mass reproduction of

photographs through new printing technologies expanded the audience for
documentary and journalistic photography, which depended for its claim to
veracity upon the imagined elision between the human eye and the mechanical
camera.

Photograph taken with a Brownie camera. Notice how the photograph is round, just like the
opening in the camera.

Almost from the time of its invention, photography included the production of
erotic imagery as a covert subset of its representations of the body. In the
nineteenth century as well as the twentieth, such imagery often finessed the fine
line between art and pornography. Nineteenth-century photographers of the
usu ally female) nude included among their customers both artists seeking escape
27
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

ntroduction to Photography

George Eastman, was only 24 years old when he set up his Eastman Dry Plate Company in
New York in 1880 and the first half-tone photograph appears in a daily newspaper. In 1888
he introduces the first Kodak camera that cost $25.00 a great deal of money then. It had a
20 foot roll of paper, enough for 100 pictures already put in it. To get the film developed you
had to return the camera to the Eastman Dry Plate Company in Rochester, New York. For
$10.00 they would develop the photographs, put more film in your camera and mail
everything back to you. One year later an improved Kodak camera with a roll of film instead
of a 20 foot roll of paper appears.
Mr. Eastman wanted everybody to be able to take photographs. He worked hard to develop a
camera that everybody could afford to buy. He did it in 1900! It was the Kodak Brownie box
roll-film camera. It cost $1.00! Now everyone can take photographs, not just professional
photographers.

from the expense and possible tedium of working from live models and a more
general public seeking this imagery for its potential eroticism. In the first third of
the twentieth century, many photographers mostly male) turned to the female
nude body as a subject that would align their work in this new medium with the
more traditional arts.

In the decades after World War II, photography of the body within the burgeoning
mass media largely reinforced gender differences the war had momentarily eased.
Fashion magazines returned in their imagery to a level of elegance and fancy dress
not seen since the 1920s. Advertising photography, now in its heyday, constructed
safely differing roles for men and women through images in which body posture,
facial expression, grooming, and dress figured prominently.

In the 1960s photography made evident the centrality of the body to radical
changes in society. While battlefield corpses had figured prominently in
photographs from the American Civil War, government censors successfully ruled
out any large-scale photographic representation of battle carnage until the Vietnam
War, when widespread disapproval of the war propelled photographers to defy
censors. Not only did journalistic pictures record the carnage brought to the body
by the war in Southeast Asia and the protest against it in Europe and America, but
artistic pictures seemed to reflect symbolically the psychic stress of world events
on otherwise normal bodies.

In the 1970s photography and the body intersected in new ways. No longer
considered a transparent record or means of abstraction, as it had been for much of
its history, photography was now seen as marking the extent to which the world is
28
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

troduction to Photography

mediated, coming to us already as a representation. Using photography this way,

artists explored the social and cultural bases of such attributes of the body as
gender, race, class, and sexual orientation. Artists used photography to document
artistic performances that used the body in a very physical way to redefine
experience. Feminist artists employed photography as a means to record and
comment upon transformations to which they submitted their bodies.

1.6. PHOTOGRAPHY TYPES

Black-and-white Photography

"Casting Winds" - this black & white displays the classic

monochrome look, as well as the use of simulated optical
filtering to enhance or diminish the rendering of certain
light wavelengths.

All photography was originally monochrome, or black-

and-white. Even after color film was readily available,
black-and-white photography continued to dominate for
decades, due to its lower cost and its "classic"
photographic look. In modern times, black-and-white has
mostly become a minority art form, and most
photography has become color photography.

Many photographers continue to produce some monochrome images. Some full

color digital images are processed using a variety of techniques to create black and
whites, and some cameras have even been produced to exclusively shoot
monochrome.

Color Photography

Color photography was explored beginning in the mid 1800s. Early experiments in
color could not fix the photograph and prevent the color from fading. The first
permanent color photo was taken in 1861 by the physicist James Clerk Maxwell.

Maxwell made contributions to the area of optics and color vision, being credited
with the discovery that color photographs could be formed using red, green, and
blue filters. He had the photographer Thomas Sutton photograph a tartan ribbon
three times, each time with a different color filter over the lens. The three images
were developed and then projected onto a screen with three different projectors,
29
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

troduction to Photography

each equipped with the same color filter used to take its image. When brought into
focus, the three images formed a full color image. The three photographic plates
now reside in a small museum at 14 India Street, Edinburgh, the house where
Maxwell was born.

One of the early methods of taking color photos was to use three cameras. Each
camera would have a color filter in front of the lens. This technique provides the
photographer with the three basic channels required to recreate a color image in a
darkroom or processing plant. Russian photographer Sergei Mikhailovich
Prokudin-Gorskii developed another technique, with three color plates taken in
quick succession.

Practical application of the technique was held back by the very limited color
response of early film; however, in the early 1900s, following the work of photo-
chemists such as H. W. Vogel, emulsions with adequate sensitivity to green and
red light at last became available.

The first color plate, Autochrome, invented by the French Lumière brothers,
reached the market in 1907. It was based on a 'screen-plate' filter made of dyed
dots of potato starch, and was the only color film on the market until German Agfa
introduced the similar Agfacolor in 1932. In 1935, American Kodak introduced the
first modern 'integrated tri -pack' color film, Kodachrome, based on three colored
emulsions. This was followed in 1936 by Agfa's Agfacolor Neue. Unlike the
Kodachrome tri-pack process the color couplers in Agfacolor Neue were integral
with the emulsion layers, which greatly simplified the film processing. Most
modern color films, except Kodachrome, are based on the Agfacolor Neue
technology. Instant color film was introduced by Polaroid in 1963.

Color photography may form images as a positive transparency, intended for use in
a slide projector or as color negatives, intended for use in creating positive color
enlargements on specially coated paper. The latter is now the most common form
of film non -digital color photography owing to the introduction of automated
photo printing equipment.

Digital Photography

Traditional photography burdened photographers working at remote locations

without easy access to processing facilities, and competition from television
pressured photographers to deliver images to newspapers with greater speed. Photo
journalists at remote locations often carried miniature photo labs and a means of

30
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

ntroduction to Photography

transmitting images through telephone lines. In 1981, Sony unveiled the first
consumer camera to use a charge-coupled device for imaging, eliminating the need
for film: the Sony Mavica. While the Mavica saved images to disk, the images
were displayed on television, and the camera was not fully digital. In 1990, Kodak
unveiled the DCS 100, the first commercially available digital camera. Although
it’s high cost precluded uses other than photojournalism and professional
photography, commercial digital photography was born.

Digital imaging uses an electronic image sensor to record the image as a set of
electronic data rather than as chemical changes on film. The primary difference
between digital and chemical photography is that analog photography resists
manipulation because it involves film, optics and photographic paper, while digital
imaging is a highly manipulative medium. This difference allows for a degree of
image post-processing that is comparatively difficult in film-based photography,
permitting different communicative potentials and applications.

Digital imaging is rapidly replacing film photography in consumer and

professional markets. Digital point-and-shoot cameras have become widespread
consumer products, outselling film cameras, and including new features such as
video and audio recording. Kodak announced in January 2004 that it would no
longer produce reloadable 35 mm cameras after the end of that year. This was
interpreted as a sign of the end of film photography. However, Kodak was at that
time a minor player in the reloadable film cameras market. In January 2006, Nikon
followed suit and announced that they will stop the production of all but two
models of their film cameras: the low-end Nikon FM10, and the high-end Nikon
F6. On May 25, 2006, Canon announced they will stop developing new film SLR
camera.

Because photography is popularly synonymous with truth "The camera doesn't

lie.", digital imaging has raised many ethical concerns. Many photojournalists
have declared they will not crop their pictures, or are forbidden from combining
elements of multiple photos to make "illustrations," passing them as real
photographs. Many courts will not accept digital images as evidence because of
their inherently manipulative nature. Today's technology has made picture editing
relatively easy for even the novice photographer.

1.6.1. Photography Styles

31
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

Introduction to Photography

Commercial Photography

The commercial photographic world can be broken down to:

 Advertising photography: photographs made to illustrate and usually sell a

service or product. These images are generally done with an advertising
agency, design firm or with an in-house corporate design team.
 Fashion and glamour photography: This type of photography usually
incorporates models. Fashion photography emphasizes the clothes or
product, glamour emphasizes the model. Glamour photography is popular in
advertising and in men's magazines. Models in glamour photography may be
nude, but this is not always the case.
 Crime Scene Photography: This type of photography consists of
photographing scenes of crime such at robberies and murders. A black and
white camera or an infrared camera may be used to capture specific details.
 Still life photography usually depicts inanimate subject matter, typically
commonplace objects which may be either natural or man-made.
 Food photography can be used for editorial, packaging or advertising use.
Food photography is similar to still life photography, but requires some
special skills.
 Editorial photography: photographs made to illustrate a story or idea
within the context of a magazine. These are usually assigned by the
magazine.
 Photojournalism: this can be considered a subset of editorial photography.
Photographs made in this context are accepted as a documentation of a news
story.
 Portrait and wedding photography: photographs made and sold directly to
the end user of the images.
 Fine art photography: photographs made to fulfill a vision, and reproduced
to be sold directly to the customer.
 Landscape photography: photographs of different locations made to be
sold to tourists as postcards

The market for photographic services demonstrates the aphorism "one picture is
worth a thousand words," which has an interesting basis in the history of
photography. Magazines and newspapers, companies putting up Web sites,
advertising agencies and other groups pay for photography.

Many people take photographs for self-fulfillment or for commercial purposes.

Organizations with a budget and a need for photography have several options: they

32
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

Introduction to Photography

can assign a member of the organization or hire someone to shoot exactly what
they want, run a public competition, or obtain rights to stock photographs.

Photography as an art form

During the twentieth century, both fine art photography and documentary
photography became accepted by the English-speaking art world and the gallery
system. In the United States, a handful of photographers, including Alfred
Stieglitz, Edward Steichen, John Szarkowski, and Edward Weston, spent their lives
advocating for photography as a fine art.

At first, fine art photographers tried to imitate painting styles. This movement is
called Pictorialism, often using soft focus for a dreamy, 'romantic' look. In
reaction to that, Weston, Ansel Adams, and others formed the f/64 Group to
advocate 'straight photography', the photograph as a sharply fo cused thing in
itself and not an imitation of something else.

The aesthetics of photography is a matter that continues to be discussed regularly,

especially in artistic circles. Many artists argued that photography was the
mechanical reproduction of an image. If photography is authentically art, then
photography in the context of art would need redefinition, such as determining
what component of a photograph makes it beautiful to the viewer. The controversy
began with the earliest images "written with light"; Nicéphore Niépce, Louis
Daguerre, and others among the very earliest photographers were met with
acclaim, but some questioned if their work met the definitions and purposes of art.

Social Implications of Photography

Photography is another development of media forms. It serves as scientific

evidence, conveyers of news, historical documents, works of art, and record of
family. Millions of people around the world own cameras and enjoy taking picture.
They just point the camera at a face, an object, a scene, or an event and take it.
Unlike other kind of media forms such as painting and writing photography
produced lifelike images much more efficiently and reliably. It offered an excellent
function of communication.

Just like other media technologies, photography extended the ability of

communication. Time and space are no longer important. People can be in touch
with someone a hundred year in the past and learn human histories from
photographs. Also, photographs furnish evidence. Something we hear about, but
doubt, seems proven when we are shown a photograph of it. A photograph passes
33
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

troduction to Photography

for incontrovertible proof that a given thing happened. For example, the use of
photography for crime investigation.

The industrialization has made photography become much easier to reproduce.

Moreover, the digitization of photography via all manner of computers- which can
reconstruct an image as fast as mouse running across a screen- is now undermining
that very reliability of the photograph as a mute, unbiased witness of reality. It is
important to say that this media technology allows everyone to be producers as
well as consumers at the same time.

UNIT 2. PHOTOJOURNALISM

Photojournalism is a particular form of journalism the collecting, editing, and

presenting of news material for publication or broadcast that creates images in
order to tell a news story. It is now usually understood to refer only to still images,
and in some cases to video used in broadcast journalism. Photojournalism can fall
under all subjects’ of photography but the image needs to be news wordy to end up
being published.

There are two types of photojournalism.

The first type is where an image is used to illustrate a story. Many feature
journalists work closely with photographers and commission them to produce
images that will be published with their articles. There is no limit to how many
images used. This is usually the photo editor decision.

The second is where an image is used to tell a story without any words. One single
image may be used or as many as ten images are often used in magazines. If you
can write - do so; it will be an advantage when you submit some images.

2.1. Role of Photojournalism

The best way to gain experience in photojournalism is to do it. Classroom study,

photo books, even making pictures cannot completely prepare one for the feeling
that comes when you accept a photographic assignment for money. There is a
tremendous sense of responsibility when someone is willing to put cash on your
ability to deliver a professional looking photograph. It can be almost devastating if
the first assignment is one that cannot easily be re-shot or if something should go
34
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

Introduction to Photography

wrong. But the feeling of achievement is equally great when you are able to deliver
a good print.

Many beginning photojournalists aspire to start at the top by submitting pictures to

the national magazines. If you can sell your work to them, fine as starting at the top
saves time. But in photography, as in any other business, most people find easier to
start at the bottom and advance as they gain experience. The main danger in
attempting to sell to the national magazines at the start is that you may become
discouraged and quit without ever really discovering whether or not you are suited
to a career in photojournalism.

Instead of trying to compete with the world’s top photographers for space in the
big magazines, you will profit more by turning your attention to your local
newspaper. These local publications offer the serious beginner a chance to try his
luck in photojournalism without leaving his home areas. The photographer on a
local newspaper is required to shoot every sort of picture imaginable from news
and sports to fashion and architecture.

There are many qualities that go into the making of a successful photographer.
Most virtues such as determination, imagination and perseverance are the key to
success. Anyone who seriously has these qualities and vision can be competent and
excel in the field of photojournalism. The minute a photojournalist sees his subject,
he knows from past experience what exposure, shutter speed, and type of lighting
he should use.

One of the most important qualities of a photojournalist is his ability to react

quickly when he comes along a scene that may be news wordy.

List items, which may be news wordy, are Impact pictures, Pictures of the
Environment People, New buildings.

If you are serious about photojournalism build a collection of images from your
area. Many of these pictures will not be immediate news wordy but may be news
wordy down the road. Take pictures of all the factories and buildings in the area.
Someday a factory may close and you may not be able to get to the scene. Also
have plenty pictures of local businessmen and politicians.

Some photojournalists are lucky enough to get assignments from newspapers or

magazines, most have to follow or find the news to make a living. For those
showing still photographs accurate, correctly spelled caption information is still
considered a must. This may go away as more projects are shown in a multimedia
35
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

Introduction to Photography

environment. However for the foreseeable future hiring editors want clear, clean,
communicative captions that are spell checked and grammar checked.

The world of digital photography has made the work of the photojournalist a lot
easier. Being able to view, scan and e-mail images to a publisher instantly is a
massive advantage.

The work of a photojournalist can be extremely harsh - taken pictures in all kinds
of extreme conditions and in very dangerous situations. Many photojournalists die
each year in war zones and at different natural disasters around the world.

We live in a world, where today’s news is forgotten tomorrow and the need to get
the images quickly to the publisher is so important. If you have images that are
news wordy don’t delay sending them to a news agency or publisher. They won’t
stay in the news very long.

What qualities are most important for those who want to pursue such a
career?

 A desire to be “out in the world”: The storytelling photographers do take

them into the community. That could be the local community where a
photographer makes his or her home. It could also be the world community.
The options are endless, depending on how far a field the photographer
wants to work. But the key is that the storytelling photojournalists do,
whatever tools they choose to use, are not at home in their studio or
apartment. The work is out in the world with people. Unlike the world of
fine art where the aim is for the photographer to tell their story to the world,
in photojournalism the photographer/storyteller concentrates on the story of
other people.
 Technical proficiency: Whether one is a documentary filmmaker, a
multimedia storyteller or still photography photojournalist, the tools today
consist of electronic cameras and computers. Film and videotape are gone.
Pictures are captured on digital media. The darkroom is gone. Today
computers serve as the digital darkroom and as video editing machines.
Photographers need to be willing to learn the essentials, buy the key gear
they need, and then keep up with the evolving technological changes. New
software, improved cameras, hard drives and computers come flying at
working pros with increasing speed requiring upgrades and significant
additional investment at least every 18 months, probably every 12 months.

36
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

Introduction to Photography

 Understanding of and a commitment to ethical standards: With the vast

degree of image manipulation visible in advertising, television commercials
and the special effects in movies, it is easy to assume “anything goes” no
matter which part of the visual world one works in today. Such is not the
case for the photojournalist. Photographers who cover the world and its
stories are much more in the mode of, “Record what you see, present what
you saw.” Yes, pictures and video are adjusted electronically to make this
plain to the viewer. But the concept of not manipulating images to alter their
meaning is still in play for the modern photojournalist.
 Persistence: This comes from a drive to get the story. Photojournalists, like
writing journalists, are often told “no”. The most successful journalists just
don’t accept the most recent ‘no’ as the final answer. The best journalists
press on without being obnoxious about it and just continue to pursue the
story with the next phone call, the next request for an interview.

This same persistence comes into play when it comes to breaking into the business
and then once in, to advancing up the ladder. Moving from one publication to
another, one company to another or climbing the ranks to the “better” publications
or video outlets takes time, energy and often, repeated visits to show your work.

2.2. Importance of Photojournalism

Photojournalism is an important aspect to the news media. For most people who
read newspapers or watch the news, it is the photographs that summarize what has
been written. This makes newspaper reading and news reporting much more
effective as now one can relate the news to real life scenes and understand fully
what it must be like to be in that actual place at that actual time. This applies
especially for people who are not too fond of reading the newspaper or watching
the news. For such people, it is the pictures that convey the news.

Photojournalism is a type of journalism that depends on images to tell a story. It is

not classical photography as the pictures taken are mostly or entirely related to a
news story or event. They are not usually for entertainment or appreciation but
more for conveyance of a news event. These images have to be relevant to society,
informative and should be able to convey what is happening in the world. The
images should also possess an objective quality. It is very important that the
photograph is relevant to the context of the story being reported.

Photojournalism has reached the same status as all other forms of journalism. A
status as a medium which is part of the daily stream of information and to which

37
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

: Introduction to Photography

readers have a critical attitude. Photojournalism has not become more or less
credible, just as journalism has not become more or less credible. Photojournalists
must take on the role of storytelling rather than seeing themselves as illustrators of
articles.

Greater demands are made on photojournalists but also on other users of pictures
such as journalists, editorial assistants, and editors. Photojournalists are trying to
get attention in an increasingly visually oriented environment and therefore
photojournalists must make use of visual storytelling techniques to become better
storytellers. Every journalistic photograph should tell its own story. The portrait
where the eyes catch the reader and tell stories about the person's life. The strange
light over a natural landscape. Or the funny moment from everyday life which
stimulates the reader's memory.

All photographic stories should be based on a photographic angle which creates

identification for the reader. Makes the reader feel surprised, emotional, or just
stimulated to think about something. That is the strength of the photograph! The
story is always the most important – the main contents. The storytelling tools
frame the photograph in ways that underpin and strengthen the contents. A well
composed photograph that makes good use of its mode of expression to fit the
story is more effective and makes a greater impression on the reader. It
communicates better.

Photographs do not provide readers with answers. A photograph will not tell you
why a child is crying. Therefore it is doubly important that the written and the
photographic story complement each other and use each others' strengths. The
strength of photojournalism lies in the ability to communicate feelings and the
immediate reaction from readers. Written journalism gives you the answers to who,
what and why. The photojournalist must reflect on his and the journalist's story
and the best way to express it visually. The means and the options must be
considered and a common angle determined, so the final story provides the reader
with information as well as experiences.

2.3. Elements of Photography

Photography gained the interest of many scientists and artists from its inception.
Scientists have used photography to record and study movements, such as
Eadweard Muybridge's study of human and animal locomotion in 1887. Artists are
equally interested by these aspects but also try to explore avenues other than the
photo-mechanical representation of reality, such as the pictorialist movement.
38
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

Introduction to Photography

Military, police and security forces use photography for surveillance, recognition
and data storage. Photography is used to preserve memories of favorites and as a
source of entertainment.

In its simplest definition, a composition is a combination, or arrangement, of

elements. A photographic composition is the arrangement of visual elements and
as such is the product of a photographer's vision and their skill in seeing,
identifying, arranging, and framing the finished image. This is a clearly distinct
skill from those necessary to successfully operate a camera or calculate exposure.

In general, good pictures result from careful attention to some basic elements of
composition, together with appropriate lighting and an interesting subject. There is,
however, no "right" way to take a picture. Three photographers recording the same
scene may create equally appealing photographs with entirely different
composition.

2.4. Point of Interest

Identify a primary point of interest before taking the picture. When you’ve
determined which area is the most important to you, you can compose to
emphasize it. Studying advertising photographs is a good way to get acquainted
with emphasis in composition.

39
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

Introduction to Photography

Simplicity
Be sure that only the things you want the viewer to see appear in the picture. If
there are numerous objects cluttering up the background, your message will be
lost. If you can’t find an angle or framing to isolate your subject, consider using
depth of field control to keep the background out of focus.

Contrast
A light subject will have more impact if placed against a dark background and vice
versa. Contrasting colors may be used for emphasis, but can become distracting if
not considered carefully.

Balance
Generally, asymmetric or informal balance is considered more pleasing in a
photograph than symmetric formal balance. In other words, placing the main
subject off-center and balancing the "weight" with other objects smaller or lower
impact will be more effective than placing the subject in the center.

Framing
A "frame" in a photograph is something in the foreground that leads you into the
picture or gives you a sense of where the viewer is. For example, a branch and
some leaves framing a shot of rolling hills and a valley, or the edge of an imposing
rock face leading into a shot of a canyon. Framing can usually improve a picture.
The "frame" doesn’t need to be sharply focused. In fact if it is too sharply detailed,
it could be a distraction.

Viewpoint
You can often change a picture dramatically by moving the camera up or down or,
stepping to one side. One of the best ways to come up with a prize-winning
photograph is to find an "unusual" point of view.

Direction of Movement
When the subject is capable of movement, such as an animal or person, it is best to
leave space in front of the subject so it appears to be moving into, rather than out
of, the photograph.

Diagonals
Linear elements such as roads, waterways, and fences placed diagonally are
generally perceived as more dynamic than horizontals.

40
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

: Introduction to Photography

2.5. Rule of Thirds

Last, but not least, is something called the "rule of thirds." This is a principle
taught in graphic design and photography and is based on the theory that the eye
goes naturally to a point about two-thirds up the page. Also, by visually dividing
the image into thirds either vertically or horizontally you achieve the informal or
asymmetric balance mentioned above.

Although there are many ways a photograph can be composed effectively by

basing it on the use of "thirds," the most common example is the placement of the
horizon line in landscape photography. If the area of interest is land or water, the
horizon line will usually be two-thirds up from the bottom. On the other hand, if
the sky is the area of emphasis, the horizon line may be one-third up from the
bottom, leaving the sky to occupy the top two-thirds.

2.6. Role of Visualizations

It has been said that a really good photographer can make a picture with a pinhole
camera made from a shoe box. Currently, a good photographer can make a good
image of anything that he can see. But seeing requires an "eye." One has to "see"
the picture before the shutter is released. Not everyone sees the subject in the same
way, and not everyone can see the picture. But most people can learn to "see"
through training and experience. It is a slow process that has its own reward.

The point in "seeing" is well illustrated when we come upon an interesting subject.
The immediate reaction is to make several exposures on the spot. But it is far better
to pause and examine the subject from different points of view, from different
angles, and to walk around it if it is not too big or at least to view it over 180
degrees.

Observe the lighting as you change positions; observe the foreground, the
background, and the composition. Use a punched out readymount for framing, and
by moving it back and forth you will know how long a lens you need. This is
where the zoom lens is better since you can fill the frame exactly without moving.
Then, with the camera on a tripod, make your exposure. Do not hand hold; the best
lens will not produce a critically sharp image if there is the slightest movement of
the camera.

How many slides of the same subject do you need? Two or three at the most if they
are intended for competition. It is quality, not quantity that counts. The latter is a
waste of film. It has been heard about people bragging that they shot 60 rolls of

41
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

Introduction to Photography

film on a 12-day trip. That is five rolls per day, 180 exposures. Certainly there
were not 180 subjects; so many shots had to be made of each subject. It is true that
we are often advised to take lots of film, twice as much as we think we need. But
that does not mean that we should use all of it. It is simply an insurance that we do
not run out of film.

Bracketing is good insurance for the best results in difficult lighting situations, but
hardly necessary for everything. However, it is good photography to make more
than one shot of a subject from different angles and at different image sizes with a
zoom lens.

What about indoor workshops and home setups where the photographer has
complete control over everything? Visualization plays an important part in still
life photography as well. We usually visualize the image before setting up the
subject and photographing it. Many great photographs have been made this way.
Another technique is to create a subject from workshop materials.

Visualization means to form a mental image. Please note that there is no such
word as previsualization. When you have complete control there is no need to
bracket exposures. To do so shows uncertainty of technique.

The art of seeing extends also to competition, both in the camera club and in other
competitions, including international exhibitions, where some judges are long on
"rules" and short on creativity; long on triteness; short on constructive criticism
and weak on aesthetics. Have you heard a judge say "I don't know what this is"
when an abstract, creative image appears on the screen, such as crystals? He/she is
at a loss for words. At least the judge could comment on compositional elements
such as line, color and mass. New concepts appear from time to time and represent
progress. We must be on the alert for them and be objective and free from bias.

Cameras at the top of the line are expensive precision instruments for both
advanced amateur and professional photographers. Such cameras should not be
bought for status symbols. When all is said and done about photography, precision
cameras are still only sophisticated tools. Less expensive cameras can produce
equally good photographs for the average worker. A skillful, creative and
aesthetic person is required in order to utilize the camera's features to full
advantage. Simply pointing and shooting, letting the camera do the rest
automatically often does not produce prize winning images. The camera does not
think, but is the tool of the thinking photographer who can formulate in his/her
mind a superior image.

42
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

ntroduction to Photography

Photography is a language. Like the written or spoken word, photography has its
own vocabulary and its own grammar. Photography might be called an art of
selection. A photographer works with a vocabulary made up of the visual elements
that exist all around us. Anything we see can be a visual element.

The grammar of photography is the order in which visual elements are selected,
isolated, related to other elements, or otherwise emphasized in a photograph. The
choice and arrangement of visual elements are techniques a photographer uses to
communicate an idea.

2.7. PHOTOGRAPHER’S JARGON

Anyone may have problems and can mistakes. So what are these jargons faced by
new photographer, which causes them to make mistakes? Most of them are usually
caused by lack of concentration.

1 Blurry Pictures : Blurry photos are usually the result of camera shake. The
simplest way to remedy this problem is to buy and use a good, sturdy tripod. If you
can't shoot with a tripod, remember to use a faster ISO on digital cameras or faster
film on film cameras. This allows you to increase your shutter speed. The faster the
shutter speed, the less likely you are to suffer from camera shake.

2 Contrast Pictures : These come from high contrast lighting situations. Learn to
recognize them. Photographing in the forest on a sunny day is an example of a high
contrast situation. Photographing at noon on a bright, sunny day is a high contrast
situation.

Contrast can be mitigated with diffusers and fill-flash, depending on the

circumstances. Usually the best solution is to wait for better conditions. Another
trick is to shoot with low contrast film. Kodak's B&W Portra 400 is a good film to
use in high contrast situations.

3 Undere xposed Pictures prints : Underexposure often results from letting the
camera make all the exposure decisions. Remember, the camera's meter wants
everything to be medium or gray. If you do use the auto exposure functions, one
common mistake comes from using auto exposure compensation and then
forgetting you've done so. Make sure that you get enough light into the scene
before you press the shutter. With print film, it's better to overexpose than
underexpose, so when you bracket, do it to the high side, i.e., plus one stop, plus
two stops.

43
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

Introduction to Photography

4 Overexposed Pictures slides : Like underexposure, overexposure can result

from letting your camera make all the decisions. With slide film, overexposure
means blown out highlights and that means lost information. Basing your exposure
on shaded or dark areas and letting the camera set the exposure is a formula for
overexposed slides. Look for something medium to meter from or, better yet, meter
the highlights. Just make sure your highlights won't be more than two and one half
2 ½ stops lighter than medium.

5 Red Eye : This is a common problem resulting from

on-camera flash. Move your flash off- axis. Use a flash
bracket and connecting cord. You can also bounce the
flash off a ceiling or wall. You can also use remote flash
triggers to fire a flash that is mounted on a stand or
anywhere else, as long as it is not on camera.

Red Eye→

6 Lens Flare : Flare occurs when direct light hits the

front element of the lens and light starts bouncing
around inside the lens. This causes the light to reflect off all the elements. This can
reduce contrast and make your pictures look "hazy". Most commonly, it results in a
series of round highlights across your image. Be sure to use a lens hood to help
prevent this. Sometimes you'll need more than a lens hood. Try using your hand or
a hat to shade the lens. If someone is with you, ask him or her to stand so that they
cast a shadow on the lens. Sometimes it's hard to detect lens flare when looking
through the viewfinder; using your depth of field preview button will make this
easier.

7 Obstruction : Be on the lookout for intruders trying to make their way in to your
pictures. Branches, out of focus grass blades, telephone wires; all these and more
can act as distractions.

Most viewfinders show only about 92-95% of the image. Keep that in mind while
photographing. You may want to try shifting your camera around to see what's at
the edges.

Some intruders are hard to see in the viewfinder simply because they're too close
and not in focus. When you get your pictures back you see things you didn't see
before. Remember, you're looking through your lens at its widest aperture, thus the
shallowest depth of field. Some things won't be in focus. Use your preview button

44
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

: Introduction to Photography

and you'll see any intruders. If you don't have a preview button, try focusing
throughout the range of your lens to see what may show up.

8 Vignetti ng: This is what happens when items encroach on the outside edges of
your camera lens' field of view. It's often caused by stacking filters, or by adding
lens hoods to lenses that have filters attached. Other accessories, like filter holders,
can also cause vignetting. If your viewfinder shows less than 100%, you may not
be able to see this happening. Run some tests. Put on all the different filter/hood
combinations you can think of and photograph a blank wall.

9 Color Casts ; Color casts can result from using the wrong film, outdated or
spoiled film or shooting in deep shade.

If you use daylight-balanced film like Velvia or Ektachrome Elite and shoot
indoors, you could get some very strange results. Under tungsten lighting, regular
lamplight, you'll end up with a very warm colorcast. If you're shooting under
fluorescent light, you'll see a greenish cast.

If the problem is the wrong film, the solution is to use a color-correcting filter. For
tungsten, use a filter in the 80 series. These filters are blue and will balance out the
yellow of tungsten light. For fluorescent, use an FL filter. If you're using flash
indoors as your only source of light, you shouldn't have a color-cast.

The other solution is to use the correct film. Tungsten balanced film is made for
use under tungsten lighting and will result in the correct colors being recorded.
Shooting in the shade on a sunny day will result is a bluish cast. After all, the
predominant light source is the blue sky. Use a filter in the 81 series. These
yellowish filters will balance out the blue.

10 Tilted Horizons : Off-center or tilted horizons are probably the most common
mistake that we all make and there are several ways to quickly solve this problem.
Our favorite is to use a focusing screen with a grid etched into it. These are
available for many cameras; check your manual. Two cameras, the Nikon N80 and
the Nikon D100, even have grid screens that you can turn on or off as a custom
function.

Another solution is to simply step back and see if your camera looks level to the
world. Then take another look through the viewfinder. Sometimes we need to
approach the viewfinder from an angle because of the camera position. Taking
another look through the viewfinder with your head level will help too.

45
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

Introduction to Photography

There are times, however, when your camera may be level but the horizon will
appear tilted. This apparent tilting results from receding shorelines; the closer parts
of the shoreline are lower in the frame. Just be aware of this phenomenon so you
can decide if it's something that will be a distraction or not.

Conclusion-Whether you are a seasoned photographer or a new shooter, these ten

problems can creep up on you. So review this list often and make a mental
checklist to use every time you photograph. You will notice an immediate increase
in the quality of your images

PHOTOGRAPHIC EQUIPMENT

2.8. Choice of Camera

A good photographer can take good pictures with any camera. An 8" X 10" view
camera combines the maximum in image control with the minimum in portability.
A 35 mm camera has tremendous mobility at the expense of image size. The 120
cameras stand in the middle. They offer improvement of the worst features of each
without equaling the best features of either. Since more photographers specialize in
certain types of photography, the camera they use most is the one that is best suited
to the assignments they most often get. But obviously the more equipment you
have to choose from, the closer you can come to meeting the exact requirements of
each assignment.

The photojournalist’s most valuable ally in his constant search for new or different
pictures is his own imagination, but there are times when a new piece of equipment
can produce show-stopping pictures by presenting tired subject in an entirely new
perspective or even by showing us something we have never seen before. Examples
include underwater camera housings, the wide angle Nikon Fisheye lens, and the
remote control devices that permit cameras to be attached to the outside of airplanes
in flight and other places where they have never been before. Yet this new
equipment is worthless without the imagination of a creative photographer.

The amount of time and money that a publication is willing to allow its
photographers to spend on their photographs will largely determine the quality of
the pictures that appear in that publication. It will also help to determine the type
and amount of equipment the photographer will use in covering his assignments.

Before selecting a camera the photographer must decide which film size he/she is
going to use. Ten years ago all newspaper photographers used 4" X 5" sheet film.

46
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

: Introduction to Photography

A speed graphic with a dozen 4" X 5" film holders weights over ten pounds,
whereas a 120 or 35 mm camera with two rolls of film weights less than one-third
as much and occupies one-third the space. The smaller cameras are also faster and
easier to operate. The old 4" X 5" press camera is probably the most complex
camera that one will ever encounter. To make an exposure the photographer must
insert the film holder, pull the slide, cock the shutter, trip the shutter, and insert the
slide. On smaller cameras you need only press the button and advance the film.

2.9. The Role Film and the Cut Film: with the proper lab equipment there is little
time difference between the proper rolls film and cut film. When it was pointed out
that a sheet of 4" X 5" cost around 11 as opposed to 50 for a 12 exposure roll of 120
film 4 exposures on the 120 roll with the change from the 4" X 5" film size, the
question arose whether to go to 120 or 35 mm. Perhaps one must have seen the ads
that show the 22 staff photographers of the Daily News or the staffers with 35 mm
Nikons. Many large papers have chosen the 35 mm film size for the majority of
their work. The ease and speed of operation, together with the tremendous variety
of equipment available in 35 mm are not found in any other film size. For the
purpose of the beginning in photojournalism, however, a camera that uses 120 film
is preferred.

Darkroom: some of the largest metropolitan papers have darkrooms equipped to

develop film to a standard gamma and proof the negatives in minutes, completely
automatically. But the lab that one may encounter at any local newspaper could be
anything from a converted broom closet to a modern up to-date darkroom. It may be
set up for 35 mm, but it will probably be better equipped to handle 120 film.

The Camera for Stills: most small newspapers use cameras that produce a 2-1/4"
X 2-1/4" negative on 120 film. This negative size has the advantage of being
obtainable for a variety of cameras, many of which are relatively low in cost and
produce high quality negatives. The most popular type of 2-1/4" X 2-1/4" camera is
the twin-lens reflex. This includes the Rolleiflex, Yachica and Minolta. All are
widely used in newspaper work. One more type of camera is making its appearance.
This is a smaller press-type camera using either roll film or cut film in a 2-1/4" X 2-
1/4" or 2-1/4" X 3-1/4" negative size.

All these cameras are normally expected to give good service and last for several
years if they are given proper care. Too often reporters bring their cameras into the
47
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

Introduction to Photography

lab complaining about fuzzy pictures, scratches on their negatives, and sluggish
shutters. Their cameras have been dropped in the first and bounced around in car
trunks. They are filthy inside and out. The lenses are covered with dust,
fingerprints, and even eatable stuffs and their owners wonder why they don’t work
properly. Some sort of lighting equipment is absolutely essential for the news
photographer. Most newsmen use small, single-unit electronic strobe lights, dozens
of which are in the market.

Strobes and Flashbulbs: these small strobes are compact and easy to use, and they
give enough light for most photographic situations. They do not, however, have
sufficient power to cover every situation. For the beginner a professional flashgun
such as the three-cell Graflite unit with a five-inch reflector is better. It cells for
with a No. 5 flashbulb; this flashgun puts out four to six times as much light as most
small strobes.

Larger strobes with a separate power pack are available at moderate prices. These
are heavier and more bulky than the single-unit strobes, but most of them give more
light.

The Flashgun: although the initial cost of a flashgun is much lower than that of a
strobe unit, the cost of the flashbulbs gradually raises the over-all cost. But you
would still have to use nearly 600 No. 5 bulbs before the cost of a flashgun and
bulbs would equal the cost of a small electronic strobe. By that time you should
have gained enough experience to decide on the type of lighting equipment that is
best suited to your needs.

48
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

Introduction to Photography

2.10.UNIT 3. Composition

Composition, the act of

composing the image in the
viewfinder, is a visual process
of organizing the elements and
individual details of a scene into
a balanced and pleasing
arrangement. Because what one-
person finds pleasing, someone
else will not, composition is
largely a matter of personal
taste.

There is no right or wrong

composition in photography. A
composition that conveys a
photographer's intended
meaning is an effective one. A
composition that doesn't or that
confuses the viewer is not.
Composition in photography
is all about arranging the
elements in your photos for
maximum impact.

In our modern world of automatic cameras, which focus for us and adjust the
exposure in an ever more perfect way most of the time), the biggest difference
between a good photograph and a mediocre one is the composition.

In every photograph we take, we can decide where the boundaries of that photo
will be, called the cropping. We can also choose the viewpoint. If we are taking
pictures of people or movable objects then, often, we also have the opportunity to
arrange them into the shapes we want.

If you are shooting landscapes or other immovable objects then you must compose
the picture by moving yourself and deciding where to place the points of interest
in your picture.

49
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

Introduction to Photography

There are various compositional rules, which will help to compose pleasing
pictures; however, you will often find that a really striking picture will show a
blatant disregard for the rules. Once you are aware of the rules then break them as
often as you want but, at least, know you are breaking them and why.

Rule of Thirds

Landscape photographers are particularly fond of this one, but it works well for
many types of subjects. The rule of thirds simply says that, instead of placing the
main focus of interest in the center of the frame, which gets a little boring, that you
look to position it on an intersection of the thirds.

Using Diagonals

Setting your subject matter on a diagonal will almost always make for a more
dynamic picture. Even if this is an invisible diagonal that draws your eye between
two points. Move around the subject and look for a diagonal. The most common
mistake people make when taking pictures is not filling the frame with the subject.
If it's a photo of granny waving from the doorstep, let's just see granny and the
door, not half the houses in the street with a small granny shaped blob in the
middle. The culprit for this phenomenon is the focusing aid in the center of the
viewfinder.

Most cameras have some sort of circle or rectangle etched onto the glass and we
are inclined to think, in our less thoughtful moments, that this is the whole picture
area. Take a moment to glance around the viewfinder to see what you have got at
the edges and especially in the corners. Watch out for clutter in the background,
that lamppost growing out of granny's head. Make sure that everything in the
viewfinder is there because you want it to be.

Landscape or Portrait

A lot of people never, ever turn their camera on its side and shoot an upright
picture. It can be a little awkward to hold until you get used to it but, what a
difference it can make to the picture. If you are taking a picture of one person then
it is essential to shoot upright, you waste so much of the picture area at the sides if
you don't.

50
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

Introduction to Photography

Viewpoint

Selecting your viewpoint, the position from which you photograph the subject, is a
very important part of composition and one that some people pay very little
attention to. When taking a photo of a group of friends, how often do you move
around the group looking for the best angle?

The first, most obvious difference between one viewpoint and another is the
background. If you are photographing a subject that cannot easily be moved, the
only way to change what is in the background is to choose a different viewpoint.

The subject itself can look quite different viewed from different angles. Photos can
be made to take on a whole new dynamic by selecting an extreme angle of view.
Shoot a lot of pictures, especially sports shots, laying down, getting the camera as
close to the ground as possible.

Also the perspective can change quite drastically, especially with wider angled
lenses. If you photograph a person full length with a wide-angle lens from a
standing position, their head will be too big in proportion to the rest of their body.
If, on the other hand, you kneel down and shoot the same picture from waist
height, you will see that the whole picture is better proportioned.

When shooting outdoors, the viewpoint you choose also affects how the light from
the sun falls on your subject.

There are 3 basic ways to arrange the elements within your composition.

 Physically move objects relative to each other. Only really works with still
life photography.
 Tell people to move relative to each other or other objects. Only works with
people who can hear you.
 Move! Usually the most effective way to control your composition is to alter
your viewpoint.

"There are no rules for good photographs, there are only good photographs."

2.11. CAMERAS AND PHOTO

51
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

: Introduction to Photography

2.11.1.Shutter Speed

Shutter Speed, measured in seconds, refers to the length of time that the camera’s
shutter remains open to let light in through the lens to record a given image onto
the film.

The standard shutter speed that a photographer generally uses on a sunny day is
1/125th of a second. A photographer will adjust the shutter speed according to a
few of the following factors:

 Aperture opening
 Available light in the scene
 Desired effect
 Film Speed

The shutter speed setting affects both the light exposure to the film and the way
movement is rendered in the resulting photo. Shorter shutter speeds meaning the
shutter opens and closes at a faster rate) are typically used for fast moving objects
to quickly freeze them within the frame. Conversely, longer shutter speeds tend to
be used in scenes of low lighting, still objects or if the photographer wants to
create an artistic blur.

A rule of thumb for knowing how to set shutter speeds is that the larger the
aperture setting, the faster the shutter speed should be set to affect the same level
of light exposure.

2.11.2. Film Format

Film Format refers to the various dimensions of film used to take photographs. The
characteristic that film format primarily describes is the size of the film and the
type of camera that uses the given film. Film format can be standard size 35 mm,
medium format between 35 mm and 4 ″ x 5″ or large format 4″ x 5″ or larger).

Expert photographers tend to use medium format film due to the fact that it
provides a higher resolution and, therefore, greater detail in the resulting printed
photo. Similarly, medium format film allows a photographer to manipulate the
final print’s size, making it either bigger or smaller without affecting the quality or
making it grainier.

52
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

ntroduction to Photography

While the large film format offers the

highest resolution, it doesn’t allow for
the same manipulation that the
medium format does. If a
photographer tries to change the print
size in the large format film, the photo
will suffer from graininess.

However, medium format film is not

only more expensive and less
available; it also requires special film
developing. Generally, only
professional developers or specialty
photo shops will have the capability to
develop medium format film. Another
drawback to medium format film is
the fact that it offers fewer shots per
roll usually only 12 to 16 exposures,
versus 24 to 27 on other film formats.

Cameras: Digital, 35mm and APS Cameras

The most striking difference among digital, 35mm and APS cameras is the way
that each camera stores images.

APS Advanced Photo System and 35mm cameras whether standard or

disposable use rolls of film that are usually limited to 24 or 36 shots.
Consequently, pictures taken with these cameras have to be processed before the
photographer can see their images.

However, digital cameras store images in a different manner. Instead of using use
film, digital cameras record images on a built in chip, disk or memory card. This
gives you the ability to store hundreds of pictures at a time!

2.11.3. Basics of Film Speed

With film, you shoot at one film speed, or ISO a number established by the
International Organization for Standardization. The higher the speed of the film,
the more sensitive the film is to light, meaning the film needs less light exposure it
need to capture an image. For example, 100 speed film is good for outdoor shots in
good light, while 400 speed film is better for indoor and action shots.
53
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

Introduction to Photography

While digital cameras do not use film, many mid to high-end cameras do allow you
to adjust the film speed by using a built in sensor. However, the process has to be
repeated for each shot to match the changing light conditions.

One of the advantages of an APS camera is the option of removing a roll of film
before finishing it. This allows you to use the appropriate speed film for the
conditions. An unfinished roll can be returned to the camera and advanced to the
next empty frame. The same isn’t true for 35mm cameras, in which the entire roll
needs to be used before it’s taken out of the camera. Taking it out before will ruin
the roll.

Camera Resolution

A digital image is made up tiny dots called pixels. The term “resolution,” when
used to describe a digital camera refers to the size of the digital image the camera
produces. This number is usually expressed in terms of “mega pixels” or how
many million pixels it can record in a single image. A camera with more mega
pixels can produce a larger and higher resolution image of considerably better
quality than a camera with fewer mega pixels.

Traditional 35mm and APS film has a higher resolution than most of today’s
digital cameras. The photographs produced by these cameras can be enlarged,
resulting in high quality photos at sizes as large as 20×24 inches. On the other
hand, digital cameras are limited to picture size based on the number of mega
pixels. For example, a 2-megapixel camera will produce images equivalent to
35mm quality at both 4×6 inches and 5×7 inches.

2.11.4 Processing Your Photos

When using a digital camera, the technology allows you to shoot more pictures and
immediately delete pictures you don’t want. Similarly, they also allow you to
download and transfer photos through the Internet. When processing digital
photos, the digital images from these cameras can be transferred to your computer,
allowing you to print photos from the comfort of your home computer without ever
going to the photo lab.

However, while high-end digital cameras are often very expensive, they allow you
to process your photos are home by printing them your digital printer. Although
they can record a number of pictures on their memory cards, the high-resolution
pictures take up a lot of space on your memory card. Similarly, the file size of

54
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

Introduction to Photography

these images means that high-resolution images can’t be easily sent through e-
mail.

Developing 35mm film is very easy and simply involves removing the film
canister and dropping it off at the photo lab where the professionals take care of the
developing. However, if you want to develop the film in your darkroom, the film
must undergo a series of chemical baths and processing with an enlarger. A major
drawback to 35mm is the cost per roll in addition to the processing fees.

APS Format Bonus

Probably the most attractive feature of an APS camera is that it offers the option of
selecting the format of a picture when it’s taken: classic, horizontal or panoramic.
Consequently, the photographer can more effectively manipulate his shots. In
addition, if you want to change the format of the picture after your film has been
developed, all you have to do is ask your photo processor to make the change.

2.12 PHOTO EDITING

Photo editing is an art and craft for effective communication with the help of
journalistic photographs by selection, cropping, enlarging blowing up, reducing,

55
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

Introduction to Photography

sizing, retouching, reproduction, insetting, grouping, clubbing, etc for appeal

presentation.

Selection: selection of a photo is an extremely important job, as the valuable space

available in the newspaper should in no way, be wasted. The selected photograph
should be able to depict a scene and to follow the old slogan that ‘a picture speaks
more than a thousand words’. If the picture provided by the photographer, provides
nothing to the understanding of the reader, it should be rejected.

In some pictures, the emotions are very well captured by the photographer and in
some both the pictures and words will provide perfect combination. A creative and
capable picture editor, experienced in visual communication, provides necessary
guidance for successful use of pictures. Small and local newspapers usually turn to
the photographer for advice, but mostly it is the news editor or copy editor who
makes the decision.

Selection procedure may differ from newspaper to newspaper. Some allow the
photographer to make the decision of selecting the photos and the pictures
submitted by him/her are considered for publication. Some newspaper work
closely both with the photo editor and the photographer to make the best
selections.

Cropping: this process involves the cutting of the unwanted part of a photograph.
Earlier the photographs provided by the photographers were either selected or
completely rejected but these days a photographer has the tools to select the
relevant content of a photo while the rest is cropped off.

Enlarging: also called as blowing up, involves the procedure of enlarging a

photograph. Some photos are very small in size, but of great relevance and value to
the news story. Such photos need to be enlarged or blown-up.

Reducing: it’s just the opposite of enlarging. Both the newspapers and the
magazines run into space crisis and at these times some photographs needs to be
reduced in size so as to be accommodated on the page. Reducing will mostly
depend on the relevance, importance and degree of news value.

Sizing: the sizing of a picture should be preferably determined by the value of the
photograph and not by the space available. Many a times, the newspaper editor
tries to reduce a photograph to fit a space and destroy the impact of the photo in the

56
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

Introduction to Photography

process. It is obvious that a photograph of about 10 people will be ineffective in a

two-column photo and thus this photo will need at least three columns.

The biggest danger while sizing a photo is to make it appear too small. A skillful
and rational photo editor will opt for a three-column photo if given a choice
between two columns and three-column space.

Sizing of any picture is very significant job, but sizing of pictures on multi-
photograph packages is especially significant. In such packages, one photograph
should be dominant. These multiple pictures allow the photo editor a lot of
flexibility that may not be available in single-photo situations. Dramatic size
contrast is an effective device to use in multi-picture packages. A photo editor
trained in visual communication understands the usefulness of reversing normal
sizing patterns for added impact.

Retouching: it is a process of toning down or eliminating extraneous distractions

within the frame. Retouching can improve some pictures. It can be accomplished
with an airbrush, an instrument that applies a liquid pigment to a surface by means
of compressed air. Retouching can also be done by brushing on a retouching liquid
or paste or by using retouching pencils of varying colours.

Retouching should be done so minutely and meticulously that the meaning and
content of the picture are not changed. Retouching a picture to change its meaning
is unethical as changing a direct quotation to alter the meaning of a speech.

Reproduction: there are four main mechanical processes of reproduction. These

processes are 1 metal engraining 2 plastic plates 3 screened positives 4
windows and photo negatives.

Insetting: insetting is an innovative and creative way of photojournalism. For

example, there was some fatal incident at a particular city. The people affected by
the incident are shown in the picture. At the same time, a map of the city is inserted
in the picture indicating where that particular city is located in the country.

Grouping: when two or three or even more photographs are joined without
overlapping one another, the process is called grouping.

Clubbing: clubbing is a very creative, imaginative and innovative way with a

sense of graphics. The photojournalist moves through four steps in handling a
story:
57
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

: Introduction to Photography

 Idea generation
 Planning
 Observation
 Writing captions

The photojournalist develops an idea or concept, decides on the appropriate lenses,

speed and aperture and selects locations from where to shoot; decides when to
shoot, and then does the darkroom work that will enhance to story.

For a feature, the photojournalist moves carefully and deliberately through these
stages on a breaking news event, the thinking and the decisions come quickly and
instinctively.

If the camera does not tell the truth, skepticism about the media arises in the minds
of readers. A picture may be striking and it may be narrative. But if it conveys a
false or distorted impression it would be better left unpublished. Picture editors
usually will select the picture showing the figures more favorably.

UNIT 3. TYPES OF PHOTOS

3.1. Portrait Photography

A portrait is defined as a likeness of a

person, especially of the person’s
face. But, the word in general use has
deeper connotations. A photographic
portrait is understood to be a good
quality image that not only captures a
person’s physical likeness on film, but
also something of the person’s
character, generally in a manner that is
attractive and pleasing to the subject.

A good portrait will contain at least one

element that reveals the subject’s
personality, attitude, unique
mannerisms or any of the other features
or traits that form the individual nature
of the person. It will tell us something

58
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

: Introduction to Photography

about the subject. You may have heard someone remark that a particular
photographer “really captured” their father or child, for example, in a picture. They
are referring in part to the image being a true physical likeness, but what they are
really saying is that the image also reveals a significant, identifiable part of the
subject’s character. The portrait photographer who has never previously met the
subject therefore has quite a challenge.

We all reveal our feelings and attitudes differently. Some of us may show our
individual character with immediate transparency, while others may be more
difficult to “read” at first. The portrait photographer must become proficient at
studying people whom he or she doesn’t know in order to capture their
essence. This means watching for signals in a subject’s mannerism, reactions,
expressions, body language and so on, and then judging how best to have the
subject’s character revealed for the camera.

This takes skill and an understanding of human nature. It almost always requires
engaging the subject in conversation, and quickly finding a suitable topic that will
grab her or his interest and evoke a reaction. Find common ground or a topic of
particular interest to your subject, which can be a hobby, the latest news, a mutual
acquaintance, or any number of topics. Building a rapport with the subject is
important, whether a three-year-old child or a ninety-five-year old statesman,
because it makes the subject more at ease in your presence, and therefore more
relaxed and natural-looking for the lens. You must take all possible steps to put a
subject at ease in order for her or him to appear natural.

Sometimes your best picture is your first picture, and sometimes it’s the last
exposure you make. If the subject is in position, relatively comfortable and you are
ready to shoot, there is usually no reason not to begin right away.

Often just getting started is enough to cause a subject to settle down if they are
uneasy or tense. You have to use your best judgment in every case. No portrait
session should be rushed, but there is no sense taking up your subject’s time in idle
chatter while you could be making exposures.

There is also no reason for your conversation to cease just because you have
started shooting. If the session seems to be going well, tell your subject; it may
provide added confidence that will show in their expression. Drawing a subject out
by having them talk while you are taking pictures will often result in interesting
and revealing expressions. Subjects do not have to smile to make a good portrait. A

59
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

Introduction to Photography

serious or thoughtful expression can often be more revealing of character, and a

better portrait.

There are many components to a good portrait, but the main component is control
by the photographer. You must be in charge and must be looked upon by your
subject as being competent and knowledgeable if your subject is to have any
confidence in you. This means you must be prepared in advance, not fumbling with
film when the subject is ready to be photographed. It means you must be confident
in yourself and exude that confidence throughout the session, and must be relaxed
yourself if you expect your subject to become relaxed.

Keep in mind that it is the person who is emphasized in a portrait - not his or her
surroundings. Viewers of the portrait should see more than just a recognizable
photograph of someone. The picture must contain mood, show personality and
character, allowing the viewer to draw conclusions about the person in the portrait.

3.2. Still Photography

Critics and students of photography have often commented in the past several
years upon the fact that, in this video age, it is getting harder and harder to
satisfactorily capture in a still image what is going on in a moving scene. In his
book, My War Gone By, I Miss It So, Anthony Loyd, a former British military
officer who went to the Balkans and Chechnya as a journalist, writes this about the
difficulty of taking still photographs of combat:

"The photographs I had taken that day were useless. Take away the sound, motion
and atmosphere from a scene of fighting, transpose images on to a two-
dimensional surface and you have to have something really special to communicate
even a trace of the madness you have witnessed." Loyd then notes that having
actually witnessed what he had photographed; he knew what reality lay behind his
photos. "Friends there knew it. They were all wise enough to know what might lie
behind a fuzzy shot of a soldier running. But people who had never been to war?
Their understanding of combat was the Hollywood version."

However, still photography can, when it is very good, leave all the other mediums
of reportage so far behind as to make them almost irrelevant: a single punch to the
consciousness that will not go away until you close your eyes or look at something
else.

Stills photography may also involve taking photos of the filmmaking process.
These are often used for promoting the film and as a documentary record.
60
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

Introduction to Photography

3.3. Wildlife Photography

Whether you’re out hiking in the backcountry or sightseeing from your car, having
a chance encounter with wildlife is a magnificent and treasured moment. Watching
little calves’ speed running zigzag among the herd or glimpsing a bear munching
on glacier lilies are sights that captivate and inspire us all.

For many however, the experience is overpowering. They lose sight of the fact that
the subject of their admiration is a wild creature. Sadly, some foolish human
behavior results in tragic consequences to wildlife and humans. Therefore, it’s
imperative that you know how to view and photograph wildlife sensitively and
responsibly in a low impact manner.

You will be rewarded with the most amazing experiences and others will learn
from your fine example!

Wildlife photographers must adhere to a certain code of ethics. These guidelines

are designed to ensure no harm is done to wildlife or their natural habitats. They
depend on the rules and regulations of the area national park, wi lderness area,
etc. you are visiting.

Be aware, that the ecosystem you visit may be fragile, so the photographer must
walk gently. First and foremost, view wildlife from a safe distance for both you
and them. Respect their spatial needs. If the animal interrupts its behavior resting,
feeding, etc., then you are too close and must distance yourself.
61
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

Introduction to Photography

The wildlife photographer must never force an action and he should be

patient. The most beautiful photographs result from natural action.

Never come between a parent and its offspring. For example, one can see tiny bear
cubs distressed, treed then separated from their mother by a throng of tourists eager
for a closer look. This is unacceptable behavior.

Never crowd, pursue, prevent escape, and make deliberate noises to distract, startle
or harass wildlife. This is stressful and wastes valuable energy in needless flight.
The impact is cumulative. Never feed or leave food for wildlife. Habituation due to
handouts can result in disease or even death of that animal and injury to you.

Never encroach on nests or dens, as certain species will abandon their young.
Never interfere with animals engaged in breeding, nesting, or caring for young.
Learn to recognize wildlife alarm signals and never forget that these animals are
not tame no matter how docile or cuddly they appear. Do not damage or remove
any plant, life form or natural object. Do pack out trash.

Acquaint yourself with and respect the behaviors and ecosystems of the wildlife
you may encounter. By doing so, you will enrich your experience tremendously.
Finally, and most significant, remember that the welfare of the subject and habitat
are irrefutably more important than the photograph.

62
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

ntroduction to Photography

3.4. Disaster Photography

It is indeed ironic that manipulating photographs of a natural disaster and the

resulting personal tragedies into cartoon, photographs or illustrations serve a
purpose of artistic technique.thus, the photographers have to take a more honest,
more respectful, and, much more self-effacing photographic approaches to the
disconcerting idea of horrific beauty.

Suddenly it happens: a hurricane, a flood, an earthquake, an airplane crash or a

fire. And you must document disaster with pictures. Perhaps you work for a
newspaper or news magazine. Possibly a photo agency or an insurance company
needs images from the scene.

Disaster coverage is never pleasant. Most people in our well-ordered society give
little thought to unexpected violence beyond the 6 o'clock news; yet these things do
happen. They happen across the nation and across the world on a daily basis, and
someone must record them in a professional manner. Disaster strikes with alarming
frequency without regard to life or geographical location.
63 Y
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

Introduction to Photography

When catastrophe strikes, you've got to ask, "What’s my next move? What should
I take with me; what can I leave behind? How can I safely cover a hazardous
situation and still deliver useable and timely photographs?" Every assignment
differs, but the following examples may prevent your news assignment from
turning into a personal disaster.

You should always keep film in your cameras and the exposure set to ambient
lighting conditions. Every news photographer can recite a dozen examples proving
how these few seconds can make the difference between capturing a shot and
returning empty-handed.

Similarly, many news photographers keep a change of clothing, several major

credit cards and a current passport in the trunk of their cars. An emergency rarely
allows time to pack, and no one wants to scrabble through drawers trying to find a
passport when they need to catch a plane.

Not every assignment demonstrates the need for preparedness so vividly, but
disasters like earthquake when an earthquake needs fast footwork to beat the
competitions.

A scene of destruction is, by its very nature, an unexpected event. Confusion reigns
supreme. It can be difficult to create visual order from chaos when nobody knows
the full story. Experienced news photographers know to gather local maps,
emergency telephone numbers and information on the run. If the emergency is still
working, an AM radio news station and a programmable scanner can help keep
you current. Late arrivals should buy the local newspaper and contact the police,
Red Cross and city hall for updates about evacuations, emergency shelters and
clean-up operations.

Be careful to conform to local ethical standards, however. Some countries allow

the media surprising access to emergency scenes. In others, you can suddenly find
yourself looking down the wrong end of an automatic weapon while performing
routine documentary work!

But to be honest, luck also plays an important role in crisis photography. One
photographer can come back with spectacular images from a scene while another
returns with nothing. The difference may be measured in feet or seconds. Your
only defense is to gather information on the run and be prepared for any
conceivable eventuality.

64
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

Introduction to Photography

Many photographers believe that they need special press credentials to enter an
emergency zone. True, press credentials make reassuring, but they frequently serve
little useful purpose. Worse, they may target photographers for unwelcome police
attention; you may achieve better access by acting like a bystander!

Never, but never, argue with a police officer as tensions run high during a tragedy.
When you remain sensitive to the subject, though, most police officers will ignore
or even assist a confident and fast moving photographer.

Fast moving doesn't mean careless, however. Even a simple warehouse fire can be
extremely hazardous. Seemingly sturdy beams, walls and floors can collapse
without warning. And fires frequently produce explosions, toxic smoke and caustic
chemical runoff. The best rule is to stay close behind emergency personal and
watch their actions. They may suddenly evacuate an area with no warning or
explanation: just as you expect them to know their jobs, they expect you to know
yours.

Any major fire produces both spectacular and terrifying results. At a refinery fire,
columns of flame shoot hundreds of feet into the air and dozens of acres may be
ablaze. Unfortunately, company officials typically seal a plant when something
goes wrong, ostensibly for public protection, but mainly to minimize press
coverage. Trying to shoot through chain link fences, trees and buildings from half a
65
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

Introduction to Photography

mile away is maddening. Similar problems arise when documenting any remote,
restricted or widespread disaster. The key, of course, is to charter a flight or hitch a
ride with emergency personnel into a disaster area. A helicopter makes a superior,
if costly, shooting platform since it can move slowly and even land in unlikely
locations.

Generally, the public does not view disaster objectively because these experiences
are alien to them. This explains why "eye witness accounts" yield such notoriously
inaccurate information. People who confront these scenes routinely learn to react
professionally, placing them into perspective from earlier experiences.

News photographers can no more afford the luxury of panic, confusion or

emotional involvement at disasters than can police, firemen and doctors. They
must react calmly to a crisis. Some even make it their responsibility to attend first
aid classes, since news people sometimes arrive at a scene before emergency
personnel.

The public's right to know deserves this calm expertise. News photographers have
the difficult task of being the eyes and ears of the public. But they must also be
responsible for their actions in the field, presenting an image of restrained behavior
and sympathy, balancing this against the seconds they have to capture an image
before it disappears forever.

But always remember that you are a human being first, a photographer
second. Nothing you do should aggravate the situation or hamper emergency
personnel. If necessary, be prepared to drop your gear and help in any way you
can. No photograph is worth a human life.

Disaster photography is never pleasant, yet it frequently serves an important

purpose beyond the simple, but vital, documentation of an event. The work
may force you to work for days without rest, a decent meal, or sleep, but it also
provides certain rewards.

There is tremendous excitement on being on the cutting edge of an important news

story, and sometimes the pictures you take will elicit sympathy and aid for those
touched by tragedy. We live in an information age, and distant events often have
great impact on diverse elements of our global society. Whatever else happens, you
have the satisfaction of knowing that your role fits into this information network,
recording history and allowing readers insights into events that they will hopefully
never experience.

66
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

: Introduction to Photography

3.5. Sports Photography

We all have been captivated by sports photography at one time or the other and are
intimidated by a good sports action photos.

Quality sports shots are somewhat difficult to come by. Most people have limited
access to events to photograph them. The further away you are from the event, the
harder it becomes to capture the event in a pleasing manner. Sports are an event
where crowd control is important, not only for the crowd's safety, but for the players
also. There is nothing more frightening than to be on the sidelines of a football
game, focused on a play in the field, when out of the blue a 250 pound line backer
drives a player into your legs or a foul ball comes crashing at your $8,000 lens!

The closer you are to someone, the better you can see him or her. Sports are no
different. You have to get as close to what you are shooting as you can. Typically,
for a photographer with a press pass, you can get to the sidelines or other similar
locations. You generally will not be permitted on the playing field. Depending on
the sport, you most likely will be limited to designate locations. For instance, at
most Football games, the media cannot shoot between the two 35 yard markers.

67
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

Introduction to Photography

You probably don't have press access and are stuck in the stands for your shots.
Get as close a possible. Even if you make it to the sidelines, you will be jostling for
space with many other photographers, both still and video.

You also have to be familiar with the sport to be able to capture the moment.
This means knowing where to position yourself for the best action. This is critical
because of angular momentum to capture the freezing action. Not only does it
matter with the subject, but the background. Look at what is going to be behind
your subject. While we will try to minimize the impact that a background has, it
will still be unavoidable. So you need to position your self where the background is
the most pleasing.

Sports and Action photography is all about timing. It’s about reacting. It’s
about being in the right place at the right time and it’s about executed. These
are all qualities of the athlete and those of the photographer as well. Each sport has
predictable and unpredictable moments. For instance, in basketball, you will have
opportunities to photograph, jump shots, free throws, etc. Understanding the timing
of these predictable actions allows you to capture the peak moment, when the
action is the highest.

There is a delay between the image hitting your optical nerve and the shutter
closing. You have to, through experience, learn what that time is adjusted for it.
Far goal, a 200-300mm lens is needed to fill the frame well, yet for shooting a
soccer game, a 300-400mm lens is needed for just about anything useful. Lens
speed is also a critical factor. The faster the lens, the faster the shutter speed you
can use. You need fast shutter speeds to freeze action with long lenses.

Today, most new cameras are auto focus. Auto focus makes this easier on us, but the
AF Auto Focus systems are not fool proof. Luckily, many sports lend those selves
well to manual focus, so sometimes you can get a bargain on a manual version of a
lens to use on a manual camera and still get good photos. However AF comes in
handy for a few sports. Hockey and Soccer involve many subject to camera distance
changes. Motion is less predictable and these sports are somewhat harder to manual
focus. Football, Basketball, and Baseball are quite easy to manual focus. You may
also need a flash with a high output. Some sporting events like gymnastics and
others are no-flash events. It is best to talk to an event official referee, coach, etc.
before using your flash.

68
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

Introduction to Photography

3.6. Political Photography

Politics and photography have always had a close, if uneasy, relationship. Scratch
the surface of many of the great photojournalists and documentaries of the
twentieth century and you will find radical colours not far below. Lewis Hine, a
pioneer of documentary photography, said 'I wanted to show things that had to be
corrected. I wanted to show things that had to be appreciated.' For him and the
generation that followed, the mere fact of showing photographs of a place or event,
which was largely unseen, was a political act. In its very neutrality, the camera
bore witness to a crucial axiom of the left: that ordinary people, not monarchs and
politicians made history.

What happened to topple photography from this position of righteousness?

Television happened; apparently outshining photography's power to show things as
they are. Media barons happened; anxious to turn the press away from challenging
authority and into a tool for making money. Apathy happened; people-power was
diluted by a cynical political system. And now the Internet has happened; we can
find an image of anything we like in seconds, and are less willing to have someone
else's propaganda pushed at us.

Some have argued that

photography is inherently a
difficult medium in which to
express progressive ideas. The
camera preserves a moment that
would otherwise have been
forgotten. It's an instant
nostalgia machine. It works very
well for those seeking to
conserve some aspect of the
status quo. Those seeking to
provoke change might find they
can only use a camera to
fictionalize, or portray a
negative.

None of this has been enough to

wipe out political photography
although the ground and the
work have shifted; nor does it
69 PUNJAB TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

Introduction to Photography

really change the central question which a political photographer needs to be

asking him or herself: 'Is this working?' Will this photography change anything at
all, no matter how slightly? And if so, will it change things for the better?

It is possible to identify at least three different ways of saying yes to this question.
The humanistic tradition of photojournalism is still strong. People have suggested
that the work of good political photographer have helped stop conflicts, and work
from some photographers awakens viewers to war's brutality.

It may well be that this work raises the consciousness of the public and keeps
issues in the news. But critics argue that this sort of photography at best sweetens
the pill of the dominant political system we allow this sort of work so we can't be
all bad, and at worst is ope n to misuse and manipulation.

A separate strand of campaigning photographer emerged with the flowering of the

underground press in the 1960s. For these photographers it became more important
to control that was publishing the work and how it was being used. The work itself
was noticeably different too; the gloomier side of photojournalism was replaced by
more upbeats and perhaps less demeaning pictures. Photographers were pleased to
be actively supporting progressive organizations like trades unions, pressure
groups and political parties with high quality work.

Photography is also an accessible and powerful tool for local and community
campaigns. But the work sometimes seemed to have no bite, looking more like
propaganda than reportage; and it rarely aspires to reach a mass audience, with
readers numbering in hundreds or thousands, not millions.

A third strand uses the political art photography for the strengths of photography
with a strong conceptual underpinning to try and shock or move people into
changing their minds. Photographers want to communicate, and then set out to
make pictures, which will best express these ideas.

The work of committed photographers and agencies is still seen even in the
establishment broadsheets and supplements, and also in some less expected places:
lifestyle magazines, television, public spaces, and educational material. The very
recent renaissance of photography in the mainstream galleries is encouraging, and
work with a political edge is often well attended and received. It's perhaps more
difficult than it ever has been to reach someone and change something with
photography, but the battle is by no means lost.

70 Y
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

: Introduction to Photography

3.7. Weather & Environment Photography

Floods, hurricanes, tornadoes, torrential downpours and high winds produce

horrible photographic conditions. Roads may be impassable, light nonexistent,
telephone lines down, clothes and cameras soaked, yet clients expect strong images
documenting the scene.

Sometimes it pays to reconsider your actions. Try to rent a four-wheel drive

vehicle with high ground clearance if you plan to venture into flood areas. Keep
the gas tank filled, since gas station pumps do not work when the power goes out,
plus the extra weight helps retain traction. If there is a possibility that you may be
trapped in the field, take along bottled water in plastic containers and non-
perishable ready-to-eat food.

Major storms produce hazardous conditions for everyone without regard to the
importance of your job. Drive carefully through flood regions since debris, low
water areas and emergency workers can appear without warning. A hurricane's
storm surge can combine high tides and winds to pile water 30 feet higher than
normal. Tornadoes occur occasionally during "normal" storms, but hurricanes
sometimes spin-off dozens.

71 Y
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

Introduction to Photography

High water creates problems even for those on foot and camera may receive a
thorough soaking. You should make some waterproofing preparations before
venturing out to cover a foul weather assignment. It helps to Scotch Guard a
camera bag as a matter of routine, and a couple of garbage bags and towels will aid
in keeping gear dry. Towels also come in handy for drying a car's electrical system
after going through deep water.

More than one photographer has experienced the fury of having invaluable film
confiscate by overly zealous bureaucrat. The film itself is another cause for
concern. Freelancers frequently make the error of shooting Kodachrome, which
requires special processing facilities. The time limitations of a spot news
assignment make it imperative that you shoot normal black-and-white film,
depending on your client's needs.

Just as "being there" helps capture the decisive moment, getting the film "out of
there" to make a deadline can be of equal importance. Many commercial shippers
promise to deliver within 24 to 48 hours, but pitfalls include weekends, holidays
and the extent of the environmental conditions.

Operating from the local newspaper, Associated Press, or United Press

International bureau affords a final option. The camaraderie of this business always
allows out of town news photographers access to the darkroom since they may
need the favor returned one day! Most newspapers have an AP or UPI transmitter
in their office, but this should be a last resort. Transmitting a single black-and-
white print takes eight minutes, color takes 24 minutes, and it loses considerable
image quality.

One problem facing contemporary photojournalists stems from the unique nature
of news photography. News photographers act in an apparently voyeuristic fashion
the public finds difficult to accept; their actions can sometimes be viewed in a
negative fashion.

3.8. War Photography

72
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

: Introduction to Photography

Photographers who participate in this genre may find themselves placed in harm's
way, and are sometimes killed trying to get their pictures out of the war arena.
Journalists and photographers are protected by international conventions of armed
warfare, but history shows that they are often considered targets by warring groups
— sometimes to show hatred of their opponents and other times to prevent the
facts shown in the photographs from being known. War photography has become
more dangerous with the terrorist style of armed conflict as some terrorists target
journalists and photographers. In the Second Persian Gulf War, several
photographers were captured and executed by terrorists or shot by armed
insurgents. 3.10.

3.9.Advertising
Photography

The major purpose of

Advertising is to arouse the
consumers desire to own any
given product. Advertising
photography is used to
stimulate these desires to an
act and purchase. The
advertising photographer
must illustrate, explain,
excite, and help create this
desire for any given
advertised product. The

73
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

Introduction to Photography

consumer and/or reader will be exposed to these images in a varied media formats:
magazines, newspapers, television, billboards and now even the Internet.

Today’s advertising photographer must go beyond being just a camera techno but
spend long hours and hard work in perfecting his or her technique. The
professional photographer in this field handles the camera to produce quality in the
finished product, the photograph. To command the respect of his clients, and to
have his or her work consistently in demand, the advertising photographer must
have, in addition to this technical ability, creative vision, imagination, and an
ability to capture unique descriptive images on film.

An advertising photographer rarely works alone, for their talents must synchronize
with those of the other part of the team, the art director. Together they must
communicate ideas and work together on the final ‘look’ or ‘feeling’ of the
illustration. The art director, however, works on other aspects of the advertisement
such as the copy, the over-all layout, typography, and the space and media in
which the final ad will be placed and seen. The photographer, therefore, must work
in harmony with the total plans of the art director, who is responsible for the
complete visual appearance of the advertisement.

Every serious photographer who is thinking of entering the advertising field should
understand what is involved. The advertising agency, in handling an account, has
invested time and money before any project is assigned to the photographer. There
have been copy meetings, media conferences, idea discussions, which result in the
accepted layout given to the photographer.

As a cartoonist makes rough sketches, the art director makes rough visuals or
layouts. The art director gets their creative cues from the copy department, account
executive or even the advertising client. These cues tell the art director what the ad
headline or slogan will be and what the final ‘look’ or ‘feeling’ should be. It is the
art director’s job to present the idea visually, usually through rough sketches, to the
other members of advertising team. These rough drawings, the layouts, are sent
along, sometimes with alternate ideas, to the assigned photographer. The sketches
are meant to guide the photographer in the photographic interpretation of the basic
idea.

Crude and rough as these visuals often are, the experienced and discerning
photographer respects them, works from them, and transforms them into pictures
with eye-catching impact. Not all art directors use visual layouts some will direct
the photographer without the help of any sketches. Each has his or her own favorite

74
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

: Introduction to Photography

method of working, but every art director works toward one common end: the
creation of an ad that will have sales appeal.

3.10 Landscape Photography

Landscape photography can be a challenge, but with the right composition and
good natural light it can be made a bit easier.

All the world’s cameras, films and other photographic equipment are no more than
tools for making landscape pictures. Cameras don’t think for themselves. Whether
we use digital or film camera, the same photographic principles apply.

We don’t have to stick to many rules to produce great landscape images, but
knowing what they are will make your pictures more successful. There are two
salient points in landscape photography: how to compose your image, and how to
use available natural light in any given situation.

Start off with the lights; there are three basic qualities of light: intensity, direction
and colour. Intensity: refers to the strength of light. If the sun is high in the sky,
light can be harsh and too strong. Cloudy days bring soft and defused light.
Direction: this refers to light placement. There are three categories of light
placement: front, back and side-lighting. Side lighting produces more texture
75
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

: Introduction to Photography

between light and shade. Colour: the colour of sunlight varies depending upon
conditions and time of day. If the sun shines at the beginning or the end of the day,
the colour of the light will be much warmer, and will lead to a much more dramatic
scene.

Understanding natural light will develop your ability to see. You will start to see
the beauty of light in a different and exciting way. In landscape photography it is
very important to take care with composition. A normal scene can be transformed
by paying close attention to detail. Composition is all about how you arrange the
elements in front of you.

Few ideas, which you may find useful;

Lead with lines: To lead with lines into the main part of the scene will draw your
viewer into your image. These lines don’t have to be straight. Lines, such as tracks,
riverbanks or fences, may work successfully.

Foreground interest: Simple foreground objects can give your landscape a greater
sense of depth. Use a small aperture f/22 to keep the entire scene in focus.

Natural frames: Frame your scene with the elements all around you. This will
focus attention on the main part of the picture. Trees make great natural frames.

These are just a few essential guidelines, and combined with a good eye, you have
all you need to get the best out of photography - especially landscape photography.
These are just a few rules to get you started, but like all rules, they are there to be
broken.

3.11Social Photography

Social Photographers provide photographic services for their local communities.

The work can be a blend of social, advertising, commercial and industrial
photography. These photographers often work from a shop or studio in the local
high street, or sets up temporary studios in department stores or supermarkets.
Some may work for local businesses and advertising agencies, producing images
for brochures, posters and other promotional material. They may also freelance for
local newspapers. Successful social photographers must be adaptable and
versatile. Their biggest competitor is the serious amateur photographer – so they
must therefore be adept at marketing themselves and their abilities.

76
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

: Introduction to Photography

These Photographers must be well organized, practical, and creative. Good business
skills, strong motivation, and the self-confidence to promote themselves, are
essential to find work in an overcrowded profession.
They must be able to master different techniques, and to understand digital
processes. They need creative visual skills to recognize the potential of a scene or
subject, and the technical ability to convert that visualization into a permanent form.
Above all, social photographers must have excellent people skills: weddings are
often exercises in crowd control, and persuading an unwilling child to smile
requires patience and fortitude.

3.12. News Photography

Newspaper photographers shoot news pictures, but news is a broad term as it is

defined by newspapers, it probable includes a little but of everything from portraits
and baby photos to inductrial and political photography. This is because the
newspapers are interested in everything, there is nothing that may be called a limit
on the subject matter that a newspaper man is expected to cover.

The photographers on a large paper may specialize in society, sports, or news but
when a small paper has only one or two cameraman, they must be able to handle
77
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

: Introduction to Photography

every picture assingment that the editor can dream up. The journalistic approach to
photography, with its emphasis on story-telling pictures can help improver all of our
personal picture-making.

UNIT 4. NEWS VALUES FOR PICTURES

4.1. PHOTO ESSAY

Photo essay is a set or series of photographs that are intended to tell a story or
evoke a series of emotions in the viewer. Photo essays range from purely
photographic works to photographs with captions or small notes to full text essays
with a few or many accompanying photographs. Photo essays can be sequential in
nature, intended to be viewed in a particular order, or they may consist of non-
ordered photographs which may be viewed all at once or in an order chosen by the
viewer. All photo essays are collections of photographs, but not all collections of
photographs are photo essays. Photo essays often address a certain issue or attempt
to capture the character of places and events.

A photo essay can take a number of forms, including:

 An article in a publication, sometimes a full page or a two-page spread.
Newspapers and news magazines often have multi-page photo essays about
significant events, both good and bad, such as a sports championship or a
national disaster.
 A book or other complete publication.
 A web page or portion of a web site.
 A single montage or collage of photographic images, with text or other
additions, intended to be viewed both as a whole and as individual
photographs. Such a work may also fall in the category of mixed media.

78
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

ntroduction to Photography

 An art show which is staged at a particular time and location. Some such
shows also fall in the category of installation art.
 A slide show or similar presentation, possibly with spoken text, which could
be delivered on slides, on DVD, or on a web site.

A Picture is worth a Thousand Words and cameras have allowed us to witness

for ourselves important, emotional, tragic, and timeless moments in history. The
most effective photographs help us experience these moments as if we were right
there.

Photojournalists understand the powerful effects that images can have on people.
Throughout history, they have documented everything from the triumph and
tragedy of war to the problem of homelessness to life in other countries. While
print journalists rely on words to tell the facts of a story, photojournalists tell
stories in what are known as photo essays—stories primarily told through pictures,
with captions and text to supplement the visuals.

"We See a Great Deal of the World" Margaret Bourke-White, a photographer

famous for taking pictures of ordinary people during the Great Depression, said the
following about the role of photojournalists: "We see a great deal of the world. Our
obligation is to pass it on to others." You can learn a great deal about the world
through these "passed on" stories, but it's important to view them with a critical
eye. Although cameras can be objective, the photographers using them bring their
own biases, viewpoints, and opinions to their work.

Sometimes photojournalists choose images that are intended to sway your

emotions, or may cause you to feel a certain way about an issue or event.
Essentially, when you are looking at a photo, you are seeing what the photographer
wants you to see: the world through his or her eyes.

Staging Reality

Alexander Gardner was a photojournalist who documented the Civil War. Gardner
took some very dramatic photos showing dead Confederate soldiers. Since then, a
researcher has concluded that Gardner staged some of his photos to make them
more dramatic and to appeal to his audience.

A photo essay isn’t simply for photojournalists however. Every human being is
drawn to stories. Whether you are an amateur or a professional, the photo essay is a

79 Y
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

Introduction to Photography

brilliant way to bring your images to life and touch your family, friends, and
coworkers.

1. Find a topic: Photo essays are most dynamic when you as the photographer care
about the subject. Whether you choose to document the first month of a newborn in
the family, the process of a school drama production, or even a birthday party,
make your topic something in which you find interest.

2. Do your research: If you document a newborn’s first month, spend time with
the family. Discover who the parents are, what culture they are from, whether they
are upper or lower class. If you cover the process of a school’s drama production,
talk with the teachers, actors and stage hands; investigate the general interest of the
student body; find out how they are financing the production and keeping costs
down. If you photograph a birthday party, check out the theme, the decorations
they plan on using, what the birthday kid hopes to get for his or her gifts. All of
these factors will help you in planning out the type of shots you set up for your
story.

3. Find the “real story”: After your research, you can determine the angle you
want to take your story. Is the newborn the first son of a wealthy family on whom
the family legacy will continue? Or does the baby have a rare heart condition? Is
the drama production an effort to bring the student body together? Or is it featuring
a child star? Is the birthday party for an adolescent turning 13, or the last birthday
of a dying cancer patient? Though each story idea is the same, the main factors of
each story create an incredibly unique story.

4. Every dynamic story is built on a set of core values and emotions that touch
the heart of its audience. Anger, Joy, Fear, Hurt, Excitement. The best way you
can connect your photo essay with its audience is to draw out the emotions within
the story and utilize them in your shots. This does not mean that you manipulate
your audience’s emotions. You merely use emotion as a connecting point.

5. Plan your shots: Whether you decide to sit down and extensively visualize each
shot of the story, or simply walk through the venue in your mind, you will want to
think about the type of shots that will work best to tell your story. I recommend
beginners first start out by creating a “shot list” for the story. Each shot will work
like a sentence in a one-paragraph story. Typically, you can start with 10 shots.
Each shot must emphasize a different concept or emotion that can be woven
together with the other images for the final draft of the story.

80
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

MSCMCAJ-402 Introduction to Photography

Remember that story telling takes practice. You don’t have to be an incredible
writer to pull off a powerful photo essay. All you need is a bit of photographic
technique, some creativity, and a lot of heart. And once you begin taking pictures
in stories, your images will never be the same.

4.2. PHOTO FEATURE

A photo feature is another name for a photo archive or database that can be
searched to pull up photo's to support news stories. For example, suppose a
celebrity passes away tomorrow, reporters will access their huge photo database to
pull up photos from as far back as the person's childhood to show with the
memorials.

Not only does the silent screen stars, celebrities, come to life, but in a photo feature
we will find the celebrities of today in the latest roles, with their families, receiving
awards or out on the town.

Photo feature pages give you a good chance to use more refined camera
techniques. The shooting techniques should be unobtrusive while getting a whole
series of pictures. Flash film and available light will enable you to get pictures with
a look of reality that can seldom be posed.

The photos that accompany an interview furnish another example of photo feature.
Here, the photos running along the columns of the interview should be sharp and if
the interview is to run on a feature page, a dozen candid photos showing the
subject as he speaks may accompany it. You would want to capture his gestures
and facial expressions as he makes his main points. A series of flashbulbs going off
in his face would inhibit his unconscious mannerisms and might even make him
forget what he wants to say. Available light photography is the answer. If possible,
you should seat your subject where the background and the light are the best.

With feature assignments a photographer needs the sharp reflexes honed by spot
news events. The trouble with features, however, is that a photographer usually
cannot anticipate where the assignment will take place. It is no wonder that many
undergraduate photography students often complain that they cannot find
meaningful feature pictures to photograph.

Feature assignments are usually self-generated ones. Photo editors, with no other
assignments, will tell the photographer to shoot "wild art" or "a colorful enterprise
picture for Page 1."

81
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

: Introduction to Photography

An ordinary photographer might drive to a public park and capture the usual
scenes: a child rides a swing, a young woman reads a book, and two men talk on a
bench. These pictures are made to show readers nothing more than that the weather
was nice and people enjoyed the day.

A more mature photographer anticipates the need for a feature picture by the photo
editor and has already scouted an area of town or a particular subject that is both
visually interesting and filled with meaningful content.

Human Interest features show persons being natural and unique. The images
cannot be anticipated. They are one of kind moments that capture a person or
group being themselves: odd, humorous, and natural. Cute kids, animals, and nuns
are traditional subject clichés.

Features offer an opportunity for a page to be highlighted with a pleasant, happy

picture that may offset the tragic events of the day. A photographer looking for
human-interest features thinks like a hunter. Keenly aware and observant,
knowledgeable on matters of basic human nature, quiet and unassuming, and
technically competent to capture quick and fleeting moments, the photographer
stalks the city looking for pictures that go beyond the cliché.

Photographers have several techniques they use to take pictures of people. Some
will use a 35mm. wide-angle lens and get close to their subjects. Others use
telephoto lenses to keep a far and undetected distance from their subjects. They
will either identify themselves immediately or wait until the subject asks for an
explanation.

There are two things that happen when you ask a person if you can take their
picture and both of them are bad. Either they say no and you don't get the picture
or they say yes and stare and smile at you like they were posing for a snapshot.
When you see some unusual action, get an initial picture. Afterward, you can
identify yourself, get their names, and take addition photographs after they become
accustomed to your presence.

The other type of feature picture is the much-maligned pictorial. Traditionally, the
pictorial is a silhouette of two standing, arm-in-arm lovers at sunset. Pictorials rely
on the graphic elements of composition and lighting more than subject matter.
Many times pictorial feature pictures, when combined with bold page layout
design, can educate unsophisticated readers to the artistic forms and lighting
characteristics within their world. Shapes and shadows should never distract a

82
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

Introduction to Photography

photojournalist. Personal artistic expression in the form of pictorial feature pictures

has a limited place in the photographer's portfolio. It is far better to take pictures
that combine the striking visual qualities of the pictorial with human-interest
moments.

4.3. PICTURE MAGAZINES

The business of journalism is communication. Photojournalism is

communication through photographs. A newspaper photo must tell the story
and tell it clearly; otherwise it is wasting valuable space in the paper.
Newspapers give the facts as soon after the event as possible, whereas magazines
can wait until more information is in and try to give the story more depth.

In the "golden age" of photojournalism 1930s–1950s, some magazines Picture

Post London, Paris Match Paris, Life USA, and Sports Illustrated USA
built their huge readerships and reputations largely on their use of photography,
and photographers such as Robert Capa, Alfred Eisenstaedt and W. Eugene Smith
became well-known names.

Sharbat Gula, a young Afghan refugee photographed by Steve

McCurry, became a symbol of the 1980s; the photo appeared on the
June 1985 cover of National Geographic magazine.

Until the 1980s, most large magazines were printed with

turn-of-the-century “letterpress” technology using easily
smudged oil-based ink, off-white, low-quality “newsprint”
paper, and coarse engraving screens. While letterpresses
produced legible text, the photoengraving dots that formed
pictures often bled or smeared and became fuzzy and
indistinct. In this way, even when magazines used
photographs well -a good crop, a respectable size- murky
reproduction often left readers re-reading the caption to see what the photo was all
about. Not until the 1980s had a majority of magazines switched to “offset” presses
that reproduce photos with fidelity on better, whiter paper.

By contrast Life, one of America’s most popular weekly magazines from 1936
through the early 1970s, was filled with photographs reproduced beautifully on
oversize 11×14-inch pages, using fine engraving screens, high-quality inks, and
glossy paper. Life often published a United Press International UPI) or Associated
Press AP) photo that had been first reproduced in newspa pers, but the quality
magazine version appeared to be a different photo altogether.
83 Y
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

: Introduction to Photography

In large part because their pictures were clear enough to be appreciated, and
because their name always appeared with their work, magazine photographers
achieved near-celebrity status. Life became a standard by which the public judged
photography, and many of today’s photo books celebrate “photojournalism” as if it
had been the exclusive province of near-celebrity magazine photographers.

The Best of Life 1973, for example, opens with a two-page 1960 group shot of
39 justly famous Life photographers. But 300 pages later, photo credits reveal that
scores of the photos among Life’s “best” were taken by anonymous UPI and AP
photographers.

4.4. COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY

Color photography is photography that uses media capable of preserving colors

and is produced chemically during the photographic processing phase. It is often
contrasted with black-and-white photography, which uses media capable only of
showing shades of gray and does not include hand colored photographs. Some
examples of color photography include: Prints, color negatives, transparencies i.e.
35mm color slides, roll films, and sheet films.

The first modern 'integrated tri -pack' color film, Kodachrome, was introduced in
1935 based on three colored emulsions. Most modern color films, except
Kodachrome, are based on technology developed for Agfacolor. In this newer
technology, chromogenic dye couplers are already within the emulsion layers,
rather than having to be carefully diffused in during development. Instant color
film was introduced by Polaroid in 1963.

There are basically two color systems:

 Additive: The colors are added as colored lights. In this system, the most
common set of primary colors is red, green and blue. Maxwell's experiment
was of this type, as are screen-plate methods, such as Autochrome. Modern
digital photographs seen on a VDG are also viewed by addition of light from
an RGB phosphor array.
 Subtractive: Colors are subtracted from white light by dyes or pigments. In
this system the most common set of primary colors is cyan, magenta and
yellow. Ducos du Hauron made several pictures by this method in the late
1800s.

84
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

: Introduction to Photography

Several commercial print methods were devised using the subtractive technique
during the 1930s, for printing from 'separation negatives'. Kodachrome was the
first commercially-available 'integrated tri-pack' film of this type.

There are two main types of color film in current use:

 Color negative film forms a negative image when exposed, which is fixed
during developing. This is then exposed onto photographic paper to form a
positive image.
 Color reversal film, also known as slide film, forms a negative image when
exposed, which is reversed to a positive image during developing. The film
can then be projected onto a screen.

However, it is important to understand that color photographic materials are not

permanent and by nature is instable. Chromogenic color photographs, for example,
are composed of yellow, magenta, and cyan organic dyes which fade at different
rates. Even when in dark storage and enclosed in the proper archival materials,
deterioration is unavoidable, but fading, color shifting, and discoloration can be
prolonged when given the proper preservation care. Color photography may form
images as a positive transparency, intended for use in a slide projector or as color
negatives, intended for use in creating positive color enlargements on specially
coated paper. The latter is now the most common form of film non -digital color
photography owing to the introduction of automated photo printing equipment.

4.5. IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY

Photojournalists are not only social historians with a camera, they are competent
technicians who must keep abreast of the changing technology and the acceptable
ethical considerations associated with that technology. In the 1940s, it was
ethically acceptable to pose many subjects because the commonly accepted
technology of the day, the awkward 4 X 5 press camera with a portable flash, was
a poor recorder of the candid moment. Also, without a 36-exposure film cassette,
photographers were forced to make every picture count.

Photographers commonly use cropping, exposure, contrast, dodging, and burning

techniques in the darkroom to make the meaning of a picture clearer. Cropping can
be accomplished during shooting by the choice of lens, distance from the subject or
angle chosen, in the darkroom by changing the height of the enlarged image or

85
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

: Introduction to Photography

moving the blades of an adjustable easel, or by marking the white borders of a

print to show the area of the final, printed image. With manipulations in aperture
and shutter speed combinations or the use of filters when shooting, times and
temperatures when processing the film, aperture and time settings with an enlarger,
and filter or paper grade selections in the darkroom, photographers can alter the
original tones of the scene dramatically. By preventing light from exposing on a
certain area of a print with a tool or by hand, the area can be "dodged" to appear to
be lighter. Conversely, by adding more light to a specific area, the print appears to
be darker or "burned." Dodging and burning can also be accomplished with
concentrated developer or chemical bleaches.

Some photographers have resorted to a simple technique to manipulate an image

flopping. A negative is turned upside-down in the enlarger carrier to produce a
picture that is reversed, or flopped. Sometimes the angle of a subject's face or hand
fits a layout design more pleasingly if the angle is reversed as if viewed in a mirror.
The practice is dangerous because right-handed people can be made to appear left-
handed, a wedding ring is seen on a right hand, and words in the picture are
reversed. Photographers should notice the best angles while shooting without
resorting to flopping a negative.

With computer technology, the picture manipulations cited here are possible
without ever entering a darkroom. Newspapers and national news bureaus are
experimenting with technologies that in a few years will be commonly thought of
as the industry standard. Whether a subject is photographed with negative film or
by electronic still video cameras where photographers are able to record their
images on a 2-inch floppy disk, the pictures can be converted to computerized,
digital images. The photographer can then make exposure, color balance, and
cropping adjustments on a television or computer screen, type caption information,
and send their words and photographs via a telephone line to the photo editor's
computer terminal. Once in the newsroom's computer, the pictures can be readied
for the printing process.

The photo editor can make exposure, color, and cropping corrections. Computer-
controlled color separations are then automatically performed with the pictures
ready for the printing press. At the present time, the new technology saves time,
yet is expensive with the quality not as high as present, traditional methods. But
the day will come when the technology becomes affordable for even university
photojournalism programs.

86
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

ntroduction to Photography

There are certain principles that should remain constant despite technological
advances. The guiding principle for such manipulations should always be the
content of the photograph. Is the content or intent of the image drastically altered
by the manipulation? Will an exposure adjustment, angle or perspective change,
tight crop, color correction, filter selection, flopped negative, or a dodged or
burned area mislead a reader? If the answer is yes, the manipulation should not
occur. Whether by traditional or new technological methods, the underlying
principle of not fooling the public should never be compromised. Credibility forms
the distinction between a respected chronicle of a community's best and worst
moments and a supermarket tabloid.

A modem photojournalist is a mixture of reporter, artist, and craftsperson. A

photographer is expected to determine in 1/500th of a second, whether a subject is
newsworthy, aesthetically pleasing, and technically possible to record on film.
Assignments during any one shift can run from coverage of a five-alarm fire to a
meeting with the governor. Consequently, photojournalists should be well-
educated, curious, and cool under stressful situations. Photographers must also be
humane, caring individuals aware of the many ethical concerns that are a part of
any news assignment.

4.6 PHOTOGRAPHY LIGHTING TECHNIQUES

One of the hardest things to get right in a photograph is the lighting. Too much
light, too little light, or a combination of the two can ruin an otherwise perfect
photo. But, luckily this problem can be solved if you understand the types of
lighting, how they affect your camera and what you can do to use these effects to
your full advantage.

1. Backlighting

Backlighting is just as it sounds: light that comes from behind your subject. This
can make a beautiful photo, or turn a beautiful photo into a disaster. Backlighting
is what turns a palm tree into a silhouette against the sunset. In this case, that is a
good thing that adds to the photograph. But, the same thing can happen if you want
to take a photograph of a person who has a strong backlight behind them, such as
the sun, sky, or bright lights. The camera reads the brightness behind the main
subject and sets its internal meter to expose properly for the extra light. This
underexposes your subject and will usually turn them into a silhouette. You can
avoid this by using a fill-flash. A fill-flash will “fill” in the needed light, chasing
away the shadows from your subject caused from the bright light behind.

87
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

ntroduction to Photography

2. Side Lighting

Side lighting can have a very drastic effect on your photos, also. But, unlike
backlighting, its brightness comes from the right or left of your subject. This tends
to cast one side in total darkness, while putting the other in the spot light. This is a
wonderful way to get a mysterious, dramatic portrait photo. Pose your subject in
front of a window, with one of their shoulders close to the window. Your camera
will expose properly for the bright side and will usually cast the other side of the
face in complete darkness. If, on the other hand, you want a natural portrait you
can use something to reflect light onto the darkened side of the face. A white
poster board or other light reflecting surface can bounce enough light back onto
your subject to soften the effect of side lighting. Side lighting is wonderful for
showing texture and adding depth to a photo.

3. Diffused Lighting

Sometimes lighting from any direction is just too harsh. This is when you want to
soften the incoming light, to take away some of the contrast for a more pleasing
photograph. Bright sunlight at midday is the worst kind of light for photography.
The light colors are washed out and the contrasting shadows are too dark. To avoid
this, wait for the sun to go behind a cloud or if your subject is moveable, put them
in the shade of a tree or building and take the photo there. The light will be much
more natural here and will result in a better photo. If it is not possible to move your
subject, and there is not a cloud in sight, you can sometimes make your own shade
with an umbrella or some similar object. Or, come back in the morning or evening
when the sun is lower the sky.

4. Artificial Lighting

Artificial lighting comes in all shapes and sizes. From a built in flash on your
camera to expensive lights in the studio, they all have their strengths and
weaknesses.

On camera flashes are simple and easy to use, but sometimes cause the awful red
eye so common in snapshots. The farther the flash is away from the lens, the less
likely this is to happen. Another problem with on camera flash is the harsh light
they cast onto the subject. If you have an off camera flash, you can bounce the
light for a softer effect.

One last thing to remember about artificial light, unless you are using black and
white film, regular indoor lights will give your photos a yellow cast. These lights
88
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

2: Introduction to Photography

are not the equivalent of flash bulb lights, and therefore will not give you the same
results.

4.7. FILM DEVELOPMENT

Duration of Development

From the box the film came in, obtain the film processing time for the developer
that you will be using Example: the time in minutes, for Kodak's D -76 at a
concentration of 1 part stock developer to 1 part water - 1:1

Load Film

Line up all of the equipment on your counter or table for easy access....film reel
and film tank with all of its parts; scissors; hook-type bottle opener. Remember,
you will be doing the film loading in complete darkness-no safelights!

Don't touch the exposed surface of the film with your fingers. No matter how clean
you think your fingers may be, there is oil on your skin which will mark your film.
If your must touch the film, grasp gently across the wide part of the film with your
thumb and index finger.

Turn off the darkroom lights, and then pry off the flat end of the 35mm film
magazine with a hook-type can opener. Push the film carefully out of the
magazine, by pushing on the spindle end of the magazine. With the lights still off,
89
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

Introduction to Photography

locate your scissors and carefully cut off the tapered leader, then cut the end of the
film to a smooth arc and insert the end into your film development spool until the
film's sprockets are firmly engaged by the ball bearings of the spool.

Development tank and spools are plastic and are made by "Paterson"...loading the
film is easy, - Still in complete darkness, crank the 2 sides of the reel back and
forth in opposing directions, until the film is completely drawn into the spool. Your
type of spool may be different - read the directions that came with the product.

A variation of this process is as follows.... while rewinding, you can feel when
the film disengages from the camera's take up reel - stop rewinding at this point,
your film leader is still protruding from the film magazine. Having the leader
accessible rather than wound back into the magazine allows you the advantage of
starting the film into the development spool while the room light is still on. As
mentioned above, cut off the tapered leader with scissors, and then cut the end of
the film to a smooth arc. With the darkroom light still on, engage the film sprocket
holes into the reels.

Turn off all lights including safelights

You are now in total darkness. Now that you have the lead end of the film engaged
in the development spool crank the 2 sides of the development reel back and forth
in opposing directions, stopping occasionally to pull a few more feet of film from
the magazine don't let the film touch anything, floor etc. as you will end up with
dust on the film surface) and then resume cranking the spool until the film is
completely drawn in. When you come to the end of the roll, while still in the dark,
find your scissors, and feeling for the junction of the end of the film and the
magazine, cut across the film to release it from the magazine. Crank the spool a
little to ensure that the end of the film is into the spool.

When you have accomplished the loading of the film onto the development spool,
place the film spool properly into your development tank, ensuring that all of the
parts are in the proper place gasket etc.. Once the tank is light tight you can turn
on the room light and you are ready to proceed with development.

Measure Chemicals

Usually 10 ounces of chemical, per roll

90 Y
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

: Introduction to Photography

Measure out the required chemicals....Your tank instructions should give you the
correct volume of chemistry that is required. Usually the film is developed in
Kodak's D-76 film developer diluted to a concentration of 1:1 1 part stock solution
to 1 part water - this gives a finer grained image). Dilute the stop bath at approx.
1:31 pale yellow if you are using "indicator" stop bath and a 1:4 dilution for your
fixer. We usually measure out 10 ounces of each solution that will be used in the
process and pour them into 3 jars so that they are ready for use developer, stop
bath, fixer).

Correct Temperature

Make sure that all chemicals are at 20 degrees Centigrade 68 degrees Fahrenheit.
The most critical here is the developer - the other chemicals may be a few degrees
above or below. If your developer is above or below 20 degree centigrade mark,
you may adjust your development time by 30 seconds for each degree centigrade
difference.

Example: If your temperature is 21 degrees, then subtract 30 seconds from your

total development time - If your temperature is 19 degrees, and then add 30
seconds to your total development time. This compensation will work effectively
in the range of 17 degrees to 23 degrees Centigrade.

Start Development

Start your timer and rapidly pour the developer into the tank, tighten the lid and
give the bottom of the tank 2 firm raps on a hard surface...this will dislodge any air
bubbles that are attached to the films surface.

Agitation

If you have a tank that can be inverted without the solution spilling out....agitate,
continuously for the first minute of the development process by inverting the tank
back and forth, Inversion interval of approx. 1 second then agitate for 5 seconds
at 30 second intervals until the last minute of development where you will revert
back to continuous agitation for the remainder of the development time. Between
agitations intervals, rotate the tank one-half turn, - this will help to insure even
development.

91
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

Introduction to Photography

If your tank cannot be inverted, agitate by sliding the tank back and forth over a
distance of about 10 inches at a rate of two cycles per second during the agitation
intervals. Rotate the tank through about one-half turn between agitation intervals.

Everyone has their own particular quirks in the way in which they develop their
film. People agitate their film during development more or less vigorously or more
or less frequently than you might. Hence, their negatives will not be the same as
yours. The best way to obtain consistency is to use the same type and speed of film
for a few months and always develop the film exactly the same! You should then
end up with negatives that are fairly close to each other in density.

Too much agitation=overdevelopment darker negatives and also streaks in the

negatives.

Too little agitation=under development lighter negatives

End Development

Five seconds before the development time is finished, take the cap off of the tank
the tank still has a top and is still light proof, and dump all of the solution down
the drain or into a silver recovery device if you have one.

Stop Bath

Immediately pour in the stop bath and agitate continuously for 30 seconds. ...pour
out and discard.

Fixer - also called Hypo

Add fixer.....agitate continuously for the first 30 seconds, and then at 30 second
intervals for 3 to 5 minutes with a fixer made from liquid concentrate, diluted at
1:4. When fixing is finished, pour the fixer into a plastic jug that you have labeled
as "working fixer". This fixer can be used to fixer papers and can be used over and
over before it will become exhausted. Fixer will last about 6 months in a half-full
stoppered bottle.

Water Rinse - If using the optional, Hypo Clearing Agent)

Rinse the film in the tank with running water at 65 to 75 F for 30 seconds.

92
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

Introduction to Photography

Perma Wash or Hypo Clearing Agent

Add Hypo Clearing Agent solution diluted 1:4 and agitate for the first 30 seconds
and then at 30 second intervals for 1 to 2 minutes. See wash duration times in next
step.

Water Wash

Remove the top of the tank and fill tank with running water at 65 to 75 F and let
the water overflow.

wash Duration if not using Perma Wash or Hypo clearing agent- 20 to 30 Minutes
in running water that is fast enough to provide a complete change of water very
minutes. Wash duration after using hypo clearing agent perma wash - 5 minutes -
each time the running water overflows the tank, dump it out and then let it refill
again.

Wetting Agent

When washing is finished, add 2 drops of "Kodak Photo-Flo" to the tank full of
water....agitate for 5 seconds and leave in solution for 30 seconds. Remove from
reel and hang in a dust free area to dry overnight. Photo -Flo is important, if you
don't use it, you may end up with water spots on your dried film.

Dry the Film

Hang film in a dust free area of your darkroom overnight using plastic clamps.

4.8. PHOTO PAPER

Photographic paper is paper coated with light-sensitive chemicals, used for

making photographic prints. Photographic paper is exposed to light in a controlled
manner, either by placing a negative in contact with the paper directly to produce
a contact print, by using an enlarger in order to create a latent image, by exposing
in some types of camera to produce a photographic negative, by scanning a
modulated light source over the paper, or by placing objects upon it to
produce photograms. Photographic papers are subsequently developed using
the gelatin-silver process to create a visible image.

93
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

Introduction to Photography

Chances are every negative on a roll of film is not always going to be perfect. As a
matter of fact, probably only 3 or 4 images on a roll of 24 will be worthy of being
printed onto a piece of expensive light sensitive paper.

Professional photographers and students will often take an alternative approach,

than just printing every single frame on a roll of film. They will make a contact
sheet a selectively choose the image they like best.

All papers are light that are light sensitive, are much like film. They have several
layers, and the most important being the emulsion or light sensitive layer. Paper,
however, usually is white; this is provided by the base. The base gives the other
two layers support and unlike film makes a solid background instead of a
transparent background. The paper is protected by a gelatin super coating cover
that protects the emulsion from scratching and chemicals.

There are two major types of paper. First there is a fiber based. Fiber based paper
came around before the other type called Resing coated. Because processing
chemicals are absorbed into the paper, rinsing and drying takes 4 to 5 times longer
than RC papers. Fiber based papers often are non-glossy. This means that there is
little or no gloss to the final print.

On the other hand resin coated papers are less delicate and can be processed
much faster and tend to have a longer life span. Both type of papers are packaged
and supported by many vendors including Kodak, Ilford, Agfa, and Oriental. The
paper that you will use will have to be decided by the desired print contrast and
quality.

Paper is rated using three variables. These variables are determined by the surface,
weight, and contrast.

The Surface varies from smooth glossy to highly textured. A smooth surface is
glossy or shiny, while a textured surface has a matte appearance. Samples of photo
paper finishes are available at nearly every retail photography store.

The weight corresponds to the thickness of the paper. Fiber-based paper usually
comes in single weight and double weight. Most prints made on a fiber based paper
are single weight. RC papers, however, are medium weight. Double weight paper
resembles the stiffness of cardboard and is more expensive than single weight.

Most papers are available in several contrast grades to compensate for less-than-
perfect negatives. By adjusting the print time and by using contrast filters, it is
94
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

Introduction to Photography

often possible to make a perfect print with a not-so-perfect negative. As the grade
value increases the range between black and white decreases. Commonly papers
are available in 5 different grades.

Some special papers called variable-contrast papers are available. These types are
often used by beginners because they are the most forgiving. They allow for
contrast manipulation through the use of color filters. These papers are coated with
two layers of emulsion. The first layer is equivalent to a grade 1 paper and the
second is equivalent to a grade 4 paper. The grade one is sensitive to a yellow
light. The 4 is sensitive to a purplish light. The filters have a certain hue that passes
more or less light to a certain layer, making more or less contrast.

When you store your paper, always make sure it is nowhere near any type of light.
If you keep it in the manufacturer envelope, make sure it is always sealed outside
of the darkroom. Also the temperature is very critical in preserving the quality of
the paper.

4.9. Chemicals and Equipment

Whether you intend to make a positive sheet or enlarged prints from your
negatives, you need chemicals to develop and fix your image stored on the
photographic paper. You also need certain basic pieces of equipment and an
enlarger.

The chemicals that you will need are a very similar to film chemicals. A developer,
stop-bath, and fixer are required to make the latent image appear on your exposed
paper. If you forget from the previous film section, a developer turns the exposed
silver halide crystals dark. A stop-bath neutralizes that process, and a fixer takes
those crystals and freezes them and makes the image permanent. If you leave the
developing image in the fixer for too long, it will begin bleaching the image out.

The basic equipment are tongs, trays, thermometer, print squeegee, contact printing
glass, dusting equipment, negative carrier, timer, contrast filters, safelight, and the
enlarger.

Quick Tips for developing Print Photographs

Photography has many different ways of expressing one view on the world. Some
are exposed with light, some are color pictures and others can be done in black and
white. But this writer's favorite is black and white pictures. There is something

95
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

Introduction to Photography

classical and elegant about a black and white photo. Taking and developing a black
and white picture is also very creative because of the gray scale you have to follow
and the blending of the shadows. It allows you as the artist to choose how you want
your picture to turn out.

There are many steps you must follow to be sure your picture doesn't get exposed
to light. If it does, all the pictures you took are gone and you end up with just black
squares.

1. Place your film in either a black bag or case and open it in the pitch black.
2. Place it into the tank turning the top to make sure it is tightly secure.
3. Pour and mix the developer into the tank with the film.
4. Remove the developer after the time is up.
5. Pour stop bath into the tank. Leave stop bath in for about 30 seconds no
matter what kind of film it is.
6. After pouring out the stop bath place the pour in fixer.
7. When you remove the fixer you can remove the lid from the tank; the film
can be in light now without turning black.
8. Place the film into running water to rinse off the chemicals.
9. Place your film into Photo-flow to remove splotches or fingerprints you have
placed while viewing the film.
10.Hang out to dry. Even when your film is developed you still have to enlarge
it onto a photographic paper. There are machines, which help you focus the
picture just in case the photo you took was out of focus. Also if you want to
add or take away lights there are strips of filters you can use. They darken or
lighten your picture, which adds a good effect. Also if you want to add
another effect you can just take a picture with photo paper. Find things you
think would look nice as a background. Lay them on the paper and switch on
the lights then quickly turn it off. Develop the paper and you will have white
imprints of whatever you laid on the paper.

In the dark room you are not just developing a photo but also creating a self-
expression of you or the person you took in a photo.

SUMMARY

Photography is the process of making pictures by means of capturing light on a

light-sensitive medium, such as a sensor or film. Light patterns reflected or emitted
from objects are recorded onto a sensitive medium or storage chip through a timed

96
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

Introduction to Photography

exposure. The most common process is done through mechanical, chemical or

digital devices known as cameras.

The camera is the image-forming device, and photographic film is the recording
medium. A camera works somewhat like the human eye, capturing reflected light
from objects and through a camera lens and focusing those light rays into an
image. Traditionally cameras recorded the image onto film. More recently through
the development of computer chips, many cameras capture their images on a
computer chip.

Photography is practiced on a professional level for portraiture and for various

commercial and industrial applications, including the preparation of photographs
for advertising, illustration, display, and record-keeping. Press photography is for
newspaper and magazine illustrations of topical events and objects. Photography is
used at several levels in the graphic arts to convert original photographs or other
illustrations into printing plates for high-quality reproduction in quantity. Industrial
photography includes the generation and reproduction of engineering drawings,
high-speed photography, and many other forms of technical photography, which
can aid in the development, design, and manufacture of various products. Aerial
photography is used for military investigation and mapping, civilian mapping,
urban and highway planning, and surveys of material resources. Biomedical
photography is used to reveal or record biological structures, often of significance
in medical research, diagnosis, or treatment. Photography is widely applied to
preparing projection slides and other displays for teaching through visual
education.

Color photography was explored beginning in the mid 1800s. Early experiments
in color could not fix the photograph and prevent the color from fading. The first
permanent color photo was taken in 1861 by the physicist James Clerk Maxwell.
Maxwell made contributions to the area of optics and color vision, being credited
with the discovery that color photographs could be formed using red, green, and
blue filters. He had the photographer Thomas Sutton photograph a tartan ribbon
three times, each time with a different color filter over the lens. The three images
were developed and then projected onto a screen with three different projectors,
each equipped with the same color filter used to take its image. When brought into
focus, the three images formed a full color image. The three photographic plates
now reside in a small museum at 14 India Street, Edinburgh, the house where
Maxwell was born.

97 Y
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

: Introduction to Photography

Digital imaging is rapidly replacing film photography in consumer and

professional markets. Digital point-and-shoot cameras have become widespread
consumer products, outselling film cameras, and including new features such as
video and audio recording. Kodak announced in January 2004 that it would no
longer produce reloadable 35 mm cameras after the end of that year. This was
interpreted as a sign of the end of film photography. However, Kodak was at that
time a minor player in the reloadable film cameras market. In January 2006, Nikon
followed suit and announced that they will stop the production of all but two
models of their film cameras: the low-end Nikon FM10, and the high-end Nikon
F6. On May 25, 2006, Canon announced they will stop developing new film SLR
camera.

Photojournalism is a particular form of journalism the collecting, editing, and

presenting of news material for publication or broadcast that crea tes images in
order to tell a news story. It is now usually understood to refer only to still images,
and in some cases to video used in broadcast journalism. Photojournalism can fall
under all subjects’ of photography but the image needs to be news wordy to end up
being published.

Composition, the act of composing the image in the viewfinder, is a visual process
of organizing the elements and individual details of a scene into a balanced and
pleasing arrangement. Because what one-person finds pleasing, someone else will
not, composition is largely a matter of personal taste. There is no right or wrong
composition in photography. A composition that conveys a photographer's
intended meaning is an effective one. A composition that doesn't or that confuses
the viewer is not. Composition in photography is all about arranging the elements
in your photos for maximum impact.

Photo editing is an art and craft for effective communication with the help of
journalistic photographs by selection, cropping, enlarging blowing up, reducing,
sizing, retouching, reproduction, insetting, grouping, clubbing, etc for appeal
presentation.

Photo essay is a set or series of photographs that are intended to tell a story or
evoke a series of emotions in the viewer. Photo essays range from purely
photographic works to photographs with captions or small notes to full text essays
with a few or many accompanying photographs. Photo essays can be sequential in
nature, intended to be viewed in a particular order, or they may consist of non-
ordered photographs which may be viewed all at once or in an order chosen by the
viewer. All photo essays are collections of photographs, but not all collections of

98
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

Introduction to Photography

photographs are photo essays. Photo essays often address a certain issue or attempt
to capture the character of places and events.

The business of journalism is communication. Photojournalism is

communication through photographs. A newspaper photo must tell the story
and tell it clearly; otherwise it is wasting valuable space in the paper.
Newspapers give the facts as soon after the event as possible, whereas magazines
can wait until more information is in and try to give the story more depth.

A modem photojournalist is a mixture of reporter, artist, and craftsperson. A

photographer is expected to determine in 1/500th of a second, whether a subject is
newsworthy, aesthetically pleasing, and technically possible to record on film.
Assignments during any one shift can run from coverage of a five-alarm fire to a
meeting with the governor. Consequently, photojournalists should be well-
educated, curious, and cool under stressful situations. Photographers must also be
humane, caring individuals aware of the many ethical concerns that are a part of
any news assignment.

QUESTIONS FOR PRACTICE

1. What is Photojournalism? Enlist the uses of Photography.

2. What are the tools of photography?
3. What is the role of the subject in photography?
4. The job of a photojournalist is very challenging. Discuss.
5. What are the various kinds of Photography?
6. Write a note on History & Development of Photography?
7. What is the role of ‘visualization’ in photography?
8. What qualities are essential for becoming a Photojournalist?
9. Write notes on:
a. Photo essay
b. Photo Feature
c. Impact of Technology on Photography
d. Photography Lighting Techniques
e. Film Development, Photo Paper
f. Chemicals and Equipment of Photography
g. Darkroom

99 Y
 Edited with the trial version of
Foxit Advanced PDF Editor
To remove this notice, visit:
www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

Introduction to Photography

SUGGESTED READINGS

1. Photography by Barbara London, John Upton & Jim Stone Prentice Hall
2. Photojournalism by Reuel Golden Carltna)
3. Master of Photography by Reuel Golden Carltna)
4. Digital Photojournalism by Balakrishna Aiyer Authors Press
5. Photojournalism and Today’s News: Creating Visual Reality by Loup
Lanton Willy -Blackwell

100