Acknowledgements

This book is the result of a great deal of work by very many people. At several stages a draft
was sent out to many different people, from a range of disciplines, who took the time to make
copious comments. The various comments and suggestions improved the final version
substantially and contributed greatly to the contents. I would also like to thank all the
members of the Ancient Tree Forum who have attended the field meetings and helped to
improve our knowledge of veteran trees.

I am especially grateful to David Lonsdale for contributing greatly to the physiological

aspects of tree growth and decay, Neil Sanderson for helping with the section on lichens and
mosses, Sheila Wright for help with bats, Maurice Waterhouse and the RSPB for the log-pile
design and Neville Fay and Mark Frater for all-round support and encouragement. Of the
many that read through the script at different stages special thanks are due to Rob Green for
such comprehensive comments also Tony Robinson, Rachel Thomas, Keith Kirby, Alan
Richardson and Roger Key for spending so much time reading through the various drafts.
(Thank you Roger for those comments that brought some light relief!)

I am grateful to all those who made comments on the various drafts of the book, helped
with specific sections and those who helped produce the glossary; my apologies to anyone
I may have inadvertently omitted:

Martyn Ainsworth Jeanette Hall Francis Rose

Keith Alexander Paul Harding Neil Sanderson
Jill Butler Peter Holmes Pete Shepherd
Alan Cathersides Harriet Jordan Paul Sinaduri
Fred Currie Richard Jefferson John Smith
Jeremy Dagley Roger Key Helen Stace
Caroline Davis Keith Kirby Rachel Thomas
Lesley Davies Norman Lewis Tom Wall
Neville Fay David Lonsdale Bob Warnock
Roy Finch Mike Martin Ashley Wheal
Vikki Forbes David Maylam John White
Adrian Fowles Peter Quelch The Whiting family
Mark Frater Oliver Rackham Ray Woods
Rob Green Paul Read Sheila Wright
Ted Green Alan Richardson
Jackie Haines Tony Robinson

The illustrations were drawn by Sarah Wroot. Several were adapted from originals by
Neville Fay and one (figure 11) from an original by Alex Shingo. I would like to thank the
following for permitting the use of their photographs for the following figures:

Keith Alexander (7, 9, 25, 26, 33) Rachel Thomas (48)

The Corporation of London (24a, 44a, 51) English Heritage (4, 31, 32)
English Nature (1, 13, 24) Ted Green (14, 15, 38)
Roger Key (43, 54) The National Trust (22, 45, 46, 50)
Jen Read (21)

Helen Read (February 2000)

All efforts have been made to trace the owners of material included in this book. We apologise
if there are cases where we have been unsuccessful. If you are aware of such a case, please
inform us so that we can amend future editions.

Page 4 Veteran Trees: A guide to good management

 Foreword

As we approach the new millennium spare a thought for the real veterans of this one - trees
several hundred, perhaps one or two even a thousand, years old.This book, produced by the
Veteran Trees Initiative, is the first dedicated solely to the care of the oldest living things in
our countryside.

Veteran trees are a significant part of our historic, cultural and ecological heritage,
treasured by many generations; in the past because of their economic and social value or as
elements of picturesque or romantic landscapes and more recently as a result of our increased
understanding of their considerable ecological importance.

In parallel with this has come greater understanding of the management they need.
Many of the techniques familiar to our forebears have been lost or swept aside and current
techniques have been re-assessed, notably through the lively meetings and discussions within
the Ancient Tree Forum.The Veteran Trees Initiative is therefore issuing this guidance as our
current understanding of best practice, although accepting that it may need to be revised in
the future.

The handbook gives practical advice on all aspects of veteran tree management, from the
importance of sometimes doing nothing at all to taking positive action for individual trees,
their habitats and dependent species. All is set in context by an understanding of the way in
which trees grow, age and decay.

This handbook is one of the most significant publications of the partnership which is the
Veteran Trees Initiative. I am sure it will become an invaluable reference handbook for all
those, from arboricultural professionals to countryside advisors, involved in the conser vation
and management of veteran trees whether for their ecological, landscape or historic value.
Other elements of the work of the Veteran Trees Initiative are now reaching fruition and will
be published shortly. Together they make a major contribution to the implementation of the
Lowland Wood-pasture and Parkland Habitat Action Plan, which English Nature leads.

Baroness Young of Old Scone

Chairman, English Nature
August 1999

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 Veteran Trees A Guide to Good Management

Contents

Preface

1 Introduction 11

2 What are veteran trees and why are they important? 13

3 How a tree grows, becomes old and decays 25

4 Management of veteran trees 35

5 Management of the land around veteran trees 49

6 Managing veteran trees of landscape and cultural interest 65

7 Management of veteran trees for other organisms 71

8 The next generation of veteran trees 105

9 Dealing with conflicting management priorities 111

10 Public access and veteran trees 115

11 Legal aspects of veteran tree management 117

12 Keeping records 119

13 Funding and advice 121

Glossary 123

Appendices

1 Common and scientific names of trees referred to in the text. 129

2 Lowland wood-pasture and parkland: A Habitat Action Plan. 131
3 Historical information on pollarding. 139
4 Species specific notes on cutting veteran trees and young trees
in order to create pollards for the future. 141
5 Calculating the amount of dead wood within a woodland. 151
6 Organisations giving advice and/or grant aid on veteran trees or
aspects of veteran trees. 153
7 List of abbreviations used in the text 155

References and further reading 157

Index 169

Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Page 5
 Chapter 1 Introduction

Veteran trees are an integral and valuable part of the lowland British landscape. They are the
old trees in woodland and parkland, the gnarled oaks in the hedgerows and the decaying
pollard willows along riversides. Our ancestors valued these trees as vital assets; they were part
of their subsistence and economy as well as objects of religious and social interest. In our more
urban society most veteran trees are no longer retained and managed for their produce.
A few have become tourist attractions because of their historical connections, but most are
forgotten and neglected. Many more have already been lost, felled to make room for
development, intensive agriculture and forestr y, or for safety reasons.

Recently there has been a resurgence of interest in these elderly trees. Their biological,
historical and cultural importance is slowly being recognised together with their aesthetic
appeal and the unique contribution they make to the landscape. These trees are as much a
part of our heritage as stately homes, cathedrals and works of art, and are a favoured subject
of many of our most important paintings and engravings. Many veteran trees, such as
pollards, exist as a result of man’s handiwork.

Britain is of European importance for the large number of old broadleaved trees still
surviving here.This is largely a result of historical factors which have allowed veteran trees in
Britain to survive while in other European countries, old trees have severely declined in
number or were rarely allowed to remain.

Across Britain the distribution of veteran trees is patchy. In some parts of the country
they are very scarce, in other areas they may be surprisingly abundant. Once you have begun
to notice old trees you start seeing them everywhere, village greens, churchyards, open farmland
and urban streets.

Interest in ancient trees has been stimulated in recent years by the formation of the
Ancient Tree Forum (ATF), which originated as a discussion group concerned with their
management. Two meetings on veteran tree management organised by the Corporation of
London resulted in publications (Read 1991, 1996) that have been widely disseminated.
Then in 1996 the Veteran Trees Initiative (VTI), a partnership started by English Nature, was
launched with the aim of promoting the conservation of veteran trees wherever they occur.
Publications arising from the Initiative so far include an introductory leaflet (English Nature
1996), a conference report (Bullock & Alexander 1998) and a book about Moccas Park
(Harding & Wall in press.). The interest of the general public has been stimulated by various
television programmes (eg Meetings with Remarkable Trees and Spirit of the trees),Trees of Time
and Place, the Great Trees of London project and the WATCH tree pack for children. The
conservation of veteran trees is being further encouraged through the Lowland
Wood-pasture and Parkland Habitat Action Plan (see Appendix 2) and promotion by the
Veteran Trees Initiative of the inclusion of old trees in Local Biodiversity Action Plans.
The increasing number of regional surveys of veteran trees will also help to establish their
distribution and abundance.

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 Chapter 2 What are Veteran Trees and w hy are they important?

2.1 What is a veteran tree?

• The term veteran tree is one that is not capable of precise definition but it
encompasses trees defined by three guiding principles:
• trees of interest biologically, aesthetically or culturally because of their age;
• trees in the ancient stage of their life;
• trees that are old relative to others of the same species.

• The girth of a tree is not a reliable criterion because different species and
individuals of tree have very different life spans and grow at different rates.

• Veteran trees can be identified by the presence of specific characteristic as

listed in the main text.

A veteran tree can be defined as: ‘a tree that is of interest biologically, culturally or
aesthetically because of its age, size or condition’. Some trees are instantly recognisable
as veterans but many are less obvious.

An alternative approach used by some people is to consider that the veteran, or ancient,
stage is the final one in the life of a tree when the cross-sectional areas of successive annual
rings in the main stem begin to decrease progressively. (Before this stage, successive rings will
have already narrowed, but their areas will have been roughly constant, owing to their
increasing girth.) In turn, the amount of leaf area that can be supported by the reduced
annual increment eventually results in dieback of the crown. For this reason veteran trees are
rarely tall with large crowns. In theory this definition sounds fine but in reality this growth
phase may not be clearly recognisable even though it may be the longest one in the tree’s life.
Dryden describing oaks is reputed to have said, ‘three centuries he grows and three he stays,
supreme in state, and in three more decays’.

Size alone is a poor characteristic for determining veteran status, although some rules of
thumb exist (see box). Different species of tree may grow to very different maximum sizes.
The simple comparison of a huge mature oak tree (Figure 1) with a small gnarled veteran
hawthorn (Figure 2) illustrates this point. In addition the same species can grow to very
different sizes in different situations and conditions.

Figure 1. See colour plate page 81.

Figure 2. See colour plate page 81.

A rough rule of thumb can be adopted for species, eg oak, in relation to size:

• Trees with a diameter at breast height of more than 1.0 m (girth 3.2 m) are
potentially interesting.

• Trees with a diameter of more than 1.5 m (girth 4.7m) are valuable in terms of
conservation.

• Trees with a diameter of more than 2.0 m (girth 6.25 m) are truly ancient.

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 Absolute age is also a poor indicator of ancient status for trees. Different species tend to live In addition the tree may also:
for varying numbers of years;thus age can only be used when considered in comparison with other • Have a pollard form or show indications of past management
trees of the same species. At 100 years of age a birch would be old and a willow extremely old. • Have a cultural/historic value
At 200 a beech would just be starting to become interesting, an oak just maturing and a yew still • Be in a prominent position in the landscape
beginning.One age-related definition sometimes used is that of an individual older than about half
the natural life span for that species (but defining the natural life span is also a challenge!) One of the difficulties of using the above list as an indicator of veteran status is that
young trees which have been physically damaged; eg by fire, can show these features, whereas
The increasing complexity of the tree with age results in a range of features in root,trunk some veterans may exhibit very few.
and branch; these features are often good indicators of old age.
While a veteran tree is alive, part of its value for wildlife is that it is a self-renewing
2.1.1 Characteristic features found on veteran trees resource. However, dead veteran trees continue to be valuable for wildlife because of their
slow rate of decay. Such trees are often greatly under-valued but they should be treated with
Listed below are characteristic features of veteran trees (see also Figure 3).The more the tree
almost as much respect as living ancient trees.
has, the stronger the indication that it is a veteran:

• Girth large for the tree species concerned It is not surprising that different people or organisations have slightly different ideas
• Major trunk cavities or progressive hollowing about how to recognise veteran trees. (Several surveys have used size as the sole, or major,
• Naturally forming water pools criterion but this can be misleading, as demonstrated above.) On the whole it is best to err
• Decay holes on the side of caution and remember that, even though your tree might not quite be a veteran
• Physical damage to trunk yet, with care it will become so, helping to ensure the continuity of ancient tree habitats.
• Bark loss
• Large quantity of dead wood in the canopy How have veteran trees survived in Britain?
• Sap runs
• Crevices in the bark, under branches or on the root plate sheltered from direct rainfall
A variety of factors have helped some veteran trees to persist in the British countryside (although
• Fungal fruiting bodies (e.g. from heart rotting species)
there have been huge losses in the past):
• High number of interdependent wildlife species
• Epiphytic plants
• An ‘old’ look • Many (if not most) trees were ‘working trees’ (Green 1994), ie their wood and
• High aesthetic interest leaves were used, as an essential part of everyday life, for much of the recorded
history of Britain. The management methods that predominated may have
Figure 3*. Diagram to show the features characteristic of a veteran tree. helped individual trees to survive (eg pollarding and coppicing).
• Very large trees were time consuming to fell and if the tree was rotten inside
then the timber value was considerably reduced. This helped the survival of,
for example the oaks at Birklands in Nottinghamshire, and Windsor Forest.
• Continuity of ownership on many estates. Changes of ownership may lead to
HOLEIN
NATURAL WATER POOLS
decisions to remove old trees.
BRANCHES
• Common land rights. Many veteran pollards were situated on common land
and were owned by one person while others managed them (unlike coppice
woodlands). This situation helped perpetuate their survival.
• Veteran trees have been incorporated into successive changes in the landscape.
HOLES FORWILDLIFE This occurred prior to and during the enclosure of land to form parkland and
DEAD WOOD
DEAD WOODIN CANOPY during the creation of design landscape parks by Lancelot (Capability) Brown
AERIAL ROOTS and Humphry Repton. The retention of veteran trees was considered to give
the parks an air of respectable antiquity (Rackham 1991).
• In Britain veteran trees have generally been revered and respected. Some old
SAP RUN
trees and some species of tree are regarded as sacred, which helped in their
survival (eg yew trees in churchyards).
CREVICESIN BARK

LOOSE BARK 2.2 Why are veteran trees important?

FUNGALFRUITINGBODIES

..those grey old men of Moccas, those grey, gnarled,low-browed,knock-kneed,bowed,bent,huge,

EPIPHYTIC PLANTS strange, long-armed, deformed, hunchbacked misshapen oak men that stand awaiting and watching
DEAD WOODON GROUND century after century biding God’s time with both feet in the grave and yet tiring down and seeing
out generation after generation.
The Reverend Francis Kilvert,1876.

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 The ‘grey old men’ from all over Britain have inspired artists and writers throughout the • They may be part of a designed landscape or garden. Many formally laid out
centuries. They have featured in the paintings of Thomas Hearne and John Peddar while gardens contain veteran trees, and avenues may be comprised of them.They are
Thomas Gray thought of them as ‘Reverend vegetables .. always dreaming out their old stories to also especially abundant in some of the landscapes designed by Lancelot Brown,
the wind’ (in a letter to Horace Walpole 1737). Notable specimens have been revered in the Humphry Repton and other landscape architects of the 18th and 19th centuries.
past and some have become tourist attractions, the Major Oak at Sherwood being a famous • They are especially important for biological reasons, providing conditions suitable
example. Through their individuality, veteran trees have high intrinsic appeal and are strong for a wide range of other plants and animals, many of which require the very special
‘characters’. A few people have found the distorted shapes of old, repeatedly cut, pollards environment created in an old tree. They have been likened to a block of flats.
grotesque but even then they still managed to inspire, as seen in the comments of a
journalist writing about Epping Forest. ‘Short,shabby, scrubby, indescribably mean and ugly they
were - something like warty railway sleepers with a shock head of twigs’ (journalist in Cole 1894). Fungal rotting of the heartwood and dead limbs results in a diversity of micro-habitats suitable
for other organisms including a potentially very wide range of invertebrates, dependent on such
All veteran trees are of historic interest; each is a survivor from the past, a relict of a different micro-habitats, and birds such as woodpeckers which prey on them. Epiphytes such as
former landscape. In addition to their importance as natural habitats,they are a valuable part mosses and lichens may require the old bark characteristic of veteran trees to grow on. Although
of our cultural heritage. This historic interest lies both in the individual trees, each of which some of the organisms are generalists, many are extremely specialist and are confined to veteran
is a living document telling us of past management practices and ways of life, and in the tree’s trees. Old trees, as a consequence of their rarity, harbour large numbers of rare and threatened
place in the wider countryside. The distribution of veteran trees in the landscape gives an species. The biological importance of a tree is greater if it lives long enough to perpetuate the
insight into former land use patterns. Each tree, or group of trees, deserves individual continuity of habitats for future generations.
consideration and study, perhaps combined with document-based research in local and
national archives to enable us to understand fully its historic context and importance.
• They provide an air of stability in an ever changing world.
Within the existing agricultural landscape, veteran trees are most frequently found as • Very old trees are more likely than younger trees to be descendants of the trees of
markers along old boundary banks and occur in long established hedgerows. As such they the natural wildwood that colonised Britain after the last ice age.This makes them
contribute to our knowledge of historic land divisions. Other veterans, particularly pollarded a reserve of important genetic material. (However, some veteran trees have been
willows, chart the course of rivers, or other water channels such as mill-leats, now often dry, demonstrated to be of introduced origin.)
visible on the ground only as archaeological traces. Veteran trees are closely associated with • They may be an important gene pool of trees showing particular characteristics,
wooded commons, now almost lost as a form of land management, and are also frequent in eg disease resistance or good epicormic growth (beneficial for good growth after
churchyards where their existence and location can be of great significance, sometimes pollarding but not for good quality commercial timber).
pre-dating Christianity. • The annual rings of old trees are historical records in their own right. They
illustrate past climate changes or cutting treatments, and the chemical nature of
Some of the highest concentrations of veteran trees are found in current and former the wood is a potential resource for research into past climates,pollution levels etc.
parkland. However early in date the origins of a park, all parks were developed from an existing (However, the decay process removes the rings as the tree becomes hollow).
landscape and in most cases features of the pre-park landscape were incorporated into the new
enclosure. Parks as they are today are invariably the result of several changes in ownership In addition, Britain has one of the highest populations of veteran trees in Europe (along
and fashion with each phase leaving its mark on the landscape. Successive designs tended to with Greece and Spain).
incorporate valuable features that were already present and veteran trees were often considered to
add maturity (see Figure 4). Our generation is not the first to treasure their presence.
Why populations of veteran trees are more important than isolated trees
Figure 4. See colour plate page 82.
• The more trees, the more alternative niches there are.
Some oaks alive today can be traced back to the medieval period or, in the case of some • Organisms that require precise micro-habitats are more likely to find enough to
yew trees, before the start of Christianity. Many more trees predate great architectural support viable populations.
structures of the 17th and 18th centuries that we admire and conserve. • Groups of veteran trees can yield more information about past practice, and their
population structure than single trees.
Despite surviving centuries, they are now largely at our mercy through the rapid pace of • Groups of veteran trees are less threatened by change than single trees.
change brought about by modern technology. It only takes a few minutes to condemn a tree
that has lived through more changes in its time than we can ever imagine.
2.3 Types and locations of veteran trees
In brief, veteran trees are of importance because:
Veteran trees found in Britain today can be described and assigned to categories according to
• They have aesthetic appeal and cause inspiration. their origin and past management. There are three widely found types of veteran tree:
• They may have a particular historic link, ie be associated with a specific person or event. maidens, coppice and pollards.
• They often illustrate past land use or cultural landscapes. For example veteran
trees are often found on wooded commons, in parkland, as boundary or field
markers and in ancient farmland landscapes.

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 2.3.1 Maiden trees 2.3.3.1 Where are veteran pollards found?

These are trees that have a trunk extending from the base to the upper crown and have • Wooded commons where commoners had rights to graze animals and cut or
not been cut in any way other than perhaps minor tree surgery. They may be woodland trees collect wood (eg Ashtead Common, Surrey). Village greens are another form of
that have grown up with other trees close by and thus tend to have a ‘narrow’ profile with a common where veteran pollards may be found.
tall stem and small canopy, or they may be open grown with a much wider crown and bigger • Parklands. Private, enclosed, land usually grazed by deer, occasionally cattle
branches lower down the trunk. Open grown trees may subsequently be surrounded by (eg Moccas, Herefordshire).
younger woodland and a woodland grown tree may be exposed by the felling of surrounding • Wooded Royal Forests. Land governed by special laws where deer owned by the
woodland. Trees planted and left to grow without intervention, for example as part of an Crown or a wealthy land-owner were kept. Often these forests incorporated
avenue or designed landscape, are usually maidens. existing areas with commoners’ rights (eg Hatfield Forest, Essex)
• As farm trees for a local wood supply, scattered about the farm and sometimes in
2.3.2 Coppice stools hedges. Some farmsteads almost had miniature ‘parks’ around them (eg in the Lake
District). In places this can produce a pollard landscape (eg parts of the Cotswolds).
A coppiced tree is one cut near ground level, then allowed to produce new shoots from • Upland grazed woodlands. Most upland woods were unenclosed and grazed by
the stool. The shoots from a block of woodland are cut repeatedly in cycles of varying length sheep, cattle or deer especially during the winter months. This practice continues
depending on the size of sticks or poles required. A range of tree species produce coppice today, although in the 18th and 19th centuries many woods were enclosed.
growth, some much more readily than others. Although the growth from a coppice stool is The trees in these woods were sometimes pollarded, especially oak and ash. Some
usually quite young, the stool itself can be extremely old. These veteran trees can be very upland woods were summer grazed and may have contained a wider range of
different in shape to maidens or pollards. Generally speaking , the larger the stool width or pollarded species, including alder, hazel, birch, ash and rowan.
height, the older the stool (within species). For example, an ash stool 2 m in diameter has • As boundary markers between, for example, parishes or areas of different ownership
been estimated to be over 500 years old and a 16 m diameter lime stool was estimated at (eg East Anglia and Kent). Also as boundaries between different ‘panels’ of woodland,
2000 years old (John White pers. comm.). Very old coppice stools may rot out in the centre, where at least some were grown out from layered hedges (D. Maylam pers. comm.).
leaving a circle of apparently younger stools. Coppice largely occurs in woodlands managed • As elements within the designed landscape (eg clumps, avenues and pleasure gardens).
specifically in this way but is also found on ancient wood or boundary banks, along rivers and • Churchyards. Although not pollarded, yew trees are associated with churches,
in hedges. Some coppice has not been cut for many years and may take on a tree-like other species such as lime were frequently planted and may have been pollarded
appearance. to keep them manageable. In addition, many churchyards were grazed in the past.
• Beside rivers and in withy beds (for the production of willow branches for
2.3.3 Pollards baskets, etc.) Often these trees are in grazed meadows but sometimes they are low
pollards, cut above ground for the ease of cutting rather than to protect shoots
A pollard is a tree cut like a coppice but well above the ground (Figure 5). Usually, the from grazing animals. Black poplars were pollarded in damp meadows close to
reason for cutting high up was to allow animals to graze among the trees without damaging rivers. Pollards were also used to help stabilise banks along roadsides in areas of
the next crop of branches by browsing them. Thus the height of the pollard was partly wet fen and bog.
determined by the type of animal (that to deter sheep did not need to be as high as that where • As urban or street trees. Cut regularly to control the size for safety reasons and to
cattle were grazed). The products of pollarding were leaves, twigs and bark for animal reduce the risk of soil shrinkage that might cause subsidence of buildings.
fodder, bark for tanning and wood for fuel and charcoal. Pollards were probably first cut
when the maiden tree was quite young and small in girth with subsequent cuts made at
Lapsed pollards
regular or irregular intervals. In some places it seems unlikely that pollarding was carried out
in such a formal and regular cycle as occurred with coppicing. The proportion of
There are considerable numbers of pollards, and coppice, that have not been cut for many years.
branchwood removed at each cut was probably also variable. In the case of willow trees all
As the importance of fuel wood and fodder declined and coal became more widely available the
the growth was removed each time. For other trees, e.g. beech, it seems likely that some
need for actively managed wood-pasture decreased. This resulted in lapsed pollards, ie those that
branches were cut while others were left (see also chapter 4). Pollarding is sometimes taken
have not been cut for many years. The branches have grown for many more years than would
to be the total beheading of the tree, but here a pollard is taken to mean a tree cut back once
have been the case in the past and have become large and heavy (Figure 6). The trunk or bolling
or more (to a similar point) by removing a substantial number of branches. The presence of
of the tree may not be able to support the weight and it becomes vulnerable to wind damage either
a number of pollarded trees in a group is often a good indication that the area was
lifting the root plate or splitting the bolling. This presents one of the most difficult management
wood-pasture or parkland at some point in the past, though willow pollards are not necessarily
problems, which will be addressed in chapter 4.
associated with grazed systems.

Many, but by no means all, of the veteran trees in Britain today have been pollarded at
Figure 6. See colour plate page 83.
some stage in their life. However, pollards are not necessarily old trees. The majority of young
trees pollarded in recent years can be found in urban situations and on some sites with
veteran pollards where owners/managers are now starting to create new pollards.

Figure 5. See colour plate page 82.

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 2.3.4.1 Bundles
Wood-pasture
The term bundle is used to describe a tree, which by design or accident has originated from
Silva pastilis or wood-pasture (Figure 7) is distinguished from silva minuta (underwood) in the two or more seedlings or plants grown in close proximity. Bundles are normally, but not always,
Domesday Book. In most wood-pastures the trees were actively managed. of the same species. As the young trees grow the individuals become very closely pressed together.
Some single boles show natural fluting and convolutions and it is rarely possible in single species
A wood-pasture can be defined as a land use combining trees and grazing animals (either stock groupings to be confident of their origin by visual inspection. Because of the way that they grow,
or deer) where often (not always): bundles often have many of the characteristics associated with veteran trees. Reasons for planting
• The trees are old and at low density. bundles are not always known but broadly speaking three main types can probably be distinguished:
• The trees are frequently managed by pollarding.
• The grazing tends to be long and sustained,leading to a different structure and • a naturally occurring bundle, the result of an accident of seed fall or an animal
species composition than ungrazed woods in similar soils. burying a cache of seeds that then germinate;
• a forester planting trees who slips several in a hole together to finish the task quicker;
Wood-pastures vary between very open and very dense,and three broad types are found: • the result of a planned decision to create a bundle or multi-stemmed tree.
• Grazed high forest with woodland type flora. This can be for several reasons, for example:
• ‘Parkland’ with a ground flora showing few woodland elements. • for landscape purposes, often in designed landscapes to create a wide
• Grazed coppice in which livestock are temporarily excluded until the regrowth spreading crown more quickly. For example, it was recommended by Evelyn in the
is out of reach. 17th century and is a technique known to landscapers;.
• for agricultural purposes. In some wood-pastures a few bundles can be found.
Wood-pastures that are no longer grazed are termed ‘former wood-pastures’. This may of course be accidental but it has been suggested that they might have been
deliberately managed to confer distinct benefits, eg produce seed (when all the other
Figure 7. See colour plate page 83. trees around them were pollarded regularly and did not).

2.3.4.2 Fused coppice stools. These are abandoned coppice stools where the stems have
Why ancient wood-pastures are good for wildlife grown close enough together to have fused for some distance above the original stool.They
can be difficult to distinguish from bundles.
• They tend to have a wide range of tree age classes with veterans well
represented (even though the veterans are often the result of management). 2.3.4.3 Shredded trees. A tree where the side branches are cut back repeatedly with a small
• They tend to have a mosaic of glades, open and dense woodland. tuft sometimes retained at the top of the tree. These are now very rare in Britain, though relics
• The tree boles are often well lit and not heavily shaded by scrub or brambles occur in the New Forest (N. Sanderson pers. comm.), but they still occur in other countries
(unlike ungrazed woodland), a condition favoured by many species. such as France. Most shreds are probably not particularly old.
• There tends to be a high quantity of dead and dying wood on the living trees.
2.3.4.4 Coppards. Trees coppiced and then later pollarded (or bundle planted trees later
These conditions are better represented in wood-pasture than other modern managed woods. pollarded), a feature of parts of Epping Forest (Essex) and Dalkeith Old Park (Mid Lothian).
Sites with a combination of wood-pasture and old growth woodland tend to be the most valuable
in terms of nature conservation. 2.3.4.5 Singled coppice stools. A coppice stool where one limb has been retained, when
the others were cut, and is left to grow on as a tree (ie is stored).

2.3.3.2 Regional variations 2.3.4.6 Layered trees. Layering is a means by which some tree species naturally regenerate.
Old trees may fall over completely and then re-grow or collapse and layer well away from the
Pollard form varies between regions owing to different management. In more northerly original base. This is characteristic of lime, willow, alder, black poplar, medlar and bird cherry
countries the importance of the trees for winter fodder (from the leaves and bark) was greater but can occur in any species. A particularly notable example is the Tortworth Chestnut. The
and in many situations the land under the trees was used for making hay (see Bergendorff & term phoenix regeneration has been applied to trees that have fallen over, or split apart, and
Emanuelsson 1996 and Hæggström 1998). In northern areas of Britain this practice of successfully continued growing.
pollarding was sometimes called cropping. Leaves from pollards may have been used as
fodder less frequently when agricultural techniques provided a wider range of winter fodder 2.3.4.7 Orchard trees. These trees are pruned to encourage fruit production and for ease
crops. In recent times hedgerow trees were pollarded in Nottinghamshire as a ‘last resort’ for of management but the act of pruning will enable the trees to live longer than they otherwise
cattle in bad years (N. Lewis pers. comm.). Holly is also currently cut in the New Forest for might. Veteran orchard trees have a very distinct invertebrate fauna associated with them.
winter pony fodder and in Killarney for sheep.
2.3.4.8 Naturally damaged trees. The effect of browsing, wind, fire, grey squirrel or oak
2.3.4 Other types of veteran trees scale insect damage can act in a similar way to pollarding. Usually these events shorten the
life of the tree but they can create similar conditions to those found in veteran trees. Where
In addition to the three main categories several other types may be found (see also Figure 8). the top of a tree has been removed by an agent other than man it is often referred to as a
natural pollard or having been self-pollarded.

Page 20 Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Page 21
 The categories are differentiated according to management practices and if these have • neglect (lapsed pollards having heavy branches that the tree is unable to support);
changed or ceased for long periods it becomes difficult, if not impossible, to assign trees • inappropriate past management (eg filling cavities with concrete, girdling with
confidently to a particular category. For example, a tree pollarded once or twice, then grown chains and iron bands);
on for over 50 years may be indistinguishable from an open grown maiden with a • unskilled tree surgery (eg cutting into the bolling, uncontrolled major limb
multi-stemmed crown. removal, damaging retained limbs);
• inappropriate management of surrounding land (eg ploughing close to the trees,
use of agricultural sprays and fertilisers or damage to roots by development,
Figure 8. Diagram to show some of the types of veteran trees. trenching and cable installation);
• inappropriate grazing levels (too little results in tree cover that can shade out the
old trees, too much does not allow any tree regeneration and can lead to bark
stripping, soil compaction, enrichment etc.);
• rapid changes in water table levels or surface water causing drought (eg owing to
increased abstraction or naturally induced) or water-logging owing to raised levels;
• fire - externally, eg through fires in the surrounding land, bonfires, or internally
owing to vandalism;
• pollution - remote, from industry and traffic, or localised, eg toxic rubbish such as
oil and chemicals close to the tree, salt on roadside trees or nitrogen enrichment
owing to manure and compost heaps;
MAIDENTREE COPPARD COPPICE
• trampling/soil compaction - caused by livestock, people or vehicles (see Figure 9);
• bark damage - caused by people, vehicles or livestock;
• disease - eg Dutch elm, oak dieback;
• lightning strike.

SHREDDEDTREE
Often some of these threats are accelerated when land changes ownership.

Populations of old trees and their associated wildlife are also threatened, in
additional ways by:

• isolation and fragmentation;

MANAGED POLLARD LAPSEDPOLLARD LAYERING
• lack of a new generation of old trees;
• removal of standing dead trees and dead wood.

Figure 9. See colour plate page 83.

2.5 Why manage veteran trees?

Management of veteran trees is often needed to ensure that the threats, identified before, do
not cause loss of the trees and the value associated with them. Active management may not
involve doing very much for most of the time. The essential point is that the trees and
BUNDLE PLANTING STORED STEM PHOENIX REGENERATION their situation are checked at regular inter vals and management car r ied out only if
it is necessar y. Each situation must be assessed individually.

2.4 Threats to veteran trees The broad reasons for managing old trees have changed quite considerably over the
years. From Neolithic times until the 18th century the chief reason for the management
There is a tendency to view old trees as immutable and immortal. They have of woodlands and trees was for their wood, timber, bark, leaves etc. In the 18th and
demonstrated their resilience to past threats but some of the potential threats of today have 19th centuries the recreation of the wealthy started to become an influence and people
no precedents or are on a scale, or are taking place at a rate, that may outstrip the ability of desired places for quiet walking, picnics and exercise. In the 20th century reasons for
the trees to adapt. Vigilance is needed to identify future threats. Those most frequently management have changed again. As the need for small-scale wood (pollard products)
encountered today are: declined many existing trees were just neglected. Others were removed in the process of
urbanisation and agricultural intensification. Those that remain have become valued for
• felling - to obtain the wood and timber, for safety reasons, to increase tidiness, for amenity and biological values. Coupled with this, an interest in repairing landscapes has
change in land use (eg development or agriculture) or for landscape reasons; developed, especially designed ones.
• competition from surrounding trees both planted and naturally occurring (or
sudden release from competing trees);

Page 22 Veteran Trees:A guide to good management Veteran Trees:A guide to good management Page 23
 In the last decade the importance of biological value has been further focussed by the
Rio Convention on Biological Diversity and so current management aims to provide a
continuation of habitat. If no management is carried out habitats associated with veteran
trees will be lost. Dependent specialised species of limited mobility will die out. Management
may also take place for landscape, economic, or cultural reasons or a combination of several
of these. An opposing pressure has come from a different quarter; as Britain becomes an
increasingly litigious society the ‘management’ of trees for safety reasons has also grown
substantially.

Reasons for managing old trees:

• to safeguard the genetic resource;

• to provide continuity of habitat for wildlife;
• to keep individual trees alive for as long as possible, enabling a new generation of
trees to replace the old ones;
• to maintain traditional practices;
• to perpetuate maturity and continuity within landscapes;
• to perpetuate aesthetic values eg characteristic landscape features;
• to increase the landscape value;
• for historical reasons - association or landmark trees;
• to fulfil safety responsibilities.

Continued management today and into the future depends upon those who have
stewardship of veteran trees acknowledging their present value and ideally finding new values.

Further reading: Alexander, Green & Key. (1996), Barwick (1996), Bergendorff &
Emanuelsson (1996), Damant (1996), Debois Landscape Survey Group (1997), English
Nature (1996), Green (1994, 1995c, 1996a, 1996b), Hæggström (1992, 1994, 1998),
Le Sueur (1931), Peterken (1996), Pott (1989), Quelch (1997), Rackham (1986, 1991),
Rush (1999), Sanderson (1998a, 1998b), Smout & Watson (1997), Watson (1997).

Page 24 Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Veteran Trees: A guide to good management
 Chapter 3 How a tree grows, becomes old and decays

3.1 Tree growth

This section outlines the principles of tree growth that have consequences for management
techniques. It is not the intention to give a detailed account of the physiology of trees.

3.1.1 Tree growth

A cross section of a tree (Figure 10) illustrates some of the features important for growth.
The bark forms a protective, waterproof layer, and actually consists of several layers, the
innermost of which is the phloem , which transports food from the leaves to the rest of the tree.
Inside the phloem is the cambium , which is the region of growth, or meristematic, cells. These
cells divide, forming phloem to the outside and xylem to the inside. The xylem is where the water
is transported from the roots to the leaves and forms the wood of future years. The outer bark
usually remains a relatively thin structure (although it can compose up to 10% of the radius in
veteran trees) but the wood builds up so that the overall girth of the trees gets bigger each year as well
as the tree, usually, increasing in height. Trees are not perfect cylinders however; they taper towards
the top and the higher up a tree a cut is made across it, the fewer the rings that can be counted.

Recently formed xylem (sapwood) consists of conductive pipes surrounded by living

parenchyma (packing) cells. In some tree species (eg beech) the living cells progressively die over
a period of years and the tissue becomes non-conductive. This older, non-conductive wood is then
called r ipewood . In other species (eg oak) the living xylem cells are genetically programmed to
die after a certain period of time (approximately 10 years in oak) and after this is termed
heartwood . Heartwood may contain substances that increase its resistance to decay. The variation
in wood formation and structure between different tree species has consequences for the rotting
processes and the organisms associated with rotting and also the longevity of the tree.

3.1.2 Annual growth

Living trees always add annual increments of sapwood,

although their width may vary according to growing conditions and ANNUALRINGS

the age of the tree. Trees in Britain hardly grow in the winter
months. In the spring they grow very fast; the wood produced has
large cells with thin walls and is the earlywood . Later in the year,
when the growth is slower, latewood results, with smaller cells and HEARTWOOD
thicker cell walls. These differences in growth are seen as rings in OR RIPEWOOD

the wood when a tree is felled. (False rings can occur some years SAPWOOD
due to lammas (late summer) growth or after a stressful weather
event such as a drought). The relative widths of the
annual rings can give an indication of the growth rate of the tree in
a particular year. There may, though, be variation between
branches on the same tree eg one side may be growing more quickly OUTERBARK

than the other, and this can give rise to eccentric rings.
PHLOEM

Pollarding has a considerable impact on annual rings and tree

growth. After cutting , the crown is reduced in size, so for the first CAMBIUM

few years the trunk of the tree expands slowly and the rings are
narrow. The width of the rings gets gradually wider (varying of
course with other local conditions) until either the tree is cut again, Figure 10. Diagram of the internal
or it resumes the growth rate of a maiden uncut tree. structure of a tree .

Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Page 25
 3.1.3 Forming new branches While growth from dormant buds arises from a deep-seated connection to the trunk of
the tree, adventitious growth is much more superficial. As a result it is not as strong and is
There are two different processes by which a tree can produce new branches from old more easily broken. The presence of adventitious growth on old trees is encouraging but often
stems: from dormant buds (also called epicormic growth) and as adventitious growth. of less value than growth from dormant buds in the long term. Again, some species of tree
In addition the growth of existing small stems may increase, relative to others, following tree are better at producing adventitious growth than others. Oak is generally poor, beech is often
surgery or damage. cited as being good, but recent experiences at Burnham Beeches and Epping Forest with both
old and young trees has not borne this out. Adventitious growth may develop better from
3.1.3.1 Epicormic growth from dormant buds (Figure 11) natural tears rather than saw cuts, owing to the increased exposure of the cambium.

Dormant buds form from the growing stem or branch of the tree, but do not develop any 3.1.3.3 Growth of existing branches
further at that time. They become embedded in the bark but, by growing a small amount each
year they are able to maintain their position and not become completely engulfed by the wood Crown reduction in old trees may produce a third form of growth as a result of light
as the tree expands in thickness. Sometimes they can divide to form additional buds that also reaching retained branches that were previously receiving low levels of light. As a consequence,
remain dormant. small existing shoots grow rapidly into the light. As the years progress,they become the major
branches. This type of growth is characteristic of trees that generally respond poorly to
Hormones, such as auxins, from the crown of the tree probably keep the buds in a being pollarded (eg conifers and beech), and this is how the classic candelabra-shaped beech
suppressed condition, but if some change in the root to foliage ratio occurs in the tree this pollards arise.
alters the balance of the hormones and the dormant buds may start to grow. The types of
change that stimulate growth include ring barking, severe pruning, exposure of the tree to Figure 11. Diagram to show how a branch g rows.
increased light levels and water-logging.

Some species of tree lay down more dormant buds (eg oak, lime, English elm, poplar
BRANCH BARKRIDGE
species,ash) than others (eg beech). Dormant buds can survive in a suppressed condition for
many years and then grow when conditions are favourable. However their viability does TRUNK COLLAR

decline over long periods of time. The longevity of buds is believed to be in the region of 100
years for oak, 60 years for hornbeam and sweet chestnut and less than this for beech and
willow. This is one of the reasons why old trees are less able to respond to cutting than young TRUNK COLLAR BRANCH COLLAR
ones. It is also thought that, as the trunk of the tree has only a fixed number of dormant buds, ( PREVIOUSYEAR )

repeated pollarding will eventually exhaust the supply. Trees cut repeatedly at short intervals,
such as street limes and planes have shown a decline in response to cutting over a long BRANCH COLLAR
(PREVIOUSYEAR )
period of time, which may be due to the fixed number of dormant buds. Thus, leaving some
young growth on the tree may increase the chance of viable dormant buds being present and
hence the chance of regrowth. Dormant buds are not usually distributed evenly over the
surface of the tree but form in clusters. Rough bark or burrs may indicate a higher density
and trees that have these features may respond better to cutting than smooth barked trees.
Some epicormic shoots grow from the buds as soon as they are formed, ie the buds do not
have a dormant period.

In many situations epicormic growth is viewed as a detrimental characteristic. Where

shoots occur they cause knots in the wood and this reduces the timber value of trees such as
oak. They are potentially hazardous in street trees where lots of small branches projecting
from the main stem can damage cars and hurt pedestrians. There may also be a genetic
component in the production of such growth habits. For the success of pollarding ,
however , the more dormant buds the better the chance of regrowth and survival.
Perpetuating the genetic stock of trees on sites where pollarding has been carried out in the TRUNKOFTREE

past may be better than planting commercial stock, which is likely to have been selected
because it produces high quality timber with few knots and therefore few dormant buds.

3.1.3.2 Adventitious growth 3.1.3.4 Repeated cutting

Adventitious buds form when a tree is damaged. They result from injury or pruning, Repeated cutting back to the same point may result in swollen areas. This can be seen
developing from the callus tissue that forms at the point of damage. Typically a cluster of in old trees and also younger street trees which have been cut many times. This has been
small shoots develops but it is unusual for them to persist for many years. attributed to the active growth points attracting a good supply of food, which results in excessive
wood production and/or reaction wood, the result of loading from developing branches.

Page 26 Veteran Trees:A guide to good management Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Page 27
 3.2 The stages in the life of a tree year and the tree is even less able to maintain a complete cover of woody material
over the whole stem area. This process is called retrenchment and is seen most
Trees do not have a fixed life span; some die before reaching veteran status, others will visibly as ‘stag-headed’ trees (Figure 13), typically in oak. This does not mean that
become veterans at a much earlier age than might be expected. There is considerable the tree is about to die, it is a condition that can persist for many decades or even
variation both between and within different tree species. The life of a tree in natural centuries. Retrenchment is not the only cause of stag-headed trees, it can also occur
conditions may pass through three main stages (Figure 12): in younger trees, brought on by drought,disease, insect damage, root disturbance or
pollution. The response of the tree results in a new balance between the area of
1. Formativ e - This is the stage when most of the energy produced by a tree is used woody material and that of the leaves. A tree in the last phase of its life that has
for growth. There is a rapid increase in size as it grows from a seedling to a fully retrenched can be very healthy and vigorous despite extensive decay and dieback.
mature tree. Crown size and leaf area increases each year, until the canopy is This stage may be also be the longest in the life of the tree.
fully developed. The widths of the annual rings are similar each year but because
the whole tree is getting bigger, the cross-sectional area covered by each The ancient stage can be further subdivided into three phases.
successive ring is g reater. • Early ancient. When, over a period of years, there is a trend for the amount of dieback
2. Full to late maturity - This starts when the optimum crown size is reached. to exceed growth.
The amount of food produced from the leaves remains much the same each year
• Mid-ancient. When the annual rings cannot form all the way round the stem and
and results in a more or less constant volume of wood being laid down. However,
some discontinuities start.
as the tree gets ever larger, this volume is spread increasingly thinly, thus the
rings in the stem decline in width. • Senescent. The terminal decline of the tree, leading to death.
3. Ancient (Veteran stage) - This is the stage reached when the successive
increments added to the tree, seen as the rings of wood, have a reducing Tree species vary in the proportion of time they spend in each of these phases. Willow
cross-sectional area, but the tree is still increasing in girth. The crown dies back and birch tend to have an extremely short ‘mature phase’ whereas others, such as yew can
and branches may be lost, damage and decay also reduces productivity. The result grow in cycles, passing from ancient back to formative growth. All the stages are a
is that as the leaf area declines, less new photosynthetic material is produced each continuous process and of variable length. Once a tree has reached the middle ancient stage,
nothing should be done to encourage the speeding up of the ageing process and the aim
Figure 12. The stages in the life of a tree. should be to keep it in this phase for as long as possible. When discontinuities in the annual
rings develop, the tree is at its most vulnerable stage.

3.2.1 Other aspects of the veteran stage

Veteran trees that are retrenching tend to show a diminished growth rate and a drop in
reproductive output. They are also slower to occlude wounds if damaged. They tend to
develop other features and characteristics to a greater extent than younger trees (eg cavities
in the trunk, seepages, dead loose bark, dead wood in the canopy and physical damage). One
A B C D E F G
important point to note is that, as the tree ages it becomes more valuable for a wide
STAGES IDEAL NATURAL STATE: OPTIMUMGR OWTH
range of other organisms and its habitat value increases .
FORMATIVE A -B INFANCYPRE -SEXUAL MATURITY: YOUNGTREE , HIGHVITALITY GERMINATION
GROWTHENHANCEDBY MYCORRHIZAL ROOT ASSOCIATES
3.3 Assessing the age of a tree
B-C JUVENILE TO EARLY MATURITY: CONTINUED FAST GROWTH
NETINCREASEINANNUALINCREMENT LOW HABITAT HIGHVITALITY
LOW VOLUMEOF DYSFUNCTIONALTISSUE CONTRIBUTION Assessing the age of a veteran tree is not an easy task and is usually, at best,an estimate. There
FULL TO LATE C-D FULL TO LATE MATURITY: GROWTH TO PEAKCR OWNSIZE are a number of methods that can be used, however.
MATURITY COLONISATION BYSAPR OXYLIC (DEADWOOD) INVERTEBRATES
MAXIMUMPOLLINATIONANDSEED CAPACITY
ONSETOF NATURAL LIMBLOSS
INCREASEOF DYSFUNCTIONALTISSUE
• Taking a core is one option but many veteran trees are hollow or rotten to a greater
ACCELERATED FUNGAL COLONISATIONAND ACTIVITY or lesser extent. Coring is also detrimental as it can cause damage in an undesirable
ANCIENT D -E EARLY ANCIENTSTAGE: RETRENCHMENTOFCROWN: REDUCTIONINNETANNUALINCREMENT place (Shigo, 1986a illustrates the possible consequences of taking a core from a tree
CONTRACTIONOFLIVECROWN
INCREASEDVEGETATIVEVITALITYINLOWERCROWN in terms of the rot induced.) Felling a veteran tree to count the rings should, of course,
INCREASEDFUNGAL ACTIVITYAND WOODDECAY
INCREASEDCOLONISATIONBYFLORAANDSAPR OXYLIC FAUNA
never be done! Counting the rings on major branches (cut during the course of work
or fallen) from veteran trees can sometimes give an indication of age. An allowance
E -F LATEANCIENTST AGE: ADVANCEDRETRENCHMENT
DECLINEIN CROWNSIZEANDANNUALINCREMENT
INCREASING
NUTRIENT
GRADUAL
DECLINE
of years for the tree to produce the branch should be added to the ring count.
EXTENSIVE HOLLOWING
CROWNCOLLAPSE
STATUSOF
TREEFOR
INVITALITY • Age based on tree girth I. Because of the variation in growth rate throughout the
DECLININGVITALITY COLONISERS different stages in the life of a tree, caused by differing conditions of soil type,
ADVANCED HEARTWOOD DECAY AND HOLLOWING
ADVANCED ACTIVITYBY FAUNAAND FLORA INCREASING nutrient status, rainfall etc and the even greater variation between different species
HABITAT
F - G SENESCENT: TERMINALDECLINE : TREEDEATH it is difficult to extrapolate age from girth measurements. There are some rules of
CONTINUING FUNGAL ACTIVITY
PEAKOF SAPROXYLIC ACTIVITY
thumb that can help. Mitchell (1974) states that one inch (25 mm) of girth (at breast
DEATH
NUTRIENTRECYCLING
height, 1.2 m from the ground) is equivalent to one year’s growth for a free standing
tree and 1/2 inch (13 mm) in a tree within a woodland setting. This approximation of
Figure 13. Sweet chestnut trees at Croft Castle Herefordshire). A standing dead tree is in the age is only helpful for some species of tree (eg oak) that are in middle age and have
foreground and stag headed trees behind. (see colour plate page 84) . not been cut. It is of very limited value with regard to old trees.

Page 28 Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Page 29
 • Age based on tree girth II This is a more accurate (and thus more complicated)
The value of pollarding and working trees
system also based on tree girth developed by J. White. It has been calibrated using a
variety of older trees where the planting date is known and provides the best estimates
When humans started clearing the forest they removed many of the conditions that saproxylic
of age available. (For a description of methods and the relevant tables used for
species (or wood decay communities) required such as dead wood on the ground and within trees
calculation see White, 1998.)
and standing dead trees. While this must have been detrimental to many populations of
• Age/size ratios within species . Different species of tree grow at very different
saproxylic species the human management of the trees eg pollarding and coppicing, created very
paces but it is possible to build up a table of girth sizes and estimated age for a
similar conditions in a different way. Almost all trees may, at one time, have been used or
particular species, though even within a species there is considerable variation.
managed and these can be referred to as ‘working trees’. The increased life expectancy of
Yew has been studied with this aspect in mind (Baxter 1992).
working trees and the characteristics they developed enabled the perpetuation of suitable niches
• Site-specific information. It is possible to draw up a table for a particular species
for a range of species in the wood decay community despite the change in the landscape that
on a particular site that allows figures for girth to give an estimate of age and which
resulted.
may be able to take into account the effects of historical management such as pollarding
(eg Le Sueur 1931). These may not correlate well with data from other sites.

As a general principle it is almost impossible to age pollards, or trees that have 3.5 The decay process
undergone natural crown loss, by the methods given above.
The process of decay in wood is a complex subject and the details are only just starting to be
3.4 Why does pollarding or cutting cause trees to live longer? understood. There are many different agents involved, which make it very difficult to
establish the relative importance of each. What is clear however, is that fungi have a
A normal tree reaches the veteran stage when the size of the crown is not large enough to fundamental role in the process. The work of A. Rayner, L. Boddy, A. Shigo, F. Schwarze and
produce enough food to maintain the same cross-sectional area for each annual ring. During D. Lonsdale has helped enormously in establishing how fungi behave within living trees and
the process of retrenchment the photosynthetic area is reduced, as is the surface area of the dead wood and how the tree responds. The following sections summarise the crucial points
woody branches, so that less food is required by the tree. with respect to living trees. Section 7.5 considers the conservation of fungi in relation to
veteran trees.
Reducing the size of the crown at intervals delays the veteran stage in a tree’s life when
the demand for water and nutrients outstrips its ability to increase the root area to absorb
3.5.1 Compartmentalisation
them. A reduced crown also reduces the risk of wind throw, owing to the relatively low stature
(short ‘lever-arm’) and small ‘sail area’, but a long abandoned pollard with a large sail area
Trees have no wound healing processes, as animals do, but they do have a way of
may become particularly vulnerable.
limiting any damage caused. If a tree has been damaged and is then cut some years later it
In addition, the multiple branches from the top of the bolling produce a larger number can be seen to have dried out,the dysfunctional area of wood extending back from the wound.
of vascular connections into the trunk than in a normal tree. These, in effect, form separate This area often has a sharp boundary wall between it and the rest of the tree as shown by a
compartments and it is less easy for pathogenic agents, or aggressive decay fungi, to spread difference in the colour of the wood (Figure 14). This process of boundary setting has been
through the entire tree. termed compartmentalisation.

Severe wounding of a tree is similar to pollarding and has four main effects: The sharp boundary results from a response of living cells to the ingress of air and/or
• exposure of cut surfaces to micro-organisms; micro-organisms and may represent a barrier between healthy and damaged areas. If a tree is
• drying out of wood from the cut surfaces; badly damaged it spends energy in compartmentalising, leaving less for growth, which can
• reduction in the volume of foliage and sapwood in the tree and thus its existing result in a smaller annual ring. The more areas that are ‘sealed off’, the less tissue is available
stores of carbohydrates and the capacity to replace them; for the tree to distribute food and water to its various parts. Eventually, when there are
• loss of shoot tips which disrupts hormonal co-ordinating signals and affects growth. too many dysfunctional compartments and the distribution of new sapwood becomes
discontinuous, the tree is unable to maintain vital functions and death results. However, the
Wounds result in the drying out of an area of wood, causing decay. The larger the more compartments there are in a tree, the more structural diversity there is and so the
amount of wounding (as on an old tree with all branches removed) the more drying out and larger the number of niches and habitats for other organisms. The exact processes by which
dieback with the increased chance of infection by micro-organisms. The ability of the tree to compartmentalisation and bar rier formation occurs remains unclear.
compartmentalise (see section 3.5.1) will be reduced because of its severely reduced
photosynthetic area. It seems that a few trees are able to cope with this situation although Figure 14. See colour plate page 84.
willows can grow new shoots from an old bole. If some branches are retained on the tree, the
amount of exposure, drying out, and infection by micro-organisms is decreased. However, 3.5.2 Fungal colonisation
these areas will be restricted to strips of xylem and phloem associated with the cut branches.
For this reason (and to keep the sap wood active) it is best to retain good connections of xylem It seems likely that fungi colonise living trees in two main ways:
and phloem throughout the tree,thus maintaining ‘channels’of living tissue between the roots • from the outside. In the simplest scenario, physical damage to a tree weakens its
and shoots. In some old trees that have been cut back heavily on one side this connection has physical defences and makes conditions suitable for the fungus to colonise,become
been broken and the tree has died back completely thus resulting in a ‘lop-sided’ tree. established and grow;
Leaving branches, at least small ones, all round the bolling is therefore advisable.

Page 30 Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Page 31
 • from the inside. The fungus makes use of the tree’s own plumbing system (xylem Laetiporus sulphureus (Figure 15) break down only the dead wood. This decays the centre of the
and phloem) to reach different parts of the tree via the sap stream; this can occur tree but leaves the outer, living layers intact. While this may not be desirable from the point of
at any stage in the life cycle. The fungi often remain in a latent (inactive) state view of a commercial forester, the tree is not harmed and may actually benefit. Decay and
without any noticeable impact on the tree until conditions within the wood change hollowing are part of a nutrient recycling process.The tree can make use of the products of wood
enough to activate them, eg drought, ageing process. decay within the trunk by producing aerial roots from its above ground parts, which grow into
the rotting stem. A hollow tube may respond differently from a solid trunk in high winds and is
It is thought that the sapwood of a healthy tree has such a high moisture content that it not necessarily more likely to snap provided its walls are not so thin that buckling occurs.
is unsuitable for the growth of most fungi. However, when the tree is mechanically damaged
or is stressed in some way, parts of it may become more suitable for fungal growth. Loss of Figure 15. See colour plate page 84.
a branch, for example, allows air in and causes drying out of the wood around the wound and
enables fungal growth. Stress brought on by drought or the severing of roots may cause the 3.5.4 Types of deca y
tree to stop producing food (photosynthesising) from a branch. This branch then dies back There is a wide range of variables influencing decay. The result of this is a tremendous range
and dries out because the flow of sap is no longer as strong as normal. The drier conditions of potential niches available to organisms such as invertebrates that make use of the
activate some of the latent fungi or fungi entering via the dead or broken wood. rotting process and its products. Premature decay in a tree is not necessarily detrimental, either
to the tree or to its wildlife value. Young decaying trees can be very valuable, on sites with veterans,
Most of the fungi capable of causing extensive decay depend on wounds or dead in providing suitable conditions for the saproxylic organisms. Decay is dependent on many factors:
branches or roots as entry points. Some of these species grow only in heartwood, while
others are confined to sapwood or are able to colonise either. A wide range of factors • age of tree;
determine whether or not decay becomes extensive enough to weaken the tree significantly. • presence of heartwood. (Those species of tree, eg birch and beech lacking durable
heartwood tend to decay quicker that those that do, eg oak);
Some pathogenic fungal species are able to cause death or dysfunction to parts of the • type of wound or stress agent;
tree even without stress or major injury (eg some honey fungus species or the fungus that • species of fungi involved and stage of growth within the tree;
causes Dutch elm disease). This relative minority of species are a primary cause of • species of invertebrate involved;
dysfunction in the sapwood or of death of the cambium. • species of vertebrate involved;
• position of wound;
As the fruiting bodies of the fungi are the only parts that are usually noticed they are • whether the wound collects water or not;
often misinterpreted. A small number of species (eg some species of honey fungus) can cause • whether the wound is enclosed or open to the air;
the death of a tree but a much larger number produce fruiting bodies only when the tree (or • whether the wound is permanently covered by water (becoming anaerobic);
that part of it with fungal fruiting bodies) has died from other causes (ie they are saprophytic). • ability of the tree to respond to damage (ie to form reaction zones and to occlude wounds);
This leads to many misconceptions as to the role of fungi. • outside factors (eg dung, rotting carcasses, aerial pollution).

The means by which fungi colonise sapwood

There are three main types of rot caused by fungi:
• Root coloniser s. Species that colonise intact roots and then spread throughout
the cambial zone of the tree. They may kill the tree by girdling it or killing too • White rot - When the lignin and cellulose are both broken down. In simultaneous
many roots, eg Armillaria mellea. white rot the lignin and cellulose are broken down at approximately the same rate
• Sapwood colonisers I. Species that enter the tree through a wound or other causing loss of both stiffness and strength, which, in the advanced stages of decay
open entry point on the tree. Most species decay parts of the tree without produces a thick porridge-like substance. In selective delignification (or stringy
killing it but sometimes the decay parts of the tree without killing it but sometimes white rot ) the lignin is broken down first and the cellulose degrades more slowly.
the decay is so extensive that very little functional sapwood is left, eg most Initially the result is soft material that is still quite strong, the colour and weight of
Ganoderma species. balsa wood. White rot is more common is broadleaved than coniferous trees,
• Sapwood colonisers II. These species also enter the tree through wounds but eg rot produced by some Ganoderma species.
are more aggressive and may kill the host, eg Chondrostereum purpureum. • Brown rot - When the cellulose is degraded and the lignin is left intact. The initial
• Deadwood coloniser s. Species that can colonise sapwood only after it has results of the decay are brittle but rigid. It does not bend much before breaking but
died as they are unable to overcome the active defences of the tree, may break into cubes known as cubical brown rot. Eventually a rich, humus like,
eg Daedaleopsis confragosa. substance may result (red wood mould) usually after having passed through the guts of
many invertebrates. Brown rot is more common in conifers than broadleaved trees. It
Note that the behaviour of fungi covers a spectrum and that a particular species may fall in
is produced by, for example Fistulina hepatica and Laetiporus sulphureus in oak trees.
between the categories presented here.
• Soft rot - This is when the cellulose is degraded, as in brown rot, but the fungi
invade the cell walls in a very different way. Many white rots and some brown
3.5.3 Fungi growing within the heartwood rot fungi can behave like soft rot fungi in living trees, but ‘classic’ soft rots are
caused mainly by specialised ascomycetes which grow in the surface layers of
Some fungal species are able to grow in the innermost part of the tree, which consists of dead wood or timber under very wet conditions.
dysfunctional wood. It is usually drier than the outer sapwood and so is more suitable
Different invertebrate species and communities are associated with each of these types of rot.
for the growth of fungi if they are present. Species that rot the heartwood such as

Page 32 Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Page 33
 Decay detectors

There is a range of devices available for the detection and assessment of decay. Some of these can
help to determine whether there is significant weakening, by providing information on the
position and extent of decay. Interpretation of such information is, however, often difficult and
should be attempted only by a suitably qualified practitioner who will make a visual inspection
in the first instance, and will use the resulting observations to decide which parts of the tree,
if any, could be usefully probed, using a particular diagnostic device. The number of probes
should be kept to a minimum, as all currently available devices are invasive to a greater or
lesser extent.

3.5.5 The value of dead wood

It is important to encourage a variety of types of rot so that suitable conditions are

provided for a range of the more specialised invertebrates. The more dead wood a tree
contains the more valuable it is. Thus, a living veteran tree is better than a dead one because
it will continue to produce more dead wood. Old dead trees left standing are usually better
than those in younger growth phases. Damaged young trees may also have valuable areas of
rot (natural or even artificially induced).

Trees containing a higher volume of wood have a higher wildlife value, which is why old
pollards are generally more valuable than old coppice stools. The latter may have a range of
niches, but the sheer volume of wood is considerably less than in most old pollards.

3.5.6 The role of organisms other than fung i

Although fungi have the fundamental role in the decay process in trees, they are not the
only active organisms. Many invertebrates assist in the breakdown of wood by boring into it
and feeding on the comparatively softer and more nutritious bits. They also enable fungal
mycelia to penetrate the wood more easily along the sides of burrows. Some species of insect
have nitrogen-fixing bacteria in their guts, which enhance the nutritional value of their faeces
which may be re-ingested by other species.

Wood has a very complex chemical structure and is very indigestible. Many of the
invertebrates rely on fungi to break the wood down into simpler molecules so that they can
take advantage of it. Ambrosia beetles (family Scolytidae) even have fungi associated with
them, which they carry between trees to perform this function.

Birds such as woodpeckers may contribute to the process by actively hollowing out areas
for nesting, their nests and holes may then be inhabited by other animals. The faeces and
dead bodies that build up in the tree holes contribute to the nutrient status of the rotting
wood. There are even secondary fungal colonists whose fruiting bodies are found in cavities
created by the primary decay fungi.

Further reading: Beckett (1975), Boddy & Rayner, (1983), Coder (1996), Dolwin et. al
(1998), Graham (undated), Green (1993, 1994, 1996a), Le Sueur (1931, 1934), Lonsdale
(1996, 1999), Mattheck & Breloer (1994), Mitchell, A. (1974), Mitchell, P. (1989), Patch,
(1991), Patch Coutts & Evans. (1986), Rackham (1986, 1990, 1991), Shigo (1986a, 1986b),
White (1996, 1998),Wignall, Browning & Mackenzies (1987).

Page 34 Veteran Trees:A guide to good management Veteran Trees: A guide to good management
 Chapter 4 Management of Veteran Trees

4.1 Assessing the situation and planning

There are two basic things to consider when managing veteran trees. One is the individual
tree and the other the site. In this chapter the tree is considered, chapter 5 covers managing
the site or land surrounding the veteran tree.

This section looks first at how to assess your tree and make a decision on what to do
(4.1 and 4.2). More detailed practical issues pertinent to individual trees (4.3) and the sites
or landscape areas with veteran trees (chapter 5) are then discussed.

Ancient trees are found in an extremely wide range of situations. Therefore it is not
possible to present a simple, easy to follow, set of guidelines which will work for every tree in
every situation. One of the most frequent phrases used when contemplating management is
that every tree is an individual . Even on a single site, different management options and
prescriptions are needed for different trees. There may be several different ideal management
options depending on the point of view taken by an adviser. A nature conservation officer
might prefer a set of options that may be different from that of a historic landscape adviser
(chapter 6) and these may contrast again with the view of a health and safety officer (see
Veteran Trees Initiative health and safety leaflet). In addition someone with an interest in lichens
(section 7.3) may recommend a different approach to an invertebrate specialist (section 7.6).
Whichever option is chosen, if the tree itself is not saved, all the values associated with it are
lost. Therefore it is important to know your site and your trees and to have as much
information as possible on the historical background and current conservation values and
status of the site which can be used to inform the management process. Potential conflicts of
interest often do not turn out to be the tremendous problems that they might at first seem,
when key issues are carefully considered.

4.1.1 The importance of management plans

A plan helps the manager to manage the site, and explains to others what is being done,
and why. It is difficult to manage a site consistently without one. The management planning
cycle can be summarised as follows:
Review and revise the plan at intervals
Assess the site

Decide on management policies Monitor for its effectiveness

Implement a work programme

The approach you take depends on the purpose of your plan, the nature of the site and
the needs of the site owner. There is no single ‘right’ way of doing things but it is important
that all aspects are considered to make an informed judgement.

Reasons for producing a management plan:

• to ensure continuity of management over time;

• to bring together people involved in the management of the site and achieve consensus;
• to manage multiple uses and potentially conflicting interests on the site;
• to relate the site to the wider ecological and social context;

Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Page 35
 • to attract resources (as part of a bid for grant aid) or be the basis for a legal agreement;
To assess whether an individual tree is likely to respond positively to pruning, consider the
• to ensure that management can be achieved within the resources available;
following points (see also Figure 16):
• to promote and publicise the site.

The plan should include separate sections which:

• How has the tree responded in the past to minor tree surgery work?
• How have other trees of the same species on the same site (or close by)
responded to cutting?
• record the existing attributes of the site (eg particular wildlife and historical features);
• give information about the site;
• How do trees on the same site respond to accidental damage?
• identify the site’s value and significance;
• Is it a species with a ‘good’ reputation (like willow) or a ‘bad’one (such as beech)?
• explain what management is intended to achieve;
• Does it have burrs, good epicormic growth or obvious abundant dormant buds?
• outline the means that will be used to do this;
• Is it a suitable shape, ie is it relatively easy to leave small branches close to the
bolling after cutting?
• say who will do what, when and what resources are required;
• provide a way of checking the effectiveness of the site management.
• Has it been pruned before? If so, how long is it since the tree was last cut (the
shorter time the more likely the response is to be good)?
Producing a plan should not become an end in itself. If the proposals are impractical, or
Assessing the success of any trials in cutting will mean you have to leave the tree for
not clearly set out, the plan will not be used.
several years. There are several examples of situations where trees responded well initially but died
some years later, almost certainly as a direct response to the cutting.
It needs to be decided early on who will produce the plan, whether you do it yourself or
employ a consultant. Whatever the decision, the complexity of issues surrounding the
management of veteran trees and the sites they are found on will almost certainly require you
to seek specialist advice. More information and guidance on management planning is given Figure 16. Diagram to show the characteristics of a veteran trees that is likely to respond to
in the Countryside Commission (1998) guide which includes information about a range of cutting and those of a tree that is less likely to respond.
planning methods including the Conservation Management System (1996) which is also a
computer programme for planning and reporting.
FOLIAGE HIGHONTREE
4.2 Managing individual trees

4.2.1 Management types and historical evidence

It is useful initially to distinguish two broad types of veteran trees; those that have been MULTIPLEBRANCHING

actively managed at some stage in their life and those that have not. In practice, the way we BRANCHING
manage these two types of trees now may not be particularly different. However, historical ALLHIGH UP

management practices have been responsible for many of the veteran trees we have inherited
today. Past management may also have some bearing on the way we treat them in the future.
The majority of the veteran trees encountered that have been actively managed in the past are NO RESPONSE
TO PRUNING
pollards. There are few written documents recording how and when trees were pollarded so
GOODRESPONSE
the information is quite sparse.That which is available, from historical literature and current TO PRUNING

practice in areas where pollarding still occurs, is summarised in appendix 4. There is plenty NO RESPONSE TO
of evidence concerning the intervals between cuts but little else of any help. Many of the ACCIDENTAL DAMAGE
NEWBRANCH
ROUGH, BURRY BARK
veteran pollards in Britain today are no longer in a regular system of active management and SMOOTH BARK,
GROWTH FOLLOWS
ACCIDENTAL
need some restoration work. This is not a problem our ancestors had to deal with and there NO EPICORMIC
GROWTH ONTRUNK
NO BURRS DAMAGE
GOODADVENTITIOUS GROWTH
ONTRUNK & BRANCHES
is unlikely to be historic literature to help. OR BRANCHES

SUCKERING
FROM ROOTS
Veteran trees today include coppice stools. Coppicing is covered in detail in a range of
publications, eg Buckley (1992), Hampshire County Council (1991) and Fuller & Warren
(1993), and the methods are comparatively well known. General coppicing techniques
therefore are not dealt with any further here.

4.2.2 How to decide whether to actively manage a veteran tree

Take as a starting point the premise that the tree should have nothing done to it unless
you can demonstrate a clear need. The decision to cut an ancient tree should not be taken
lightly. Your decision should take account of the issues raised in the flow diagram on page 38.

Page 36 Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Page 37
 Flow diagram to help decide whether to cut a veteran tree If you feel that for historical/biological/landscape reasons the tree ought to be cut in
some way but that it is unlikely to respond well, it might be worth re-thinking your decision.
Try cutting a few trees* Don’t cut. Don’t carry out tree surgery on If possible, leave it for the moment but carefully monitor what other people are doing
first just to check. the tree unless the situation elsewhere. In the future there may be other more successful methods of dealing with trees.
NO changes in the future,when the
YES decision may be reviewed.
Remember, there is usually no urgency to do anything. Think long and hard before
Are the trees likely to respond
positively to tree surgery? undertaking any work, and then do it only if really necessary.
NO Don’t carry out any tree
surgery.
YES
Trial one or two* to ensure
4.2.3 Working on veteran trees
Don’t cut the trees unless the
situation changes in the future, Will cutting increase or perpetuate the they do respond.
when the decision may be biological value of the site? It is important to remember that the primary reason for working on a veteran tree is to
reviewed. YES NO prolong its life. Active management to increase its life expectancy may be needed because it
NO YES
Are the trees likely to respond is top heavy and about to fall over, or because a dangerous branch is overhanging a busy road
Is cutting needed to yield a positively to cutting? (the alternative often resorted to here is to fell the tree). Generally speaking , do as little as
Consider experimenting with
commercial return? possible in the way of cutting. There are some exceptions to this rule, for example if the
one or two trees if specific
biological features require intention is to return a pollard to a regular cycle of cutting again. Inducing decay and
such action. NO YES Seek a compromise between
managing for landscape value
cavities in trees is worthwhile on sites where these features are scarce but experiment with
Would cutting a small number of trees and biological value. these techniques on younger trees and not the veterans. Focus on keeping the veterans alive
Consider cutting a few trees . provide a significant research or and do not do anything that might shorten their life span.
If good responses are obtained educational (in the broad sense) Manage using tree Investigate -
after 4 - 5 years consider more resource for the site? surgery. find an expert!
work. If a poor result is 4.2.4 When not to work on veteran trees
obtained don’t cut any more. NO NO YES DON’T KNOW
In many situations the right decision is not to carry out any work on the tree at all.
Will cutting the tree on a particular site Would cutting have a detrimental
YES NO
perpetuate (or restore) the biological effect on the biological value of This is especially likely to be the case where veteran trees are naturally occurring within
Are some of the trees likely to value of the site significantly more than the tree or site? (For example, semi-natural woodland.
other management technique? think about the consequences
respond positively to cutting?
(Eg will the old trees persist long of altering the humidity on
enough for the next generation to the trunk on invertebrates Many veteran trees in other situations do not require any surgery work. If they are
YES
develop significant amounts of decay and epiphytes.) stable and in good condition (which many are) there is no need to do anything. This does not
and dead wood?) mean that a tree can be forgotten; it will need checking on a regular basis to make sure that
Don’t manage using tree the situation has not changed.
surgery but try to find other
Consider minimal remedial solutions.
work necessary to eliminate Working with veteran trees requires long-term vision, the temptation to work on them just
One of several.
unacceptable risk. NO YES to demonstrate that they are being managed and to show results quickly should be avoided.
Isolated. Is it likely to respond to cutting?
Don’t use tree surgery unless
Is the tree isolated or one of several 4.3 How to car r y out tree surgery on old trees and maximise the chances of success
there is another over-riding
reason to do so. veteran trees in close proximity?
4.3.1 Tree surgery on veteran trees
YES
NO YES NO

Is it a landscape feature, the value of

Once you have made the decision to cut a veteran tree it is necessary to look at the details
Is it a risk to people, buildings,etc
which would be compromised if not cut? of how and when to do this.

Manage using tree surger y.* NO Only a few years ago the chance of a veteran tree surviving cutting was viewed as
Don’t carry out any tree surger y.
Is it a ‘natural’ old tree YES negligible. Since then a variety of veteran trees have been cut in different situations with
YES NO (ie not a pollard etc)? mixed results. Some of the work has undoubtedly been successful, such that it is starting to
become possible to give guidelines as to what is most likely to work but it is not possible to give
Is it likely to respond positively
to cutting?
NO a prescription of what will work. This depends on so many variables, eg tree species, age, soil
Is the tree considered liable to fall, type, location and aspect, previous management, skill of the operator, environmental
YES
either under its own weight or due to If possible,move the ‘target’. conditions and the incidence of subsequent stresses that the tree may face.
instability following accidental damage? If this is not possible,do the
minimum tree surgery in order
to make safe.
If you are looking at working on a population of old trees try out the techniques on a
*When carrying out tree NO
surgery, the minimum YES
small number first to ensure that it will work. This is also better for the conservation value of
amount of work should be Is public safety an over-riding reason to the site too, ie never do something to the whole of the resource at once. Sites with many
done to achieve the desired cut the tree (eg the tree is liable to fall
across a busy main road)?
veteran trees are all the more valuable in conservation terms because of the aggregation of
aim. Do not remove more of
the tree than is necessar y.
trees. Individuals are not expendable just because there are many of them.

Start Here
Page 38 Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Page 39
 Two broad-scale objectives can be defined: 4.3.3 Time of year
• cutting old trees with a view to making them safe, or saving them from imminent It is difficult to give a good prescription but the times definitely to a void are spring , when
collapse as a one off treatment (remedial work); the leaves are just opening on the tree and autumn when they are being lost. At these times
• cutting them with a view to getting back into a (semi) regular pollarding/coppicing it is considerably more difficult for the tree to deal with the stress of heavy pruning. In Britain
routine (restoration pollarding/coppicing). traditional cutting seems to have been done in the winter and probably the ideal time for
cutting is January to March. Slightly less ideal is November to December and it is probably
In some situations this distinction is a little blurred, but you should think about the long-term best to avoid cutting altogether in frosty weather. However, cutting for fodder from most trees
future management of the tree because it does sometimes have implications for the work being done. must have been done in the summer. Mid-summer cutting has been shown to be successful
The emphasis here is on restoration work, and maximising the future survival of the tree. in some cases. Probably, severe drought years are best avoided (though these may have been
Similar principles apply to remedial work as it is always important to maximise the chances the very years when additional fodder was required). July and August are probably the best
summer months to cut in. However, there are other reasons for not cutting then. For
of the tree surviving in the future if the situation allows.
example, there may be birds nesting in the trees, herbivorous insects are abundant and it is
4.3.2 Species of tree difficult to see the shape of the tree in order to decide where to cut it. See also Lonsdale
(1994) for a discussion of the relative merits of cutting at different times of the year.
Each tree species seems to respond in a different way. Appendix 4 gives as much detail
as is currently available on the likely success of work done on different species of veteran trees. The following calendar gives a rough indication of the best times to cut veteran trees:
The table below presents a very rough rule for guidance. There is considerable variation
between different situations so this table should not be taken too literally. Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

*** *** *** X X X * * X X ** **

Ease of Cutting
Species Tolerance to Creating Young Initiating X Not good, * Possible, ** Better, *** Best
Pruning in a Pollard Pollarding on There is also some variation between species, see Appendix 4 for details.
Veteran Tree Mature or Post
Mature Maidens 4.3.4 Amount of crown to remo ve (Figure 17)
Willo w *** *** *** Leave some limbs intact (and remove at a later date if appropriate). This is essential on
Plane *** *** *** some species and desirable on others. Small living twigs and branches all round the bolling
Lime *** *** *** should always be left if they occur (except perhaps on willow and poplar). The number of
Apple/Pear **( *) *** **( *) branches left should depend on the species of tree and its likely response to cutting. If it is a
Hawthor n **( *) *** **( * ) species likely to make a poor response, more branches should be left. If it is more likely to
show a good response, leaving more than one branch may result in excessive regrowth in those
Yew **( *) *** **
that are left and little in the way of new ones. Some authors have suggested leaving a distinct
Hazel **( *) **( *) **( *) central stem to make future cutting easier, but in practice, this often produces a more
Holly **( *) **( *) ** difficult situation in the future than leaving some branches lower down. Retained branches
Hornbeam ** **( *) ** ensure that there are living pathways, for nutrients/water etc, from the pollard head to the
Sycamore ** *** **( * ) roots. It is best to have these distributed round the trunk of the tree in species less likely to
Poplars incl. Aspen ** *** **( *) show a positive response to cutting. Cut according to the form of the tree and bear in mind
Field Maple ** *** ** any future cutting of the tree that might be needed.
Sweet Chestnut ** *** ** Figure 17. Diagram to show the amount of crown to remove and the amount of light reaching the tree.
Horse Chestnut ** *** **
Alder ** *** **
Oak Spp . ** *** *( *)
Sorbus Spp . *( *) **( *) *( *)
Ash *( *) **( *) *( *)
Birch Spp . *( *) ** *
Prunus Spp . * *** * *)
(
Beech * * *
Scots Pine ( *) ( *) -

*** Likely to respond well to cutting

** Likely to show a medium response to cutting
* Likely to show a poor response to cutting
ALL BRANCHESREMOVED . SOME BRANCHESREMOVED SOME TOOMANYBRANCHESRETAINED .
TOOMUCH LIGHT FOR SOME RETAINED. ENOUGH LIGHT IS NOT ENOUGHLIGHT REACHING
Brackets indicate that the response is variable (according to location, etc). TREE SPECIES. REACHINGTHOSECUT . THOSE CUT.

Page 40 Veteran Trees:A guide to good management Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Page 41
 4.3.5 Light reaching the tree being retained lower down. After an interval of one to five years (according to the species and
growth following cutting) the second cut can bring the crown down to a lower level,
The amount of light reaching the veteran is important. The structure of the surrounding retaining some of the new growth produced as a result of the first cut. This method may prove
vegetation should neither give excessive shading nor lead to extreme desiccation. It is impossible successful with other species but seems less likely with beech as new growth rarely occurs well
to give a prescription for this but the ideal light regime for an individual tree will depend on below the point of cutting.
the species and its location. Even shade tolerant species such as beech need plenty of light to Figure 19. Cutting a veteran tree in two stages.
grow successfully after cutting but the more light demanding hornbeam in open parkland can
suffer from excess sunlight and heat. Points to consider are:
• any surrounding trees; these should not be overshadowing the veteran and the
canopies should not be overlapping, (but beware of opening up round a veteran too
quickly, see section 5.3);
• the branches on the veteran itself. Consider retaining branches that shade the
south side of the bolling (or the exposed side) to provide shade after cutting.

Don’t forget that even on the same site, trees may have different aspects so desiccation
may be a problem on a south facing slope but not elsewhere. Sun scorch of leaves after recent
clearing, or substantial reduction, can be a problem but is usually not fatal. On occasions a
veteran tree may be shaded by another veteran tree. In this situation it may be necessary to
carry out reduction work on both trees at the same time to ensure adequate light levels. TREE BEFORECUTTING . TREE AFTERFIRST CUT.

4.3.6 Length of stub left

The branch collar (a ridge of bark where a branch joins the trunk) should be left, and on
no account cut into (Figure 18). General arboricultural practice is to cut just above the bark
ridge as the tree can then more easily recover. Clean cuts made close to the previous cut or
trunk do not usually produce good regrowth. When cutting above a side branch it is also
important not to injure the branch bark ridge. Probably, the larger the diameter of the
branch, the longer the stub that should be left (a longer stub is also more likely to have viable
dormant buds than a shorter one). As a rough guide, leave 10 times the diameter of the
branch above the bole of the tree.
TREE SEVERALYEARSAFTER TREEWITHLARGERBRANCHES
Figure 18. The position of the branch collar Different experiences have provided conflicting FIRST CUTSHOWING GOOD CUTBACK , SMALLER & MORE
GROWTH. RECENTBRANCHES RETAINED.
and where to make a cut. information but the importance of leaving stubs does
vary according to the species of tree and the age of the 4.3.8 Type of cut
DONO T CUT CLOSER limb. Long stubs may encourage decay in the trunk but
TO TRUNKTHANTHIS
where the bark is thinner (away from the base of the There are two schools of thought here: first that cambial regeneration is usually very
branch) dormant buds are more likely to emerge so poor, therefore there is no advantage in slanting cuts to increase its perimeter and thus it is
that leaving longer stubs may be justified. Larger best to cut at the easiest angle. The alternative is that a slanting cut is better because it sheds
diameter stubs are slower to callus over and tend to die water and increases the chances of adventitious growth (albeit sometimes only slightly). It
BRANCH back more. does not seem necessary to leave a clean cut. A jagged edge may encourage better growth
BARK
RIDGE
from adventitious buds due to the increased amount of exposed cambium.
It is also important to cut above the previous
pollarding or re-cutting, preferably above healthy side It probably does not matter what type of cut is left - experiment and find out what is best
branches (except if cutting in two stages see below). for your site. The visual appearance of cut surfaces may also influence your decision.

4.3.7 Cutting in two (or more) stages 4.3.9 Cutting tool to use
BRANCH COLLAR TRUNK
Depending upon the shape of the tree it is It has been considered by some people that edge tools are better than saws, whereas
sometimes worth considering cutting it in two or more others believe that there is no difference. There is also a school of thought that chainsaws are
stages, several years apart (Figure 19). This has been not good but there is no real evidence for this. The only experimental work to be carried out
FLUSH CUT:
TOOCLOSE done successfully with oak (White 1991a, 1996 and on tools was on sweet chestnut coppice. This showed that cuts with an axe produced more
TO TRUNK
V. Forbes pers. comm.), white willow (Wheal 1998) and even growth than that with a chainsaw, where surges of growth result, although there was no
black poplar (L. Davies pers. comm.). In the first stage overall difference in growth. Cuts with an axe showed new shoots nearer to the cut; with a
the upper branches are removed, a high proportion saw there were more initial shoots but some died.

Page 42 Veteran Trees:A guide to good management Veteran Trees:A guide to good management Page 43
 4.3.10 Weather conditions at the time of cutting
When assessing a veteran tree with a view to carrying out tree surgery consider
Avoid cutting in drought years (or the following year if it is very severe). Be careful when the following points:
cutting trees that are in frost hollows, try to cut during a warm spell or at the end of the winter. • Which branches are alive and which dead? (ie when left, which will continue growing?)
• What type of growth pattern does it show? (Lots of epicormic or none?
4.3.11 Good balance Any previous growth from dormant buds?)
• What is the growth form of the tree? (Are there obvious places to cut back to?
Ensure that the shape of the tree after cutting is not unbalanced (Figure 20). Be careful Are there good branches to leave?)
though not to destroy an existing asymmetrical shape that is adapted to, for example, strong • How well balanced is the tree? (If a branch is removed will the tree become
winds. This aspect is covered in detail by Mattheck & Breloer (1994). unbalanced?)

Figure 20. A tree well balanced after cutting and one that is unbalanced.
A few general points on cutting veteran trees are worth stressing:

• For all species except willow and poplar, near 100% success rate cannot be
achieved if all the crown is removed.
• The more ‘difficult’ a species is the more important it is to retain much of the
existing canopy.
• For all species it is worth retaining any small or young growth around the bolling.
• Bear in mind that removal of the entire crown can cause excess drying of the
bolling, especially if the tree is in open conditions.
• It should not be thought that because branches have been left, the tree is not properly
pollarded. The main purpose of the work is to extend the life of the tree. This is far
more important than details of the terminology. Retaining branches can be a
short-term measure and after a few years the tree can often be re-shapes if necessary.
It is also likely that some species never had the entire crown removed in any case.
TREE BEFORE RESTORATION WORK . TREEWELL BALANCED
FOLLOWING RESTORATION.
TREENO T WELLBALANCED
FOLLOWINGRESTORATION.
• Wait for a few years to assess success. Don’t assume that growth in the first
year means that a technique has worked.
• Whatever the species don’t cut all the trees at the same time, even if you know
4.3.12 Regional differences it will work!

Practices which are not recommended include:

Trees in the more humid west are less likely to suffer from desiccation than those in the
east. Regrowth tends to be more vigorous in westerly districts and in mild wet areas such as
• Cutting entire populations of old trees at the same time.
the Lake District. Less responsive species tend to grow better following tree surgery here than
• Thinning the resulting growth. This can be done but the trees usually self thin
in the south-east.
(ie branches that do not have enough light die anyway) and unless resources
are available it is not usually necessary.
4.3.13 Growth of lo wer branches • Sealing the cut with wound dressing. This does not help the tree to recover
from the cutting. (Though it may help to reduce excessive drying.)
In grazed areas, lower branches will be browsed and kept back. Where livestock or deer
• Cutting every year. This is sometimes recommended for street trees
are not present some trimming of growth low down on the trunk may be necessary. Excessive
especially in the USA but is not recommended for old trees on sites of
branches lower down may divert energy from those at the top of the tree.
importance for nature conservation unless it is continuing an existing practice.
4.3.14 Age of tree and length of time since any previous tree surger y
Mulching of veteran trees
The younger the tree and the less time that has elapsed since any last major cut the more
likely the cutting is to succeed well (within species). There is some debate about whether mulching veteran trees, by putting a deep layer of leaves or
woodchips around the base,is beneficial or not. It is likely that this was an historic management
4.3.15 Trees with bur rs technique, at least in Blean woods, Kent. When the Bishop traditionally visited the wood after
September the leaf litter was swept away for him to walk and the leaves used to mulch the
Trees may respond better to cutting if they have visible burrs or dormant buds. pollards (D. Maylam pers. comm.). More recently the Major Oak at Sherwood (see Figure 48)
However, it can be difficult to tell and the differences are probably at least partly genetic. has been mulched and is showing increased vigour as a result. However, there is a concern that
a thick layer of organic matter may encourage increased growth of roots close to the surface that
may then be more susceptible to desiccation in dry periods.

Page 44 Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Page 45
 4.4.2 Future cuts on lapsed pollards
Recording

Make sure that you record what you do with your veteran trees. Photographs are a minimum When working on lapsed pollards it is important to consider the future. The purpose of
requirement but more detailed descriptions of what was done and how the trees responded are tree surgery may be just to increase the short-term life expectancy of the tree. However, for
more useful for future management. Consider also doing ring counts of any branches removed. some trees a cycle of (semi-)regular cuts can be considered, which will continue to increase
See also chapter 12. the life of the tree. When cutting lapsed pollards it is important to think about the subsequent
growth and any future cutting. Try to avoid creating pollards ‘on top of’ pollards if possible
as this makes the trees difficult to manage in the future. Only a few lapsed pollards have been
4.4 Comments specific to pollarding
cut for a second time (apart from those cut in a series of stages, over a short time span) so
4.4.1 Cutting veteran pollards that are still in a regular cycle of cutting experience of this is, as yet, very limited (Figure 22).
There are some pollards that are still cut on a more or less regular basis and cannot be Figure 22. See colour plate page 85.
considered as lapsed pollards. These tend to be either urban trees (lime or plane that are
responsive and easy trees to deal with) or trees in agricultural situations where the farm 4.5 Who does the work on the veteran trees?
workers have continued to cut them. In addition, there is at least one place (Hatch Park in
Kent) where an extensive population of veteran pollards has been cut continuously since the Carrying out tree surgery work on veteran trees is a dangerous occupation and should not be
middle ages with no break. undertaken lightly. It is essential that any work done with a chainsaw is carried out by fully
In situations where there has been no lapse in the pollarding cycle the best course to take certificated operators wearing full personal protective clothing. In most cases it is also
is to continue with whatever has been done in the past. Often this seems to be to remove the necessary to have certificates for using a chainsaw at height, and for tree climbing.
whole crown in species such as ash and oak. It is likely that trees in a regular cycle of cutting
are more able to grow following removal of the whole crown than are lapsed pollards. It is Managing dead veterans
doubtful, however, if beech pollards ever had the whole crown removed.
Dead trees may also need managing and should definitely be retained. They are tremendously
valuable habitats but are often under threat of felling on the grounds of safety or tidiness. As with
Pollards in farmland
living veterans, try to do as little remedial work as necessary to make the tree safe, and avoid
cutting and or removing features such as cavities. Sudden extensive clearing of younger
Goswold Hall in Suffolk is a typical arable farm of 150 ha. Around the edges of the fields, in the
hedges and by the green lanes there are 15 ash pollards, plenty of oak pollards and two field maple woodland around dead stumps should be avoided as this can dramatically alter the light/moisture
pollards; prior to Dutch elm disease there were over 100 elm pollards. The owners took over in regime for the organisms inhabiting decaying wood.
1937 and most pollards have been managed continually since the (Figure 21). A few oaks
were left to grow out, as prior to 1937 they had not been cut regularly and some had not been
4.6 Managing populations of veteran trees
pollarded for over 100 years.

In 1937 there were 10 men working on the farm and each man was given a hedge pollard,or a Populations of old trees are sometimes threatened when the land they are situated on changes
stow, usually elm,maple or a smaller oak,as a perk in the winter. They pollarded the tree in their owner or manager. The more changes, the more likely that the trees may be managed in an
own time and used (or sold) the wood for firewood. Stowing a tree (pollarding) was done on a inappropriate manner. The fragmentation of land may create similar problems.
five to eight year cycle by climbing the tree or a ladder and using a heavy billhook with a
2´ (60 cm) handle. The men considered that a tree should not be cut with a saw unless you had to Many of the organisms associated with veteran trees require good populations of trees
because it would not shoot so quickly, ‘it needed to be chopped’. If a saw was used there was a and are threatened by:
danger that the branches were cut too close to the trunk and then the tree might die. The bigger
oaks were pollarded for fuel in the Hall and for structural barn timber. They were cut using saws • the sites being too fragmented;
with large double or triple teeth like a crosscut saw, with deep intermediate cuts to self clear but • trees being too widely scattered;
they were single handed with a wooden handle. Many had holes at the other end to which a second • a missing generation of trees. Thus there will be no new veterans in the near future
handle could be fitted quickly if necessar y. The ash pollards were potentially cash crops, the trees and often no young trees at all;
were ‘sold’to a contractor who pollarded the trees for making handles, especially for the local brush • future generations of trees that are a different species from the old ones;
factory. There were also itinerant pollarders who pollarded the trees for a share of the crop. • no prospects for the long-term continuation of biological features characteristic of
old trees, eg decay.
In recent years the trees have mostly been cut on a 12 - 15 - year cycle and up until the 1980s
the cutting was done with bow saws;now chainsaws are used. Branches are cut within 2¨ (5 cm) Populations of veteran trees should ideally consist of a large number of trees, in close
of the bolling. A branch was once left on a veteran oak but it was removed after a few years as proximity, with a good range of different ages (including future veterans). Many sites need
the tree was not growing well from the bolling. The pollards are now managed along with the active work to reach this ideal.
coppiced hedges and g rass headland under a Countryside Stewardship with £40 being paid for
each pollard cut. The wood is used for the farmer’s central heating systems. When contemplating the management of populations of old trees the following points
need to be considered:
Figure 21. See colour plate page 85.

Page 46 Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Page 47
 • A good age structure is achieved and/or maintained (ie there are abundant
veterans and also a range of younger age classes to replace the veterans eventually).
• A good number of veteran trees are present (the exact optimum density is
unknown but the more the better).
• Try to reduce site fragmentation (by promoting future veterans on land in between
existing sites).
• Continuity through new generations of trees.
• Continuity of dead wood resource, both standing and fallen.
• Continuity of dead wood features, eg decay cavities, rot pools, sap runs.
• Pollard trees of intermediate age to close up the generation gap. Also encourage
open grown trees, which develop larger butts and trunks and have more heart
wood decay at an earlier age than woodland trees.

When managing populations of veteran trees it is necessary to think about what the
situation will be like 100 or more years into the future. This of course cannot be predicted
but managing for long-term continuity should be attempted.

Population dynamics of old trees

There are a few sites where trees have been surveyed and then the survey repeated after a time
interval. There is scope for more detailed, repeated surveys and the establishment of a standard
recording form for veteran trees (see chapter 12 and appendix 6) should help this.

Harding & Alexander (1993) showed that, for five parkland sites, the age structure of the trees
was heavily weighted towards the older age classes. As a result proposals for planting schemes
were drawn up for three of the sites. Losses of trees from three of the sites between 1976/79 and
1989/90 were generally slight despite strong winter gales in this period.

The trees at Duncombe Park in North Yorkshire were surveyed and mapped in 1986
(Clayden 1996). In 1994 1200 open grown trees were re-surveyed. Even trees of small girth
(2 -20 cm) were included. Losses ranged from 0% (lime) to 8% (ash) over the eight - year period.
Losses were not necessarily in the oldest age groups. Higher percentage losses were recorded for
wych elm (Dutch elm disease), holly and cherry. There was concern that for some species (ash,
beech and field maple) recruitment may not be enough to ensure a continuous range of older trees.

Veteran pollard beech trees were first accurately recorded at Burnham Beeches in 1931 when there
were 1795 trees. In 1956 the numbers had declined to 1300 and by 1991 there were fewer than
540 (Read, Frater & Turney 1991). The decline has added impetus to managing the veteran
trees and creating a new generation of pollards.

Further reading: Countryside Commission (1998), Edlin (1971), Harding & Alexander
(1993), Le Sueur (1931, 1934), Mitchell (1989), Read (1991, 1996) and see Appendix 4.

Page 48 Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Veteran Trees:A guide to good management
 Chapter 5 Management of land around Veteran Trees

5.1 Introduction

Trees do not exist in isolation; the environment around them can be crucial to their welfare
and the landscape they are part of can be just as or even more important. The previous section
has dealt with the management of veteran trees themselves. In many situations though, it is
not the trees that need work done on them as much as the land surrounding them.Conditions
in the soil will affect their roots and growth. What is growing on the surrounding land
can compete with the tree for water, light and nutrients or present a fire hazard. Outside
influences can affect the health of the trees and the organisms found on them.

Ancient trees are part of a landscape, either formal and designed or informal and
evolved. It is important to consider what role the trees play within such landscapes as
this will have implications for how the land around the trees and the trees themselves are
managed.

5.2 Open land

5.2.1 Grassland

5.2.1.1 Grassland management (for full details see Crofts & Jefferson 1999)

The most sympathetic type of grassland to surround veteran trees (though not
commonly found) is unimproved. Unimproved grassland should be managed with great care
following the guidelines in Crofts & Jefferson 1999; this management will also be favourable
to veteran trees. In general, the ‘improvement’ of grassland through reseeding or the application
of fertilisers can be detrimental both to veteran trees and to grassland. For example,
fertilisers and herbicides have had an adverse effect on the lichens and fungi at Moccas Park,
Herefordshire, and the application of lime can cause problems for the fungal communities.
If the grassland has already been improved and lime must be applied, it is better as
coarse-ground limestone than agricultural lime as there is less drift.The ideal management is
not to apply any substances although light applications of farmyard manure to improved
grassland are acceptable in some situations. No inorganic fertilisers should be applied and no
ploughing or reseeding carried out. Note that trees in fertilised pastures may look healthy but
in times of stress they may decline quickly. The ‘improvement’ of pasture leads to a loss in
variety and abundance of plants and invertebrates and therefore a loss of food for bats,
birds, etc that may depend on the veteran trees for their resting sites. Hay cutting (the
traditional management of grassland under pollards in other European countries) can be
compatible with veteran trees though it is better if the grassland is not improved.

The control of problem species, such as ragwort, thistles and docks, within grazed
systems needs to be considered carefully. There are methods that are sympathetic to ancient
trees. For example, cutting of thistles, spot spraying, and use of some modern weed wipes
that are relatively specific (see Bacon 1994). There are also suitable mechanical weed pullers
available now (Bacon & Overbury 1998).

Effects of grassland improvement on veteran trees themselves

• Inorganic fertilisers disrupt mycorrhizal fungi, and the trees are then more
susceptible to stress.
• Lime may reduce the species diversity of fungi (including mycorrhizal species).
• Farmyard manure, slurry, fertilisers and lime may be sprayed onto the trunks of
the trees; an excess is toxic to fungi.
Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Page 49
 • Ploughing damages the roots of the trees and mycorrhizal fungi. Disadvantages of grazing
• Rolling compacts the roots (see also section 5.2.2).
There are disadvantages of grazing too, especially where it is intensive or the land is
5.2.1.2 Grazing overgrazed:

In many situations where veteran trees exist, grazing was an essential part of the • Lack of tree regeneration. On sites where grazing has been continuous there is
management system. There are two quite different types of grazing that can be considered, often a generation of old trees with few, if any, younger ones to form the ancient
extensive and intensive. trees of the future. This situation needs addressing to prevent the loss of biological
interest on the site and loss of landscape appeal and historic value. There are several
ways to overcome this (see chapter 8).
The benefits of grazing in wood-pasture are that: • Activities relating to the grazing of animals that damage the veteran trees .
Trees in grazed areas will always develop a browse line, the height of which
• It prevents mass regeneration of trees and shrubs, thereby reducing competition depends on the animals present. In a healthy mature tree this does not cause too
between trees for light and creating more varied growth forms of trees and a much damage, although the trees are unable to grow branches that reach the
greater variety of woodland structures. This results in: ground. This prevents layering and may make the branches more prone to
• A greater diversity of habitat structures, allowing other groups of organisms to survive. snapping as they cannot be supported from below (Lonsdale 1999a). The grazing of
• Increased light levels that are beneficial to epiphytic lichens. animals may be directly detrimental to the trees in the following ways:
• Many insects are sun-lovers as adults and will be lost under shady conditions. • Animals may chew the bark of the trees. In extreme situations they may ring bark them.
• Densely shaded trunks have cooler interiors and are less good for larval development. • Animals may use the tree for shelter, causing trampling round it and damage to the
• Many wood-decaying fungi appear to fruit less frequently when the trunk is shaded. roots. Where the animals dung and urinate, the nutrient levels rise and the high
• It is the traditional form of management on many sites and, from an historic nitrogen levels are detrimental to the mycorrhizal fungi.
point of view, is an essential part of the system. • Vehicles used to feed and water animals may pass too close to old trees, causing the
ground to be churned up.
• Fodder, watering and mineral lick sites placed too close to the trees attract
Extensive grazing greater attention.
• Where the animals are fed supplementary feeds the dung enriches the
Animals are able to roam over large areas to forage and the stocking density is relatively grassland/heathland/trees. It may also introduce new species and genetic
low. This type of grazing must have existed in the wildwoods, which naturally contained high variability via seeds, which may confuse the true distribution and status of species.
densities of veteran trees. The grazing would have been by indigenous cattle, deer, bison and • Animals bring other chemicals into the wood-pasture system. Domestic stock are
boar. Such grazing restricted, but did not stop, tree regeneration and had the effect of creating treated, particularly for intestinal worms, using a variety of chemicals. Some of
structural diversity in the ground flora and shrub layer (Figure 23). Today, woodlands with the substances used are not specific to internal parasites and may be long lasting.
veteran trees benefit from light grazing, which increases the structural diversity and benefits An example is the widely used wormer with Avermectin as the active ingredient.
a range of organisms (Mitchell & Kirby, 1990). The action of this has been shown to have an effect on a range of invertebrates
including those that break down animal dung. Insectivorous species, especially
Figure 23. See colour plate page 86. bats and birds, may consequently suffer from lack of prey. The situation is of
special concern with regard to cattle because a bolus system is often used which
Intensive grazing releases the wormer over long periods of time. As a general principle Avermectins
should not be used on any site with conservation interest. Other types of wormers
This type of grazing involves a higher stocking density and the land under the trees is may be just as detrimental. For more information see JNCC (undated), Cooke (1997)
dominated by plants that are not woodland species (Figure 24). The animals are often given and English Nature (1994). See also later in this section.
supplementary feed, which is detrimental, to the ground flora and in many cases the grassland • Overgrazing, especially in the winter months, can cause poaching and this leads
has been, or is under pressure to be, improved. Often the areas the animals range over are to infestations of tall weeds such as thistles, nettles, ragwort and docks.
relatively small. Intensive grazing occurs in some types of wood-pasture (where the old trees were
usually pollards), especially in parks where deer (or in some instances cattle) were grazed. Solutions to problems caused by grazing

If a wood pasture or parkland has been grazed more or less without a break, it is likely There are several solutions to these problems. The best one will depend largely on the
that the most suitable management in both historic and biological terms is to continue with situation and the money available for additional management work. They include:
this. Changing the management regime in such circumstances should be carefully thought • Reduce the stocking density or alter the grazing regime so that the animals do not
out before implementing. If there has been a long lapse in grazing, the situation should also bark the trees (but for husbandry reasons avoid single animals in an area). Bark
be looked at more carefully, especially from a biological point of view, before deciding on what stripping is more prevalent in the winter but can be due to boredom as well as a
form of management to reinstate. (See also section 5.3 for a discussion of the consequences nutritional need for the bark.
of opening up woodland from around veteran trees). • Experiment with mineral supplements (eg Uniblock produced by Dodson and
Horrell) to provide the minerals that horses might otherwise obtain from tree bark;
Figure 24. See colour plate page 86. other supplements have been shown to change the diets of animals such as sheep.
Be sure to place them well away from the trees.
Page 50 Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Page 51
 • Fence off the veteran trees so that the animals do not have access to them. The 5.2.2 Bracken and heathland
fence should keep the animals beyond the extent of the canopy. This solution is
The commons and wood pasture on which many veteran trees stand were not normally
usually practicable only if there is a small number of trees involved, and it can lead
prime grazing or arable land. One of the contributing factors to the survival of many veteran
to the growth of competing vegetation.
trees was that the land around them was too poor (eg too low in nutrients, steep or rocky) for
• Ensure that there is nothing to attract the animals to stand under the trees. Feed
growing crops. In some areas heathland developed on the poor soils and where today,
and water them in a different place.
through lack of grazing and trampling, they have become dominated by bracken this can
• Provide alternative shelter, with watering, etc to attract them preferentially.
cause problems. Bracken has also become dominant in other vegetation types. The effect of
• Ensure that vehicles do not use routes under veteran trees. If necessary move gateways.
the bracken fronds is very similar to dense summer woodland cover with few other plant
• Try out other ideas to deter the animals, eg pile rocks round the bases of the trees
species, including tree seedlings, able to get enough light. Bracken is also allelopathic,
to stop them from getting too close or chestnut paling wrapped round the tree (not
producing its own substance that inhibits the growth of other plants. The result is areas
as a fence). Be sure to check that they work (sheep can climb rocks and continue
lacking in other tree species around the veterans. The dried fronds in bracken-dominated
chewing the bark higher up!) and that they do not create other problems such as
areas build up into a deep litter layer or thatch that early in the year can be a severe fire
compaction or creating a humid day time resting place for slugs that then browse
hazard. Fires can travel under the ground in the leaf litter and when this happens the old
epiphytic lichens at night!
hollow trees act as excellent chimneys, fuelling the fire with air, which destroys the trees.
Solutions to the problems caused by wormers For areas of heather-dominated land under veteran trees fire can be a problem too.

• Don’t use any wormer on site (ideal solution). Worm animals when they are grazing On sites with ancient trees and abundant bracken, some form of fire protection should
or housed elsewhere. Ensure that they are kept off the site for long enough for all traces be seriously considered. Ideally fire breaks should be made and kept open so that blocks of
of Avermectin, and other products, to have passed through (this will vary with the type woodland are isolated from each other in case of fire and an area round each tree should also
of application). Avoid broad spectrum wormers and slow release bolus applications. be kept bracken free, at least as far out as the canopy. In order to create such areas effectively,
• Use wormers that are more specific to internal parasites. English Nature, JNCC fallen dead wood may need to the moved (see the section 5.4 for details). However, this
and FWAG can provide advice on suitable alternatives. is not as easy as it sounds as bracken is a difficult plant to control. Health and safety
• Be careful with new products, ensure that they are compatible with any nature considerations need be taken into account with some of the following treatments and an
conservation interest and seek independent advice. added problem is that bracken spores are carcinogenic.
• Consider carefully the use of other chemicals on the site. This does not mean that 5.2.2.1 Methods to consider for controlling bracken to create fire breaks or to
the health of the animals should be compromised. However, some chemical treatments reduce the fire risk on the site
for fly strike in sheep, for example, are ‘better’ environmentally than others.
• It may be worthwhile considering the guidelines of the Soil Association with regard • Spray or weed wipe with Asulam. When used properly this herbicide is very
to animal husbandry and the use of chemicals and medication, even if the aim is effective against bracken, but rarely eradicates with one application. Spot treatment
not to produce organic products. of any regrowth is necessary in subsequent years. Prior to spraying, the ground
vegetation should be surveyed because Asulam does kill all ferns and some other
Tree regeneration in grazed areas plants, eg sheep sorrel and some bryophytes. Surfactants, if added to the spray,
may affect invertebrates. On many sites it is preferable not to use chemicals;
In the New Forest, Sanderson (1996a) has shown that even palatable tree species can however, using more modern methods of application the bracken can be targeted
regenerate in grazed areas and this is also true in Hatfield Forest. Even in periods of heavy with minimal amounts of herbicide reaching other plants. Spraying is the best
grazing thorny bushes, including holly, and dense bracken provide enough cover to allow young form of application, weed wiping should be carefully considered before use.
trees to become established. Regeneration requires extensive grazing systems that allow a full The best time of year to spray is when the fronds are fully unfurled but have not
range of natural processes to occur, including shelter or respite from grazing. begun to die back, usually between mid - July and the end of August.

Reintroducing grazing Bracken control at Ashtead Common

The reintroduction of grazing on veteran tree sites that have not been grazed for a long Fires present a significant risk to the veteran oak pollards at Ashtead Common. In 1990 there were
period is starting to gain momentum. In these situations a site specific feasibility study is over 100 standing charred pollards as a result of a large fire (Figure 24a,see page 86). The risk has
probably the best way forward. The choice of grazing regimes is likely to depend to a large been reduced in recent years by creating fire breaks, primarily by chemical control of the bracken.
degree on the wildlife interest of the site. In the majority of situations, however, a low density Initially, all dead wood was removed from the fire breaks, into large piles nearby. Although not an
grazing regime is probably the most suitable. Achieving the right stock type and level at the ideal situation, it was necessary to allow the safe access of machinery and ensure that the fire breaks
right time is very difficult and may vary widely according to the type of land and also from would be effective. Bracken is then sprayed annually with ASULOX by one person on foot, using a
year to year. When considering reintroducing grazing to a site it is important to consider the high pressure lance with a flood jet and a tractor-mounted spray tank driven by a second person.
welfare of the animals, the work involved and financial implications. When considering Small areas are sprayed using a knapsack sprayer. The herbicide provides an effective control rate of
reintroducing grazing to a site with an ancient monument make sure that the fencing and type around 95% which is enhanced by mixing ASULOX with an oil derived from oil seed rape known
of animals used are appropriate to the site and acceptable to the archaeologists. as CODACIDE. This ensures that the chemical is water-resistant and improves adhesion to the
fronds. Thereafter fire breaks are maintained by an annual mechanical grass cutting programme.
Further reading: Bacon (1994), Crofts & Jefferson (1999), Lewis et al. (1997), Mitchell &
Kirby (1990). Figure 24a. See colour plate page 86.

Page 52 Veteran Trees:A guide to good management Veteran Trees:A guide to good management Page 53
 • Cut. Cutting two to three times per year will reduce bracken cover but this will conservation value on a site with ancient trees then the management should take this into
need to be repeated in subsequent years as bracken re-establishes itself quickly. account. Bracken can also provide valuable shade (and frost protection) for piles of dead
The first cut should be made when the fronds have just started to unroll (usually wood but fire breaks may be needed round these if they are large. In any case, bracken should
late April/early May). The second cut should be made about a month later when not be viewed as a species to eradicate, since it is native. It may just need to be kept in check.
the fronds reach a similar height again. In this way the plant puts maximum
energy into growing and loses it all when the fronds are cut. If a third cut is Further reading: Burgess & Evans (1989), Butterfly Conservation (1998), Crofts &
possible this can be done at any time when the fronds are uncurled, but cutting for Jefferson (1999), Forbes & Warnock (1996), Lewis & Shepherd (1996).
the first time in a year after July is not worth doing.One drawback of cutting is that
the ideal time to cut is also when ground-nesting birds will be most vulnerable. 5.2.3 Cultiv ated ground
Cut, dried and baled fronds can be used as livestock bedding.
• Bruising. Small rollers that crush the fronds are available. Rolling twice, the Ancient trees are also found within land that is cultivated. Many of those in the middle
second pass at right angles to the first, improves the effect. When rolled in July on of arable fields have died or been felled but some manage to survive. In addition, those on
a hot day the bracken bleeds, which helps to exhaust it. A special ‘bracken breaker’ the boundaries of fields are affected by cultivated land. Much parkland has also been
has been developed that is especially good at breaking the frond stipes and ploughed and converted to arable farmland. Ideally, arable farming should not be carried out
encouraging ‘bleeding’. Rolling seems to reduce the vigour of the bracken by at in areas with veteran trees. However, where it is unavoidable, steps should be taken to
least 50% and it is possible that continued rolling may result in eradication. Since provide the best possible conditions for the trees.
rolling is best carried out later in the year than cutting fewer ground-nesting birds
are likely to be affected but the later breeding nightjar may be vulnerable. Rolling A vital part of the tree, the roots, is out of sight, under the ground. Deep ploughing can
may also be detrimental to anthills, reptiles and rare or solitary plants, and can be extremely detrimental as it destroys tree roots. Work nearer the surface, especially that
break up any dead wood on the ground. The rollers designed for bracken may also leading to compaction can be equally damaging as some trees have abundant roots at quite
adversely affect wavy hair-grass but ericaceous species seem to be able to shallow depths (Figure 25). Even harrowing and rolling can cause problems in compacting
withstand the treatment as long as they are not old or straggly. Heavier rollers the roots and causing mechanical damage, this is especially true of modern power harrows.
may affect plants such as gorse and broom and also trees and shrubs. The
compaction of the vegetation produced by rolling can be an advantage in helping Ideally, no work should be done closer to the tree than 5 m outside the extent of the
to reduce the fire risk and encouraging decomposition, although the small specialist canopy, or a distance from the centre of the tree of 15 times the diameter of the trunk at breast
‘bracken breakers’ cause bruising with negligible compaction. height, whichever is the greater. This establishes a ‘separation distance’ or exclusion zone
• Pigs . Pigs in the autumn months dig for and eat bracken rhizomes and this can round the tree and gives it the best chance of long-term survival. It can be quite surprising
help to control the growth of the plant. Pigs should not be fed solely on bracken as how far away the roots of some of these trees extend, eg up to 50 m.
this causes them to develop thiamine deficiencies. The results of pigs digging can
be quite devastating, if not carefully controlled, so this method is most often used Figure 25. See colour plate page 87.
on recently cleared land. A low density of pigs can also help in the control of
bracken if used in association with cutting, or rolling. Rooting by pigs is beneficial Intense cultivation brings more potential problems. Spraying can be very damaging to
in promoting the germination of some seeds but ‘mob stocking’ can cause similar the tree and its fauna and flora. Fertilisers have a detrimental effect on the tree, the lichens
problems to that of overstocking with other grazing animals (see section 5.2.1.2). and the mycorrhizal fungi. Fungicides also affect the vital mycorrhizal species that the tree
• Remo val of bracken litter . If the bracken litter, or thatch, is very deep it can be needs in order to survive and they also affect the lichen flora. Insecticides may kill the
removed and this may also be desirable if cutting or rolling are being carried out. specialist dead wood species and are most damaging when used between May and July in the
Removing the build up of thatch can also help weaken the plant allowing possible vicinity of the tree or on any plants in flower. These chemicals should not be used anywhere
frost damage but it may also suppress the growth of other plants. Litter can be near old trees to avoid drift affecting them; the minimum distance is 15 times the diameter of
removed by ‘blowing’ using strong leaf blowers, which causes less root damage to the tree (as for cultivation). Ideally there should be an island of uncultiv ated land
trees than scraping. It may be possible to sell bracken litter to the horticultural surrounding the tree but it is important that this is of sufficient size and is not ‘eroded’each
industry, as a mulch, and this has been successful in the Netherlands. year. Ploughing and spraying right up to the trunk is extremely harmful. Veteran trees on the
• Grazing. Livestock, especially large animals such as ponies or cattle, may trample edges of fields are vulnerable to cultivation too. Remember that the roots will extend into the
the young bracken fronds, which can help to keep it in check once major control field, even if the trunk is in a hedge.
has been done physically or chemically.
• Woodland. Encouraging closed canopy woodland also helps to reduce bracken 5.2.4 Amenity land
cover, though this may not be a desirable option if the veteran trees are unduly
shaded by the surrounding woodland. Veteran trees are also found in amenity areas. These range from private golf courses to
school playgrounds and public parks. The same principles apply here as in other grassland or
5.2.2.2 Disadvantages of controlling bracken cultivated areas. Grassland tends to be very intensely managed in some of these situations,
but the use of chemicals should be avoided close to the trees. An additional threat is the
Bracken is an important plant for some organisms. For example, it can provide suitable regular mowing and strimming, which if not carefully done round the bases of veteran trees
conditions under the fronds for the growth of violets, which in turn can provide an ideal can easily cause damage to the bark, exposing vital tissue. Wherever possible, try to create a
habitat for some threatened fritillary butterfly species. Other species that may benefit are ‘nature area’ of rough grass around the trees to alleviate these problems.
bluebells, an endemic weevil (beetle) and some fly species. If there are such species of

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 Trees in prominent positions are frequently used as locations for notice boards and signs. These problems are inherent in any veteran tree canopy reduction but are considerably
It is far better to use purpose-made posts but if trees must be used in this way, tie notices on, more pronounced when surrounding woodland is cleared away. The sudden opening up of
do not nail them. Make sure that they are removed before the tree grows into them. Old, old trees may also be more of a problem where conifers are involved because they cast dense
neglected fences that are attached to trees cause a similar problem. Attaching fences to year-round shade and create a cooler moister microclimate.
veteran trees should be avoided.
If you do need to open up around veteran trees, make sure that the species of interest
A frequent threat to veteran trees in amenity areas is compaction. Car parks, picnic sites associated with the site (and old trees) are known, and assess the impact that opening up of
and building development may reduce the amount of water a tree can obtain and lead to its the woodland will have on them.
rapid decline and eventual death. If a veteran tree is a valuable source of shade, consider
providing alternative facilities nearby and relocate car parks, picnic benches, etc. Wherever Some points to take account of are:
people or property are in close proximity to a veteran tree the tree becomes a potential threat
so the situation is best avoided. • Clear around the trees a year (or more) before doing any remedial cutting on
the veteran trees (but be careful that the veteran tree is not exposed to greater
5.3 Surrounding woodland winds).
• Clear round the trees in stages over a period of years. These stages may take
5.3.1 Veteran trees in woodland five years or even ten. Be particularly careful if the veterans are in commercial
forests in case all the surrounding trees are felled in one go.
There are three broad types of woodland which are found surrounding veteran trees: • Consider clearing from the ‘outside’ in, ie leave trees closest to the veterans
until last.
• high forest woodland that has developed naturally (usually ancient woodland)
which contains old trees, eg a particularly old specimen of an oak within oak
Clearing conifers from around veteran trees
woodland;
• naturally regenerated woodland (usually broadleaved) which has developed
Birklands is a woodland within Sherwood Forest (Nottinghamshire) containing some 500
around veteran trees, for example on commons or wood pasture, in which the
veteran oak trees. The woodland has been planted up with commercial pines since 1935.
ancient trees are found;
In recent years work has started to restore 50 ha to oak woodland. Clear - felling of the
• planted woodland (usually coniferous) where a commercial crop has been grown,
plantation pines has been carried out on half of this area and crown thinning of the conifers on
the ancient trees being left at the time of planting.
the other. Seven years or more later the result indicated that more veteran trees survived in the
crown thinned area than the clear - fell and some of them showed stronger crown regeneration
The first of these three categories is the nearest to a wildwood but since British
than in the felled area. The clear - felling was considered to involve a greater risk of desiccation
woodlands have been so actively managed in the past, all three situations potentially create
to the trees and the dead wood (Barwick 1996).
problems for veteran trees. In the second and third categories especially, if the young trees
start to grow over the top of the veteran, not enough light will reach the veteran tree.
Similar conifer clearance work is being carried out atWindsor Forest (Berkshire) (Searle 1996),
The natural ageing process and effects of any tree surgery are likely to reduce the crown of
Castle Hill (Yorkshire), Croft Castle (Herefordshire) and Ethy Park (Cornwall). As at
the veteran such that shading by younger trees has an even greater impact. Understorey
Birklands, the indications are that thinning of woodland surrounding the veterans is more
bushes, such as holly or rhododendron, may compete with the veteran trees for water and
successful than clear - felling (Figure 26).
nutrients (though in terms of competition for water, woodland may be less of a problem than
grassland or bracken).
Figure 26. See colour plate page 87.

5.3.2 Remo val of competing woody vegetation

• Selectively fell, leaving some shade trees, especially if species such as birch, which
As a consequence of these factors, on sites where previously open grown trees are now cast a dappled shade, are present.
surrounded by others, some opening up may be necessary (releasing the trees). However, • Leave shade trees on the south (or most exposed) side.
even this is not as straight forward as it might appear. The sudden exposure of a tree that has • Pollard surrounding trees (if appropriate) to bring down the height of the
been shaded for many years can cause problems, for example: surrounding canopy.
• The leaves may be vulnerable to sun scorch. • Consider ring barking (or other equivalent methods) on surrounding trees to
• The tree itself may suffer increased transpiration rates and, with a root system that decrease the shade over a period. Note that some species take a long time to die
developed in a woodland situation, it becomes more susceptible to drought. when ring barked.
• Desiccation of the bark may stress the tree and cause cracking of hollow trunks • Be careful not to expose the trees to other problems such as spray drift and air
through drying out in different places. pollution.
• General drying out of tree and increased exposure may be detrimental to the • Avoid substantial clearance work in drought periods.
organisms associated with it, eg mosses and invertebrates. • When selecting which trees to fell and which to leave, remember that damaged
ones (in terms of commercial silviculture) are more valuable for nature
conservation.
• Fortunately, this means that the higher value trees commercially can be removed.

Page 56 Veteran Trees:A guide to good management Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Page 57
 Obtaining the correct balance of light and shade round old trees is a challenge.Achieving 5.3.3 Storm damage
it will depend largely on the species of tree and site concerned.
Storm-damaged woodlands can contain large amounts of dead wood. In the short term
Rhododendron and holly this provides potentially good conditions for saproxylic species but over-zealous tidying up
can result in a significant loss of dead wood habitat. A code for dealing with such woodland
These evergreen species can be detrimental to veteran trees when the bushes become large enough. is given in English Nature (1994). After a storm event in a woodland, follow the guidance in
Being shade tolerant they can grow very close to the trunk of the veteran and compete for water section 5.4 together with the following additional points:
in dry years. They are also serious competitors for light when tall. As they cast a deep shade all
year round, be careful that their sudden removal does not cause excess desiccation of the trunk. • Living but broken trees should be kept if possible. If necessary (ie in public areas)
reduce any hazard without felling the tree completely. Try to retain a mixture of
age groups.
Some additional points apply to veteran trees in commercial forests: • Trees where the crown has been blown off but the bole remains should be left if
possible. Some species may regenerate and continue to live; others may not but will
• According to the UK Forestry Standard (Forestry Authority 1998) individuals or provide a valuable dead wood habitat while they decay. Reduce any potential
groups of over mature, veteran or pollarded trees should be retained in both hazards if necessary.
broadleaved and coniferous forests where it is reasonably safe to do so. Also, some • Broken branches and stumps should be left and not sawn flush.
(number unspecified) dead or dying trees should be retained in regeneration areas. • Fallen mature timber should be left in situ as far as possible. Especially, try to
• The risk of pests damaging trees or timber when ancient broadleaf trees or dead retain pieces that are badly damaged or show signs of decay. If some has to be
wood is retained in commercial plantations is extremely small. removed to a different position use the same criteria as in 5.4. Reduce pieces in
• Standard forestry practices carried out on commercial conifer crops in areas of size as little as possible and keep the branches as intact as possible.
ancient trees may have a detrimental impact on the saproxylic fauna. Under • Leave some fallen trees with upturned root plates; these are beneficial for insects
conifers there is a cool climate and restricted light levels. The nectar sources are such as solitary bees and wasps.
reduced and dispersal may be inhibited. • Do not leave the wood for some years and then come in to clear and destroy it;
• Selective felling should also aim to leave an uneven age structure of retained trees many organisms will be destroyed with it.
and some trees to form veterans of the future (especially in deciduous forests). • Do not remove, treat or burn stumps.
• Leave the wood to regenerate naturally if possible. If planting is necessary then use
The management of land surrounding veteran pine trees in, for example, Scotland is not a species composition appropriate to the area.
considered here. • Leave some of the open spaces/glades created by the storm.
• Attempting to stand up wind-thrown veteran trees is usually unlikely to succeed,
though reducing the ‘sail area’ helps increase the chance of survival. Some species
Retaining trees within har vested forests to become veterans of the future
may continue growing horizontally, and some may naturally layer, in which case
Ideally: they should continue to be looked after as other veterans.
• Aim for 5 - 10 trees per hectare.
• Keep trees that will not be in the way or become hazards to the public in the 5.4 Management of dead wood
future, will not become overtopped by crop trees and are close to areas with
conservation interest, eg plentiful dead wood, glades. The management of dead wood is an important aspect of the management of ancient trees.
• Encourage them to develop a full crown. While the survival of the trees themselves is not usually affected by what happens to their
• Consider making pollards, if a full crown is not appropriate, but remember branches when on the ground, many of the organisms associated with veteran trees can be
that they will need to be managed in the future. found in fallen dead wood. If all fallen branches and slightly decayed trees are removed from
• Select native, longer-lived species such as oak, ash and beech. Keep some a woodland, it may be impoverished by the loss of more than 20% of its species. All types of
others such as, willow, wild service and other fruit trees, which are valuable as dead wood are valuable but some are more so than others, with each type (depending on its
nectar sources or have a distinct invertebrate fauna. species, state of decay, size, etc) supporting its own assemblage of invertebrates. The decay
rates of logs on the ground are very variable depending on the species and situation but as an
Bear in mind that the harvesting of the crop trees will have a large impact on retained trees, example large oak logs in the USA are predicted to take over 170 years to disappear.
especially if the crop is coniferous.
The conservation value of dead wood has received much greater attention in recent
years but there is still plenty of room for improvement in terms of our management of it.
Further reading: Alexander, Green & Key (1996), Barwick (1996), Crofts & Jefferson The following principles of managing dead wood can be applied to almost any site,
(1999), English Nature (1994), Forestry Authority (1998), Forestry Commission (1990), particularly woodlands.They are especially important on sites with large numbers of old trees
FWAG (1997), JNCC (undated), Key & Ball (1993), P. Kirby (1992), Lonsdale (1999), and/or large numbers of saproxylic species.
Sanderson (in prep.), Searle (1996), Wall (1996),Winter (1993).

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 5.4.1 Dead wood on the ground (Figure 27) • Move into partial shade/sun.
• Leave on the ground, not on top of other wood.
• Size and shape. Size matters and the bigger the better! The more the internal • Move near nectar sources (beneficial for many dead wood insects).
temperature and humidity of the dead wood is buffered from drying out and very • Move adjacent to dead wood in a more advanced state of decay (to provide continuity
high temperatures the greater the number of organisms it will support. The smaller of habitat).
the piece of timber the higher the surface area to volume ratio is, which causes
greater temperature fluctuation and desiccation. Large diameter branches and • Species of tree. The wood from native species of tree especially those naturally
tree trunks should be cut up as little as possible, preferably not at all - they should occurring on the site is best. Introduced species can be valuable (eg sweet chestnut
certainly not be cut into rings as these dry out quickly and in public areas are rots in a similar way to oak). Longer lived tree species tend to support a wider
subject to disturbance. A range of ‘natural’ sizes is useful. They also look more range of invertebrates. Broadleaves are more valuable than conifers except in
natural if they have broken rather than having sawn ends. Scotland (and perhaps a few other areas such as the Breckland).

Figure 27. Diagram of an ‘ideal’piece of dead wood. • Wood with deca y. Dead wood showing any sign of decay should always be left. It
is more valuable for wood to decay from the inside out than from the outside
NEARBYFLOWERING SHRUBS SUCH in - decay derived from internal heartrot is likely to be far more valuable than that
ASHAWTHORN PROVIDE NECTAR
initiated from the bark or from the cut ends of sawn timber (Figure 28).
TREESPR OVIDE
DAPPLEDSHADE

Figure 28. See colour plate page 88.

• Burning is a major source of damage to dead wood. Bonfires to burn brash (small
branches cut from trees), or timber, kill living organisms, damage the soil
LARGE PIECE
structure and can physically damage living trees if they are lit too close. However,
ROOT PLATE
OF WOOD
STILL ATTACHED some organisms live in burnt wood. If a bonfire has been lit, do not start the next
one with the charred wood of the previous one.

Figure 29. The design of a ‘Waterhouse’log pile. • Remo val of wood. Do not remove
dead wood as firewood. If you have
WOODPILE CONSISTINGOFTIMBER FROM 10CM DIAMETERUP. MIX
10CM & 20CM DIAMETERFOR A GOOD PILE. to remove it do not leave it on site
LYINGON GROUND A’ to mature first. Make sure that
PARTSAREALREAD Y ROTTEN any felled/cut is removed before
the end of April or left permanently.
B B’
If it has to be left and stored on
POOR QUALITYDEAD WOOD. PILE OF SMALLRINGSFROM
A FELLEDTREE LYING INTHE OPEN. site cover it with a polythene
sheet. This speeds up the seasoning
• Position. Ideally it should be left where it falls. If this is not possible, the ideal A process and prevents invertebrates
MINIMUM 3 METRES
place to move it to is somewhere with dappled shade but: from laying eggs in it.
• Some organisms prefer wood in open conditions, eg jewel beetles, solitary bees and
wasps re-using beetle holes and dead wood lichens. B B’ • Habitat piles . Tying small diameter
• Dead wood fallen into water should be left if possible. A different range of organisms twigs into tight bundles that retain
live in it. moisture better can increase the
• Dead wood in a range of different conditions is ideal. value of them. They may then
attract some specialised species.
Shade can also be encouraged, eg brambles/bracken can be left when they grow up.
Freshly fallen dead wood is best in more open conditions and more decayed wood is better Loose ‘habitat piles’ may be of
in shade. If felling a tree with the intention of leaving it as dead wood it can be felled into an value for ve rt e b r ates and a
open situation if it is likely to be shaded in the future by regeneration. different range of invertebrates.
Habitat piles made from larger
If it is possible to leave dead wood on only part of the site, choose that part with the A’ diameter logs are better but the
highest potential value for saproxylic species (ie with dead wood of good quality and logs are always more valuable if on
quantity and with good nectar sources). the ground (ie not on top of
other logs). Piles of smaller logs
• When moving wood: are usually more valuable if
A
• Move as short a distance as possible. lashed together or made into a
C. 60 CM 20-30 CM C . 60 CM
• Keep wood as intact as possible. ‘Waterhouse’log pile (see Figure 29).
• Move as soon after cutting/falling as possible.

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 • Root plates and stumps . Leave the root plates of fallen trees as they fell unless • Ensure that there is a continuous supply of dead wood on the site. Use short lived
they constitute a safety hazard. They can be good for nesting bees, wasps and birds or fast growing species such as horse chestnut or birch to close up the generation
and the holes left in the ground provide valuable damp patches/pools. gap if necessary and/or consider inducing rot in some trees.
• If branch removal is necessary, cut back only the weaker ends of the branches or
Leave tree stumps in the ground. Consider cutting high stumps if this does not cut part way through and knock them off to leave a natural shattered branch stub.
interfere with other management techniques.
5.4.4 The quantity of dead wood
• Brash on grazed sites . The retention of brash on heavily grazed sites can have a
useful function in protecting tree regeneration. Stock can be prevented from getting It is difficult to put a figure on the amount of dead wood required for saproxylic species.
caught in the dead branches by arranging them in such a way as to block access. Broadly speaking the more the better and, ideally, all should be left. It has been estimated
that one hectare of undisturbed woodland produces six tonnes of dead wood annually,
5.4.2 Standing and canopy dead wood. equivalent to half the annual leaf fall, and that in the wildwood three to eight trees per
hundred were standing dead. A suggested aim is for over 40 m3 of dead wood over 5 cm diameter
Dead wood in the canopy of trees is different from that lying on the ground. Together per hectare and more than 50 standing dead trees, some over 40 cm in diameter. This is
with standing dead trees it forms an extremely valuable habitat (Figure 13). A variety of considered a good site by Kirby et al. (1998). Quality is better than quantity and the aim
saproxylic species need timber to be still standing, either to maintain the moisture regime or should be for a good representation of all successive stages in decay on the site.
aspect or because the ‘search images’ of the prospecting colonisers are geared only to habitats
on standing trees. Broadleaved trees when they have died standing lose their twigs first, then There are various methods of estimating the amount of dead wood, both standing and
small branches and bark. They tend to lose larger branches from the top downwards. fallen. That most widely used is outlined in Kirby et al. (1998) and given in Appendix 5.
As they offer little wind resistance they often remain standing for a long time and may take A simpler method is being developed by the Woodland Trust.
decades to decay. They do need periodic checking for stability. If necessary remove the
branches and leave the trunk standing (creating a ‘monolith’). Fallen trees can also be fixed 5.5 Summary of how to manage surrounding land for veteran trees
in a vertical position, by strapping to living trees, to perpetuate this habitat type. Small dead
elms should also be retained if possible. The key to managing the land around veteran trees is to remember that anything that is
carried out to the land will also affect the trees. Aim for as little disturbance and input of
substances as possible, especially close to the trees themselves. Extensive grazing is compatible
Creating standing dead wood by ring barking live trees with veteran tree management but intensive grazing and cultivation are not. Try to avoid any
sudden changes of regime especially where these greatly alter light levels or affect the root
Ring barking is the removal of the bark and cambial layers all the way round a tree. systems. Wherever possible reduce chemicals or additives used on the land or livestock.
This prevents the distribution of water and the products of photosynthesis and, over a period of Finally, avoid physical damage to the tree (especially the roots) either intentional or accidental.
time,kills the tree. It can happen accidentally, for example by grazing animals or grey squirrels,
or intentionally. Ring barking can help create standing dead trees but they often decay from the Further reading: Alexander, Green & Key (1996), English Nature (1994), Ferris-Kaan et al.
outside, which is not quite as valuable as a natural decay column in the middle of a tree. (1993), Fry & Lonsdale (1991), Fuller (1995), Green (1996c, 1997), Harding et al. (1988),
Hodge & Peterken (1998), Key & Ball (1993), Kirby (1992), MacMillan (1988), Peterken
When considering ring barking a tree, make sure that it is not in a position where it will (1996), Speight (1989), Spencer & Feest (1994), Watkins (1990),Winter (1993).
constitute a hazard in future years. The ring of bark removed needs to be both wide and deep to
be effective.

5.4.3 Dead wood in living trees

The dead wood that is found in living trees is especially valuable for saproxylic
organisms. The following guidelines should be followed in order to maximise the quantities
of this rare habitat.

• Leave decayed wood inside hollow trees; be careful when carrying out remedial
work.
• Leave dead limbs on trees.
• Be careful not to cut into cavities or damage them in any way.
• Leave dead bark.
• Keep commercially poor trees (they are usually the best for dead wood species).
• Try to retain trees that are due to be felled because they contain defects (they
usually have interesting features), or at least retain the wood.

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 Chapter 6 Managing Veteran Trees of landscape and cultural interest

The land surrounding veteran trees may be very important for their survival, and appropriate
management can enhance the conservation value of the tree or the site. The situation of the
tree is also important for its contribution to the landscape itself.

6.1 Veteran trees in the wider landscape

6.1.1 Introduction

The over-riding importance of veteran trees in landscape terms lies in the trees
themselves. While replacement is no substitute for the conservation of the veterans, detailed
survey and careful re-planting programmes are needed to perpetuate their pattern within
the landscape. The choice of species, source of stock, siting, planting and subsequent
management are all vital, in order to provide continuity.

In different parts of Britain the ‘Countryside’ has a very different feel to it and the
ancient trees often reflect this. For example, the flat landscape of the Vale of Aylesbury with
its black poplars is very different from the undulating Lake District with field boundary
pollards (Figure 30). This in turn has a very different character from the wooded nature of
the Chilterns. It is important that this local distinctiveness is maintained and that cutting
practices in terms of tree types and shapes continue the local traditions as far as possible.

Figure 30. See colour plate page 88.

Following the devastation of the elm population through Dutch elm disease many of the
large trees remaining within hedgerows or along the edges of fields and roads are oak or ash
trees as maidens or pollards. These are now especially vulnerable because of management for
safety reasons along highways. Recent emphasis on planting and managing hedges should
take into account the importance of leaving some trees to grow on. In the meantime, existing
old trees need to be treated sympathetically to ensure their survival and that of the general
aspect of the area they are found in.

Certain older landscape features also have historical associations with trees, many of
which are now veterans, for example earth banks delimiting areas of former ownership or
management. It is equally important that these features are retained and managed.

6.1.2 The management of veteran trees (and future veterans) in the landscape

Studying the characteristics of veteran trees in the local area can be valuable in
perpetuating the character of the landscape. The following are some ideas to consider:

• Pollard (especially young trees) if there is a history of pollarding on the site or in

the local area. If there is no historical reason for pollarding check that the
historical value of the site is not compromised by doing so.
• Cuts on trees. In an area where trees were actively managed, flat and even cuts
can look quite in keeping. If the overall atmosphere is to ‘look natural’ flat cuts can
be quite intrusive. In this case try methods such as pulling or winching to make
more natural looking breaks or roughen up the cuts after they have been made.
This can be done simply by making coronet cuts, or V shapes, with a chainsaw in
the cut surface (Figure 31).

Figure 31. See colour plate page 88.

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 • Be careful when planting new trees or encouraging regeneration. Make sure that For example, avenues planted on new lines may result in the loss of much of the historic
they are in the most appropriate position, for example don’t destroy vistas and do interest. Felling sections causes a temporary loss of historic fabric, as well as natural habitat,
not create competition for existing veterans. but provides continuity of historic design and new generations of trees.
• When replacing trees (either by natural regeneration or planting) try to use the
same species of local provenance and, if possible, trees that have very similar As the above suggests, good management of veteran trees within a designed landscape
characteristics. Species that have been ‘lost’ from the site can also be used. needs to be considered in detail in order to maximise understanding and appreciation. Using
• The planting of exotic species, for other than timber production, is not necessarily site-based and documentary research, a comprehensive site plan can be drawn up against
a problem for nature conservation and may be desirable from the landscape point which the value of the landscape as a whole, and its individual parts (including veteran trees)
of view - to maintain traditional or planned planting patterns. Exotics should can be assessed. Only by working through such a process can an informed decision be made
usually remain in the minority on sites with high nature conservation interests. about priorities for protecting veteran trees, the historic interest and valuable habitats.

6.2 Veteran trees on ancient monuments Further Reading: English Heritage (1998),Phibbs (1991),Rackham (1986, 1988, 1989, 1990).

Where veteran trees are sited on an ancient monument their management must be carefully 6.4 Veteran trees in a modern world
considered (Figure 32). While it is likely that disturbance by the tree’s root structure has
Veteran trees are often features in their own right, for example outside houses, pubs (Figure 33)
already occurred, further physical damage to the monument through collapse of the upper
or churches, on village greens and in prominent places. When managing trees in these
parts of the tree or lifting of the root plate (and underlying archaeological features) continues
situations the views of local residents and visitors must be considered. These types of tree are
to be a potential threat.
often unlikely to be felled because many people appreciate them. They are, however,
In these cases it is important to limit the damage that may occur to the monument. vulnerable to concerns about their safety.
Regular inspection is necessary and, where possible,reduction of the height/weight of the tree.
Figure 33. See colour plate page 90.
If it is of suitable shape, encouragement of growth lower down, prior to cutting , may help to
keep the tree alive without damaging the monument. Veteran trees also occur in urban or suburban surroundings. It is unusual to find
populations of ancient trees in such places (though they do occur) but individuals can be
An additional factor to be considered in the management of veteran trees on ancient
found in the most unusual situations. Sometimes it seems as if the threats are so great and the
monuments is the depth and structure of the substrate. On ancient monuments this is frequently
space the tree is in so confined that encouraging the attributes of old trees in such places is a
compacted, encouraging a shallower rooting pattern than is encountered elsewhere in the area.
foolhardy occupation. However, one of the chief management techniques used on old trees
Advice can be sought from the inspector of the appropriate heritage authority. If works are likely is quite applicable to urban situations and can help create veterans of the future: pollarding.
to affect an ancient monument, Schedule Monument consent may be necessary (see chapter 11).
Some street trees such as plane, lime and sycamore respond very well to pollarding or
Figure 32. See colour plate page 89. heavy pruning. Although urban trees may be pollarded, this is not done for the same reasons
as trees in rural settings. The aim is to keep the tree to a manageable size and any technique
6.3 Veteran trees in designed landscapes that achieves this can be used. In addition, regularly cut, responsive trees develop unusual
appearances, which can add character to the neighbourhood (seen more regularly, for
When considering the future management of historic parks or gardens the starting principle example, in France than Britain). If the work is done for practical or aesthetic reasons the
should be to conserve, and where necessary repair, the surviving historic fabric. Veteran trees result can be a tree with ancient features. There is no reason why characterful trees should
are as much a part of that historic fabric as the structures - from the main house or hunting not be found on city streets as well as in the countryside. Although street trees have been
lodge, to the park wall or park pale - which lie within the park. They should be valued understudied in this respect, they may still offer valuable sites to wildlife.
equally as individual features and for their contribution to the wider parkland landscape.
In general there should be a strong presumption in favour of keeping them and ensuring their
future survival. An urban habitat can be a hostile environment for veteran trees, which can
suffer from:
For those sites with public access, matters of health and safety can arise and must be given
serious consideration (see chapter 10). Similarly, in more formal areas such as gardens, half dead • excessive safety work, trimming and ‘tidiness’;
trees and fallen timber might detract from the design or be viewed as evidence of neglect by the • severing of roots caused by the digging of trenches for cables etc. Excavation
visiting public. In these cases a balance should be struck and where removal is considered work should not be carried out within a separation distance, extending away
necessary the timber should be re-located to a less formal area for creation of a habitat. Better from the tree for 15 times the diameter of the trunk at breast height (ie 30 m
still, in some situations this problem can be solved through education and explanation. for a tree of diameter 2 m). This should be regarded as a minimum;
• run off from roads polluted with salt and trace elements from worn tyres;
At a limited number of sites, the veteran trees will themselves form the basis of an • tarmac, concrete or other unnatural substances right up to the trunk of the
overall landscape design. Usually this happens where the trees have been planted, or tree causing drought conditions;
incorporated, as part of a late 17th or early 18th century layout that has not undergone the • excessive compaction round the roots;
more usual reworking as a result of changing fashions. At such sites there might well be a debate • vandalism and damage;
about how to best manage the landscape for the benefit of present and, more particularly, future • high nutrient levels from dog excreta.
generations. This becomes more pertinent as the design loses its integrity and becomes gappy.

Page 66 Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Veteran Trees:A guide to good management Page 67
 It is important to realise that pollarding trees in this, as in any setting, needs to be done
carefully by tree surgeons who show proven experience of working with veteran trees.
Lopping the top off a tree that is too big for its setting is not the same as planned and
careful pollarding. Poorly cut trees may be regarded as eyesores, incur the wrath of local
residents and at worst be felled. In towns the future management of the trees is particularly
important. Pollarding a tree once is not an appropriate method of dealing with it. A freshly
made pollard needs to be cut at fairly frequent inter vals (which can be as short as one to two
years for street trees) so that the branches do not grow too big. If a gap in the cutting regime
occurs, the task of dealing with the tree becomes substantially more difficult in the future.
Today there are lapsed pollards on the streets of our towns that are in need of attention but
are more likely to be felled and replaced. Pollarding some of these old trees might still be
worth trying, otherwise the numbers of old plane trees, for example, will decrease
dramatically in forthcoming years.

With planes and limes there is plenty of scope to create artistic ‘patterns’ through
pollarding by cutting at higher points than previous cuts. Aesthetic proportions have even
been suggested using ‘golden mean proportions’ where the stem of the tree should comprise
62% of the total height and the branches 38%. These dimensions produce an outline that is
thought to be pleasing to the eye (Figure 34).

Figure 34. An illustration of ‘golden mean proportions’.

Primary pollard Secondary pollard

38%

38% 38%

62%

62% 62%

Further reading: Coder (1996), Mayhew (1993).

6.5 Educational opportunities

Veteran trees provide ideal educational opportunities for people to learn about their local
environment and traditions. Collecting seeds and growing them on to plant out is a good
starting point and enables local communities to ‘connect’ with their local ancient trees; this is
the main focus of the Trees of Time and Place campaign. Activities promoted by organisations
such as Common Ground also help to provide a focus and structure for such work and
distributing information. Making children aware of the importance of trees, especially veterans,
is a great investment for the future but adults should not be forgotten. The use of voluntary
parish tree wardens helps to involve people and inform them about the importance of ancient
trees and promotes tree recording as a contribution to the knowledge of trees in Britain.

Page 68 Veteran Trees:A guide to good management

 Chapter 7 Management of Veteran Trees for other organisms

7.1 Introduction

One of the reasons that veteran trees are so important is because of the range of other
organisms that live on them or are associated with them. Indeed, many sites with populations
of veteran trees have one or more statutory nature conservation designations for the species
they support. For this reason it is essential to manage with other organisms in mind, not just
the trees themselves. Many of these other species are important to the survival of the trees
too, so they should be viewed as an integral part of the system. A number of the species
associated with veteran trees are protected in their own right, via the Wildlife & Countryside
Act, and many are listed in the Red Data Books or in the UK Biodiversity Action Plan and
are therefore considered vulnerable or threatened. Ideally, the site or tree should be surveyed
to find out which species are present and management can then be targeted. In reality
detailed surveys are rarely achieved in the short term, but try to involve various experts early
on if possible.

Indices of Ecological Continuity have been drawn up for lichens and beetles based on the
species that are more or less confined to old pasture-woodland and pollards. Similar indices may
be developed for some other groups of organisms, but may not be possible for others, such as
mosses, as there are too few species that can be used.

7.2 Managing for a range of organisms

Despite the variety of groups that species associated with veteran trees belong to, many
benefit from very similar management practices. These practices are beneficial to the
veteran trees themselves too and should be considered together with chapters 4 (management
of the veteran tree) and 5 (land surrounding the veteran tree).

7.2.1 Management of the tree itself (Figure 35)

The majority of species will benefit from the following:

• Try to keep individual trees alive for as long as possible; live trees continually
produce dead wood as well as leaves, and branches.
• Do the minimum amount of surgery necessary on a tree.
• Ensure that there is plenty of standing dead wood (including whole dead trees) and
dead branches on old trees. Try not to remove the lower branches of trees, eg to
allow vehicular access. If they are dying, due to shading from above, they might be
used by some specialist insects.
• Never cut into cavities or holes, or drain them. To avoid this, test the depth of the
cavity by using, eg a piece of flexible hose, inserted into the hole, and ensure that
any cutting necessary does not go into it.
• Try to avoid damage to the lower parts of the tree trunk, including damage by
grazing animals (rubbing or chewing etc). As well as harming the tree itself, such
damage may be detrimental to other wildlife, for this is where lichens grow and
there may also be cavities at ground level, which can be good for invertebrates.
• Don’t tidy up (ie flush cut) rough ends to branches,the broken ends form egg-laying niches.
• Leave any dead wood in the canopy.
• Don’t treat stumps or cut/damaged branches with sealant,fungicide or insecticide.
• Do not remove fungal fruiting bodies; it can be harmful for the fungus and also for
any organisms living in it.
• Do not plough close to veteran trees,this damages the mycorrhizal fungi as well as the tree.

Page 70 Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Page 71
 Figure 35. An ‘ideal’ veteran tree for wildlife. • Create and maintain glades and rides.
• Ensure that there is continuity of linear landscape features such as lines of veteran
TREEALIVE & GROWING
trees and hedgerows. Bats and some invertebrates use such features as flight paths.
FUNGAL GROWTHON LIMB
(A gap of as little as 10 m in a line of trees can be enough to dissuade some bat species
SNAG/STUB
MAJOR DEADWOOD
from flying along it as they travel between their roosts and their feeding areas.)
UPPER CROWNLIMB - SMALL CAVITIES • Encourage flowers as nectar sources for invertebrates, eg hawthorn, composites,
WEAKFORKWITHINCLUDED BARK
umbellifers and flowering ivy. A healthy invertebrate population will also support
DELAMINATION OF WOOD
CROWN LIMB - LARGE CAVITY a healthy bat and bird population.
SUBSIDING MAJORLIMB LIGHTNING STRIKE • Create and/or maintain associated habitats such as ponds and wetlands.
WOODPECKER HOLE
Figure 36. An ‘ideal’ veteran tree site for wildlife.

FLOWERINGTREES & SHRUBS SUCHAS RESTRICTEDGRAZING ORPLOUGHING

WATER- FILLED ROT HOLE HAWTHORN, WILD PEAR & CRABAPPLE TO A DISTANCE OF 15X THE DIAMETER HEDGES PROVIDE
SUSPENDEDBROKEN LIMB PROVIDE NECTAR & POLLENFOR INSECTS. OFTHETREE PROTECTION FROM
DEADWOODRETAINED
PREVAILINGWIND &
BARKWITHFUNGALINFECTION POLLUTION

ESTABLISHEDSAP RUN DAMAGEDTREES

ARE MAINTAINED
OLD WOUNDWITHSCARTISSUE & LOOSE BARK
OLDPOLLARDS
BRACKET FUNGI & OTHERFUNGALFRUITINGBODIES RETAINED

FUNGALCOLONISATION OF ROOT

BRANCHES REACHING GROUND

FALLEN LIMB
ROOT DAMAGEFROMBR OWSING

BASAL CAVITY
ROT HOLEINTRUNK

7.2.2 Land surrounding a veteran tree (Figure 36) EXTENSIVEGRAZING :

NO CHEMICALS USED
ONLAND OR STOCK. PERMITTED MODERATE
• Ensure that there are plenty of holes, cracks and crevices, in other trees in the IVY GROWTH SUCCESSIONAL
REGENERATION
surrounding area eg for bats, birds and invertebrates. PLANNED &
PROTECTED
• Leave abundant dead wood on the ground in a variety of sizes, shapes, positions
and states of decay. Leave fallen dead trees as intact as possible.
• Poor or damaged trees are often those removed by foresters. Try to retain them if STANDING DEADTREE
& ‘GRAVEYARD’
possible; they are often the best wildlife trees. NEXT GENERATION
FROMMOTHERTREE
• Avoid using chemicals (herbicides, insecticides or fungicides) on the surrounding DEAD WOOD

land (or the tree), keep the use of veterinary chemicals, especially wormers, on
livestock to a minimum.
• If fertilisers have to be used, farmyard manure or pelleted versions are best. They 7.2.3 Creating cavities and decay in younger trees
should be applied on still days and kept at least 15 times the diameter of the trunk
If there is a lack of holes, crevices and decay it may be desirable to initiate some.
at breast height away from the trees and not allowed to splash onto the trunks.
This can be done in a variety of ways that are all best tried on younger trees, rather than
• Encourage natural regeneration to ensure long-term continuity of trees. Try to
veterans. Different groups of organisms have different requirements:
encourage native trees and shrubs with a good population and age structure. This
provides continuity of trees and suitable habitats for mycorrhizal fungi that require • Bats prefer deep narrow crevices.
different age classes of each species of tree. The regeneration and planting of • Birds mostly prefer holes rather than crevices, a variety of sizes will suit a range of
species.
conspecific saplings near isolated veterans is important for this reason. On parkland
sites with good lichen floras some younger exotic trees are worth encouraging if • Invertebrates use an almost infinite variety of decay, holes, crevices, etc. Consider
drilling holes of various sizes into trees as well as making larger holes with saws or
veteran specimens of the same species occur.
breaking off branches.
• If dead wood is in short supply, or will be in the future,(ie there is a generation gap)
consider artificially creating suitable cavities and decay in younger trees (see sections
There is considerable scope for creating holes and initiating decay in trees (Figures 37
7.2.3 and 8.3.2).
& 38). Customised ‘boxes’ can be made or more general cavities; experiment with what you
• If there is no new generation of the same species of tree consider using other, more
have available.
quickly growing, species to try to help close the gap as well as planting conspecifics.

Birch is quick growing and can provide the conditions required for some species, Sweet chestnut
may provide a suitable alternative to oak. Horse chestnut may have good sap runs.

Page 72 Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Page 73
 Figure 37. Suggestions for the design of artificial cavities.
REMOVEAND SAVE A
The underside of horizontal branches and leaning trees keeps the plants dry and provides shelter
‘RING’ FROMTHE STUMP from acid rain. Horizontal branches also have higher nitrogen inputs (eg as bird droppings) on the
CUT A WEDGE OUT
OFTHETRUNK top and are good for certain species. Rot holes are good too when the rainwater persists and leaves
REMOVE
A WEDGE
accumulate. Mosses at the lip of the hole act as a wick so that it empties very slowly creating a rain
FROMTHE
TOPOFTHE
track down the trunk for several days. A cavity with a small hole lower down may allow water to
REMOVETHE ‘POINT’ STUMP run out slowly for several weeks. Trees with such features are rare and support rare bryophytes.
REPLACE & FIXWEDGE
ENSURINGTHAT THERE
IS A GAP LARGE ENOUGH
FOR BATS ON ONESIDE .
REPLACE
• Oak, ash, field maple and beech are the most important old trees for mosses,
& FIX followed by hornbeam, sycamore, and hawthorn. Elm is also very good but few
THE RING CUT A SMALL
FILLCAVITYWITH SAWDUST, PIGEON NOTCH veteran elms survive except in the Scottish Highlands and Islands.
MANURE, DEADANIMALS , ETC.
• Grazed wood-pasture allows light to the boles of the trees but the humidity is still
relatively high. Dense woodland is often not so good for mosses despite the
increased humidity that is liked by some species.
• Older trees have also had more time than younger trees for bryophyte growth to
accumulate.
LARGE DIAMETERTRUNK
CUT INTO SECTIONS
7.3.3 The characteristics of lichen growth on veteran trees
REMOVETHE CENTRE
FROM EACHSECTION ,
INCLUDINGTHE TOP.
Two distinct lichen floras are associated with veteran trees. These are: old growth woodland
species and those thriving in more open, drier, parkland type situations. Lichens are more
sensitive to undergrazing and less to overgrazing than most groups of organisms.

Figure 38. See colour plate page 90. 7.3.3.1 Lichens and pollution

Lichens are very susceptible to sulphur dioxide and nitrous oxides and the location of
Bat and bird boxes can be made or purchased. They should only be necessary if hollow
the tree in relation to major sources of these substances is very important. Trees close to
trees are exceptionally sparce or specific boxes are needed for particular species, eg spotted
pollution sources tend to be species poor. Those in deep valleys are often better as the air
fly-catcher or tawny owl. Nest boxes should be viewed as a ‘stop gap’ until suitable, natural,
passes over the top without penetrating (except when local pollution is trapped in a
places are available. Take care when putting up boxes that you do not put them on part of a
temperature inversion forming ‘valley smog’). The tops of hills tend to be more polluted.
tree next to that used by rare invertebrates; the bats or birds may make a meal out of the
The reduced levels of sulphur dioxide in southern England has enabled some of the more
threatened species.
mobile species of lichen to recolonise but others, especially those typical of veteran trees, have
very poor dispersal mechanisms.
In addition to the general requirements listed above, most groups have some very
specific needs, which are dealt with below. 7.3.3.2 The lichens of old growth woodland and veteran trees

7.3 Epiphytes • Rich woodland lichen floras depend on old growth woodland (ie stands older than
200 years) with veteran trees.
7.3.1 Introduction • Communities rich in important species take many years to colonise.
• The ideal conditions for woodland lichens are those with adequate light and
Various species of epiphytic plants are associated with old trees. The groups of greatest shelter from drying winds.
interest in this habitat are the mosses, liverworts and lichens but some vascular plants, such • Ideal sites are those with a mosaic of dense and open areas; different species of
as ferns, can be epiphytic too. Among the bryophytes there is considerable regional variation lichen have different tolerances to exposure and light levels.
in the numbers of rare and total species found. Epiphytic mosses and lichens can mostly be • Woodland lichens are adapted to low nitrogen levels so high nitrogen (ammonia)
found throughout the year and are relatively easy to record and monitor although they require pollution from intensive farming is a serious threat.
specialist identification skills. • Slow growing species are found on virtually all types of bark, including acid bark
but base rich bark is usually the richest habitat. Exotic tree species are rarely as
7.3.2 Characteristics of moss growth on veteran trees valuable as natives, especially acid barked trees.
• Exposed heartwood areas may have special and rare floras.
• In more highly polluted areas epiphytic mosses are found more on old trees than • Ancient coppices are rarely good for lichens as they are more like young growth
on young trees. They occur mostly low down on the trees and in sheltered positions woodlands.
(where they may be more susceptible to agricultural contamination). • In areas with a few old growth woods, local rarities can occur on occasional old
• Veteran trees (and pollards) provide a variety of microhabitats, eg rain tracks, trees within young growth woodland.
crevices, bark sheltered by protruding parts of the tree and exposed roots, where • Large populations of veteran trees are required for rich lichen floras to develop, as
different species are able to survive. many species have very narrow and rare niches even in near-natural woods.

Page 74 Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Page 75
 • A distance of as little as 2.5 km can prevent many species recolonising. • Be careful of suddenly opening up around relic lichen floras as lichens are very
• Recovery time from clear-felling for most lichen communities is 200 - 300 years if sensitive to light and humidity levels. Thus, clear small areas at a time and work
there is nearby old growth. Communities of dry craggy oak bark take over 400 years. on small groups of veteran trees at any one time to minimise local climate change.
Also, the subsequent growth of the undergrowth (eg bramble) and tree seedlings in
7.3.3.3 Lichens of wayside and parkland veteran trees these areas may shade out lichens on trunks unless grazing levels are sufficiently high.
• Do not fell large,post mature exotic trees without checking for rare lichen species first.
• These communities are best developed on full lit trees with moderate enrichment
• Some lichen rich communities are found on rocks (especially in upland areas) so
from dung or dust. Well developed communities are absent from extensively
these should be left if on site. (Other habitats can also support rich lichen
grazed wood-pasture as the grazing levels are not high enough. Hence these
communities e.g. the park pale or fence.)
communities are largely associated with human activity in Britain.
• The rarer species include slow growing ones and southern species at the edge of Figure 39. Site characteristics and management for old growth lichens.
their range. Post mature and veteran trees are the richest.
• Unimproved grassland is the ideal habitat surrounding the veteran trees for these
types of lichens.
• Base rich and mesic bark are the main habitats of interest but, unlike woodland THERE IS A MIXTURE OF
TREES OFALL AGES, INCLUDING
lichen communities, acid bark is rarely of any interest. Exotic base rich barked VETERANTREES .
HEDGESPR OVIDEPR OTECTIONFROM
trees such as Norway maple (a good elm substitute), walnut and tulip tree can be PREVAILINGWINDS & POLLUTION.

important. Sycamore can be rich but is not nearly as good as Norway maple. ADJACENTLAND ISMANAGED
WITHOUTTHE USE OF CHEMICALS.
A few local specialists can occasionally be found on conifers.
• Landscape parks are now a major resource for this type of lichen flora but it was
once common in agricultural areas with frequent old trees. The lichen communities
have declined at least as much as those of the unimproved neutral grassland.
LIGHT, EXTENSIVEGRAZING .

7.3.4 Management recommendations THEREIS A MOSAIC OF

RELATIVELY DENSELY
TREEDAREAS ... ANDMORE OPENAREAS
The ideal management for lichens depends on the type of community present. Old growth
woodland communities require light grazing and a mosaic of habitat structure. Parkland communities
need more open conditions and can benefit from some exotic tree species being present.

7.3.4.1 Mosses and liverworts

SOME POLLARDING
IS ACCEPTABLE
• Don’t drain or divert existing streams or damp hollows away from old trees as they may
contribute to the overall humidity of the area (unless failing drainage threatens the tree). •
•
NO FELLING
NO COLONISINGIVY
• Do not block past drainage ditches in an attempt to increase humidity; if long • NATIVETREESPECIES

established water levels are raised this can kill veteran trees.
SOMEEXPOSEDHEARTWOOD

7.3.4.2 Woodland lichens (Figure 39)

• Maintenance of old growth woodland containing veteran trees is crucial. 7.3.4.3 Wayside and parkland lichens (Figure 40)
Management of woodlands for commercial forestry is not very compatible with the
conservation of woodland lichens. Traditional management such as grazing and • The maintenance of low intensity farming is the most important factor in
pollarding can be compatible. conserving these lichen floras. In relict sites that are intensively farmed, ideally low
• Light grazing is beneficial in preventing uniformly shaded conditions. Deer alone may intensity farming on permanent pasture should be restored.
achieve this but the reintroduction of other grazers may be necessary. Where grazing has • The application of farmyard manure or pelleted fertiliser is acceptable as long as
either ceased or declined dense shrub layers of, for example, holly or rhododendron can it is not plastered on to the trees.
cause problems. Holly may be pollarded as it supports rare lichen species when not too • Exotic trees with a base rich bark can be important and are much more acceptable
shaded.This has been done in the New Forest as it also creates enough light to benefit in this habitat than in native woodland. Norway maple and walnut are especially
lichens on old trees nearby. In addition, it perpetuates historic management on the site. good. New tree plantings should include all existing species of value on a site.
• Ivy, and other evergreens such as holly, can cause problems. Especially in • When planting new trees, plant close enough to the existing veteran to maximise
ungrazed woods they can smother epiphytic growth. Ivy in the early stages of colonisation but not so close as to shade them out. As an example, plant three or
colonisation should be prevented from establishing on trees with high epiphytic four trees of the same species, or the same potential lichen flora as the veteran, in
value but old plants should be left. Ivy is beneficial to other forms of wildlife as it a semi-circle round the existing old one, avoiding the south side. A good guideline
is a useful nectar source and provides cover. However, consideration might be distance is 15 m.
given to its removal from trees in sites of high value for epiphytic plants, but low • Parkland lichen floras are often able to respond relatively quickly if individual
value for other groups of wildlife. Browsing of ivy on the lower trunks of the trees plants, showing signs of regression due to reduced light, are opened up sympathetically
is the best and most natural method of ivy control. by trimming the canopy of the veteran tree or cutting surrounding trees.

Page 76 Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Veteran Trees:A guide to good management Page 77
 Figure 40. Site characteristics and management for parkland lichens. On some sites with veteran trees a decline in grazing has caused a change in the ground
flora and one option for future management is to reinstate the grazing. The merits of
opening up woodland to recreate former wood-pasture must be carefully considered. Ideal
management of the trees should take first priority, then the ground flora. Is the woodland
flora of higher value than the pasture/heathland that will result? A specific rare or unusual
species of plant that is not associated with the veteran trees can usually be protected/managed
for without compromising the trees themselves.

Veteran trees in hedges are particularly vulnerable to damage by hedge trimmers, and
VETERANTREES flails. It is also necessary to ensure that some young trees are left in hedges to grow on and
become ancient hedgerow trees of the future. Those at field corners often have a better
UNIMPROVED GRASSLAND
chance of survival than those along the length of hedges.

Further reading: Harding & Rose (1986), Sanderson (1996a), Sanderson (in prep.)
HIGHERDENSITY OF
EXTENSIVEGRAZING 7.5 Fung i

DUNGIS IMPORTANT... SOMEEXOTIC SPECIES SUCHAS

7.5.1 Fungi and veteran trees
WALNUTOR NORWAY MAPLE

Our understanding of the role of fungi in woodlands and especially woodlands of

veteran trees has changed completely in recent years. Even as recently as the 1970s some
people considered that the fungi rotting and hollowing out a veteran tree were detrimental to
it and that fungal fruiting bodies on a trunk meant that the tree was soon to die. Fungi are
fundamental to the growth of the tree and fulfil an important role at all stages in its life
NEW PLANTING &/OR (Figure 41) see section 3.5 for more information about the role of fungi in the decay process.
REGENERATION
Remember that the fruiting body is just a tiny part of the organism; the rest, the mycelium, is
very extensive but less often seen.

Fungi are beneficial to veteran trees and the organisms associated with them in the
Translocations should be seen as a last resort where lichen trees have to be removed or are following w ays:
threatened. It can also be considered for boosting relict populations in damaged sites.
Translocation has a low success rate and does not work for crust forming species. Try to find a • As mycorrhizal species. There are two different types
tree as similar as possible to the host tree and use isopon glass fibre resin as glue (‘bostic’, • Ectomycorrhizae where the fungus sheaths the roots of the tree, eg fly agaric, boletes
‘evostick’ and ‘araldite’ all might work but have been shown to induce some necrosis on the and amethyst deceiver.
lichen). Try to take a part of the bark with the lichen and apply the glue to the bark. Recent • Endomycorrhizae or vesicular arbuscular (VA) where the fungus penetrates the
experiments with lichen thallus lobes or small thallus fragments fastened to a new tree by nylon cells of the roots. These are much smaller fungi and less easy to see.
mesh staple to the bark have proved more promising than older techniques. Mycorrhizae enhance the ability of the tree to take up phosphorus and nitrogen and
in return the fungi gain carbohydrates. The fungi probably also help the tree
Further reading: Adams (1996), Gilbert (1984, 1991), Harding and Rose (1986), Hodgetts withstand drought, pollutants and pathogens. It has been shown that trees grown
(1989), Reed (1996), Rose (1976, 1991, 1993), Sanderson (1996b), Scheidegger et al. (1995). without their mycorrhizae are very poor specimens. Most plants have mycorrhizal
fungi associated with them, not just trees.
7.4 Ground flora • As nutrient cyclers. Fungi are one of the main agents of decomposition for both leaves
and woody material on the woodland floor and inside the tree. They recycle nutrients
While the main conservation value of sites with old trees is usually the trees themselves and from the dead plant material and make them available again. The products of the
the organisms living on them, the ground flora between the trees can be of interest in its own fungal decomposition are taken up by invertebrates, plants, and even the trees
right. This aspect is also covered in chapter 5. themselves when aerial roots from the tree grow into the rotting trunk.
• As a consequence of the decay inside the tree,especially in veterans,the conditions
Examples of vegetation types include: are created for a range of animals and plants including saproxylic invertebrates,
birds and bats.
• Woodland - where the canopy of ancient trees (and associated younger trees) is • Through an interaction between the fungi and the trees, zones of decay within
dense enough that the ground flora is of a woodland type. living trees become ‘compartmentalised’. This creates a range of different
• Grassland - where the trees are spaced widely enough and the land is grazed so that microhabitats within a single tree. The presence of one species of fungus may
pasture results. inhibit the growth of others and may confer protection from more aggressive species.
• Heathland - as above but on heathy sites where heather dominated communities arise. • The fruiting bodies of the fungi provide a food resource for invertebrates and
• Hedgerows - where ancient trees occur as part of ancient hedges. mammals.

Page 78 Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Page 79
 Not all fungi are beneficial to trees. Some are pathogenic and can kill trees, but they are Figure 1. A veteran oak tree in Lincolnshire.
in the minority. Pathogenic fungi tend to be far less common in natural woodlands than in
plantations and isolated trees in ornamental situations. There are a few important points to
be remembered when a pathogenic species is suspected:
• Many pathogens take hold when the tree is already stressed for some reason,
eg by drought or shading.
• Some pathogenic species are in fact species groups in which individual species
vary considerably in their behaviour, eg of the honey fungi, Armillaria mellea can
be pathogenic but Armillaria gallica, which looks almost identical, is more
frequently found in woodland situations and is only weakly pathogenic.
• Some species produce copious fruiting bodies on freshly dead wood but are not
responsible for the death of the tree, eg oyster fungus.
• Heart rotters are not usually pathogens;they are just causing the decay of the dead
wood in the centre of the tree, eg Laetiporus.
• Pathogenic species are more likely to be a problem when trees are in monospecific
stands or more or less isolated within agricultural land or gardens, rather than in
natural woodland situations.

However, there are some situations when fungi can at least contribute to the decline of
veteran trees. An important example is the growth of Bjerkandera adusta (a sap wood colonising
species) on pollarded hornbeam in Essex. This highlights the need to carry out work on a few
trees at a time and alter the programme in the light of experience. Bjerkandera seems to be
encouraged by the drying out of exposed wood following complete crown removal.

Like other organisms

some fungal species are rare
and threatened. Many of
those found hollowing out
old trees have restricted
distributions as do some of
those found on undisturbed
grassland areas surrounding
old trees. Of the 447
macrofungi on the British
Red Data Book list all but 50
are from ancient woodland
and lowland wood pasture. INVERTEBRATES
LIVE INFRUITING
Most of them are wood BODIES SECTIONSTHROUGH STUMPS
& BRANCHES
decomposing or mycorrhizal. SHOW
COMPARTMENTALISATION
RESULTING FROMTHE

In view of their AERIAL ROOTS

INTERACTIONS BETWEEN
TREE & FUNGI
i m p o rt a n c e , and in some TAKENUTRIENTS
FROMHUMUS
instances conservation PRODUCEDFROM
WOOD DECAY BY
status, measures to conserve FUNGI

fungi should be considered. ECTOMYCORRHIZAL

SPECIES

DECOMPOSING FUNGI...
ON LEAVES & WOOD

Figure 41. The importance of

fungi for veteran trees.
ENDOMYCORRHIZAL SPECIES

Figure 2 . Veteran hawthorn pollards at Croft Castle (Hereford).

Page 80 Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Veteran Trees:A guide to good management Page 81
 Figure 4. Wrest Park, Figure 6. A lapsed pollard at Ashtead Common (Surrey).
Bedfordshire. Early 17th
Century sketch by Peter
Tilleman showing mature
trees incorporated within the
immature formal landscape.
Courtesy of Bedfordshire and
Luton Archive.

Figure 7. Ancient wood-pasture with veteran

trees at Farmcote (Cotswolds).

Figure 9. A veteran tree killed by car

parking around it. Calke Abbey
Figure 5. A veteran ash pollard in the Lake District. (Derbyshire).

Page 82 Veteran Trees:A guide to good management Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Page 83
 Figure 21. An ash pollard at Goswold
Hall (Suffolk) last cut about 20 years
ago by the owner (in photograph) using
the saw he is holding.

Figure 13. Sweet chestnut trees at Croft

Castle (Herefordshire). A standing dead
tree is in the foreground and stag-headed
trees behind.

Figure 14. The cut surface of a log

showing internal boundaries in the timber.

Figure 22. A veteran hornbeam pollard at

Figure 15. Chicken of the woods Laetiporus sulphureus, Hatfield Forest (Essex) being cut for the
on an oak tree. second time in recent years.

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 Figure 23. Old growth
woodland in the New Forest
(Hampshire), grazed
extensively.

Figure 25. Ploughing too close to a veteran tree. The tree has also had its lower
Figure 24. Whittlewood branches removed, which is also detrimental.
Forest (Northamptonshire),
a deer park with improved
grassland.

Figure 26. Gradually opening up around

Figure 24a. Veteran trees killed by a bracken a veteran oak surrounded by conifers,
fire at Ashtead Common (Sur rey). Ethy (Cornwall).

Page 86 Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Page 87
 Figure 28. The base of a large beech tree, fallen apart and left to decay naturally, Figure 31. ‘Coronet’cuts
Windsor Forest (Berkshire). on a veteran oak tree,
Ashtead Common (Surrey).

Figure 30. A landscape with veteran trees,Watenlath,Lake District. Figure 32. Veteran tree on an ancient monument, at Hailes Abbey.

Page 88 Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Veteran Trees:A guide to good management Page 89
 Figure 33. A veteran sycamore pollard outside the Fox and Hounds at Foss Cross, Cotswolds. Figure 43. Wasp mimic
cranefly Ctenophora flaveolata is a
Red Data Book species, dependent
on soft,decaying heartwood of very
large veteran beech trees.

Figure 44a. A treespade being used

to move a young oak tree at
Ashtead Common (Sur rey),

Figure 38. An example of an

artificial cavity,Windsor Forest
(Berkshire). Note the birch log
that has been stood up against
the living tree to create more Figure 45. A large tree guard in use,
standing dead wood. Hatfield Forest (Essex).

Page 90 Veteran Trees:A guide to good management Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Page 91
 Figure 46. Young, newly created pollards at Hatfield Forest (Essex).

Figure 47. An avenue of veteran

sweet chestnut trees at
Croft Castle (Herefordshire).

Figure 48. The Major oak at Sherwood Forest

(Nottinghamshire). The tree has been fenced to
reduce the trampling effect of visitors, and also
mulched. Figure 50. An ash tree at Hatfield Forest (Essex) after the first cut, a second cut being planned.

Page 92 Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Page 93
 Figure 52. New holly pollards in the New Forest (Hampshire).

Figure 51. Restoration pollarding a veteran beech at Burnham Beeches (Buckinghamshire).

Cutting work has been completed on this tree. Figure 53. Recently cut hornbeam pollards at Knebworth (Hertfordshire).

Page 94 Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Page 95
 7.5.2 The management of veteran trees for fung i

There are various ways in which veteran trees and the land around them can be
managed to f avour fungi, including those species beneficial to the survival of the trees.

• Avoid over collecting/damage to fruiting bodies. There has been considerable

discussion and conflict over this issue in recent years.

Collection of fungi

While picking of fruit bodies may not be harmful to the fungal organism itself, it is detrimental
in other ways. First it may reduce the chance of sexual reproduction and long range dispersal of
spores. Secondly it deprives many animals of a food source. While for mammals fungi may just
be a supplementary part of the diet, some invertebrates rely on specific species of fungi and live
only in the fruiting body. In sites where recreational pressure is high, damage to fungi may be
considerable. Occasional picking is not likely to be a problem, but intense and repeated collection
of certain species can be detrimental. On sites with good populations of old trees, removal of
fungal fruiting bodies, especially from the old trees, should be avoided. A code of conduct has been
produced for collecting fungi, giving useful guidelines (English Nature 1998).

• Excessive trampling by people or grazing animals is detrimental to mycorrhizal species.

• Fertilising of old trees should not be carried out. Inorganic fertilisers and lime
have a detrimental effect on mycorrhizal fungi. Trees in fertilised areas may
appear healthy for many years but in times of stress succumb more easily.
• Light grazing (eg by cattle, ponies or sheep) in woodland may encourage increased
numbers of species and numbers of fruiting bodies of mycorrhizal fungi.
• Removing leaf litter from around amenity trees may encourage root disease
causing fungal species. This is because their natural competitors are suppressed.
• Try to avoid causing urban trees any undue stress, which may upset the natural balance
of fungi species and mycorrhiza, eg by trenching or laying tarmac over the roots.
• If an aggressive Armillaria species is found, trees nearby can be protected by
constructing a bar rier in the soil, using a phenolic soil drench, or winching out or
grinding infected stumps and roots and then burning them. This is a sensible
procedure only in urban situations.
• Excessive ivy cover on trees can smother the formation of bracket fungi (see also
section 7.3).

Further reading: Alexander, Green & Key (1996), English Nature (1998), Green (1991),
Ing (1996), Lonsdale (1999a & b), Marren (1992), Rayner (1996).

7.6 In vertebrates

7.6.1 Introduction

The numbers of species of saproxylic insects (ie those dependent on dead and
decaying wood) are far higher than those of other groups of organisms associated with
old trees and a remarkable proportion of these are of rare and uncommon species .
However, on many sites the invertebrate fauna is very poorly known in comparison to birds etc.
Most groups of invertebrates have species associated with old trees but those with the largest
numbers of species are the beetles and flies (figure 43). Some are active decomposers of wood,
assisting with nutrient recycling , others feed on fungi and there are also predators and parasites
that are specialists in the dead wood habitat. Throughout Europe, saproxylic species have been
Figure 54. A fallen veteran willow in Lincolnshire that is regrowing well. identified as the most threatened community of invertebrates.

Page 96 Veteran Trees:A guide to good management Veteran Trees:A guide to good management Page 97
 Invertebrates have very special features making them different from other organisms. Figure 42. A good tree for invertebrates.
• Their cycle is often annual; thus making populations very vulnerable to poor years
and lack of continuity of habitat. (However, some saproxylic species can have long
larval stages due, for example, to the poor nutritional quality of the food. Stag beetles
take up to five years to reach the adult stage.) 4
• Different stages in the life cycle of the same species may have very different 5

requirements and habits. Saproxylic species are often either predatory or feed on 1

nectar or pollen as adults, usually in very different places from where the larvae 2
develop.
• Some are extremely specialised. For some, there are likely to be very few trees
8 3
with the precise conditions required, even on sites with a good veteran tree
population.

16
14 13
Stag beetles

The law prohibits the sale, and advertising for sale, of stag beetles. Guidance on what to do if 6 9
7
larvae are found in a decaying stump is given in a leaflet Stags in Stumps available from the
People’s Trust for Endangered Species or the English Nature enquiry service.
10

11
A good tree for invertebrates (Figure 42):
12

• Dead wood in the crown - hot dry wood supports a limited but specialised 19 17
range of species. 18

• Decay columns - brown rot and soft white rot are especially valuable.
20
• Rot holes in a variety of sizes,dampnesses and stages of decay, eg some water-filled 15
and others dry and containing tree humus.
• Partly decomposed wood, burrows and cavities,resulting form actions of other
1 Major Deadwood 8 Weak Fork with Included 15 Fallen Limb
saproxylic species. Sunbaked, aerial deadwood, Bark Fallen timber habitat:leave in
• Sap runs or fluxes, where the sap oozes out of the tree. desiccated wood (longhorn Nest (birds, squirrels, rove partial shade.
• Fungal fruiting bodies and fungi present under the bark etc. beetles). beetles, micromoths).
16 Lightning Strike
• Damage to the bark, eg lightning strike.
2 Upper Crown Limb - 9 Water-Filled Rot Hole Burnt wood (flat bugs, false
• Broken branch stubs that are good for invertebrate access, eg for egg laying. Small Cavities Water-filled rot hole (hoverflies, weevil,smoke flies).
• Nectar source nearby. Dry rot holes - birds, bats roost water beetles).
• Fallen branches left to lie near the tree in partial shade. (hornets nest). 17 Fungal Colonisation of Root
10 Flux on Bark Damaged loose bark: (bark
• Living tissue (ie the tree is alive) so that it can continue to produce more dead 3 Crown Limb - Large Cavity Established sap run (sap beetles, beetles, false scorpions and
wood and shade the dead wood already on the tree. ‘Brown’ rot (stiletto flies, hoverflies and fungus gnats). spiders).
cardinal click beetle, darkling
beetles, barn owl roosts). 11 Scar Tissue from Old Wound 18 Basal Cavity
Damaged loose bark (bark Hollowing trunk (cardinal
4 Fungal Growth on Limb beetle, false scorpions and beetles, lesser stag beetle,
Fungi on bark (wood awl flies, spiders). crane flies).
false ladybirds).
12 Bracket Fung i 19 Rot hole in Tr unk
5 Snag/Stub Heart rot prepares wood for Soft rot (lesser stag beetle,
Large surface area for egg laying invertebrates; (fungus gnats, rhinoceros beetle, crane flies).
and fungi (cardinal beetle). shining fungus beetles).
20 Root Damage from
6 Bark with Fungal Infection 13 Delamination of Wood Browsing
Fungi on bark (cardinal Fungi/invertebrates (cardinal Soft rot (stag beetle, hoverflies).
beetles, wood awl flies, false beetle, sap beetle).
lady birds).
14 Subsiding Major Limb
7 Suspended Broken Limb May lead to shattered stub
Shattered end provides large habitat.
surface area for egg laying
and fungi.

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 Figure 43. See colour plate page 91. • Trees showing signs of decay, rot holes, sap runs and dead wood in the crown,
ie those features often associated with old trees. The dead wood that develops from
7.6.2 Good management for in vertebrates rot holes and heart wood is especially valuable. See also comment on the location
of dead wood given above.
• Do nothing to damage those features illustrated in the diagram as being good for
invertebrates (including draining or damaging decay holes).
• Trees that are native broadleaves (except in Scotland and areas such as the
Breckland where Scots pine is also important). However, very old specimens of
• Keep as much dead wood as possible on site, preferably all of it.
exotic species, such as sweet and horse chestnut and very large sycamores can also
• Leave any wood on site that shows any sign of internal decay or loose bark. (The
provide valuable habitats. Such old specimens should not be removed on
most valuable dead wood for invertebrates is that which is decaying from the conservation grounds simply because they are not native.
inside out rather than from the outside in (eg from rot holes and heart wood).) • A good mixture of structure - for example open grassy areas, deep woodland.
• Very small diameter timber - brash, twigs and small branches - are more useful if • Good nectar sources, eg trees, bushes and herbs with open accessible flowers.
accumulated into piles in the shade of the tree canopy or of bracken or brambles.
• If timber has, for some reason, to be removed from the site or destroyed then do If a site does not show all of these features it is still worth bearing in mind the
not mature it on site. Remove it as soon as possible after cutting and certainly requirements of invertebrates even in an individual, isolated tree.
before the end of April. If timber (due to be removed eventually) must remain on
site after this time it should be covered. This will speed up the seasoning process 7.6.2.2 Insect Sur veys
but more importantly it will prevent colonisation by invertebrates that will then be
removed and destroyed. Although sur veys are the best way of finding out what is living in a particular site it is more or
• Be aware that some dead wood provides hibernation sites for some species and less impossible to carry out a comprehensive survey. Nevertheless it is important that survey
these will be affected by winter removal of wood. Some species continue to work is done on sites to assess their conservation value. Evaluation techniques (mainly using
develop right through the winter period too. beetles) have been developed see Harding & Rose (1986), Fowles et al. (1999).
• Allow some undergrowth, eg brambles or bracken, to scramble over and protect
dead wood from desiccation, especially in grazed areas, but not so much that it is One of the problems of sampling saproxylic faunas is that often the habitat is destroyed or
detrimental to the trees (eg causing a fire hazard or competing for water). damaged whilst searching. There is an increasing number of methods available where this can be
• Do not carry out management work on all the trees at the same time. Ensure that avoided (eg searching nectar sources in season or using traps such as Owen emergence, Malaise
there is always a range of dry and,in particular, humid and shady conditions in the or flight interception traps). In many instances, however, a skilled entomologist searching by
same areas. This is true of street trees and those beside rivers as well as in hand is still the most valuable way of finding important species.
woodlands or parkland.
Detailed sur veys can be expensive to commission but some invertebrate societies and groups can
• Ensure that there are adequate nectar sources in open sunny conditions. Spring
be persuaded to visit sites with potential, and valuable information and contacts can be built up
flowering shrubs are important and open structured flowers, eg hawthorn and
in this way. See the English Nature Species Handbook for further information.
umbellifers, are best as the insects do not need specialised mouthparts to feed
from them. Be careful as some cultivated varieties (especially double flowered A code for the entomological investigation of dead wood has been drawn up to aid
varieties such as red hawthorn) may either flower at different times of the year or managers and owners of sites and also to give guidelines for entomologists. See English Nature
have no nectar. Ivy is also useful as it provides nectar in the autumn and also (1994), Fry & Lonsdale (1991) and Key & Ball (1993).
provides a deadwood habitat in its own right, it is not parasitic and poses no threat
to the trees.
• It is particularly important to retain the same tree species composition on the site Further reading: Alexander, Green & Key (1996),English Nature (1994), Fowles (1997), Fowles,
when planting younger trees and encouraging the regeneration. This is because Alexander & Key (in press), Fry & Lonsdale (1991), Green (1995a), Hammond & Harding (1991),
different species of tree have different invertebrate faunas associated with them. Harding & Alexander (1993),Harding & Rose (1986), Key (1993, 1996),Key & Ball (1993), Kirby
• The translocation of dead wood invertebrates from one site to another should be (1992), Marren (1990), McLean & Speight (1993), Speight (1989), Watkins (1990).
considered very carefully before action is taken. Often the detailed ecological
requirements are not known well enough to be sure of success. Advice needs to be 7.7 Birds
sought from specialist entomologists before translocations are attempted. Note Wooded country in general is very important for birds,with more breeding species found than
that they also confuse the true status of the species and its distribution. Guidance any other major habitat in Britain. The complex structure of woodland is important for birds
on establishing species on new sites is available from the Joint Committee for the as is the abundance of food. Many species also like the more open aspect of a parkland type
Conservation of Invertebrates. habitat.Thirty five per cent of British woodland bird species require holes or crevices to nest
in and this is precisely the habitat provided by ancient trees. A few birds can excavate their
7.6.2.1 A good site for invertebrates own holes but most rely on ready-made ones. Ivy on trees is also valuable for birds.
Sites that are especially good for saproxylic invertebrates tend to have:
• A large number of old trees especially of native species. (Oak is especially The main bird nesting season is between March and July and ideally no work should be
important for beetles, and beech for flies.) done on veteran trees during this period. This time is also best avoided from the point of view
• Plenty of dead wood on the ground. of the tree but if bats are present it may be desirable to do tree surgery in March. In this
• A long historic continuity of dead wood and old trees (this may be established by instance survey work may be necessary to ensure that there are no birds nesting in the tree.
researching historical documents).
Further reading: Fuller (1995), Smart & Andrews (1985).

Page 100 Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Page 101
 7.8 Reptiles and amphibians Figure 44. A bat’s year.
BATS HIBERNATING

Reptiles and amphibians make use of cavities and loose bark on veteran trees as resting places.
Veteran trees are, for example, very valuable for grass snakes. General advice on management
START BECOMING
for reptiles and amphibians can be found in English Nature (1994). TORPID.

7.9 Mammals - Bats

OCCASIONALLY AWAKE ...
7.9.1 Introduction LOOKING FOR
HIBERNATION
SITES .

All of the 16 British species of bat depend on trees to some extent although the degree
of dependence varies according to the species. Some, (including the brown long-eared and
ACTIVE & FEEDING
the pipistrelles) have been able to adapt to roosting in houses at certain times of the year, but MATING & IN GOODWEATHER ;
FEEDING TO TORPID IN BAD.
others such as noctule and Bechstein’s bat are strongly associated with tree roosts. PUTON FAT.

7.9.2 Ways in which bats use veteran trees

MOVE ROOST SITES .

MOTHERS
Veteran trees provide important habitat for bats throughout the year (Figure 44) as follows: LEAVE ROOST,
THEN YOUNG .
• summer roosts - species such as barbastelle, Daubenton’s and Natterer’s bats need
holes and crevices in trees, for roosting in and giving birth to their young in the
summer months. YOUNGBORN
FEMALESIN LARGE
THENSUCKLE
MATERNITYGROUPS .
• winter roosts - pipistrelles and brown long-eared bats tend to use trees more in the FOR 6 WEEKS.

autumn and winter. Spaces beneath loose bark or ivy may be used,as well as holes
and crevices. 7.9.3 Recommended procedure for working on veteran trees that may contain bats
• year round roosting sites- noctule,Leisler’s and Bechstein’s bats all need tree holes
both for breeding in the summer and hibernation in winter. • If a tree is a known bat roost it is mandatory to seek advice from the relevant
statutory nature conservation organisation (English Nature, Countryside Council
• source of food - All British bats feed exclusively on insects, and because areas of
for Wales, Scottish Natural Heritage or Environment & Heritage Service
ancient woodland and parkland are rich in insects they are particularly important
(Northern Ireland) before doing any work.
to bats as foraging habitats. Even species that do not roost in trees, such as the
serotine, will nevertheless forage around them. Note. It is an offence to intentionally destroy a known bat roost whether or not the bats are
present at the time. A roost is defined as “any structure or place which is used for shelter or
protection” this includes trees used by roosting bats.
Signs of bat occupation of trees
• If the tree is not a known roost, but contains holes or crevices, has loose bark, or a
A bats’roost in an old woodpecker hole or a crevice may exhibit one or more of the following signs thick covering of ivy, it should ideally be surveyed for bats by an experienced bat
of bat occupation: worker prior to any work. Contact the relevant statutory nature conservation
organisation or your local bat group to request a survey.
• Dark staining around the entrance from the oil in the bats’ fur. • Sometimes, even experienced bat workers have difficulty in deciding whether a
• A streak of dark staining running down the trunk, where the droppings have tree contains bats - particularly in situations where access to some parts of the tree
been washed out of the hole. for close inspection may be restricted. If the presence of bats is possible but not
• Droppings (which crumble into a fine powder when rubbed) stuck to the trunk proven, the following precautions should be taken:
or on the ground below the roost. • Try to restrict work to the periods mid-March to May, and September to November.
• Scratch marks from the bats’ claws around the edges of the hole. This is because during the summer young may be present and unable to fly, and in the
• Bats heard squeaking in the middle of the day during warm weather. winter hibernating bats will be slow to arouse and unable to escape. Also, disturbance
• Flies and other insects buzzing round the entrance, attracted to the droppings of bats in winter depletes their fat reserves, and can reduce their chances of surviving
inside the roost. to the following spring. Note that this coincides exactly with the times not
recommended for cutting trees in chapter 4. This can be overcome by cutting the trees
However, there may be no sign at all from the outside that bats are present in a tree. This is just before their leaves emerge in early spring if bats are suspected. The March - May
particularly true in winter, when the bats may be hibernating deep within the trunk of a hollow period also clashes with peak bird nesting time.
tree. Even in summer, telltale external signs of bat occupation are often absent. Bats can use • Be careful that any cracks held open by the weight of a branch do not contain bats.
very narrow crevices and the smaller species can fit into a crack of less than 15 mm. If in doubt, Such cracks may close up when the branch is removed and squash the bats.
get a tree checked by an experienced bat worker. • If a branch has holes and crevices and cannot be retained it should be lowered to the
ground gently, not dropped.

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 7.9.4 If bats are disco vered during the course of work:

• You must stop all work at the first safe opportunity and seek advice from the
appropriate statutory nature conservation organisation - even if the bats have
managed to fly away. The statutory nature conservation organisation will normally
arrange for a member of your local bat group to come out to attend to any grounded
bats, but it is a good idea to know the number of your local bat group in case of
emergency. If you are unable to find it, the Bat Conservation Trust should be able
to give it to you.
• If any of the bats are injured or torpid, gently place them in a canvas bag or a
lidded box while awaiting help. Be careful as bats are very delicate. Use soft leather
gloves to handle them; bats do not normally bite but may do so if injured and in
pain. Make a note of exactly where the bats were found; this is important if they
are to be released after veterinary treatment.
• If bats are present inside wood felled from the tree, but thought to be unharmed,
try to enclose them in their roost by covering the entrance until the bat worker
arrives. It may be possible for the piece of wood containing the roost to be lodged
in the crown of a nearby tree, for the bats to leave of their own accord, but the bat
group will advise on this when they arrive. (They will also examine the bats to
confirm that they are uninjured as it can often take considerable experience to tell.)

Further reading: Bat Conservation Trust (1997), Holmes (1996, 1997, 1998), Hopkins
(1998), Mitchell-Jones & McLeish (1999).

7.10 Other mammals

Other mammals also benefit from holes in veteran trees, including holes at ground level.
These include the introduced grey squirrel, which can be harmful to hole-nesting birds such
as hawfinch and even tawny owl. Other native species using tree holes include red squirrel,
common dormice and mustelids such as polecat, pine marten, weasel and stoat. None of
these species are specific to veteran trees.

7.11 Time of year to work on the trees

The ideal time of year to do work on veteran trees, according to the organisms associated with
them, is illustrated below:

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Trees* ✔ ✔ ✔ X X X ✔ ✔ X X ✔ ✔
Bats X X ✔ ✔ ✔ X X X ✔ ✔ ✔ X
Birds ✔ ✔ X X X X ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Epiphytes ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Fung i ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Invertebrates ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

✔ - Suitable time
X - Unsuitable time

*The time of the year that is best for the veteran tree is extremely important. If the tree dies
then it no longer contributes continued habitat for the other groups.

Page 104 Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Veteran Trees:A guide to good management
 Chapter 8 The next generation of Veteran Trees

8.1 Introduction

One of the biggest threats to our rich heritage of veteran trees is the absence of a next
generation to replace them when eventually they die. Linked to this is the lack of suitable
conditions for wood decay for the wildlife dependent on these conditions. Saplings may
replace the veterans in many years’ time but a crucial need is for trees of middle age, that are
nearly veterans. These in particular need protecting. If there are no ‘near veterans’ there is a
need to create suitable decay conditions on younger trees. It is also very important that the
life of existing veterans is extended to enable a large overlap in life spans.

8.2 Lack of the next generation of trees

A lack of new/young trees is normally caused either by grazing pressure (including deer and
rabbits) eliminating any natural regeneration or by regeneration not occurring owing to
shading, eg by planted conifers, dense bracken or rhododendron.

When considering options for establishing the next generation of trees bear in mind that
naturally grown trees tend to survive better than transplanted trees because of the way that
the roots develop. Thus natural regeneration should be the first option if possible. The use
of tree shelters often increases the chance of survival of the young trees but may suppress
lateral branching, which is important for open grown trees if they are to have high wildlife
value.The methods for ensuring the next generation (in order of preference) are:

1. Natural regeneration from existing trees (very old trees may not produce as much
viable seed as young ones).
2. Seed from the site scattered on the ground and grown on in situ.
3. Seedlings grown, in a nurser y, from existing veteran trees and planted out.
4. Seedlings grown, in a nursery, from trees elsewhere on the site and planted out.
5. Seedlings from other local sites.
6. Saplings moved from elsewhere on the site.
7. Saplings from elsewhere, ie not from the same site.

Ideally the next generation should be:

• of similar genetic origin to that already on site, ie of local provenance. This can only be
assured if you collect the seed yourself from the trees with the characteristics you want
to perpetuate or if natural regeneration occurs. (When collecting seed it is best to do so
from existing veterans as these may have the genetic predisposition to live for a long time).
• of similar species composition to that of the old trees, unless there is a need
identified for some faster growing trees,eg birch (or sweet chestnut) to provide,for
example, saproxylic conditions sooner;
• planted/encouraged before the ancient ones are lost. (An oak tree grown from seed
may take 200 years before it starts producing dead wood.) This also means that
the lives of the veterans must be extended as long as possible;
• used to extend the existing site boundary if possible;
• planted/encouraged continuously so that trees develop at different stages and
provide a range of age classes. A single cohort of young trees will repeat today’s
problems in 300 years’ time. However, trees do not need to be planted every year.
Gaps of 10 years or so between cohorts is fine;
• planted/encouraged in ways that take the landscape character into account;
• planted in groups, eg three (if possible), to allow for some losses.
• not planted so close to veterans that the young trees grow up to interfere with the
older ones. Open grown trees at maturity may have a canopy spread of over 30 m.

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105
 • Tree shelters may help growth in the early stages but they may need to be
Encouraging natural regeneration in grazed areas
removed/replaced and do not mean that trees can just be forgotten.
• Trees may need to be cared for, eg removing competing weeds and other saplings,
• Alter the grazing regime to reduce the density or remove the animals either
watering in drought situations.
from the whole area or, from small patches that can be rotated if necessary. In
• Ideally they need to be planted in forest soil, to encourage associations with
this instance grazing pressure may need to be relaxed for several years in
mycorrhizal fungi.
order for the seedlings to reach a height where the animals cannot reach the
tops. The land inside the fence may still need to be managed. Consider fences
For full details on how to plant trees see British Trust for Conser vation Volunteers (1980).
that allow some grazers (eg sheep) through but not others (eg horses). Without
any control the growth of vegetation surrounding the young trees can swamp them.
8.2.1.2 Where to plant/translocate young trees
• In a large area allow rough patches to develop, which the animals are unable
to get to and allows seedlings to ‘get away’, eg bramble patches round fallen
In woodland, the position of the new trees is usually not especially important. However,
trees. Be careful that the exclusion of grazing is not detrimental in woods that
in wooded commons or in the general countryside you should consider how the planting will
have been grazed, as this can allow dense growth of species such as holly that
affect the existing regional character with regard to species, position and landscape character.
shade out everything else. Do not clear away rough patches when they form.
While it is beneficial to increase the area of a site this should not be done at the expense of
other, valuable habitat, types eg heathland or unimproved grassland, or landscape features.
Even within existing sites with veteran trees it is important to make sure that conditions such as
8.2.1 Solving the lack of the next generation soil type are suitable for the tree species you are about to plant, and not to plant up good habitats.

8.2.1.1 Planting/translocating trees In a more formal landscape, especially one that has been designed with specific
objectives in mind, it is vital that any planting is done in sympathy with the historical design.
Growing seed from the site (or elsewhere) for planting is very time consuming. However, In these sites you should get advice from a historian or landscape architect. Points to bear in
one way round this is to involve the local community, especially children, who can also help mind are:-
with the long-term care of the trees. Children planting seeds in pots enhances the chance that
they will be looked after and this is the focus of the Trees of Time and Place project. Some • Avenues should not have their shape broken up.
trees, notably willow, grow well from cuttings and this can be a valuable way of ensuring • Views that were an important part of designed landscapes, eg from the main
subsequent generations. Large cuttings of up to 3 - 3.5 m cut from coppice or pollard willow house, from high points or features of interest on the estate, should not be
usually grow well. interrupted by new plantings. (Remember that a few years after planting the trees
will be taller!)
Translocation of trees at Ashtead Common • Look carefully at the layout of trees on the estate. Are they in formal clumps,
groves, regular blocks, belts or groups of a specific number? Try to emulate this
In common with many sites, there is a lack of suitable maidens to pollard within the relict pattern if possible. To the flora and fauna how the trees are arranged is generally
wood-pasture areas on Ashtead Common. In the scrub grassland the regeneration of oak is much of less importance than the fact that they are there.
better but the younger trees often have to be removed as they are growing above a gas pipe or • Try to copy the existing species composition on the site. Ideally, native species
under high voltage cables. These young oaks are moved into the wood-pasture areas by means of should be in the majority although non-native species may be integral to the design.
a treespade (Figure 44a). The trees are lifted out of the ground together with a large root ball
that is then wrapped in hessian and chicken wire and transported to the planting location. 8.3 Lack of abundant wood deca y
Trees are moved at an age of between 10 and 15 years of age so that they will be above the
bracken and less susceptible to deer damage. Rabbit guards round the trunks protect them from 8.3.1 Lack of imminent veterans
deer fraying. Survival rate has been about 85%, the deaths probably being caused by very dry
summers and attempts to move trees that were too large. Encouraging natural regeneration and the planting of saplings may help to fill the
generation gap on some sites, but a more immediate problem is ensuring that trees that are
Figure 44a. See colour plate page 91. nearly veterans survive to become veterans. There is an urgent need to ensure that trees in
their prime are retained into old age. Many of the characteristics normally associated with
veteran trees (for example, dead wood in the canopy, decay holes, loose bark and sap runs)
When planting out seedlings/saplings their aftercare needs to be considered too: are found in younger trees and these should be cherished, not seen as detrimental.

• If sites are grazed the trees must be protected with guards appropriate to type of Even when a new young generation of trees is growing on well, there may be a
animals. The use of chemical deterrents on leading shoots to restrict browsing is considerable gap before these young trees gain the characteristics of veterans. Continuity of
another possible option. these features is very important for the wildlife value of the trees. This situation can be
• Big tree guards (Figure 45) allow the tree to develop a more natural shape while remedied in several ways but most require some form of active management. Leaving dead
still giving protection. wood on the ground will help, but for sites with a good saproxylic fauna it is not a
replacement for dead wood and rot holes in standing trees.
Figure 45. See colour plate page 91.

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 Some practical solutions to this problem exist: • Height of cut. Try to maintain roughly the same height and shape of tree as the
• Leave older trees out of the felling rotation cycle - this solution is only possible existing pollards, but be aware of the management implications of this decision.
when plantation trees of suitable species have been grown round the old ones (see • Where to pollard. The site may be divided into areas of different historical
section 5.3.2 for details). management, eg by wood banks, park pales. Wherever possible maintain the
• Cutting pollards from maiden trees - this will ensure older trees in the future and distribution of new pollards much the same as the old ones to keep in sympathy
may also create dead wood in the bollings of the young pollards, especially if trees with the landscape.There may be a need to create new pollards in different areas
are cut older than the age at which pollarding would usually have commenced, (see if there are no suitable young trees close to the ancient pollards.
below for more details).
• Damaged trees or those in need of reducing should be made into pollards, or 8.3.3.1 How to create new pollards
reduced in a similar way, rather than being felled.
• Plant or encourage faster growing species in addition to replacing the longer lived • Cut as young as possible, when the tree has attained the desired height.
species. These can, to some extent, provide suitable conditions, but should not be • In most species of tree, the creation of a new pollard is easy. The stem of the
viewed as a complete replacement. For example, birch harbours a good range of sapling is cut at the desired height. Depending on the species (see appendix 4)
species, sweet chestnut is a good bridge of oak communities, horse chestnut has a branches may or may not need to be left below the point of cutting. Bear in mind
good range of species and good sap runs and sycamore supports a reasonable that growth will come from below the cut so cut a little higher than you want.
range of species). • Even in shade-tolerant species, like beech, adequate light must reach the stem.
• ‘Damaging’ young or middle aged trees will encourage the development of decay. • Trees up to 40 cm in diameter can usually be cut without leaving a leader except
for beech and oak.
8.3.2 Methods for creating veteran tree characteristics on younger trees • For more difficult species, eg beech, some branches must be retained, preferably
two or more to provide a degree of balance; cut according to the shape of the tree.
A number of methods can be used to encourage veteran characteristics on younger trees.
This type of work should be done on young or mature trees not veterans. Methods that retain
• Prolific growth may follow (especially in the case of lime, willow, etc) which needs to be
pruned back if the area is not grazed, to ensure that growth is encouraged from the top.
a live tree are better than those that kill the tree as live trees will continue to provide conditions
for saproxylic species. Dead trees are a short-term measure. These methods include:
• Once the tree has been cut, try to ensure that it is maintained, eg by cutting in the
future. A 10 - 20 year cycle is probably appropriate for most situations.
• cutting the tops off trees that are likely to respond to pollarding. It is best to do • For most species the older the tree the more reluctant it is to grow following
this when the intention is to create new pollards and then to accept that some will pollarding. Prepare for this by leaving branches on (leave more branches on the
not survive long as a source of dead wood. Cutting large trees will help create greater the diameter of the tree, and more for beech relative to oak and ash).
more decay communities than young ones; • In the USA urban pollards are cut so that one branch is left on at the junction of
• ring barking. This kills many trees slowly thus allowing rot to develop.This is preferable the cut and the main stem. This is removed after 1 - 2 years (Coder 1996).
only when it is desired to get rid of trees, eg undesirable species or those too • If, for ash in particular, shoots do not appear in the first spring after cutting , don’t
densely planted, as killing trees does not produce long-term continuity of habitat. panic! They may come later.
It is best done in woodland as trees in the open ‘season’ rather than decay; • Remember that new pollards that die are sources of dead wood. If you have scope
• making holes in live standing trees to initiate rot; for making plenty, don’t worry if some die, keep them as wildlife habitats.
• inoculating heart wood rotting fungi into healthy trees; • Remember that what is successful on one site may not be on another. Variations
• putting the tree under stress; in soil type and rainfall make a difference. Always err on the side of caution.
• using explosives to produce shattered ends to branches and ‘natural’ looking damage. • For time of year to cut, see guidelines for cutting old trees.
(This option should only be carried out by experienced specialists with a licence;) • Cutting height should be determined, at least in part, with the grazing animals in
• using herbicides to kill standing trees; mind. The browse line is approximately 1.3 m for fallow deer, 2.1 m for cattle,
• constructing special saproxylic ‘nest boxes’ see section 7.2.3; 2.7 - 3.0 m for horses. Cut at least 30 cm above the eventual browse line.
• deliberately damaging the bark to induce decay earlier or simulate sap runs • Bigger, older trees can be cut like pollards to help close up the generation gap
(squirrel damage can have the same effect); (eg 100 - 150 years old) but lower branches must be retained in this situation. Most
• breaking branches, rather than sawing them off flush, or creating ‘coronet’ ends; often (oak and beech) the subsequent growth will be from the retained branches
• increasing the water retention in forks and crowns of trees by drilling holes. rather than being new ones but it has a similar effect in prolonging the life of the
tree and creating suitable conditions for decay to occur.
8.3.3 Creating new pollards • On sites with public access it is desirable to inform the public what you are doing and why.

Creating new pollards (Figure 46) can provide continuity of the dead wood resource and Figure 46. See colour plate page 92.
potential ancient trees for the future. It can also provide continuity of historical or landscape interest.
8.3.3.2 Subsequent cuts
The relative importance of these points will vary according to the site but you should
consider:
If an appropriate cutting regime is known for a site it would seem sensible to follow this.
• The species of tree to cut. Try to perpetuate the existing range of species already If it is not known, it seems likely that most cuts were made at 10 - 15 year intervals. Willow
on the site, although there may be good reasons for pollarding some other species, was probably cut more frequently. In street trees cuts can be made much more frequently and
eg sweet chestnut, see sections 7.2.2 and 7.6.2. the timing depends on the degree of growth and the situation of the tree.

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 Many ‘natural’ pollards were created during the storms of 1987 and 1990 but most will
not be maintained as pollards in the future. Natural pollards can also be caused by squirrel
damage (eg on young beech trees).

Further reading: Alexander, Green & Key (1996),Atkinson (1996), Barwick (1996), Battel
(1996), British Trust for Conservation Volunteers (1980), Coleman (1996), Edlin (1971),
Forbes & Warnock (1996), Kerr (1992),Key & Ball (1993), P. Kirby (1992),Mitchell (1989),
Rackham (1986), Sanderson (1991), Sisitka (1991a, 1991b), Speight (1989), Tubbs (1986),
Watkins (1990).

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 Chapter 9 Dealing with conflicting management priorities

9.1 Introduction

In a situation where there are conflicting ideas on how to manage a specific tree or a site
containing veteran trees:

• Ensure the needs of veteran trees are built into site management plans.
• Gather as much accurate and up to date information as you can about the
situation. If necessary carry out sur vey work/historical research.
• Meet those with an interest in the particular issue and don’t rely on assumptions
about their likely views.
• Approach the situation with an open mind and be honest about the relative
merits of the site/tree. Encourage others to be too.
• Weigh up the relative importance of the site/tree for the various interests, assign
relative weights if this helps to analyse the situation.
• If an easy solution cannot be found, look at the possibility of a compromise that
does not result in significant loss of interest for conflicting issues.
• Visit other sites with similar conflicts and learn from them.

More information about specific veteran trees or sites with veteran trees is available in the
following data base (for contact addresses see appendix 6):

• The Register of Parks and Gardens of Special Historic Interest in England -

Prepared by English Heritage. Published as a set 46 county volumes and in
most reference libraries and local planning authorities. Also available for
purchase from English Heritage. An updated edition is being prepared and it
is hoped will be available in digitised form from 2001.
• Champion trees (Tree Register of the British Isles).
• Invertebrate Site Register (Contact the relevant Statutory Nature
Conservation Organisation).
• English Nature is collating a database giving pointers to information sources
on the wildlife and heritage information of packs and wood-pastures.

9.2 Specific potential problems in veteran tree management and

suggestions for how to o vercome them

9.2.1 Habitat or hazard

Problem : A veteran tree that is decaying and has several dead branches in the crown can be
a concern to safety.
Discussion: It is inevitable that old trees will have decayed wood, cavities and dead
branches, all features which enhance their habitat value. Contrary to much popular opinion,
this does not mean that they are necessarily dangerous. All trees have the potential to cause
damage to differing degrees. A risk assessment needs to be made for each situation together
with the type and likelihood of damage . There is, therefore, no such thing as a perfectly safe
tree and some degree of risk will remain even in a sound tree with no defects. The task is to
evaluate the hazard that the defects pose and the risk of damage to people or property if the
tree, or part of it, fails, and to take appropriate action to reduce the risk to an acceptable level.
Health and safety legislation recognises that it is unreasonable, and in many cases not
feasible, to eliminate risk. It is possible to have habitat and hazard. It is not a question of
either or. Owners and managers may be alarmed by reports of individual judgements in cases

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 involving trees, but the law does not require a choice to be made between trees, their habitat 9.2.6 Public access causes detrimental effects to the trees
and people and property. It is a matter of assessing whether the dangers posed by the tree
could have been anticipated, and whether these dangers could have been countered by means Problem: Pressures to increase public access may increase the need for safety work.
of moderate and reasonable remedies. Those who fail to understand this, pose a great threat Discussion: Draw up a clear safety policy for the site which states the importance of the
to the veteran trees of Britain. trees and the methods used for surveying and implementing work needed. Consider methods
of visitor management such as zoning, re-routing paths, re-locating car parks or picnic sites,
9.2.2 Nature conser va tion and designed landscapes or changing ground vegetation (ie long grass, dead hedges) to encourage people away from
high risk areas. Talk to organisations that have experience of solving similar problems,
Problem: A designed landscape that has matured and is now in decline has increased in eg The National Trust.
nature conservation value. Priorities for management and repair could affect either the historic
or nature conservation value. 9.2.7 Aesthetically appealing or ugly and untidy
Discussion: In many cases this conflict is perceived through a misunderstanding or lack of
appreciation of the other parties’ objectives. For example, perpetuating the pattern and vistas Problem: Trees that appear wonderful, interesting and beautiful to some people are
in the landscape may be a priority for one party, the species selection and management of grotesque and ugly to others. While the sentiments of owners and managers have undoubtedly
trees for nature conservation may be a priority for another party. Here, the presumption of caused the demise of ancient trees in the past (and also saved many too) this should not
retaining veteran trees, their survival and ensuring that there is a new generation of trees is normally be a cause of conflict today. The retention of dead wood on the ground is still
desirable for both parties. sometimes removed because it is viewed as being ‘untidy’. This is an especially important issue
in historic parkland where public access has a significant effect on management.
Where a genuine conflict of interests occurs it is important that each party states their Discussion: Education and information is often the key here. Pointing out the age of the
ideal objectives. The situation should be approached with an open mind and the will to tree and what it has ‘seen’ is usually a better starting point than the number of insects and
succeed. Issues should be put in perspective by understanding and appreciating the value of fungi it houses (see also section 6.3).
the site/tree in relation to others, for the various interests. Where necessary a compromise
must be reached between the loss of the historic fabric and loss of habitat.
Veteran pollards in Epping Forest
9.2.3 Conflicts of interest between the needs of different organisms
In the period leading up to the Epping Forest Act in 1878 negative attitudes had grown towards
Problem: A site may be important for rare lichens preferring an open canopy and rare the pollarded trees. They were seen as symbolic of a particular way of life and indicative of past
invertebrates needing a shady environment. mismanagement and over-exploitation of the Forest. One result of the Act was to change the
Discussion: An accurate evaluation is needed of the relative importance of these groups and emphasis of Forest management from protection of Commoners rights, to the provision of a
where they are found on the site. Management can usually accommodate both or, it may be recreation area. Although the Act protected the pollards many influential people (including
found that the conservation status of one species is considerably higher than that of the other. members of the Essex Field Club) desired a ‘natural’ appearance and saw no place for pollards.
It is very unlikely that a single tree would be the home for two extremely rare organisms A journalist described the hornbeam pollards as ‘short, shabby, scrubby, indescribably mean and
requiring opposing management. ugly’. Even the president of the Field Club, a biologist of some renown, thought it “desirable that
many of the pollards should be removed’ and saw ‘no reason why in time they should not all be
9.2.4 Commercial aspects of the site conflict with the ideal management for replaced by spear-trees.” From Dagley & Burman (1996).
nature conser va tion reasons

Problem: In commercial forestry or agriculture veteran trees may take up land which could
be more productive. 9.2.8 Exotic or native species
Discussion: The retention of individuals and groups of overmature and veteran trees,as well
as dying and dead trees, is recommended in the UK Forestry Standard (Forestry Authority, Problem: There is sometimes a desire to plant exotic species on a site (eg for timber
1998) as well as the Forest Nature Conservation Guidelines (Forestry Commission 1990). purposes or in a designed landscape or garden). Any potential impact of this will depend
It is also recommended to identify younger trees to become the veterans for the future. largely on the species concerned.
Loss of revenue may not be as great as expected and being informed about the conservation Discussion: Weigh up the likely response of the species and the naturalness of the site.
value for the old trees may be enough to ensure their survival. There is no evidence that What is appropriate for an ancient semi-natural woodland may well be different from that for
retained dead wood in broadleaved forestry plantations puts commercial crops at risk (Winter a formal garden. Introducing Rhododendron ponticum should be opposed (it can contribute to
1993). Grants may be available to manage veteran trees in a variety of different situations, the death of veteran trees by competing for water when growing around them and also
(Woodland Grant Scheme, Countryside Stewardship, etc). prevent any regeneration owing to its heavy shade), but specimen trees in a formal garden
setting are unlikely to present any problems. Even on sites with no particular historic
9.2.5 Increasing the productivity of the land conflicts with ideal tree management interest some exotics can provide a useful ‘stop-gap’. Fast growing species such as sweet
chestnut (Figure 47), and even sycamore, may provide suitable conditions for saproxylic
Problem: There is a desire to increase the fertility and productivity of grazing land, in ways species if there are no suitable aged native trees on the site. In designed landscapes some
that are detrimental to old trees. This may be by applying fertiliser, chemical sprays or exotic species may need to be planted to provide historical continuity. If possible, plant or
ploughing close to the trees. encourage native species grown from local stock.
Discussion: Grants may help with this (eg Countryside Stewardship), or look at alternative
farming systems (eg organic) which may attract set-up grants and a premium on products. Figure 47. See colour plate page 92.

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 9.2.9 Financial constraints restrict the amount of work that is desired

Problem: The ideal management is too costly to achieve.

Discussion: Do the best you can and prioritise the management so that important work is
done first. Remember that a long-term view is necessary when dealing with trees. Not all the
work will need doing at once so a 20-year plan may be quite good enough and a short period
of time in terms of the life of the tree.

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 Chapter 10 Public access and Veteran Trees

10.1 The benefits and disadvantages of public access

The trend towards greater public access in woodland can bring considerable benefits in terms
of greater understanding of woodland processes as well as giving enjoyment to the visitors
themselves. However,in some situations the health of veteran trees can be threatened because
of this. Probably the greatest single threat to veteran trees in Britain today is their felling on
the grounds that they are a hazard to public safety. This complicated aspect is covered in a
separate leaflet produced by the Veteran Trees Initiative. There are other ways in which
veteran trees may be jeopardised by people. It is ironic that many of these threats arise because
the public is appreciating the trees, perhaps for their historic value or unusual appearance.

• Public access can cause damage to trees and associated organisms in the following
ways:
• Intentionally by:
• burning through intended fires or accidental ones;
• vandalism, for example damaging trees, damaging the bark, graffiti.

• Unintentionally by:
• climbing on trees, which damages the bark so the tree is unable to transport food and
water efficiently;
• trampling round trees, which can in extreme cases compact the soil affecting water
uptake and mycorrhizal fungi (Figure 48);
• collecting of specimens by the public or survey work by naturalists;
• removal of dead wood;
• car parking under old trees (causing compaction);
• marking trees with waymarks for trails, etc.

Figure 48. See colour plate page 92.

10.2 Solutions

Some solutions to these problems are:

• Inform the public about the value of trees through signs, leaflets, guide books,
guided walks and nature trails.
• Fence the tree to reduce compaction, etc. This is not a recommended solution but
may be necessary for key feature trees.
• Draw up a collecting code for the site or adopt one already in existence.
• Try selling a limited amount of woodland products (ideally those of lower
conservation value) and use the money for site management. Visitors then feel
that they are contributing. BUT ensure that only the surplus is sold.
• Relocate car parks to open areas and/or use shrubs for shade and screening or
trees not intended as future veterans. Encourage visitors to walk to interesting
areas not drive as close as possible.
• Discourage access right up to trees where there is a specific problem, eg by using
dead hedging (especially prickly plants).
• Erect raised walkways around key feature trees.

Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Page 115
 Chapter 11 Legal aspects of management for/of Veteran Trees

11.1 Introduction

There is a range of legal obligations on those owning, managing or working on ancient trees.
It is your responsibility to establish which of these applies in your situation.

1. Tree Preservation Orders

2. Conservation Areas (towns and villages)
3. Felling licences
4. SSSI/NNR/SAC
5. Scheduled Ancient Monument
6. Wildlife and Countryside Act - Bats
7. Wildlife and Countryside Act - other species
8. Hedgerow legislation
9. Owners/occupier liability
10. Health and safety (operational work)

11.2 Tree Preser va tion Order s

These are placed on trees by the local planning authority for amenity reasons and usually apply
to individual trees (occasionally groups of trees or areas). Permission is required from the local
planning authority for any work to be done on the tree (including pollarding and crown
thinning) and heavy fines are given for not gaining permission. Veteran trees can, however, still
be felled if they are considered unsafe. It is possible for anyone to request that a TPO is put on
any particular tree (contact your Local Authority) although it may not always be carried out.
They are usually placed on trees of landscape interest but there are some exemptions.

11.3 Conser va tion Areas (towns and villages)

Any trees in a designated conservation area of a town or village are protected in the same way
as trees with TPOs. If in any doubt, contact your Local Authority.

11.4 Felling licence

This is required from the Forestry Commission for felling more than 5 m3 in any calendar
quarter, eg 1st January to 31st March. If less is felled then no more than 2 m3 can be sold.
There are various exemptions and the Forestry Commission should be contacted for details.
It may be necessary to clear surrounding woodland or commercial plantations from veteran trees
and a felling licence would be necessary in these situations. Note that permission is not required
for pollarding but is for cutting coppice when the stems have a diameter of more than 15 cm.

11.5 SSSI/NNR/SA C

For sites with a designated conservation status, work on old trees (both surgery and felling)
needs to be approved by the relevant statutory nature conservation agency. The best way
is usually to draw up a management plan, which is then approved. Then only work not
included in the plan will need further approval.

11.6 Scheduled Ancient Monuments

If work affects a Scheduled Ancient Monument, or is in the vicinity of one, Scheduled

Monument Consent may be necessary. Advice should be sought from the appropriate
Inspector of Ancient Monuments for English Heritage, CADW or Historic Scotland.

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 11.7 Wildlife and Countryside Act - Bats

All bats and their roosts are protected under the Wildlife and Countryside Act (Schedule 5), 1981
(as amended) and are also included in Schedule 2 of the Conservation Regulations, 1994.
The roost is protected even if the bats are not present at the time. If bats are found or a roost
is suspected the relevant statutory nature conservation organisation should be contacted
immediately. Information on bats is also available from the Bat Conservation Trust.

11.8 Wildlife and Countryside Act - other species

During the course of work on veteran trees other species may be encountered which are
covered by legislation. It is an offence to take or destroy an egg laid by a wild bird and this
includes destroying nests with eggs in during the course of tree surgery. The law with regard
to birds is quite complex; some species have greater protection than this and others are not
protected. If in doubt, check the Act (obtainable from HMSO).

Other species are protected too, for example badgers and their setts.

11.9 Hedgerows

Important hedges are protected under the Hedgerow Regulations (1997). Removal, including
removal of trees, requires permission for certain categories of hedges. Your local authority
should be contacted before any work is done.

11.10 Owner/occupier liability

All trees can be dangerous if they fall on people or property and there is a perception that old
trees are more dangerous than young ones. The owner of a property has a duty of care to
people coming onto his land (even if they are trespassing) and should take all reasonable
action to make sure that his trees are safe. Ultimately, the only truly safe tree is one felled at
ground level but this is not an option that should be followed with ancient trees unless there
is really no other solution.

It is necessary for the owner therefore to look at the risk associated with his trees, ie the
chance that if it fell it would cause damage. He should ensure that he has a system in place
for assessing and surveying trees and for dealing promptly with any trees that are hazardous
and in high-risk areas.

This complex issue is considered in more detail in a separate leaflet produced by the
Veteran Trees Initiative.

11.11 Health and safety at work

The health and safety regulations for occupational workers and other persons in the vicinity
are extensive. Work on ancient trees can be extremely dangerous. Ensure that those working
on such trees are approved contractors (eg the Arboricultural Association has a list) who take
safety issues seriously. These contractors are certificated in climbing, chainsaw use and using
a chainsaw at height. If using ‘in house’ staff they should be properly trained (eg in the use
of chainsaws and in climbing trees) and wearing appropriate personal protective equipment.
Do not let volunteers use machinery or carry out work on old trees unless you know that they
are fully trained and protected.

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 Chapter 12 Keeping records

12.1 Why record?

The number of veteran trees in England and Wales is still unknown although most of the
major sites with many veteran trees are well known.

Tree surveys have been started for certain areas and on particular sites but it is very
important to extend this. Information about tree populations and population dynamics is
very limited at present. The production of a standard recording form and method of survey
should improve the situation and it is hoped that future surveys will ensure that data
collected is compatible with the Veteran Tree Initiative recording form. This system is
equally suitable for single trees or large populations. A copy of the form for individual trees is
enclosed with this publication, and can be photocopied. Forms for recording many trees can
be obtained from English Nature. When more results are obtained it should start to be
possible to look at regional differences and highlight potentially valuable sites. Repeat
surveys are then needed to assess, and possibly model, mortality rates in key sites. Work of
this type has been carried out at Duncombe Park.

As well as recording the condition of the trees at a point in time it is also necessary to
record any work done and how the tree responded. It is essential that future generations of
people are aware of what has been done in the past and the rationale behind it.

For the better management of the site it may be beneficial to have veteran trees mapped,
especially on sites with many individuals. This can be done by compass and tape but increasingly
now Geographical Positioning Systems linked to palm top computers are being used for this
purpose and are able to provide more accurate positioning. These is scope here for computerised
information of each tree (eg from the tree recording forms) to be stored on computer too.
As with all computer systems, make sure you keep a back up copy and a paper version too.

Surveying populations of old trees can be time consuming but the information gathered
is valuable today and will be especially valuable in years to come. Surveys already
completed for sites can yield important information about the age structure, mortality rate
and condition of trees.

Further reading: Clayden (1996), Forbes & Warnock (1996), Read, Frater & Noble 1996).

Information to record when working on veteran trees

Date.
Type of tree (ie pollard,lapsed pollard, veteran, maiden).
Species.
Approximate age of tree.
Type of tool used to do the cutting.
Method of cutting (ie slanted, rip, flush cut).
Length of stub left.
Type of bark on each stem and any other characteristics.
Number of branches removed/left.
Situation of the tree, especially the amount of light (exposed or sheltered,etc).
Response 1 year after cutting.
Response 5 years after cutting.

Take photographs before and after cutting and 1 and 5 years after.

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 12.2 Tree tagging

In areas with many ancient trees it may be necessary to mark or label individuals so that they
can be individually identified. Knock-in timber tags are of limited value, rather better are
6 cm stainless steel tags and aluminium nails. If long nails are used, and hammered only 2 cm
into the tree, the tags are able to swing freely and the tree can grow a considerable amount
before the tag is engulfed in the bark. An alternative is to attach the label to 6 cm of stainless
steel or plastic coated wire, and knock a 3 cm aluminium nail all the way into the tree. While
the nail will quickly become surrounded by the bark the wire will not. Plastic tags can be used
but become brittle and do not last well. Aluminium tags are easily damaged by squirrels,
birds and people. Although other methods are available, nails are usually needed to attach
tags safely to hard, rugose bark. Aluminium is less likely to prove toxic to the tree and is more
sympathetic to chainsaws. Galvanised nails are suitable for the tree but are harmful to lichens.

Modern techniques such as computer chips and transponders are worth watching for in
the future. None are routinely used on veteran trees and there are still problems such as
securing them in the trees, locating them again and pre-selecting numbers (most use large
numbers of random digits).

There is not yet a really good reliable and permanent method for tagging trees.

Further reading: Fay (1996), Fretwell & Green (1996), Key & Ball (1993).

Page 120 Veteran Trees:A guide to good management Veteran Trees:A guide to good management
 Chapter 13 Funding and advice

13.1 Introduction

It will have become apparent from previous sections that active management is often needed
on sites with old trees. This may not necessarily mean work on the old trees
themselves but often on the land surrounding them or to encourage a new generation of trees.
This work can be costly.

Various organisations give grants for habitat work that includes ancient trees but further
details should be obtained to check up to date facts and figures. Present sources include:

• Countryside Stewardship (funding for pollarding and tree surgery as part of a site,
including farms).
• Environmentally Sensitive Area (ESA) payments.
• Forestry Commission Woodland Grant Scheme can include work to benefit
veteran trees in certain wood-pasture situations.
• Heritage Lottery funding is a possibility for survey and historic landscape work.
• NNR section 35 (1) (c) - Available for National Nature Reserves owned or managed
by organisations other than English Nature.

Another option is to make the trees themselves pay. This can be as woodland products
such as firewood, charcoal, venison, or domestic animals but these should be by-products of
the work, not a reason for doing it. Neither the veterans themselves nor the associated flora
and fauna should be compromised as a result of the work. For example, dead wood should
not be removed from the veterans to generate income. However, twisted and knotted wood
that has no timber value can yield a high income from wood turners, who like burrs and
spalted wood.

It is extremely difficult to estimate costs for pollarding and work on ancient trees.
In some situations it may be possible to cut 10 trees in a day or only one, depending on the
difficulty.

13.2 Sources of advice and getting work done

While awareness of the values and management problems associated with ancient trees is
growing it is not safe to assume that all woodland advisors and tree surgeons are competent
and have experience in this area. Even the Arboricultural Association approved contractors,
although they may be very experienced, may not have ever worked on old trees let alone be
able to give detailed and accurate advice. Appendix 6 gives details of some organisations that
may be able to help with funding or advice.

It is recommended to use Arboricultural Association approved contractors, and the

Ancient Tree Forum may be able to help locate people in your area experienced in veteran
trees. Be wary of using the same contractors for advice and for doing the practical work, they
may be rather over zealous about the amount of work that needs doing.

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 If in doubt about the advice you have been given try to find someone else who has dealt
with a similar situation before.

Suitable questions to ask a contractor

1. What are the constraints to working on a tree?

• Legal constraints such as Tree Preservation Orders, Conservation Areas, or
felling licences.
• Wildlife value.

2. What signs would indicate that a tree has a high wildlife value?
Holes, cavities, water-filled cavities, loose bark, staining, bracket fungi, etc.

3. What might be living in the tree?

Bats, birds, insects, etc.

4. What would you do if you found bats or nesting birds during the course of the work?
Refer to chapter 7 for suitable replies.

5. How can a tree be made safe, causing minimum damage to its wildlife value?
Remove the target, crown reduction, propping, cable bracing, etc.

The impression that you should get is that the contractor would not cut the tree unless absolutely
necessary and that he would do the minimum of tree surgery necessary to achieve the required
aim. The contractor should also have adequate knowledge of the wildlife value of veteran trees
and know what to do if a protected species were found during work in progress.

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 Glossar y

Figure 48a. Features of a Veteran Tree.

FIST
CROWN

KNUCKLE
(OCCASIONALLY POLLARD
CALLED A
BOLLING)
KNUCKLE

BOLLING BOLE

ancient tree - The final stage in a tree’s life.

adventitious buds - Secondary buds arising in already existing tissue, often as a result
of damage.
aerial roots - Adventitious roots, developing from bark tissue on the
above-ground parts of a tree, sometimes into a decaying trunk.
bolling - The permanent trunk and stubs of a pollard consisting of the
(see figure 48a) knuckle and the bole. It can take many different shapes depending
on the form of the tree. Sometimes used for the knuckle alone.
bole - (see figure 48a) The main trunk of a pollard.
branch bark ridge - The area of raised bark tissue that forms at the junction of a
branch and the main stem.
branch collar - The swelling at the base of a branch formed when the growth of
the branch is disproportionately slower than that of the main stem.
The term is also used for the growth pattern of the cells of the
main stem, around those of the branch, even if no swelling is visible.
brown rot - That where the cellulose is degraded but the lignin is only
modified. Also called red rot, orange rot, etc.
bundle - A tree that has, naturally or by planting, originated from two or
more seedlings of the same or different species, in close proximity.
As the individuals grow they become closely pressed together.
burr - A tumour-like swelling on a tree resulting from any number of
causes, sometimes associated with epicormic growth.
buttress - A swelling or spur at a base of a trunk where a root differentiates
into the stem. Collectively the buttresses form a flare.
callus - An undifferentiated mass of cells, for example on the surface of
wounded living plant tissue. Also a fold of differentiated wood
and bark that forms around a wound on a tree.
cambial zone - A multiple layer of meristematic cells, which divides to form the
increments (rings) of bark and/or woody tissues.
cambium - The layer of cells that develops into the cambial zone (see above),
existing as a single layer during dormancy. The vascular cambium
forms wood on its inside and bark on the outside, whereas the
cork cambium lies within the bark and forms corky cells on its
outside and sometimes a secondary cortex on its inside.

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 canker - An area where the bark and the cambium have been killed by dysfunctional wood - Wood that has lost all or part of its original function (eg it can be
disease; it is usually occluded by new bark and wood forming structurally important but not conductive).
around its edge. early-wood - The wood produced by trees in their main flush of growth, in the
canopy - The coverage of leaf area of one or more trees. Open canopy spring.The wood may have better water conduction ability than
where the trees are spaced apart, closed canopy where they late-wood but is often less resistant to dysfunction and decay.
overlap. Also the uppermost layer of woodland. endophytic fungi - Fungi living within plant tissues without causing overt disease.
case hardened - When the surface of exposed wood dries rapidly and seals in internal epicormic growth - Literally, growth ‘upon stem’, initially appearing as twiggy growth
moisture. The underlying wood may be functional or decaying. apparently from the bark surface. There are two types, that from
cavity - Hole in a tree caused by the removal or destruction of wood. dormant buds and that developing adventitiously.
cellulose - The main component of plant cell walls; a carbohydrate composed epiphyte - A plant or lichen growing on a plant.
of long filaments, made up of glucose molecules. flush cut - A cut that cuts into the branch bark ridge, which injures the
chase - Unenclosed land where wild animals were preserved for hunting, trunk.
usually owned by a subject rather than the Crown. flux - Liquid emissions from within the tree, leaking to the surface,
coarse woody often colonised by yeasts sometimes emerging under gaseous
debris (CWD) - An American expression referring to dead wood with a diameter pressure.
of more than 2.5 cm. fist - (see figure 48a) A collection of knuckles.
compartmentalisation - The physiological isolation of columns of wood within the tree. former wood-pasture - Wood-pasture that is no longer grazed.
coppard - A tree coppiced and, later in life, pollarded. forest - A tract of land, usually owned by the Crown, and subject to
coppice - An area of trees cut near ground level and left to regenerate from special laws, mostly concerned with the preservation of game.
the stool. Often cut as a block, usually as part of a fairly formal fused coppice - A coppice stool with mature stems that have fused to give the
rotation. Also used as the verb to coppice and as an intransitive appearance of a single stem.
verb meaning the response of the tree. girdling - See ring-barking.
coppice stool - See stool grazed high forest - A form of wood-pasture where the trees are maidens; not coppice
copse - A wood used for cutting coppice (variant of coppice) but also stools or pollards. The canopy is usually quite dense.
used more loosely for a small wood. heartwood - The dead, or predominantly dead, wood in the centre of tree
cork cambium - A layer of cells within the bark, laying down corky cells on the species (eg oak) whose living sapwood has a determinate lifespan.
outside. knuckle - (see figure 48a) The top of the bole on a pollard. The point where branches have
coronet cut - Irregular cuts made in the stub left after a branch has been been repeatedly cut back which has become swollen.
removed, the aim of which is to give the cut surface a more hulk - The remains of a large ancient tree, living or dead, with very
natural appearance. little crown.
crown - (see figure 48a) The spreading branches and foliage of a tree. lapsed pollard - A pollard that has not been cut for many years.
crown thining - The systematic pruning of small diameter branches throughout late-wood - The wood produced by trees after the main flush of growth in the
the crown. With the aim of reducing weight or wind load. spring. The wood may have poorer water conduction ability than
crown reduction - The reduction of branch length in part or whole of the crown. early-wood but is often more resistant to dysfunction and decay.
cubical rot - A form of brown rot, where the decayed wood breaks apart in layering - When aerial parts of a tree (or the whole tree) touch the ground
cubes. and roots form new, but initially connected, plants. This can be
cuboidal rot - As above. natural or as a result of human influence.
dbh - Diameter at breast height. Usually 1.3 m above the ground leader - The main (or topmost) shoot(s) of a tree.
unless the tree shows abnormal swellings at that point. lignin - A component of wood cells that is cement-like and hard. The
deadwood - Wood which no longer fulfils any function for the tree. It may still process of lignin deposition within the cellulose cell walls is called
be attached or have fallen from the tree. lignification.
dead wood - Wood that no longer contains living cells. Includes deadwood (as lopping - Cutting the lateral branches of a tree, but not the top.
defined above) and also heartwood etc., which may have a maiden - A tree that has not been modified by cutting. Unless it has been
structural function in the tree. damaged by wind etc., it has its original natural crown.
decay - The chemical breakdown of wood by micro-organisms. mature - A tree that has attained peak crown size and a shape that is
dormant buds - Those formed during the development of the current year’s different from the developing stage. The maximum point in the
shoots but which do not develop unless later stimulated to grow. mature stage of a tree is also the pivotal point after which the
doted - See spalted. ancient stage starts.
dottard - A tree that has lost its top or branches, is dead and in a state of monolith - A managed standing dead tree, usually with very few limbs.
decay. m ycorrhizal fungi - Fungi forming an intimate and mutually beneficial association
dozed - see spalted. with the roots of trees.
dieback - The death of a part of the tree, usually from the periphery natural pollard - A tree that has been pollarded by ‘natural’ means, eg by wind or
inwards. squirrel damage, sometimes also called a self-pollard. It will have
originated from a maiden tree.

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 old growth woodland - Woodland stands that have not been managed for over 200 years. saproxylic - From the Greek Sapros (dead) and xylos (wood). Organisms that
Many of the trees have a large girth, and dead and dying trees are are dependent, during some part of their life cycle, upon wood or
present. bark, usually dead or dying.
old tree - Any tree in the ancient phase. self-pollard - See natural pollard.
open grown - The form of trees grown in the absence of competition and singled coppice - A coppice stool where all the limbs except one are removed.
shading which tends, in many species, to be squat and spreading. shred - A tree where the branches are periodically removed up the side of
over-mature - A tree beyond full maturity. Usually used in commercial forestry the trunk and then left to re-grow. A tuft is usually left at the top
to mean a tree past its commercial peak. and occasionally an upper branch.
Park (or Historic Park) - An area of enclosed land where domestic animals or, more slime flux - Flow of fluid out of the bark, partly due to microbial action.
usually, deer were, or are, kept among widely spaced trees. (Not snag - In the USA a standing dead tree. Also used for a dead branch stub.
a municipal park.) soft rot - The wood decay that results from degradation of the cellulose in
parkland - A form of wood-pasture where the trees are mostly open grown. the cell walls, but without general erosion of the wall, by a fungus.
pasture woodland - See wood-pasture. spalted - A term used by wood workers to describe wood patterned by
pastured woodland - A form of wood-pasture where the use by animals is periodic or decay fungi.
seasonal, for example used as shelter in upland areas. springwood - see earlywood.
pathogen - A micro-organism causing disease (adjective: pathogenic). stag headed - The state of the crown of a tree when the dead branches protrude
phloem - The conductive tissue, composed of special cells, through which above the canopy. Often as a result of retrenchment and not a
the products of photosynthesis are translocated throughout the sign of ill health.
tree. stool - A tree that has been coppiced. Also used for that part of the tree
phoenix regeneration - A tree that has fallen or split apart that has successfully which is retained after coppicing.
continued growing. stored coppice - A coppice stool retained beyond its normal coppice cycle.
poll (v) and polling - The formative process of removing the crown of a young maiden stub - A truncated limb on a tree, either cut or natural. Also used for a
tree creating a pollard. Often now referred to as pollarding. tree intermediate between a coppice stool and a pollard.
pollard (n) - (see figure 48a) A tree cut once or repeatedly at a height above which grazing stow - A pollard (local name).
animals can reach the regenerating shoots. Usually cut on a sucker - A shoot arising from a root.
semi-regular basis, with the whole or part of the crown removed. summerwood - see latewood.
pollard (v) - The act of cutting an already created pollard. (Originally a noun timber - Large tree trunks, suitable for sawing into planks.
derived from the transitive verb ‘to poll’, now used as a verb in its topping - cutting off most or all of the crown of a mature or semi-mature
own right.) tree.
pruning - Cutting a tree with the intention of modifying its form or growth. tree pool - A pool of water on a tree, often where a branch or root joins the
releasing (trees) - Clearing competing younger trees from around a veteran. trunk. The bark may remain intact under the water or some
relict pasture woodland - Wood-pasture that is no longer grazed, also used for small decay may be taking place.
remnants of a larger area of wood-pasture that are still grazed. veteran tree - A human valuation applied to trees in the ancient phase. The
repollarding - A confusing word, used in the past for both pollarding and implication is that the tree has ‘gone through the wars’ and is a
restoration pollarding, best not used. survivor.
residual wood-pasture - As former wood-pasture. wa ter sprout/w ater
restoration pollarding - The re-establishment of a cycle of pollarding on trees that have shoot - Epicormic growth.
not been in a regular cycle for many years. white rot - Decay where the lignin and cellulose are both broken down.
retrenchment - A process whereby a tree with crown dieback forms a smaller, wildwood - Woodland unaffected by neolithic or later civilisations.
lower crown. withy - Willow of 1-2 year old growth, used for baskets.
r ing-barking - The removal of a strip of inner and outer bark down to the withy bed - A group of willows used for withy.
cambium, all round the stem or trunk. wood - Poles and branches of trees, smaller in diameter than timber.
r ipe wood - Older wood in the centre of tree species (e.g. beech) where the wood mould - The end result of the decay process,a rich,humus-like substance.
sapwood gradually ages and is not converted to heartwood. wood-pasture - Land with trees that is grazed (often called pasture-woodland).
root spurs - Equivalent to individual buttresses. working tree - A tree that is managed so that parts of it are used as a renewable
rot - See decay. resource for various purposes by man.
sail area - The amount of tree canopy that is exposed to the wind. xylem - Plant tissue that has the function of translocating water and
sap-flux - See flux. mineral nutrients. In trees and shrubs the xylem is heavily lignified
saprophyte - As saprotrophic but pertaining to plants (adjective: saprophytic). and has an additional function in providing structural support.
saprotrophe - An organism obtaining nutrients from dead organic matter
(adjective: saprotrophic).
sapwood - The living xylem found in a woody plant. It either gradually loses
viability over a number of years or is converted to a distinct
heartwood which is largely dead.

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 A PPENDIX 1.

THE C O M M O N A N D S C I E N T I F I C N A M E S O F T R E E S R E F E R R E D TO I N T H E T E X T

Alder Alnus glutinosa (L.)

Apple Malus Spp.
Crab Malus sylvestris (L.)
Domestic Malus domestica Borkh.
Ash Fraxinus excelsior L.
Aspen Populus tremula L.
Beech Fagus sylvatica L.
Birch Betula Spp.
Downy Betula pubescens Ehrh.
Northern downy Betula pubescens ssp. tortuosa (Ledeb.)
Silver Betula pendula Roth
Elm Ulmus Spp.
English Ulmus procera Salisb.
Wych Ulmus glabra Hudson
Hawthorn Crataegus monogyna Jacq.
Hazel Corylus avellana L.
Holly Ilex aquifolium L.
Hornbeam Carpinus betulus L.
Horse chestnut Aesculus hippocastanum L.
Lime Tilia Spp.
Small-leaved Tilia cordata Miller
Maple Acer Spp.
Field Acer campestre L.
Norway Acer platanoides L.
Oak Quercus Spp.
Pedunculate Quercus robur L.
Sessile Quercus petraea (Mattuschka) Liebl.
Pear Pyrus Spp.
Plane (London Plane) Platanus x hispanica Miller ex Muenchh.
Poplar Populus Spp.
Black Populus nigra ssp. betulifolia (Pursh)
Rowan Sorbus aucuparia L.
Scots pine Pinus sylvestris L.
Sweet chestnut Castanea sativa Miller
Sycamore Acer pseudoplatanus L.
Walnut Juglans regia L.
Whitebeam Sorbus aria (L.)
Wild Service Sorbus torminalis (L.)
Willow Salix Spp.
Almond Salix triandra L.
Crack Salix fragilis L.
Osier Salix viminalis L.
Purple Salix purpurea L.
White Salix alba L.
Yew Taxus baccata L.

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 A PPENDIX 2.

LOWLAND WOOD - PASTURE AND PARKLAND :

A H ABIT AT ACTION P LAN

1. Current status (lowland beech and yew woodland,

lowland heathland, lowland dry
1.1 Biological status acid grassland) are biodiversity
action plan priority habitats in their
1.1.1 Lowland wood-pastures and parkland own right. Requirements of these
are the products of historic land plans will need to be given due
management systems,and represent regard during implementation.
a vegetation structure rather than
being a particular plant community. 1.1.4 Included in this plan are:
Typically this structure consists of
large, open-grown or high forest i. Lowland wood-pastures and parklands
trees (often pollards) at various derived from medieval forests and
densities, in a matrix of grazed emparkments, wooded commons,
grassland, heathland and/or woodland parks and pastures with trees in
floras. them. Some have subsequently had
a designed landscape superimposed
1.1.2 There are no reliable statistics on in the 16th to 19th centuries. A
the extent of the overall resource, range of native species usually
nor on historical and current rates predominates among the old trees
of loss or degradation of this type of but there may be non-native species
habitat. The figure of 10-20,000 ha that have been planted or regenerated
“currently in a working condition” naturally.
given in the ‘habitat statement’ of ii. Parklands with their origins in the
the UK Biodiversity Steering 19th century or later where they
Group report is the current best contain much older trees derived
estimate. This habitat is most from an earlier landscape.
common in southern Britain, but iii. Under-managed and unmanaged
scattered examples occur throughout wood-pastures with veteran trees, in
the country, for example Hamilton a matrix of secondary woodland or
High Parks and Dalkeith Oakwood scrub that has developed by
in Scotland. Outgrown wood-pasture regeneration and/or planting.
and mature high forest remnants iv. Parkland or wood-pasture that has
(‘virgin forests’) occur in northern been converted to other land uses
and central Europe, but the number such as arable fields, forestry and
and continuity of ancient (veteran) amenity land, but where surviving
trees with their associated distinctive veteran trees are of nature conservation
saproxylic (wood-eating) fauna and interest. Some of the characteristic
epiphytic flora are more abundant wood-pasture and parkland species
in Britain than elsewhere. Parklands may have survived this change in state.
and wood-pasture may also be of
interest for bats and birds and may 1.1.5 Not included in this plan are:
preserve indigenous tree genotypes.
These areas are outstanding at a i. Upland sheep-grazed closed-canopy
European level. oak woodland or Caledonian pine
forest (see the respective plans for
1.1.3 These sites are frequently of national these habitats).
historic, cultural and landscape ii. Parklands with 19th century origins
importance. Some, but not all, of or later with none of the above
the individual habitat components characteristics.

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 1.1.6 In terms of the National Vegetation to trees collapsing or being felled for 2.11 Pollution derived either remotely 3.1.3 Other sites receive some protection
Classification (NVC) of plant safety reasons. from industry and traffic, or locally though initiatives such as the
communities lowland wood-pastures from agro-chemical application and Inheritance Tax Exemption scheme
and parkland are most commonly 2.3 Loss of veteran trees through nitrogen enrichment from pasture or the declaration of National Trust
associated with W10 Quercus robur disease (eg Dutch elm disease, oak overstocking, causing damage to and Corporation of London land
- Pteridium aquilinum - Rubus dieback), physiological stress, such epiphyte communities and changes properties as inalienable land.
fruticosus woodland, W14 Fagus as drought and storm damage, and to soils. A few sites have specific legislation
sylvatica - Rubus fruticosus woodland, competition for resources with to protect them such as the Epping
W15 Fagus sylvatica - Deschampsia surrounding younger trees. 3. Current action Forest Act of 1878.
flexuosa woodland and W16 Quercus 3.1 Legal Status
spp. - Betula spp.- Deschampsia flexuosa 2.4 Removal of veteran trees and dead 3.1.4 The Moccas beetle Hypebaeus
woodland, although others may wood through perceptions of safety 3.1.1 For any woodland component of flavipes, violet click beetle Limoniscus
occur. In addition the more open and tidiness where sites have high parkland and wood-pasture, national violaceus and the orange-fruited elm
wood-pastures and parkland may amenity use, forest hygiene, the forestry policy includes a presumption lichen Caloplaca luteoalba and New
include various scrub, heathland, supply of firewood or vandalism. against clearance of broad-leaved Forest parmelia Parmelia minarium
improved and unimproved grassland woodland for conversion to other (all confined to parkland or
2.5 Damage to trees and roots from soil wood-pasture) are fully protected
NVC communities. land uses, and in particular seeks to
compaction and erosion caused by under the 1981 Wildlife and
maintain the special interest of
trampling by livestock and people Countryside Act, as are all species
1.2. Links with species action plans ancient semi-natural woodland.
and car parking. of bat and most tree-hole nesting
Individual trees and groups may be
1.2.1 Lowland wood-pasture and parkland afforded protection under the Town birds. This Act also offers some
2.6 Changes to ground-water levels
is an important habitat for a number and Country Planning Act, 1990 protection to their “place of shelter”.
leading to water stress and tree
of priority species including violet death, resulting from abstraction, and the Forestry Act, 1967. Felling
3.1.5 There is recognition of the value of
click beetle Limoniscus violaceus, drainage, neighbouring development, licences from the Forestry
the habitat and individual old trees
the stag beetle Lucanus cervus, a roads, prolonged drought and Authority (FA) are normally
in various development plans, and
bark beetle Ernoporus tiliae, a wood climate change. required but veteran trees may be
landscape designations (eg by
boring beetle Gastrallus immarginatus, particularly at risk because fellings
English Heritage, and CADW:
orange-fruited elm lichen Caloplaca 2.7 Isolation and fragmentation of the for safety reasons are exempt.
Welsh Historic Monuments).
luteoalba, the lichens Bacidia remaining parklands and wood-pasture
incompta, Enterographa sorediata 3.1.2 Statutory site protection plays an
sites in the landscape. (Many of the 3.2 Management, research and
and Schismatomma graphidioides, important part in the conservation guidance
species dependent on old trees are
the royal bolete fungi Boletus of this habitat type. Designation as
unable to move between these sites
regius, oak polypore Buglossoporus Sites of Special Scientific Interest 3.2.1 There are a number of significant
due to their poor powers of
pulvinus and the heart moth (SSSI), or as Areas of Special but currently uncoordinated
dispersal and the increasing
Dicycla oo. Their requirements Scientific Interest (ASSI) (Northern inventories, datasets and registers of
distances they need to travel.)
should also be taken into account in Ireland), of most larger areas of lowland wood-pasture and parkland.
the implementation of this plan. 2.8 Pasture loss through conversion to wood-pasture and parkland and These include the Nature
Other rare species include Moccas arable and other land-uses. most of the better-known sites Conservancy Council’s 1970s survey
beetle Hypebaeus flavipes, and of significance for inve rt e b r ates of parklands and wood-pastures of
the lichen the New Forest parmelia 2.9 Pasture improvement through and lichens, ensures compulsory importance for the ‘Mature Timber
Parmelia minarium. reseeding, deep ploughing, fertiliser consultation with the statutory Habitat’; the Forestry Commission’s
and other chemical treatments, nature conservation agencies over National Inventory of Woodlands
2. Current factors affecting the leading variously to tree root management operations and and Trees;The National Trust (NT)
habita t damage, loss of nectar-bearing development proposals. Designation biological survey of NT-owned
plants, damage to the soil and under the EC Habitats Directive as parkland and wood-pasture sites
2.1 Lack of younger generations of trees epiphytes. Special Areas for Conservation will and English Nature’s parkland
is producing a skewed age structure, give additional protection to some inventory pilot study (1995) for
leading to breaks in continuity of 2.10 Inappropriate grazing levels: parkland and wood-pasture sites. Norfolk and Bedfordshire. English
dead wood habitat and loss of under-grazing leading to loss of Some sites, including Moccas Park, Heritage also has a register of parks
specialised dependent species. habitat structure through bracken Duncombe Park, Burnham and gardens, which is being upgraded
and scrub invasion; and over-grazing Beeches, Leigh Woods, Hatfield between 1997 and 2000, and
2.2 Neglect, and loss of expertise of leading to bark browsing, soil Forest, parts of Bredon Hill, and similar data for Wales is held by
traditional tree management compaction and loss of nectar Ashstead Common are also protected CADW: Welsh Historic Monuments.
techniques (eg pollarding) leading plants. by National Nature Reserve (NNR) Scottish Natural Heritage maintains
agreements. an inventory of Gardens and

Page 132 Veteran Trees:A guide to good management Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Page 133
 designed landscapes in Scotland. Nature, English Heritage, the 3.2.8 The British Lichen Society have the event of injury or damage
There is also an Inventory of National Trust, Countryside produced a habitat management resulting from old trees, and its
Historic Parks and Gardens, based Commission, Forest Authority, guide for lichens, including i n t e rp r e t ation to reduce any
at University of York, which FRCA, Corporation of London and parklands and wood-pastures. unnecessary felling of trees on
contains information on historically the Ancient Tree Fo ru m . The safety grounds. (Action: DETR, FA)
important sites and County initiative is developing a database 4. Action plan objectives and
Historic Gardens Trust data. for recording veteran trees, and proposed targets 5.1.4 If Annex I of the EC Habitats
provides advice on their management. Directive is revised ensure that it
3.2.2 Surveys of saproxylic invertebrates 4.1 The objectives and targets provides adequate coverage of UK
It runs a national programme of cover habitat conserva tion,
and lichens have also been demonstration and training days, parklands and wood-pasture
undertaken. These include the restora tion and expansion. habitats and species assemblages.
and produces publications. Key components include the
Countryside Council for Wales’s (Action: DETR, JNCC)
strategic survey of Welsh parklands; 3.2.5 English Heritage’s Conservation need to secure fav ourab le
K.N.A. Alexander’s (National Area Pa rt n e rs h i p s , Scheduled condition of key sites and, at 5.1.5 When reviewing existing incentive
Trust) personal dataset on saproxylic Monuments and outstanding appropriately targeted areas, schemes (eg Countryside Stewardship,
beetle sites and the JNCC’s Lower registered parklands initiative may to restore management or Woodland Grant Scheme/ Woodland
Plants and Invertebrate Site Registers. also provide grant-aid and some expand the habitat. Improvement Grants, ESAs, Coed
The British Lichen Society also Local Authority schemes, such as Cymru) attempt to ensure they
4.1.1 Protect and maintain the current
maintains a database for parkland the Essex County Council’s historic enable and encourage the most
extent (10-20,000 ha) and distribution
and wood-pasture. landscapes designation may also appropriate management of parklands
of lowland wood-pasture and
provide funding for management. and wood-pasture, with their
parkland in a favourable ecological
3.2.3 Grant aid may be available for the The Countryside Council for Wales’ ancient trees. (Action: CCW, EN,
condition.
management and restoration of “Orchards and Parklands Tree FA, MAFF, SNH,SOAEFD,WOAD)
parkland. The key sources of this Scheme” grant aids management 4.1.2 Initiate in areas where examples of
aid include agri-environment 5.1.6 Promote modification of the
and restoration of parklands in Wales. derelict wood-pasture and parkland
schemes such as MAFF’s Common Agricultural Policy to
occur a programme to restore
Countryside Stewardship Scheme 3.2.6 EC Life funding has also been recognise and promote extensive
2,500 ha to favourable ecological
and the Countryside Council for awarded for management of the pastoral systems, including
condition by 2010.
Wales’ Tir Cymen (which will be New Forest. wood-pasture. (Action: CCW,
incorporated into an all-Wales 4.1.3 By 2002 initiate the expansion of DETR, EN, MAFF, SNH,
Agri-environment scheme known as 3.2.7 There is a wealth of information 500 ha of wood-pasture or parkland, SOAEFD, WOAD).
Tir Gofal in 1999) includes a available from the Forestry Authority in appropriate areas, to help reverse
and other organisations and fragmentation and reduce the 5.1.7 Provide specific guidance about
scheme for Historic Landscapes
publications regarding all aspects of generation gap between veteran trees. parklands, wood-pasture and
and old orchards. Both of these
ancient woodland management. individual veteran trees in Planning
schemes assist in the production
These include advice given locally 5. Proposed action with lead Policy Guidance notes (PPGs) by
of management plans, tree and
through the statutory conservation agencies 2001. (Action: DETR, SNH,
grassland management and restoration
agencies, the Farming and Wildlife SOAEFD)
of arable land to parkland. Other 5.1 Policy and legislation
agri-environment schemes such as Advisory Group, ADAS, the
5.1.8 Review policy and practice
Environmentally Sensitive Areas Countryside Advice and Information 5.1.1 Implement the conclusions of the
regarding fencing of registered
(ESAs) and the Habitat Scheme Service (Wales). The Forestry 1994 review of Tree Preservation
commons to allow reinstatement or
(Wales) may subsidise the management Commission’s Arboricultural Orders (TPO), including amendments
control of grazing in wood-pasture
or restoration of grassland and tree Advisory Service and English to the Town and Country Planning
commons, but without impediment
planting, and provide some protection Heritage’s Parks & Garden’s Team Act 1990, to offer appropriate
to access by 2001. (Action: CC,
for existing trees. The Forestry of historians, landscape managers, protection to veteran/dead trees.
DETR, FA, FE)
Authority’s Woodland Grant ecologist and arboriculturalists can (Action: DETR)
Scheme is available for woodland offer advice. The Ancient Tree Forum, 5.2 Site and safeguard and
an association of land managers, 5.1.2 Examine felling consent/licensing
with over 20% canopy cover. management
ecologists and arboriculturalists, policy to consider whether additional
3.2.4 The Veteran Trees Initiat i ve , provides advice, as do the voluntary protection for parkland, wood-pasture 5.2.1 Ensure that SSSI coverage of
launched in 1996, aims to promote and commercial sectors. The UK and individual veteran trees is important lowland wood-pasture
the value and importance of veteran Forestry Standard and the Forestry needed. (Action: FA) and parkland sites is adequate
trees and to conserve them wherever Authority Guidelines for the 5.1.3 Examine whether improvements through periodic review of the
possible. This initiative is the result management of semi-natural should be made in safety legislation, series. (Action: CCW, DETR, EN,
of a partnership between English woodlands should be followed. with respect to liability on owners in SNH, SOAEFD, WO)

Page 134 Veteran Trees:A guide to good management Veteran Trees:A guide to good management Page 135
 5.2.2 By 2004 designate those lowland 5.3 Advisor y survivorship and condition at key 6. Costings
wood-pasture sites approved by the sites across the country in order to
EC as SACs under the Habitats 5.3.1 Develop a handbook(s) on best identify site specific and general 6.1 The successful implementation of
Directive. (Action: CCW, DETR, practice in management of trends. (Action: CCW, EHS, EN, the habitat action plans will have
EN, JNCC, SNH, SOAEFD, WO) parklands and wood-pasture in FC, SNH) resource implications for both the
relation to wildlife, heritage and private and public sectors. The data
5.2.3 Encourage applications to buy and landscape conservation. (Action: 5.5.3 Undertake a programme of targeted in the table below provide an
manage appropriate sites from CCW, DETR, EN, FA, SNH) surveys of the biological interest of estimate of the current expenditure
potential funding sources. (Action: sites where lack of information on the habitat, primarily through
5.3.2 Develop clear guidance on is impeding their appropriate agri-environment schemes and
CC, CCW, EH, EN, SNH)
safety-related risk assessment and management, by 2005. grant schemes, and the likely
reasonable practice, in conjunction additional resource costs to the
5.2.4 Encourage the development and
with relevant landowners and 5.5.4 Ensure veteran tree recording is public and private sectors. These
implementation by 2004 of long-term
management groups. (Action: reflected in SSSI and Wildlife Site additional resource costs are based
integrated management plans for
DETR, FA). reporting and is input,as it becomes on the annual average over 5 and 10
conservation and use of parklands
available, into local record centres years. The total expenditure for
and wood-pastures through agreements 5.3.3 Encourage training in best practice as part of the National Biodiversity these periods of time is also given.
with site owners and in partnership in park and wood-pasture management Network initiative. (Action: CCW, Three-quarters of the additional
with statutory wildlife, landscape for site ow n e rs , site managers, EN, FC, JNCC, SNH) resources are likely to fall to the
and heritage agencies. (Action: CC, land-agents, foresters, arboriculturalists
CCW, EN, FA, MAFF, SNH, public sector.
and also for advisors and incentive 5.5.5 Develop and implement appropriate
SOAEFD, WOAD) scheme managers. (Action: CCW, surveillance and monitoring 6.2 Current expenditure for the
EN, FA, MAFF, SNH) programmes to assess progress Woodland Grant Scheme has not
5.2.5 Promote re-establishment of grazing towards action plan targets. been included as it was not possible
where appropriate in derelict 5.4 International (Action: CCW, EN, JNCC, SNH) to allocate expenditure to different
wood-pasture and encourage the
5.4.1 Develop links with European woodland habitat types. It is
development of subsequent generations 5.5.6 Encourage research into parkland
organisations and programmes, estimated that 65 - 75% of the costs
of veteran trees in all sites. (Action: and wood-pasture flora, including
such as the European Forestry shown are additional to the current
CCW, EN, MAFF, SNH, trees, and fauna in relation to tree
Institute, the European Environment expenditure.
SOAEFD, WOAD) and pasture management, including
Agency and the European Centre interactions and with invertebrates, 7. Key references
5.2.6 Promote the restoration of for Nature Conservation to obtain fungi, soils, ground water levels and
wood-pasture and parkland where estimates of the extent and distribution grazing animals and population Department of the Environment, Transport
old trees remain in former sites that of comparable and related habitats, dynamic studies. Ensure such and the Regions 1998. Tree Preservation
are now arable fields or forestry and exchange experience on research research is coordinated with Orders Draft Regulations:a consultation paper.
plantations. (Action: CCW, FE, and management, by 2000. cultural heritage research. (Action: DETR, London.
MAFF, WOAD) (Action: CCW, EN, FA, JNCC, SNH) CCW, EH, EN, FC, SNH)
Forestry Authority 1994. Forestry Practice
5.2.7 By 2002 initiate programmes to 5.5 Monitoring and research 5.6 Communications and publicity Guides: The management of semi-natural
expand parklands and wood-pasture woodlands. Edinburgh: Forestry Authority.
5.5.1 Produce a comprehensive list of all 5.6.1 Increase awareness of the national
sites in targeted areas. (Action:CC,
parkland and wood-pasture sites and international importance and Forestry Authority & Department of
CCW, EH, EN, FA, SNH)
with pointers to other data sources vulnerability of wood-pasture and Agriculture for Northern Ireland 1998.
and evaluations relating to both the parklands by promotional literature The UK Forestry Standard: the Government’s
5.2.8 Contribute to the implementation
natural and cultural heritage of each and events and encourage celebration approach to sustainable forestry. Edinburgh
of relevant priority species action
site, by 2002. Make this information of parkland and wood-pastures via Forestry Commission.
plans, through the integration of
available, through a data catalogue the arts and media. (Action: CCW,
management requirements and
linked to the National Biodiversity EH, EN, SNH) Harding, P.T., & Rose, F. 1986. Pasture
advice, in conjunction with relevant
Network. (Action: CC, CCW, woodland in lowland England. Huntingdon:
steering groups. (Action: CCW, 5.6.2 Increase awareness of the value in
EHS, EN, JNCC, SNH) Institute of Terrestrial Ecology.
EN, MAFF, SNH, SOAEFD, WO) protecting veteran trees where these
5.5.2 Develop and implement methods to may be threatened by felling, for Kirby K.J.,Thomas, R. C., Key R.S., Mclean,
5.2.9 Consider (re)establishment of key assess the condition of wood-pastures safety reasons, and promote I.F.G., & Hodgetts, N. 1995. Pasture woodland
species dependent on veteran trees and parkland by 2000 and encourage alternative solutions such as and its conservation in Britain. Biological
via translocation. (Action: CCW, standardised recording and monitoring pollarding or tree surgery. (Action: Journal of the Linnean Society, 56 (Suppl.)
EN, FA, FE, SNH) of tree population age structure, CCW, EHS, EN, FA, LA, SNH) 135-153.

Page 136 Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Page 137
 Peterken, G.F. 1981. Woodland conser vation Rodwell, J.S. 1991. British Plant Communities
and management. London: Chapman & Hall. Volume 1: Woodlands and Scrub. Cambridge
University Press.
Ratcliffe, D.A. 1977. A nature conservation
review. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.

Costings for lowland wood-pasture and parkland

Current 1st 5 yrs to Next 10 yr s

expenditure 2003/2004 to 2013/2014
Current expenditure /£000/Yr 457.5

Total a verage annual cost /£000/Yr 674.6 429.7

Total expenditure to 2004/£000 3373.0

Total expenditure 2004 to 2014 /£000 4297.4

Page 138 Veteran Trees:A guide to good management Veteran Trees: A guide to good management
 A PPENDIX 3.

H I S TO R I C A L I N F O R M AT I O N O N P O L L A R D I N G

There are few written documents recording how and when trees were pollarded so the
information is quite sparse. It has been supplemented to some degree by studies of tree rings.
That which is available is summarised below:

1. Lop or fell wood in January. Leave a bough on the pollards and cut it away the
following year. (T. Tusser 1573-1580).
2. Cut branches 1 - 2 ft (30 - 60 cm) from the body of the tree with a one handed axe,
making sure that the bark is not damaged. Do not cut in sap time nor when the wind is
in the north or east. (Fitzherbert 1523).
3. The commoners had rights to cut from the trees between All Saint’s Day (1st November)
and St. George’s Day (23rd April). This was later changed to start on St. Martin’s Day
(11th November). Cuts were made with an axe. ‘Commercial areas’ assigned by the
Lord of the Manor were cut between 1st February and 5th April. The trees were cut at
intervals of 13-15 years. One area might have been cut on a more regular cycle of
10 years. Commoners cut below the previous point of cutting on hornbeam to maximise
the amount of useable wood. Epping Forest, hornbeam and perhaps oak. (Dagley &
Burman 1996).
4. An etching by Wenceslaus Hollar of Charles II shows an ?oak pollard recently cut with
one large branch left as a sap riser (Falkus undated).
5. In the Lake District odd branches are removed from the pollards and fed to the sheep.
Once be-barked the branches are used as fuel. (Quelch 1997).
6. Some limbs are left on the trees when they are cut in southern Europe. Some fodder
trees were cut in the winter (e.g. Holly) others in the summer. (Green, 1996a).
7. Pollarding in Sweden was found to prevent the flowering of the trees because of the
frequency of cutting. Shredding did not. (Andersen 1988).
8. Make the first cut when the tree is 25-35 years old. Then the intervals between cuts are
11-12 years for the first 4-5 cuts, getting gradually longer to 14 year intervals for cuts
6 and 7. Some branches were probably left on as sap lifters. Beech trees at Burnham
Beeches. (Le Sueur 1931).
9. The usual period between cuts on pollards in Buckinghamshire was 7 years. (Le Sueur
1931).
10. A pollard oak in a park in Suffolk showed intervals between successive cuts to be 16, 14,
28, 24, 11 and 27 years (between 1602 and 1722). (Rackham 1988).
11. Cut at intervals of 12 years (though probably not on a regular cycle). Historical
reference to Hatfield Forest (presumably the full range of species found in Hatfield
Forest). (Rackham 1989).
12. An oak at Hatfield Forest was first cut at about 30 years old and then subsequently at
intervals of 30, 12, 19, 17, 36 and 14 years. (Rackham 1989).
13. Another oak at Hatfield was first cut at 54 years of age and thereafter at intervals of
11-24 years. (Rackham 1989).
14. Cutting inter vals were approximately 13 years in Epping Forest and 18-25 at Hainault
Forest (presumably hornbeam and perhaps beech). (Rackham 1989). Oaks were cut at
more or less the same rotation as coppice though there is no indication of a regular cycle
and sometimes they were left much longer. (Rackham 1989).
15. Oaks in Kent were cut on a short rotation of 1-10 years to provide fodder and faggots
for the salting industr y. (D. Maylam pers. comm.)
16. By counting rings on pollard branches in Borrowdale it seems there was 30 years
between each cutting on a tree but that selected branches were cut each time not all of
them removed. (Mercer 1993).
17. In Kent, ‘pegs’ were always left when cutting pollards. (D. Maylam pers. comm.)

Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Page 139
 A PPENDIX 4.

S PECIES SPECIFIC N OT E S O N C U T T I N G V E T E R A N T R E E S A N D YO U N G T R E E S IN
O R D E R TO C R E AT E P O L L A R D S F O R T H E F U T U R E .

These comments are based on personal experiences of many people, particularly members of
the Ancient Tree Forum. Many relate to pollarding and it should be noted that they do not
necessarily apply to all circumstances. It is important also to read the notes in the main
body of the text (especially chapter 4) and to judge according to the situation.
The response will also vary according to the local climate and conditions.

The species are listed in alphabetical order.

Alder
Veteran trees: Although alders are found along rivers and in damp areas throughout
Britain, veterans and worked trees seem to be more localised. Alder wood is useful but the
trees seem to have often been coppiced rather than pollarded. Since the leaves are
unpalatable to stock the trees survived any grazing. Little work has been done on veteran
alders but they are likely to respond in a similar way to willow, although perhaps a little
less vigorous.
Young trees: Alder will respond well to cutting when young.

Ash
Veteran trees: Ash seems to be the ultimate unpredictable tree. Like oak it would be
expected to respond well to cutting, but sometimes does not. Whilst there are a good
number of veteran ash pollards in some areas of the countryside (eg East Anglia) there is not
much of experience in recutting following a period of lapse. Removing all the branches from
a pollard may delay regrowth until the end of the first growing season after cutting. Pollards
with branches left on after cutting are more likely to be successful and cutting in a series of
stages may be appropriate depending on the shape of the tree. Ash probably responds better
in the north. Cutting veteran trees in the Lake District has been successful. In Sweden lapsed
pollards are treated by removing the entire crown to ‘shock’ the tree to regrow and the results
are good (Quelch per s. comm.).
Young trees: Young ash can be very late to break bud after the creation of new pollards
and can take up to one year for this to happen. The sprouts tend to grow low on the trunk
so cutting should be higher than the desired final height. Some losses are likely but may not
be directly related to the diameter of the main stem. Jagged edged cuts are not necessary,
simple ones and a complete removal of the crown is probably best. Cutting ash in late
summer may be better than cutting in the winter. One method to try is to make an initial
high cut and leave the tree for 4 to 5 years before cutting again, lower down, once sprouting
has occurred (Figures 49 and 50).

Further reading: Mitchell (1989),White (1996) and Wisdom (1991).

Page 140 Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Page 141
 Figure 49. Cutting a maiden as tree in two stages. Young trees: Even young beech must have more than one branch left on the stem. Growth
occurs largely from the retained branches, it is far less likely from the main stem. Heavy losses
occur unless branches are retained. Occasionally it is possible to remove all branches on some
young trees without killing them but this is the exception rather than the rule.

Figure 51. See colour plate page 94.

Further reading: Dagley & Burman (1996), Read et al. (1991, 1996)
FIRST CUT

Birch
Though birch is not a tree found widely as an example of a pollard in Britain it was
certainly frequently cut in the past in Scandinavia and northern Britain for fodder. For this
reason the trees were probably mostly cut during summer months at intervals of five to
seven years (Austad 1988). Young birch is likely to respond well to cutting and in general the
whole crown can probably be removed though poor responses have been noted in maiden
silver birch over 10 cm in diameter (N. Sanderson pers. comm.). Older trees have also been
reported to die after removal of a high proportion of the crown in Sweden (Quelch pers.
comm.) and veteran birch in the Lake District may show poor responses to surgery.
Experiences with lopping large maiden birch trees in the south of England have also shown
RETAIN SOME
EXISTING BRANCHES that they can be a little unpredictable, this may in part be related to their susceptibility to dry
AT FIRSTCUT.
weather. The northern downy birch (Betula pubescens ssp. tortuosa) may be an easier species
NOTE EXTENSIVE to work with than silver birch (N. Sanderson pers. comm., 1998a).
GROWTH, INCLUDING
SECOND CUT SOME ONTRUNK .

Black Poplar
SECONDCUT AT FINALPOLLARDHEIGHT
AFTER GOOD GROWTH HASBEEN SHOWN TO Veteran trees: Black poplars are found close to water and in certain areas (eg the Vale
FOLLOW THE FIRSTCUT. AT LEAST SOME OF
THISGR OWTHSHOULD BE RETAINED.
of Aylesbury and East Anglia) are more widely distributed with some being boundary
markers. Although poplars in general are not usually particularly long-lived trees, black
Figure 50. See colour plate page 93.
poplars are perhaps the exception. Some have been pollarded in the past and this is likely to
increase their chances of reaching veteran status. It is probably appropriate to treat them in
Beech
a similar way to willows. It has been suggested that pollarding of black poplars is best done at
Veteran trees: The chances of obtaining successful regrowth from an old beech pollards
the end of the growing season (mid to late summer) for the best chance of success although
following complete removal of all branches are almost zero. Beech seems to be one of the
cutting in February is also likely to be successful. The responses following the cutting of
most reluctant species to respond to cutting and, although it is reported to grow
lapsed pollards are variable. In some areas there has been only a 50% success rate so removal
adventitiously from wound wood this does not seem to be the case with veteran trees in practice.
of the crown in stages may be more beneficial. Trees may also show good growth in the year
The response of beech generally is to put on increased growth from the branches retained
following cutting and then die subsequently. Frequent pollarding of black poplar may not
which may, over time, alter the shape of the tree quite considerably. While this growth does
allow it to flower and seed.
not result in ‘new’ branches as such, the life of the tree is extended and it seems likely that in
Young trees: In general, species of poplar and are likely to be very responsive and easy
most situations in the past this was how beech was cut. Rarely, epicormic growth results.
to achieve good results with.
It has been recommended to leave a single leading branch on each tree (Mitchell 1989).
On lapsed pollards (and old trees generally) this is almost certainly too little. Canopy Black poplars in the Vale of Aylesbury
reduction of 25 - 50% is probably more appropriate and more likely to succeed. Unfortunately,
on many old beech trees the foliage is all very high up and it is not possible to retain the A recent survey in the Vale of Aylesbury identified about 4,100 black poplars. Of the 3,660
existing growth that is necessary for the survival of the tree when pollarding. In these found in the Buckinghamshire part of the Vale, 72% of the trees were distributed along streams
instances there is very little which can be done. Unless action is required for safety reasons, and ditches and just 30 were females. The largest tree had a girth of 15.5 feet (472 cm) and the
these trees are probably best left unless growth can be stimulated lower on the branches first. population as a whole was considered mature or over mature,with very low recruitment. Seventy
three per cent of the trees were pollards and half of these were pollarded ‘some time ago’. Aylesbury
The responses of old trees to cutting seem to vary from site to site. This seems especially true Countryside Management Project has repollarded over 50 trees in the last six years, with varying
of beech where similar types of cutting on trees in the same geographic area have produced very amounts of the crown removed. Virtually all survived and showed vigorous growth. The project
different responses. In the past it has been considered not worth trying to do anything with is also taking cuttings so that plants of the same genetic stock can be perpetuated in the local area
veteran beech. Recent work has shown that results can be good and in some situations it is worth (ie on the same farms). A characteristic of the Aylesbury poplars is that they sucker well following
trying. On some tree shapes it may be worth cutting in two or more stages over a period of about cutting. The suckers can then help to form the next generation of trees too.
five years as described with oak; with other shapes this is unlikely to work. It is safest to assume
that there will be no new growth on a branch at or below the point of cutting unless any is
retained. Growth may be extensive from branches with retained foliage. (Figure 51).

Page 142 Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Veteran Trees:A guide to good management Page 143
 Conifer s - See Scots pine Experience elsewhere on other species does not recommend spring cutting, though frost
damage may be dependent on the situation. Despite its palatability, veteran holly appears to
Crab apple be able to withstand grazing pressure and in the New Forest the pollards seem to have been
Young trees: Crab apple generally seems to respond well to cutting. cut at a height lower than other species. It also seems very shade tolerant. Recent cutting of
veteran trees in the New Forest, carried out in October and January with one or more
Elm branches left, are growing well. Cutting above the previous cut (i.e. in younger wood) may
Veteran trees: Due to Dutch elm disease it is unusual to find large trees in Great Britain
be more important than retaining a branch on veteran trees as older branches develop
now. Regularly pollarded elms existed in the past and could grow to large sizes (e.g. covering
thicker bark (N. Sanderson pers. comm.). Some losses on maiden trees where no branches
an area of 22 m x 22 m at Hailes Abbey, Gloucestershire, R. Finch pers. comm.). A few still
were retained suggest that it is prudent to retain branches.
remain in East Anglia where they were especially common in the past in village closes (small
Young trees: Young holly is generally very responsive to cutting (Figure 52). New holly
fields near to the settlement) (P. Harding pers. comm.).Wych elm has been shown to respond
pollards in the New Forest had a 88% success rate, but those failing as pollards mostly
well to pollarding in Norway after a lapse of 40 or so years (Austad and Skogen 1990). It can
sprouted at the base (because they lack dormant buds?). Some losses do happen but holly
be treated like lime but cutting was probably done mostly in the summer in the past as the
usually occurs in such dense groups that a few deaths are not usually a problem. It may often
leaves have a high nutritional value (Hauge 1988, Austad and Skogen 1990).
be easier to cut a block of holly rather like a coppice plot, this ensures that there is enough
Young trees:Young elm responds well to cutting but losses are high due to Dutch elm disease.
light reaching the trees but may sometimes cause over exposure. In the New Forest blocks of
Field Maple 30 x 30 m were cut successfully. If only small numbers of the holly respond positively after
Veteran trees: There are relatively few old field maple pollards. Those that have been cutting try leaving a branch or two on.
cut in recent years seem to have grown well. One of 100 years of age, last cut 30 - 40 years
Figure 52. See colour plate page 95.
ago grew well when stubs of 15 cm were left. A 350-year-old tree cut 20 years ago is growing
well at Hatfield Forest (V. Forbes pers. comm.).Younger trees show an extremely good response
so it is likely that older trees will grow well. Perhaps leave short stubs to be on the safe side. Further reading : Peterken et al. (1996), Radley (1961), Sanderson (1991), Spray (1981),
Young trees: Field maple is likely to produce a very good response when cut, shoots Wall (1991).
may appear very low down on the trunk so it is necessary to cut higher. Bigger trees may show
a poorer response in the first year than younger trees. Removing all the branches is probably Hornbeam
best especially from burry trees. Veteran trees: Many hornbeam pollards in Eastern England have now been cut after
years of neglect. In almost all instances the entire crown was removed. Results have gener-
Further reading: Wisdom 1991, Sisitka 1991a, 1991b. ally been reasonable but the success rate is by no means 100% and at least at one site, trees
flushed for several years and then declined.
Hawthor n
Veteran trees: Old trees seem to fall apart and layer themselves readily, e.g. at Hatfield Spring lopping is definitely deleterious for hornbeam. From the evidence of recent work on
(Sisitka 1991a, 1991b) but may not appear to be obvious pollards. When branches snap the hornbeam it seems that lapsed pollards are likely to have a 70 - 90% success rate following
regrowth is generally good. Cutting should probably be done as for field maple but may not complete removal of the crown. It is important to realise, however, that hornbeam does have a
be necessary if the trees behave as they do at Hatfield (ie falling apart but still growing). tendency to flush well initially and then die back. Trees in more open (less shaded) situations may
At other places (eg Croft) the trees grow differently and much more like typical pollards in be more susceptible to this. Success rates may be increased by leaving some existing growth on
shape. Due to their relatively light crowns there may be scope for cutting a few branches the trees, if they have any branches that are suitable, but this does not seem to have been proven.
initially to check the response. Leaving short stubs may be better than cutting right back to the bolling. It is recommended by
Young trees: Young hawthorn responds well to cuts. Winter cutting may be better some people to leave side branches and stubs of 2 - 3 m. Others suggest that leaving stubs on
than summer. hornbeam is not necessary. In Epping Forest epicormic growth was produced from the base of
the stubs or bolling and there was no difference between those trees with long stubs left and those
Hazel with short ones. At Knebworth (Figure 53) no advantage was found in leaving long stubs.
Veteran trees: Veteran hazels are most likely to be coppice stools but in Scotland
(eg Glen Finglas) single stemmed pollards are found. From experience with coppice, hazel Experiences include:
will respond well to cutting as long as it has sufficient light. Hatfield Forest recorded a success rate of around 69% for trees cut in 1977, 1978 and
Young trees: Young hazel responds well to cutting. 1979, during which the weather conditions were generally very dry (V. Forbes pers. comm.).
Exposed trees may have dried out and then been attacked by the fungus Bjerkandera adusta.
Holly
Had stubs been left the response might have been better.
Veteran trees: Despite the nature of its leaves, holly has been cut in the past primarily
as a fodder crop and seems to have been grown in several areas, eg south Pennines, the
In Hainault Forest and Epping Forest 80 - 91% success rates have been achieved. Trees
Marches counties and The New Forest for this reason. It was cut in the winter to provide
at Hainault Forest also suffered from Bjerkandera and the vigour of trees seems to be not so
extra feed for sheep or deer in times of severe weather. Old holly pollards still occur in
good 5 years after cutting.At Epping Forest some standards were left to shade the pollards at
Shropshire on the Stiperstones and the Hollies SSSI and a few trees have been cut in recent
least in some areas. At Gernon Bushes 95% success was obtained initially but some may not
years. Some branches were left on these trees and those that were cut were not taken right
survive. Stubs of 60 cm left on veteran hornbeam in Kent resulted in good growth.
back to the bolling, ie stubs were left. The work was done in the spring as holly is
(Hornbeam was reported to have originally been cut in Epping Forest using a long handled
considered to be susceptible to frost.
axe from the ground. It was also cut using a lopper whilst standing in the tree.)

Page 144 Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Page 145
 At Knebworth 370 trees have been cut between 1991 and 1995 (a fifth each year) after Further reading: Dagley & Burman (1996), Sisitka (1991a, 1991b), Smith (1991).
a lapse in management of 55 years. Trees were cut in January and February and all branches
were removed. A 93% survival rate was recorded with 60% of the trees showing strong Plane
regrowth. A greater chance of survival was recorded on trees that were ‘intact’, ie not hollow. As for lime (most being street trees). There may be some evidence that repeated
cutting of London planes every 2-3 years may cause them to go into decline (eg after 55 years
Young trees: Young hornbeam generally responds quite well and few/no losses seem to or so, J. White pers. comm.) if cut back to the same point since the tree might have ‘run out’
result when trees of up to 45 cm diameter are cut. It does seem able to survive in relatively of dormant buds (Patch, 1991).
poor light with all the branches removed (on trees up to 52 cm diameter) though leaving some
short branches may be beneficial for bigger trees. Scots pine (and other conifers)
As a general principle most conifers do not pollard (an exception being yew). It is
Figure 53. See colour plate page 95. extremely unusual to find old ‘worked’ conifers (however, Scots pine of over 5 m in girth and
probably pollarded can be found at Glen Orchy (N. Sanderson pers. comm.)). Trees occur
Further reading: Coombs (1991), Coop (1991), Dagley & Burman (1996), Rackham with forked stems (occasionally with more than two stems) due to damage early in life and
(1989), Sidwell (1996), Sisitka (1991a and 1991b), Warrington & Brookes (1998). exotic species in gardens are made into hedges but with old trees of this type there is little
hope of expecting a positive response to any large-scale pruning. No regrowth can be
Horse Chestnut expected to occur following such cutting though retained branches may grow towards the
Big horse chestnut trees are often a feature of designed landscapes. Their spectacular increased light levels if the tree is of an appropriate shape. Managing ancient Scots pine in
flowers in the spring led them to be widely planted near houses. Few pollards exist and they the remnant Caledonian Forest is an issue not covered in this text.
can become unstable, the branches falling out easily. However, in urban areas, trees cut
regularly rarely break unless ingrown bark is present. The wood is brittle and difficult to work Sorbus species (wild service, whitebeam, ro wan)
with but the trees generally respond quite well to pruning. Veteran trees: There is limited experience of working on veteran Sorbus trees and there
are few pollards. Cutting may well elicit a good response.
Lime Young trees: Cutting of young trees should produce a good response.
Veteran trees: Regeneration is likely to be very good; experiences include: a small-leaved
lime 30 - 40 years since last cut which had every stem reduced to 0.3 m stubs, regeneration Sweet chestnut
was prolific (Wisdom 1991).Street trees cut every other year with no stubs left responded well Veteran trees: Big old sweet chestnuts seem to largely ‘look after themselves’. Cutting
(Mayhew 1993). On street trees all the branches can be removed and there is no need to leave young chestnut produces a very good response so cutting of older trees may not be problematic.
short stubs. However, for those of over about 40 years since the last cut it may be judicious to On the other hand, chestnut behaves in many ways similar to oak and old oak trees can be rather
leave short stubs. Lime will take repeated pollarding on a short cycle, eg two to three years unpredictable; thus it would be prudent to carry out some tentative work first to assess the response.
in a street situation. They may produce so much growth lower down with little at the top that It is probably appropriate not to cut the entire crown off and not to cut the branches flush.
they need trimming back on the trunk. Lime in Norway 40 years since last cut was left with Young trees: Sweet chestnut is likely to produce has a good response but cutting of the
20 - 25 cm stubs, cut with chainsaws, and they regrew well (Austad and Skogen 1990). side branches may be needed to encourage growth towards the top of the tree.
Young trees: Lime is likely to be very responsive and easy to achieve good results with.
Sycamore
Oak Whilst there are examples of old sycamore pollards in Scotland these do not appear to
Veteran trees: As a general rule veteran oak trees respond to cutting more positively have been cut again recently. It is likely that young trees will respond well to cutting.
than beech but older trees do not respond nearly as well as young ones.
Willo w
It is possible that regularly cut trees might have had all their branches removed though Veteran trees:The oldest willows are likely to be pollards or their successors (ie bollings
this is unlikely in certain parts of the country. When dealing with trees that have not been cut that have fallen apart or layered branches, see Figure 54). Large groups of trees are often a
for many years it is best not to cut right back to the bolling. Although success can be obtained single clone of ancient origin.
following total removal of the crown, the chance of regrowth is significantly higher when
The management of mature and veteran willows poses serious threats to the inexperienced
branches are retained and on most sites it is essential. It has proved beneficial in some cases
or unsuspecting. The stresses and strains are not so obvious with willows as with other
to cut the tree in stages, first doing some initial crown reduction work and then coming back
timber trees; the soft fibrous nature of the wood can often result in lengthy linear fractures
a few years later to reduce further. Oak regrowth is susceptible to mildew and this may be
when cutting is started. Tools used for cutting should always be in particularly good
severe enough to affect the survival of the tree. Defoliating caterpillars may also have a
condition and a part sawn willow should never be left even momentarily. Because of the
detrimental effect.
woolly nature of the saw-dust it is wise to have a coarse set on the saw. Veteran, neglected
Young trees: Creating young pollard oak trees seems to incur some losses (eg 17 out of
willows are liable to drop structurally unsound limbs readily and the bollings fall apart easily.
30 trees cut were lost at Hatfield, possibly due to a sudden exposure on release from the scrub
or subsequent dry summers) not necessarily related to the diameter of the trunk. Cutting in Crack willow, as its name suggests, is rather brittle and indeed can often be identified by
two stages may help to reduce losses. Site variation can be quite considerable, eg Thorndon the considerable accumulation of shed material around the base and lower branches caused
suffered heavy losses at one site when leaders were not left but few losses on another site when by wind blow. Its growth form is also very poor, frequently developing low, heavy lateral
cutting was similar. Greater success rates are achieved in the wetter climates of the west. At limbs, often bowed and in any plane. On the upper surfaces organic material and moisture
Epping Forest and Hatch Park younger trees responded better and stubs of 30 cm also helped. collect and epiphytic plants such as mosses and lichens grow. These all form slippery hazards
When cutting older trees it may be better to cut in stages (see under ash below). Note that for the tree surgeon. Other trees, shrubs and herbs are frequently found growing in the
most work on oak has been on pedunculate oak. Few sessile trees have been cut. decomposing wood in the centre of pollards adding to the potential hazards.

Page 146 Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Veteran Trees:A guide to good management Page 147
 Further reading: Edlin 1956, Rackham 1986, 1990, Braun & Konold 1998.
There are 18 species of willow regarded as native to Britain. Most of these usually have
multiple stems and are more like shrubs than trees. Both crack willow and white willow have Figure 54. See colour plate page 96.
more tendency to grow with a single trunk and have been regularly pollarded in the past, often
for fencing. Almond willow, purple willow and the common osier were the species most frequently Yew
coppiced in withy beds or willow holts. The growth is rapid, over 3 m per year, and the pliable Veteran trees: Yews are probably the longest lived trees found naturally in Britain.
rods were used for basketry, cart bottoms, hurdles and other rural crafts. There are also examples The trees are usually able to survive quite happily with minimum intervention but pruning of
of common osiers in Suffolk cropped as shreds from saplings or singled, grown out coppice old trees is occasionally necessary. Yew does not usually occur as pollards but pruning of
(P. Read pers. comm.). some or all the branches usually produces a good response. Over 50 trees at Westonbirt have
been cut to a bare stump over the past 20 years with no losses (J. White pers. comm.).
Willow is one type of tree where pollarding has more or less continued from the 13th century to However, pruning of branch tips (eg along roadsides) in Herefordshire has resulted in die
the present day. They are not especially long-lived trees and many pollards with ancient back along some branches treated (H. Stace pers. comm.). Yew is extremely shade tolerant
characteristics found along riversides may well have been created in relatively recent times. and some individuals have abundant epicormic growth.
Today well managed pollards help stabilise the ground alongside rivers but trees cut on the Young trees: Yew generally responds very well to cutting at any age.
river-side only, as frequently happens, produces lop sided trees and can cause problems.

It is reputed that willow pollards are best cut in February but most species will respond
well when cut at any time of the year. Late summer cuts are less advisable as the young
growth may suffer from winter weather conditions. Early spring growth was a convenient
form of forage after winter food shortages.

Old willow pollards are usually able to respond well to complete removal of the canopy with
minimal stubs left, especially if it has not been many years since the last cut. However, if there
is a small amount of leafy material very close to the bolling on short stems it is worth
leaving this. It has been suggested that leaving a single larger branch on willow pollards may be
detrimental because the tree does not produce a proper flush of new stems from the bolling and
the branch often breaks out if one is left isolated (J. White pers. comm.). Also, in crack willows,
the brittle nature of the wood often results in at best the branch breaking in the wind and at
worst some damage to the trunk of the tree. At the Nene Park Trust near Peterborough it was
found that removing the whole crown of old lapsed white willow pollards did not result in such
good growth as was expected. Some trees died and in others some partial death of the bole
occurred, though this was often obscured by the good growth from the living parts of the tree.
To overcome this, the trees are now cut in a series of stages over 3 or 4 years. At the first cut
plenty of wood is retained on each major limb and this results in good growth. In the following
years the tree is cut back further until just 15 - 30 cm of stem is left on the bole. This method
is proving very successful and younger willows are also now cut in two stages.

Old willows that are not pollards may not respond so well to removing the entire crown
and careful reduction work may be more appropriate. However, white willows of a variety of
ages in Suffolk have grown well following complete decapitation (P. Read pers. comm.).

One important point when cutting willows (as with all tree species) is to try to avoid cutting
all the trees in a group at the same time. Because they tend to occur in small clumps they are
often all pollarded together for financial and practical reasons.While this is not a problem for
the trees it can be for the populations of invertebrates requiring a particular stage of growth
for their livelihood.Willow branches that are horizontal or have fallen are especially valuable for
bryophytes and should be retained if possible. It is increasingly being realised that willows
make an outstanding contribution to biodiversity in the north of the country and may exceed
that of oak (N. Lewis pers. comm.) so these aspects are important to consider.

Young trees: Young willow should respond well. New trees were often started just by
placing a newly cut pole in the ground to root and then the new branches were cut back to
the height of the pole each time.

Page 148 Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Page 149
 A PPENDIX 5.
C A L C U L AT I N G THE AMOUNT OF DEAD W OOD WITHIN A W OODLAND

The amount of dead wood is recorded by line-intercept sampling. It is recommended that

five to ten transects are undertaken in each block of woodland to be sampled. The transects
can be 25 m or 50 m, depending on the amount of dead wood available.

For each transect:

1. Arrange a starting point and direction for each transect beforehand or establish them
randomly within the plot.
2. Lay down a tape (or rope) along the line of the transect.
3. Record each log or piece of wood (more than 5 cm diameter at the point of intersection)
that the tape crosses. For each log note its diameter at intersection.
4. Record any standing dead trees with their centre within 2 m either side of the transect
line. Note the diameter at breast height (1.3 m) for any more than 5 cm diameter.
5. The length of fallen logs in the stand can be estimated using the following equation:

L = π 104 N (2t)-1

Where N is the number of intersections, t is the transect length (in metres) and L is the
total length of fallen wood per hectare (in metres). The conversion factor of 104 is used
to convert the results into metres per hectare.
6. The next step is to estimate the volume of fallen logs.To do this, use the diameter of the
logs at the point of intersection and assign them to diameter classes, eg 5 - 10 cm,
11 - 20 cm, 21 -30 cm, 31 - 40 cm and >40 cm.
7. Calculate the mean cross sectional area for each size class and the length of fallen logs
in that size class (using the above equation).
8. The total volume for each size class is estimated by:

V = nd2 π 2 104 (8t)-1

Where V is the total volume of fallen logs of diameter class d, n is the number of intersections
for logs of diameter d, and t is the total length of transect as used before.
9. The total volume for the stand is the sum of the volumes for each diameter class.

The following benchmarks can be used to give a comparison of amounts of fallen dead wood
(according to Kirby et al. (1998)):

Level of Volume of fallen No. of standing Size distribution of

dead wood wood (m 3ha -1) dead trees (ha -1) standing dead trees
Low <20 0 - 10 All <10cm dbh

Medium 20 - 40 11 - 50 Some >10cm dbh

High >40 >50 Some >40cm dbh

Page 150 Veteran Trees:A guide to good management Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Page 151
 A PPENDIX 6.
O R G A N I S AT I O N S
G I V I N G A DV I C E A N D / O R G R A N T A I D * O N V E T E R A N T R E E S OR
ASPECTS OF VETERAN TREES

M OST O F T H E F O L L OW I N G O R G A N I S AT I O N S A R E N OT A B L E TO G I V E C O M P R E H E N S I V E
A DV I C E O N V E T E R A N T R E E S

Ancient Tree Forum For Tir Gofal contact *FRCA (Countryside

P.O. Box 49 Countryside Council for Wales Stewardship and Environmentally
Ashtead 1st floor Sensitive Area payments).
Surrey Ladywell House Contact your nearest regional
KT21 1YG Park Street office, or phone:0645 335 577.
Newtown Powys
Arboricultural Advisory and SY15 1RD Historic Scotland
Information Service (Tree Tel: 01686 613400 Longmore House
Advice Tr ust) Salisbury Place
Alice Holt Lodge DETR Edinburgh
Wrecclesham (for Biodiversity Action Plans etc.) EH9 1SH
Farnham Room 902 Tel: 0131 668 8600
Surrey Tollgate House Fax: 0131 668 8789
GU10 4LH Houlton Street
Tel: 0897 161 147 Bristol *Heritage Lottery Fund
(Premium rate line for technical BS2 9DJ 7 Holbein Place
advice) Tel: 01179 876154 London
01420 22022 (For publications, SW1W 8NR
subscriptions etc.) DETR Tel:020 7591 6041 (information
Fax: 01420 220 000 (for Tree Preservation Orders) and publications)
Rural Development Division Tel: 020 7591 6042/3/4/5
Arboricultural Association 3/B5
Ampfield House Eland House Scottish Natural Heritage
Ampfield Bressenden Place (SNCO for Scotland)
Romsey London 2 Anderson Place
Hampshire SW1E 5DU Edinburgh
SO51 9PA Tel:020 7890 5623 EH6 5NP
Tel: 01794 368 717 Tel: 0131 554 9797
Fax: 01794 368 978 English Heritage
23 Savile Row Trees of Time and Place
Bat Conser va tion Tr ust London Trees of Time and Place
15 Cloisters House W1X 1AB Co-ordinator
8 Battersea Park Road Tel: 020 7973 3000 c/o ESSO UK PLC
London Mailpoint 08
SW8 4BG English Nature ESSO House
Tel: 0207 627 2629 (SNCO for England) Ermyn Way
Bat Helpline:020 7627 8822 Northminster House Leatherhead
Peterborough Surrey
CADW: Welsh Historic Cambridgeshire KT22 8UX
Monuments PE1 1UA Tel: 01372 222528
Crown Buildings Tel: 01733 455 000 Fax:01372 223222
Cathays Park Enquiry Service (for veteran tree
Cardiff recording form and publications): Tree Register of the British
CF1 3NQ 01733 455101 Isles (TROBI)
Tel:02920 500 200 Secretary
Environment and Heritage 77a Hall End
Countryside Agenc y Service Wootton
John Dower House (SNCO for Northern Ireland) Bedfordshire
Crescent Place Commonwealth House MK43 9HP
Cheltenham 35 Castle Street Tel: 01234 768 884
Gloucestershire Belfast
GL50 3RA BT1 1GU Woodland Tr ust
Tel: 01242 521 381 Tel: 02890 251 477 Autumn Park
Dysart Road
Countryside Council for Wales *Forestry Commission Grantham
(SNCO for Wales) (Woodland Grant Scheme) NG31 6LL
Plas Penrhos National Office for England Tel: 01476 581111
Fford Penrhos Great Eastern House Fax: 01476 590808
Bangor Gwynedd Tenison Road
LL57 2LQ Cambridge
Tel: 01248 385500 CB1 2DU
Tel: 01223 314 546

Page 152 Veteran Trees:A guide to good management Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Page 153
 A PPENDIX 7.

A B B R E V I AT I O N S USED IN THE TEXT

ASSI Areas of Scientific Interest

ATF Ancient Tree Forum

CA Countryside Agency

CADW Welsh Historic Monuments

CCW Countryside Council for Wales

DETR Department of Environment, Transport and the Regions

EH English Heritage

EN English Nature

FE Forest Enterprise

FA Forestry Authority

FC Forestry Commission

HMSO Her Majesty’s Stationery Office

JNCC Joint Nature Conservation Committee

FWAG Farming and Wildlife Advisory Group

MAFF Ministry of Ag riculture, Fisheries and Food

NNR National Nature Reserve

RSPB The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds

SAC Special Area of Conser vation

SNCO Statutory Nature Conser vation Organisation

SNH Scottish Natural Heritage

SOAFED Scottish Office Agriculture, Environment and Fisheries Department

SSSI Site of Special Scientific Interest

TPO Tree Preservation Order

VTI Veteran Trees Initiative

WATCH Junior branch of The Wildlife Trust

WOAD Welsh Office Agriculture Department

Page 154 Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Veteran Trees: A guide to good management Page 155
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